ANADOLU SELÇUKLU DEVLETİ: 314

The intellectual content of this he intellectual content of this dissertationdissertation, which has been written b, which has been written by y me and for which I take full responsibility, is my ome and for which I take full responsibility, is my own, origwn, original work, and inal work, and it has not been it has not been previously or concurrently submitted epreviously or concurrently submitted elselsewhere for any where for any other examination or degree of higher education. The sources of all par-other examination or degree of higher education. The sources of all par-aphrased and quoted materials, concepaphrased and quoted materials, concepts, and ideas are fully cited, and ts, and ideas are fully cited, and the admissible contthe admissible contributionributions and assistance of others withs and assistance of others with respect to respect to the conception of the workthe conception of the work asas well as to linguistic expression are ewell as to linguistic expression are exxplic-plic-itly acknowledged herein.itly acknowledged herein.

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Some

Some ririgghts reservedhts reserved..

Thihis works work iiss licenslicensed undeed under r a Ca Creatreatiive Commve Commoonsns

Attrib

This dissertation, titled A Civil Unionist: The Biography of Mehmed Cavid Bey (1876–1926), analyzes three issues related to the life of Mehmed Cavid Bey, who was the Minister of Finance during most of the Second Constitutional Period. First, as a reflection of the international arena during this period, the close interaction between the Ottoman Empire’s financial issues and its foreign policy is examined. Second, the policy-making processes of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) are analyzed. Third, how the political preferences of the ruling elite were determined during the transition from empire to nation-state will un-fold along the axis of Cavid Bey's life story.

The original value of this dissertation is its effort to understand the multi-dimensional structure of the history of a country and its desire to achieve poltical and financial independence amid wars, conflicts, revo-lution, and ideological transitions through examining the life of an indi-vidual.

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Özet

Sivil İttihatçı: Mehmed Cavid Bey’in Biyografisi (1876 – 1926) başlıklı doktora tezi İkinci Meşrutiyet Dönemi’nin en uzun süreli Maliye Bakanı ve dönemin sembolik kişilerinden olan Mehmed Cavid Bey'in yaşamına odaklanarak üç ana konuyu incelemektedir. İlk aşamada, dönemin dü-nya politikasının bir yansıması olarak Osmanlı mali yapısı ile dış poli-tikanın ne denli iç içe geçtiğini ve bu durumun yarattığı kısa ve uzun vadeli sonuçları analiz etmektedir. İkinci olarak bu tez İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti’nin politika yapım süreçlerinin başta ekonomi ve maliye alan-ları olmak üzere nasıl işlediğine ve özellikle gündelik siyasetin bu alan-ları nasıl etkilediğine odaklanmaktadır. Son olarak ise, Cavid Bey’in yaşam hikayesinden yola çıkarak imparatorluktan ulus-devlete geçiş sürecinde yönetici elitin siyasi kararlarının nasıl belirlendiğini ve birey-lerin bu süreçlerdeki rolünü irdelemeye çalışmaktadır.

Bu tezin özgün değeri ideolojilerin yükseldiği, yerel çatışmalarla birlikte ilk total savaşın yaşandığı bu çok katmanlı dönemde Osmanlı İmpara-torluğu’nun son yıllarını ve Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nin kuruluşunu bir bi-reyin hikayesi ile kavramaya çalışmasıdır.

15050 kelimekelime

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Curriculum Vitæ

B.A.

B.A. International RelationsInternational Relations Istanbul UniversityIstanbul University 20002000

PUBLICATIONS

■ With Çağlar Keyder, Fuat Keyman, and Fırat Genç. With Çağlar Keyder, Fuat Keyman, and Fırat Genç. Kentlerin Türkiyesi. Kentlerin Türkiyesi. İmkânlİmkânlar, sınırlar var, sınırlar ve Çate Çatışmaışmalar.lar. IstanbuIstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2021. l: İletişim Yayınları, 2021.

■ With Fuat Keyman. With Fuat Keyman. Kürt Sorunu Yerel Dinamikler ve Çatışma Çözümü. Kürt Sorunu Yerel Dinamikler ve Çatışma Çözümü. Istanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları, 2019. Istanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları, 2019.

■ 68’in Kadınları68’in Kadınları. Istanbul: Doğan Kitap, 2010. . Istanbul: Doğan Kitap, 2010.

CONFERENCE PARTICIPATION

■ “Mehmed Cavid Be“Mehmed Cavid Bey: Between Empy: Between Empire aire and Nnd Nation ation –– StatState,” ESSE Confee,” ESSE Confer-r-ence, 29 August ence, 29 August –– 2 September 2018, Brno. 2 September 2018, Brno.

TEACHING EXPERIENCE

■ Since 2016, Modern Turkish History, Işık Univeristy, Fevziye MektSince 2016, Modern Turkish History, Işık Univeristy, Fevziye Mekteepleri pleri Vakfı. Vakfı.

RESEARCH EXPERIENCE

■ Research Assistant, Project titled, “Research Assistant, Project titled, “MakMakiing Peace Proceng Peace Process Suss Sustaistainna-a-ble:ble: The SThe Social Acceptance ocial Acceptance ofof The Peace Process in The PostThe Peace Process in The Post--Conflict Conflict PeriodPeriod,” Sabancı University, TUBITAK 1001, Project Code: 116K444,,” Sabancı University, TUBITAK 1001, Project Code: 116K444, 2017 2017 –– 2019.2019.

■ Research Assistant, Project titled, “Research Assistant, Project titled, “Sustainable Urban Policies: The City-Regions in Turkey in terms of Quality of Life,,” ” Sabancı University, Sabancı University, TÜBİTAK 1003, TÜBİTAK 1003, Project Code: 218K354,Project Code: 218K354, 2020 2020 –– 2023.2023.

UNIVERSITY/DEPARTMENTAL SERVICE

■ Istanbul Policy Center, Sabancı University, Project CoordinatorIstanbul Policy Center, Sabancı University, Project Coordinator

LANGUAGES

■ Turkish Turkish ––Native SpeakerNative Speaker

■ English English –– FluentFluent

■ OtOttoman Turkish toman Turkish –– FluFluent ent

■ French French –– InIntermediatetermediate

PROFESSIONAL MEMBERSHIPS/AFFILIATIONS

■ Tarih Vakfı, member of Board of Trustees. Tarih Vakfı, member of Board of Trustees.

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To my

To my mother,mother, YYüücel cel

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Table of Contentsable of Contents

List of Tables

List of Tables xvixvi

List of

List of FiguresFigures xvixvi

Glossary of Non

Glossary of Non--English TermsEnglish Terms xvixvi

Abbreviations and Acronyms

Abbreviations and Acronyms xviixvii

Note on Translitera

Note on Transliteratiotionn xviixvii

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements xixxix

1 INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION 11

1.1 The Aim and Scope of the Dissertation The Aim and Scope of the Dissertation 22

1.2 Biography: Global Questions, Local AnswersBiography: Global Questions, Local Answers 99

1.3 Organization of the DissertationOrganization of the Dissertation 2121

2 MEHMED CAVİD BEY:MEHMED CAVİD BEY: A RISING FINANCIER AND STATESMAN (1908A RISING FINANCIER AND STATESMAN (1908––1910)1910) 2525

2.1 A Young Man Toward the Revolution 26

2.2 Cavid Bey, Young Deputy with a Full Agenda 9977

2.3 Increasing the Leverage of Ottoman Increasing the Leverage of Ottoman FinancesFinances 111111

2.4 An Intellectual Hand 111515

2.5 The “31 MaThe “31 March Incident” rch Incident” from from Cavid Cavid Bey’s PersBey’s Perspectivepective 112424

2.6 Mehmed Cavid Bey, The Minister of Finance 113939

2.7 A Game Changer? 1909 Loan and Its Consequences 116060

2.8 Toward the End of 1909: Knifepoint Laws 116363

2.9 1910 Budget and the Audit Wars 117070

2.10 1910 Loan Operation and Its Impact 183183

2.11 Chapter Summary 198198

3 “NO ONE CAN REPLACE CAVID BEY”: DOME“NO ONE CAN REPLACE CAVID BEY”: DOMESTISTIC TURMC TURMOIL AND THE LOSS OF OIL AND THE LOSS OF THE BALKANSTHE BALKANS 220808

3.1 Siamese TwinsSiamese Twins 221111

3.2 The Budget of The Budget of 19111911 222525

3.3 The Summer of 1911: The Summer of 1911:

Two Journeys in Opposite Directions

Two Journeys in Opposite Directions 224141

3.4 The Tripolitanian War, 1911The Tripolitanian War, 1911––19121912 224646

3.5 The Budget of 1912The Budget of 1912 227373

3.6 The Government Crisis, JuThe Government Crisis, Julyly––AugustAugust 19121912 228181

3.7 A Short ImprisonmentA Short Imprisonment 297297

3.8 The Balkan The Balkan Wars (1912Wars (1912––1913): 1913):

The Beginning of the End

The Beginning of the End 330000

3.9 Once Again in Exile…Once Again in Exile… 332020

3.10 Chapter SummaryChapter Summary 333300

4 THE NEGOTIATORTHE NEGOTIATOR 333535

4.1 Waiting for the Storm, 1913Waiting for the Storm, 1913––19141914 334141

4.2 Preparing for the NegotiaPreparing for the Negotiatiotions, Isns, Istanbultanbul 337979

4.3 The NegotiatThe Negotiatoror 505505

4.4 The Finance Minister on the Brink of the Great WarThe Finance Minister on the Brink of the Great War 523523

4.5 Chapter SummaryChapter Summary 552525

5 CONCLUSCONCLUSION: A CIVIL UNIONISTION: A CIVIL UNIONIST 553636

5.1 Cavid Bey in the Great WarCavid Bey in the Great War 553737

5.2 Exile and Reckoning, 1918Exile and Reckoning, 1918––19261926 590590

5.3 Concluding Remarks:Concluding Remarks: CaCavid Bevid Bey, A Civil Unionisty, A Civil Unionist 624624

Bibliographyibliography 664141

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List of Tables

Table 1.1Table 1.1 DeutDeutsche Bank’s offer for railway linessche Bank’s offer for railway lines ((NovemberNovember, , 19131913)) 446464

List of Figuresist of Figures

Figure Figure 22.1.1 Young Cavid BeyYoung Cavid Bey 9696

FigFigure 2.ure 2.22 Cavid BeCavid Bey andy and Rıza Rıza TevfikTevfik 111616

Figure 2.Figure 2.44 TThe Envhe Envelopeelope 111717

Figure 1.2 Figure 1.2 Cavid Bey and His FriendsCavid Bey and His Friends 272733

Figure 5.5Figure 5.5 Cavid Bey’s PassportCavid Bey’s Passport 660000

Figure 5.6Figure 5.6 Cavid Bey during the Independece TribunalCavid Bey during the Independece Tribunal 662020

Figure 5.7Figure 5.7 Aliye HanımAliye Hanım 662323

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Abbreviations and

Abbreviations and AcronymsAcronyms

MM Zab

MM Zabıt ıt CeCeridesiridesi The The MinMinututeses oof f the Ottoman Chthe Ottoman Chamberamber

BOA

BOA Presidency of the Republic of Türkiye Directorate Presidency of the Republic of Türkiye Directorate

of State Archivesof State Archives

A Note on Transliteration

In the transliteration of Ottoman Turkish phrases and terms, the sin the transliteration of Ottoman Turkish phrases and terms, the sim-m-plestplest form oform of latinization f latinization iis us usesedd. All place. All place nnamames aes are given in their Ore given in their Ot-t-toman context. The names of specific institutions and terms are trantoman context. The names of specific institutions and terms are trans-s-lated intolated into English, but their original Turkish forms are provided in English, but their original Turkish forms are provided in parentheses parentheses upon upon their first appearance in the text.their first appearance in the text.

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Acknowledgementscknowledgements

Fiirstrst of all, I wof all, I wououldld liklike to thank Prof. Dr. Zafer Toprak for his guidance e to thank Prof. Dr. Zafer Toprak for his guidance and, moreover, his support throughout my graduate education at the and, moreover, his support throughout my graduate education at the Atatürk Institute. I am thankful to him for the trust he showed me Atatürk Institute. I am thankful to him for the trust he showed me throughout this long period. Hthroughout this long period. He contributed te contributed too tthe he fformation oformation of tthihis dis dis-s-sertation through both his comments on my drafts and his courses. sertation through both his comments on my drafts and his courses. Without his support, this thesis would not have been completed. I Without his support, this thesis would not have been completed. I would also like to thank my jury members, Asım Karaömerlioğlu, would also like to thank my jury members, Asım Karaömerlioğlu, MeMehhmet Ö. Alkan, anmet Ö. Alkan, and Nadir Özbek, d Nadir Özbek, fforor ththeeir invaluableir invaluable suggessuggestions and tions and comments.comments.

I would like to express my thanks to the faculty members of the Atatürk

I would like to express my thanks to the faculty members of the Atatürk Institute as they provided a truly intellectual environment for me and Institute as they provided a truly intellectual environment for me and for all graduate students. I also owe thanks to thfor all graduate students. I also owe thanks to the staff of the e staff of the iinsnstittituute, te, the late the late Necla TNecla Turunurunc, Kadriye Tamtekin, Dilek Tecirli, and Leyla Kılıc. I c, Kadriye Tamtekin, Dilek Tecirli, and Leyla Kılıc. I want to thank the staff of the library of Boğazici University that helped want to thank the staff of the library of Boğazici University that helped facilitate my research at the library. I am grateful to Lorans Tanatar facilitate my research at the library. I am grateful to Lorans Tanatar Banar, Associate DirectorBanar, Associate Director of Reof Research and Prosearch and Programs of Sagrams of Salt Galata, for lt Galata, for opening the archives of the Ottoman Bank. I am also thankful for the opening the archives of the Ottoman Bank. I am also thankful for the help I received from the staff of the Prime Ministry of the Ottoman Ahelp I received from the staff of the Prime Ministry of the Ottoman Ar-r-chives in Istanbul during this research.chives in Istanbul during this research.

Last but not least, I would like to thank Ali

Last but not least, I would like to thank Ali for his undersfor his understanding, ptanding, pa-a-tience, and support for his mother throughout this process. tience, and support for his mother throughout this process.

NOTE

NOTE:: The inThe in--house editor of the Atatürk Institute has made detailed house editor of the Atatürk Institute has made detailed recommendations with regard to the format, grammar, spelling, usage, recommendations with regard to the format, grammar, spelling, usage, syntax, and style of this dissertation.syntax, and style of this dissertation.

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Politicolitics s iis the as the art of trt of thehe popossibssiblle, the e, the aattattainableinable –– the athe art of the rt of the nnexext bestt best..

–

– Otto Otto vovon Bismn Bismaarckrck: i: in conversation withn conversation with Meyer vMeyer von on WaWaldldeck, 11 Aueck, 11 Augugusst 1t 1867. 867. OOxford xford EsEssentsentiialal QutaQutatiotionsns. .

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

1 IntroductionIntroduction

We owe respect to the living, but to the dead we

We owe respect to the living, but to the dead we only owe the only owe the trtruth.uth.

–

– Voltaire, letter to his friend Mathurin de Voltaire, letter to his friend Mathurin de Grenoville, 1719Grenoville, 17191

he dissertation, titled “A Civil Unionist: The Biography of Mehmed

he dissertation, titled “A Civil Unionist: The Biography of Mehmed Cavid Bey (1876Cavid Bey (1876––1926),” aims to analyze a critical period in the 1926),” aims to analyze a critical period in the history of the Republic of Turkey, the transition frhistory of the Republic of Turkey, the transition fromom empire to nationempire to nation--state, from the perspective of one individual. Mehmed Cavid Bey, or state, from the perspective of one individual. Mehmed Cavid Bey, or Cavid Bey for short, is one of the key political figures in the Second CoCavid Bey for short, is one of the key political figures in the Second Con-n-stitutional Period and the Early Republican Era. I aimed to find the gaps stitutional Period and the Early Republican Era. I aimed to find the gaps in Turkish historiogin Turkish historiograraphy regarding this period and fill them through phy regarding this period and fill them through comprehending the life of this indcomprehending the life of this indiividual. Cavid Bey, although a political vidual. Cavid Bey, although a political actor, was a financier, negactor, was a financier, negootiator, and intellectual. For this reason, this tiator, and intellectual. For this reason, this dissertation covered a wide range of topics in detail adissertation covered a wide range of topics in detail as s it traced diffeit traced differ-r-ent periods of his life. These topics ranged from Ottoman finances, Oent periods of his life. These topics ranged from Ottoman finances, Ot-t-

1 Hans Renders, “The Biographical Turn Biography as a critical method in the Hans Renders, “The Biographical Turn Biography as a critical method in the humanities and society,”humanities and society,” in The Biographical Turn Livin The Biographical Turn Lives in History, edes in History, ed. Hans. Hans Renders, Renders, Binne de Haan, and Jonne Harmsma (Routledge: New York, 2017),Binne de Haan, and Jonne Harmsma (Routledge: New York, 2017), 3.3.

A Y Ş E K Ö S E B ADUR

toman foreign relations, and Ottoman economic, intellectual, and polit

toman foreign relations, and Ottoman economic, intellectual, and politi-i-cal life. I aimed to comprehend how these structures changed alongside cal life. I aimed to comprehend how these structures changed alongside both global and local deveboth global and local develolopments. My main question in this dissertpments. My main question in this disserta-a-tion was as follows: from empire to nationtion was as follows: from empire to nation--state, in times of total, global state, in times of total, global wars, how was an individualwars, how was an individual——especially a controversial one such as especially a controversial one such as Cavid BeyCavid Bey——able to respond to these changes, and what can they tell us able to respond to these changes, and what can they tell us ababout new points in historiography?out new points in historiography?

§ 1.1 The Aim and Scope of the DissertationThe Aim and Scope of the Dissertation

In a letter to his friend, Voltaire wrote that we owe the truth to the dead.

In a letter to his friend, Voltaire wrote that we owe the truth to the dead. However, as a Ph.D. candidate, my primary aim is to comprehend agency However, as a Ph.D. candidate, my primary aim is to comprehend agency together with together with an individual’san individual’s discdiscouourse and actions. Based on that, the rse and actions. Based on that, the purpose and scope of this dissertation titled “Mehmed Cavid Bey: A Civil purpose and scope of this dissertation titled “Mehmed Cavid Bey: A Civil Unionist, 1876Unionist, 1876––1926” are to comprehend Mehmed Cavid Bey as an 1926” are to comprehend Mehmed Cavid Bey as an agenagentt with his with his actionsactions, speeches and his social , speeches and his social rreelations in a particular lations in a particular crosscross--secsecttiion of history. Cavid Bey on of history. Cavid Bey waswas an influean influenntial political and eco-tial political and eco-nomic actor in Turkish history during the transition from empire to the nomic actor in Turkish history during the transition from empire to the nationnation--state. Thstate. Thisis dissertation aims to codissertation aims to commprehend Cavid Bey’s story to prehend Cavid Bey’s story to shed light on the period shed light on the period in which in which he lived, one ohe lived, one off the the most most critical peri-critical peri-ods of Turkish history. ods of Turkish history. I I decided to wdecided to work on the biography ork on the biography ofof Cavid Bey Cavid Bey because he was one of the because he was one of the most most prominent fiprominent figgures of ures of the the modernization modernization of state affairs, mainly of state affairs, mainly state state finances, one of thefinances, one of the mostmost distinguished distinguished members of the Commembers of the Commmitittee of Union and Prtee of Union and Proogress (CUP), and an intel-gress (CUP), and an intel-lectual who left both academic works and egolectual who left both academic works and ego--documents bdocuments beehind. hind. He He also left a colossal diary behind, which is a unique source for historians.also left a colossal diary behind, which is a unique source for historians. This dissertation aims to crystalize Cavid Bey’s position in the CThis dissertation aims to crystalize Cavid Bey’s position in the CUUP P and and Turkish politics and finances during a turning pointTurkish politics and finances during a turning point in hiin hisstorytory. It also . It also aims to expose the interstices and changes in Turkish politics that were aims to expose the interstices and changes in Turkish politics that were less apparent in general historioless apparent in general historioggraphy. Thraphy. Thisis dissertation dissertation aimsaims to reach to reach these goals by comprehending these goals by comprehending CCaavivid Bey as an agend Bey as an agentt in the pin the poolitical and litical and financial networkfinancial networkss around him at botharound him at both thethe local and internationallocal and international levellevel. . One of the primary puOne of the primary purrposes of this dissertation poses of this dissertation isis to question the posi-to question the posi-

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

tion, cap

tion, capaability, limits, and bility, limits, and opportunites opportunites of of such such a prominent figua prominent figurree asas Cavid Bey during theCavid Bey during thesese very interesting times very interesting times in in hihisstory. tory.

This dissertation tries to comprehend Cavid Bey as a financier du

This dissertation tries to comprehend Cavid Bey as a financier dur-r-ing the transition from ing the transition from eempire to the nationmpire to the nation--state, through turmoil, state, through turmoil, wars, casualties, putsches, upheavals, and other criseswars, casualties, putsches, upheavals, and other crises.. IIt t covers the ecovers the en-n-tirety of Cavid Bey’s life, from 1876 to 1926; however, it focuses prtirety of Cavid Bey’s life, from 1876 to 1926; however, it focuses pri-i-marily on 1908 to 1914. This period coincides with the first part of the marily on 1908 to 1914. This period coincides with the first part of the Second Constitutional Era, 1908Second Constitutional Era, 1908––19131913,,2 in which Cavid Bey in which Cavid Bey waswas more more aacctive as the finance mintive as the finance ministerister anand d a a statesman. During this period, his statesman. During this period, his didisscourse and actions course and actions werewere more more consequentialconsequential than in later perthan in later periiods. ods. Cavid Bey is evaluated as an individual who determined his economic Cavid Bey is evaluated as an individual who determined his economic and pand poolitical ideology early litical ideology early on in life on in life and carried and carried the same bthe same beeliefsliefs all of all of hihiss life.life.

Cavid Bey’s biography

Cavid Bey’s biography follows afollows a historical narrative historical narrative and and focuses on focuses on the flow of events and the interstices among flows and people. The gen-the flow of events and the interstices among flows and people. The gen-re of biography also re of biography also allows usallows us to scrutinize these fractured moments to scrutinize these fractured moments hidden behind hidden behind largerlarger narrativesnarratives. As a fin. As a finaanncier in both domestic and icier in both domestic and in-n-ternational politics, ternational politics, examining examining Cavid Bey’s biography requireCavid Bey’s biography requiress interdiinterdis-s-ciplinary research as his life’s work sits at the intersection of different ciplinary research as his life’s work sits at the intersection of different disciplines. The conceptual background of political science was necedisciplines. The conceptual background of political science was neces-s-sary to cosary to commpprehend the story of Cavid Beyrehend the story of Cavid Bey as well as the as well as the history of history of Turkish and European Turkish and European politicspolitics and financeand financess at both local and internat both local and interna-a-tional levels. Although he was the finance minister, his work was intetional levels. Although he was the finance minister, his work was inter-r-twined with the domestic and foreign politics of twined with the domestic and foreign politics of the Empirethe Empire.. Cavid Bey Cavid Bey had amassed a wealth of knowledge on state administration, politics, had amassed a wealth of knowledge on state administration, politics, and law in addand law in addiition to his expertise in economy and finance. tion to his expertise in economy and finance. Thus, this Thus, this dissertationdissertation trietriess to trace the complex web of his works, to comprehend to trace the complex web of his works, to comprehend his attitude and thohis attitude and thoughts, ughts, and and ttoo scrutinize the flow of developments scrutinize the flow of developments

2 It is possibIt is possible to dle to divide the Second Constitutional Period into two separate parts. The ivide the Second Constitutional Period into two separate parts. The first period, 1908first period, 1908––1913, covers the pluralist period in which the ci1913, covers the pluralist period in which the civil and liberal wvil and liberal wings ings wwere dominant. The second part begins with the coup d’état of January 23, 1913, ere dominant. The second part begins with the coup d’état of January 23, 1913, which brougwhich brought the ht the CUP and its military wing to power. From then on, nCUP and its military wing to power. From then on, naationalist poli-tionalist poli-cies shifted with the Empire’s more pluralist policies.cies shifted with the Empire’s more pluralist policies.

A Y Ş E K Ö S E B ADUR

step by step. Tr

step by step. Tryying to comprehend Cavid Bey was indeed an instructive ing to comprehend Cavid Bey was indeed an instructive journey for the researcher. journey for the researcher.

A map

A map of the Ottoman Empire in 1876, when Cavid Bey was born, of the Ottoman Empire in 1876, when Cavid Bey was born, isis very much different from very much different from the map of the map of Turkey in 1926Turkey in 1926 wwhehen Cavid Bey n Cavid Bey dieddied. The change in the size and border of the country is representative . The change in the size and border of the country is representative of the political, social, and economic tranof the political, social, and economic transsformation. These drastic formation. These drastic changes took place over a short period of changes took place over a short period of aappproximately fifteen years. proximately fifteen years. These two mThese two maaps also give us tps also give us thehe first imprefirst impresssions of how sions of how a country a country might change politically, economically, socially, and in daily lifemight change politically, economically, socially, and in daily life in the in the lifespan olifespan of a single individualf a single individual. This enormous development would cause . This enormous development would cause nnuumerous changes and also pain. Cavid Bey was among the political merous changes and also pain. Cavid Bey was among the political group group ththat led at led tthis transition period at the beginning of the twentieth his transition period at the beginning of the twentieth century in Turkey. Naturally, it was not only a transition period in the century in Turkey. Naturally, it was not only a transition period in the local selocal sennse; it was also a period of global chase; it was also a period of global change. This dissenge. This disserrtation scru-tation scru-tinizes where Cavid Bey, the Uniotinizes where Cavid Bey, the Unionnists, andists, and tthe Natihe Natioonal Forces nal Forces ((KuKuvvacıvvacı) fragmented during) fragmented during these intethese interresting times. esting times.

As an agent, Cavid Bey is an attractive figure as a Unionist, intelle

As an agent, Cavid Bey is an attractive figure as a Unionist, intellec-c-tual, financier, and statesman. He was born at the beginning of the Ha-tual, financier, and statesman. He was born at the beginning of the Ha-midian period (1876midian period (1876––1908) in the Ottoman Empire and died in Tu1908) in the Ottoman Empire and died in Turrkey key in the Early Republican Era (1926). In between these two periods, he in the Early Republican Era (1926). In between these two periods, he waswas one of the leading figures of the Second Constitutional Pone of the leading figures of the Second Constitutional Peeriod riod (1908(1908––1918). He was involved in politics while he was the school dire1918). He was involved in politics while he was the school direc-c-tor in tor in SelanikSelanik and entered the secret committeand entered the secret committee against Sultan e against Sultan AbdüAbdüllhamid II’s absolutist regime. He hamid II’s absolutist regime. He joinedjoined the Committee of Union the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) leaders and Progress (CUP) leaders and worked very closely with and worked very closely with Talat Bey. Af-Talat Bey. Af-ter Abdülhamid II reinstated the constitution and the parliament on July ter Abdülhamid II reinstated the constitution and the parliament on July 23, 1908, he was elected as t23, 1908, he was elected as the deputy for he deputy for SelanikSelanik and quickly became and quickly became the most influential figure in state finances. the most influential figure in state finances. In the meantime, hIn the meantime, he started e started to keep a diary during his first days in office in 1909 after losing his to keep a diary during his first days in office in 1909 after losing his first first wifewife, Saniye Hanım, Saniye Hanım. . As mentioned below in detail, Cavid Bey’sAs mentioned below in detail, Cavid Bey’s diaries diaries are quite colossal in size and cover most of the details of his work flows. are quite colossal in size and cover most of the details of his work flows. Because of this Because of this incredible incredible detaildetail in his diariesin his diaries, it is possible to think that , it is possible to think that at some point he at some point he aimed to aimed to leleaveave his journals for subsequent generhis journals for subsequent genera-a-tions.tions.

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

Although he was a f

Although he was a financier, it is hard to assert that inancier, it is hard to assert that Cavid BeyCavid Bey was was indifferent to politics. He made the most enthusiastic and fervent indifferent to politics. He made the most enthusiastic and fervent speeches in the speeches in the pparliament arliament and inand in public spaces. Cavid Beypublic spaces. Cavid Bey’’s house was s house was one of the critical locations of the meetings of the Unionists from one of the critical locations of the meetings of the Unionists from 1908 1908 to 1926. His identity as a to 1926. His identity as a Dönme Dönme (the Ottoman Jewish community that (the Ottoman Jewish community that converted to Islam though followed the Jewish religion in the private converted to Islam though followed the Jewish religion in the private sphere) and freemasonsphere) and freemason——as were many other Unionistsas were many other Unionists——made him a made him a scapegoat in conflictual times. He was also a populscapegoat in conflictual times. He was also a popular figure in the public ar figure in the public sphere. The newspapers published articles and comics about him. Carsphere. The newspapers published articles and comics about him. Cari-i-caturists mostly criticized Cavid Bey in the newspapers for his frequent caturists mostly criticized Cavid Bey in the newspapers for his frequent visits to European capitals to carry out the Empire’s loan negotiations. visits to European capitals to carry out the Empire’s loan negotiations. The European newspThe European newspapers also paid close attention to Cavid Bey from apers also paid close attention to Cavid Bey from the first day of the Revolutionthe first day of the Revolution onwaronwardsds. .

Cavid Bey was raised as the financier of the CUP in the Second Con-

Cavid Bey was raised as the financier of the CUP in the Second Con-stitstituutional Period. Cavid Bey took responsibility in the field of finance tional Period. Cavid Bey took responsibility in the field of finance and was equipped with exand was equipped with extensive tensive authority. Cavid Bey’s work was fun-authority. Cavid Bey’s work was fun-ddaamental in creating the modern understanding of finance inherited mental in creating the modern understanding of finance inherited from the Ottoman Republican period. Cavid Bey directed the Ottoman from the Ottoman Republican period. Cavid Bey directed the Ottoman economy and finances with a liberal approach. There are two main reeconomy and finances with a liberal approach. There are two main rea-a-sons why Casons why Cavid Bey vid Bey is a liberal economist. The first is the influence of is a liberal economist. The first is the influence of Selanik, a cosmSelanik, a cosmoopolitan port city, and the other is the influence of Mül-politan port city, and the other is the influence of Mül-kiyekiye3, which adopted, which adopted the liberal doctrine. Cavid Bey developed his liber-the liberal doctrine. Cavid Bey developed his liber-al ideology within the borders of the Eal ideology within the borders of the Emmpire. It ipire. It iss possiblpossible to claim that e to claim that his education in his education in MülkiyeMülkiye strengthened his role as a financier, statist ide-strengthened his role as a financier, statist ide-ology, and centralist approach. An important feature that stands out in ology, and centralist approach. An important feature that stands out in Cavid Bey’s biogrCavid Bey’s biograaphy is that he adopted his liberal doctrine early, and phy is that he adopted his liberal doctrine early, and

3 “Mülki“Mülkiye” is known as the Civil Service Academy. However, it had two different ye” is known as the Civil Service Academy. However, it had two different sections. Mektebsections. Mekteb--i İdadii İdadi--i Mülki functioned ai Mülki functioned as a higs a high school. Mektebh school. Mekteb--i Mülkiyei Mülkiye--i Şa-i Şa-hane wahane was a higher education institute. Cavid Bey attended both. According to the Os a higher education institute. Cavid Bey attended both. According to the Ot-t-toman Archives, toman Archives, “… he graduated from the Fevziye secondary school and afterward “… he graduated from the Fevziye secondary school and afterward gradgraduuated from Dersaadet Mektebated from Dersaadet Mekteb--i İdadii İdadi--i Mülki on Ni Mülki on Noovvember 9ember 9, 1893. He graduated , 1893. He graduated from the Mektebfrom the Mekteb--i i MülkiyeMülkiye--i Şahane with a good decree on August 3, 1896….” BOA_DH i Şahane with a good decree on August 3, 1896….” BOA_DH SAİDd___00079_00235.SAİDd___00079_00235.

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he mai

he mainntainetainedd this atthis attitude throughout his life. Cavid Bey led some of titude throughout his life. Cavid Bey led some of the most critical dthe most critical deevelopments in the Evelopments in the Emmpire’s finances such as prepar-pire’s finances such as prepar-ing the first modern budget in 1909 and implementing institutional ing the first modern budget in 1909 and implementing institutional regulations. The politregulations. The politiical actors of the Secal actors of the Seccond Constitutionond Constitutionaal Periodl Period es-es-teemed his financial expertise regardless of their affiliation with the teemed his financial expertise regardless of their affiliation with the CUP. He was also one of the strongest supporters of the constitutional CUP. He was also one of the strongest supporters of the constitutional amenamenddments in 1909. In this period, he tried to increase the leverage of ments in 1909. In this period, he tried to increase the leverage of OttOttooman finances in the Euroman finances in the Europpean capiean capitals by establishing new allianc-tals by establishing new allianc-es. In his early thirties, he became the finance minister, es. In his early thirties, he became the finance minister, and and the Europe-the Europe-an markets welcomed his tenurean markets welcomed his tenure. His intellectual accumulation also . His intellectual accumulation also raised his credraised his crediibility. Cavid Bey fullbility. Cavid Bey full--heartedly supported the dheartedly supported the develop-evelop-mement nt oof the Ef the Emmpire through agricupire through agriculltural production via infrastructural tural production via infrastructural investments, which would acceleinvestments, which would accelerrate the incorporation of the Ottoman ate the incorporation of the Ottoman economy with the Western ececonomy with the Western ecoonomic spheres. As a member of parlia-nomic spheres. As a member of parlia-ment and finance minister, he witnessed severament and finance minister, he witnessed several wars tl wars thathat led to terrible led to terrible defeats and cdefeats and caatastrophes for the Ottoman Empire untiltastrophes for the Ottoman Empire until, ult, ultiimately, tmately, the he Great War caused the collapse of the Empire. Great War caused the collapse of the Empire. AfterAfter 1913, the decision1913, the decision--making processmaking processeses in the Ottin the Ottooman governmentman government were confined to three were confined to three people,people, known as the known as the triumvtriumviirrateate:: Talat Bey, Enver Pasha, and Cemal Pa-Talat Bey, Enver Pasha, and Cemal Pa-sha. Cavid Bey was not among thsha. Cavid Bey was not among this groupis group. His role . His role was was coconnfined fined toto fi-fi-nancial problemsnancial problems, which limited, which limited his fiehis fielld of authority cod of authority commparpareded to the to the first periodfirst period of this eraof this era. He continued to. He continued to embodembodyy the liberal and demthe liberal and demo-o-cratic cratic chacharracteristics of thacteristics of the new period that began with the Empire’s e new period that began with the Empire’s defeat in the Balkan Wars. The Balkan Wars was a deeply traumatic epi-defeat in the Balkan Wars. The Balkan Wars was a deeply traumatic epi-sode for the rusode for the rulling elite of the day including Cavid Bey. The loss of Bal-ing elite of the day including Cavid Bey. The loss of Bal-kan territories and also how the CUP could kan territories and also how the CUP could permit tpermit thathat kind of loss was kind of loss was a memory he recalled often in his diary. a memory he recalled often in his diary.

Thisis dissertation placedissertation placess particular importance on Cavid Bey’s role in particular importance on Cavid Bey’s role in the loan and concession negotiations confronting the delegates of the the loan and concession negotiations confronting the delegates of the Great Powers. His Great Powers. His failurefailure to increase the levto increase the leverage oferage of OtOtttoman foman fiinances, nances, hishis limits in the negotiations, limits in the negotiations, and and his discourse, his discourse, particularly thatparticularly that against against the demands of the Great Powers, were among the issues I cothe demands of the Great Powers, were among the issues I conncentrated centrated on.on. DDuring the Great War uring the Great War yyears, ears, Cavid BeyCavid Bey served the Ottoman goverserved the Ottoman govern-n-ment in Bement in Berrlin lin and Vienand Vienna na tto obtain loans and military equipment. o obtain loans and military equipment.

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However, in 1917, despite his

However, in 1917, despite his disagreements withdisagreements with his fellowhis fellow UnionistsUnionists, , he was once againhe was once again appointed asappointed as the finance minister. His work the finance minister. His work overover this this short period was very importantshort period was very important, including, including thethe foundation of tfoundation of thehe NNa-a-tiotionalnal Credit Bank, the first national bank of the Ottoman Empire, and Credit Bank, the first national bank of the Ottoman Empire, and the first internal loan. the first internal loan. During hisDuring his time astime as ministministerer, a, allthough he was though he was also also critical critical of the partyof the party, he defended, he defended some ofsome of the actions of the CUP the actions of the CUP such such as as war profiteering. war profiteering.

After the

After the EmEmpire’s pire’s ddefeefeaat in the t in the Great Great War, War, Cavid BeyCavid Bey was abroad was abroad during during the National Independence Warthe National Independence War, surrounded by, surrounded by the same people the same people who had been with him in the Ottoman governmentwho had been with him in the Ottoman government. He was distanced . He was distanced from the from the Independence Independence War and did not witness War and did not witness its its hardshiphardshipss. In 1922,. In 1922, he retuhe returnernedd to Istanbul as the representative of theto Istanbul as the representative of the last remaininglast remaining instinsti-i-tution tution fromfrom the Ottoman Empirethe Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Public Debt Administr: The Ottoman Public Debt Administra-a-tion (OPDA)tion (OPDA). Between 1922 and 1926, he could not compromise with . Between 1922 and 1926, he could not compromise with eithereither the Ankara government the Ankara government oror Mustafa Kemal PashaMustafa Kemal Pasha. . AlthouAlthough gh İİsmet smet Pasha iPasha innvited Cavid Bey to vited Cavid Bey to the the Lausanne Conference as an advisor for Lausanne Conference as an advisor for the Ottthe Ottooman debts, Cavid Bey disagreed on the conditions of repayment man debts, Cavid Bey disagreed on the conditions of repayment of the Ottoman debts with the Turkish delegation.of the Ottoman debts with the Turkish delegation. TheThe Lausanne CoLausanne Con-n-ference was his last chance to approach the Aference was his last chance to approach the Annkara government. kara government. HHe be be-e-came one of the leading figures of the opposition against the Ankara came one of the leading figures of the opposition against the Ankara government, representing the spirit of the CUP, until he was executed government, representing the spirit of the CUP, until he was executed following the Independence Trfollowing the Independence Tribunalibunal, marking the end of the CUP., marking the end of the CUP.

According to his diaries, Cav

According to his diaries, Caviid Bey did not feel attached to the Rd Bey did not feel attached to the Re-e-publican age. Although he shared the principles of republicanism publican age. Although he shared the principles of republicanism andand secularism, he did not feel close with the new cadre who pioneered and secularism, he did not feel close with the new cadre who pioneered and led these led these radical radical political, economic, and social changes. political, economic, and social changes. FurtherFurther, as a , as a lilibbereraal man of the age of empires, the concept of nationalism, national l man of the age of empires, the concept of nationalism, national economy, and their practices were not economy, and their practices were not in in accordanaccordancece with his intellewith his intellecctu-tu-al world.al world. The paradigms of these two conceptsThe paradigms of these two concepts, empire and nation, empire and nation--state, state, areare utterly different. Naturally, this tranutterly different. Naturally, this transsititiion was impetuous, ion was impetuous, inntense, tense, and sharp. Furthermore, the end of the Great War was a miland sharp. Furthermore, the end of the Great War was a mileestone in stone in world history. As at every tuning point, those who comprworld history. As at every tuning point, those who compreehend the hend the changes in world politics are those who determine and steer the future. changes in world politics are those who determine and steer the future. Additionally, OttomAdditionally, Ottomaan n ssociety also changed irreversociety also changed irreversiiblybly——politically, politically,

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economically, and socially

economically, and socially——in a short period. As Giin a short period. As Gioovanni Levi, the pio-vanni Levi, the pio-neer of microhistory states, when normative syneer of microhistory states, when normative sysstems starttems start to transform, to transform, interstices emerge, and groups and indinterstices emerge, and groups and indiividuals try to fill themviduals try to fill them wiwitth new h new policies. These strategies sometimes are not in hapolicies. These strategies sometimes are not in harrmony with the old mony with the old and remain inconclusiveand remain inconclusive..4 This bThis biography iography aims aims to crystato crystalllize these con-lize these con-flicts and interstices from a broad peflicts and interstices from a broad perrspective. The variety and multi-spective. The variety and multi-tude of experiences tude of experiences of this era of this era enablenablee hhiistorians to ustorians to unnderstand derstand both both conflicts and possibilities. The historian might use the individual’s deci-conflicts and possibilities. The historian might use the individual’s deci-sions and actionssions and actions——or passivismor passivism——to uto unnderstand power relations re-derstand power relations re-gardless of their capacity to make historygardless of their capacity to make history..5 It is possible to allege that It is possible to allege that Cavid Bey reCavid Bey reppreressents ents thethe rupture in the transition from empire rupture in the transition from empire toto nna-a-tiontion--state. state.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey is also one of theis also one of the mostmost atypical Unionists in the CUP. This atypical Unionists in the CUP. This dissertation tries to comprehend the dissertation tries to comprehend the role thatrole that Cavid Bey Cavid Bey plays within plays within the CUPthe CUP. However, the CUP is not a uniform orga. However, the CUP is not a uniform organnizizaation. tion. It includedIt included various people from different ideologies, ethnicvarious people from different ideologies, ethnic--religious religious identitesidentites, et , et cetera. After the revolution,cetera. After the revolution, especially during the Great War,especially during the Great War, alliances alliances bbeetweentween nonnon--Muslim groupsMuslim groups began to fracture, andbegan to fracture, and the CUP bethe CUP becamecame a a more uniform organizatmore uniform organizatiionon.. Although Cavid Bey would liveAlthough Cavid Bey would live throughthrough ups ups and downsand downs in his career and association with the CUPin his career and association with the CUP, he never consi, he never consid-d-ered ered abandoabandonning ing shipship.. Until the end of the CUPUntil the end of the CUP——not in 1918 but not in 1918 but in in 19261926——he rhe reemained a Unionistmained a Unionist, , and a civil Unionistand a civil Unionist at thatat that. Holistically, . Holistically, tthhisis dissertdissertaation tion aimsaims to cover the to cover the entirety ofentirety of Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s life and ’s life and the the context and developmentscontext and developments during this periodduring this period by using a contemporary by using a contemporary genre, biogenre, bioggraphy. raphy.

4 Giovanni LGiovanni Levi, “The Uses ofevi, “The Uses of BiogrBiography,” in aphy,” in Theoretical Discussions of BiographyTheoretical Discussions of Biography, ed. , ed. Arianne Baggerman, Rudolf Dekker, MiArianne Baggerman, Rudolf Dekker, Michael Mchael Mascuch (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 62.ascuch (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 62.

5 Loriga, Sabina.Loriga, Sabina. “The“The Plurality of thePlurality of the Past” Past” in The Biographical Turn Lives in Historyin The Biographical Turn Lives in History, ed. , ed. Hans RendeHans Renders, Binne de Haanrs, Binne de Haan, Jonn, Jonne Harmsma (New York: Routledge, 2017), 38e Harmsma (New York: Routledge, 2017), 38--39.39.

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§ 1.2 Biography: GBiography: Globallobal Questions, Questions, LocalLocal AnswersAnswers6

As written in the epigraph,

As written in the epigraph, Voltaire Voltaire had written hihad written hiss ffrriendiend that we only that we only owe the truth to the dead. However, comprehending agency is one of the owe the truth to the dead. However, comprehending agency is one of the waysways inin which which we canwe can reach or approach reach or approach thethe truth or scientific out-truth or scientific out-comes. As Hannah Arendt putcomes. As Hannah Arendt putss it, comprehension does not mean deny-it, comprehension does not mean deny-ing terrible incidents, neing terrible incidents, neuutralitralizziningg the course of events, or generalizing the course of events, or generalizing analogies that would danalogies that would deegrade the facts, the impact of reality, or the grade the facts, the impact of reality, or the shock of the experience. On the contrary, comprehension depicts reality shock of the experience. On the contrary, comprehension depicts reality as it is, whatever it is.as it is, whatever it is.7

Thinking

Thinking aboutabout, writing, writing aboutabout, and , and reresearchisearching ng aan individual natu-n individual natu-rally brings different questions, methods, limits, and possibilities.rally brings different questions, methods, limits, and possibilities. TThe he biobioggrapher should draw therapher should draw the portrait of aportrait of a person from the beginning to person from the beginning to the end to comprehend ththe end to comprehend thatat person. Life has limits, namely birth and person. Life has limits, namely birth and death, and thus it is death, and thus it is onlonlyy possible to storify it after it has finished. Thus, possible to storify it after it has finished. Thus, a bioa bioggrraapher could write another personpher could write another person’’s biography to show the s biography to show the uniqueness of that person to the world. uniqueness of that person to the world. A biography contains the com-A biography contains the com-plex story of a person within wellplex story of a person within well--defined boundaries. defined boundaries. Arendt also Arendt also indindi-i-cates the diffecates the differrence between a real biography and fiction. According to ence between a real biography and fiction. According to her, the real biographyher, the real biography should should include the historical context and analyti-include the historical context and analyti-cal acal appproachproach.. TheThe biographer aims to storify the life of the politbiographer aims to storify the life of the politiical actor cal actor in order to prin order to preeserve the memorserve the memory oy off their actions, great words, and poli-their actions, great words, and poli-cies and cies and to to cocommprehend the political actor through an analytical ap-prehend the political actor through an analytical ap-proach.proach.8 It is important to note thatIt is important to note that the political actor also desires to be the political actor also desires to be remembered. Otherwise, their work, impact, and eremembered. Otherwise, their work, impact, and effforts would be in forts would be in vainvain..

6 In his concise essay, Giovanni Levi depIn his concise essay, Giovanni Levi depicts hiicts history as “the science of generalized story as “the science of generalized questions and localized answers.” Based on this, that is how I define biography. Giquestions and localized answers.” Based on this, that is how I define biography. Gio-o-vanni Levi “Biogrvanni Levi “Biograph and Microshisaph and Microshistory”,tory”, https://www.uv.es/retpb/docs/Florencia/Giovanni%20Levi.pdf , Last checked, 6 July, https://www.uv.es/retpb/docs/Florencia/Giovanni%20Levi.pdf , Last checked, 6 July, 20212021. .

7 HHannah Arendt, annah Arendt, The Origins of TotalitarianismThe Origins of Totalitarianism (Florida: A Harvest Book, 1958), xiv. (Florida: A Harvest Book, 1958), xiv.

8 Fatmagül Berktay, Fatmagül Berktay, Dünyayı Bugünden Sevmek Hannah ADünyayı Bugünden Sevmek Hannah Arendt’in Politika Anlayrendt’in Politika Anlayışıışı (Istanbul: Metis Yayınları, 2012), 159(Istanbul: Metis Yayınları, 2012), 159--164.164.

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Today, the biographical approach is accepted as a critical scholarly oday, the biographical approach is accepted as a critical scholarly method in historiography. However, historiography had to method in historiography. However, historiography had to comecome a long a long way to reach here. Leopoldway to reach here. Leopold von Ranke founded modern historiovon Ranke founded modern historioggraphy raphy by using objective methods in the nineteenth cenby using objective methods in the nineteenth centurturyy. Although his . Although his methods changed, his questions were not contemporarymethods changed, his questions were not contemporary, and , and his suhis sub-b-jects jects remained in remained in the grand narratives of European states. A drastic the grand narratives of European states. A drastic change in historiography took place in France after the change in historiography took place in France after the Second World Second World WarWar. The Annales School and Fernan. The Annales School and Fernand Bd Brraudel’s works changed the audel’s works changed the main paradigms in this field. In his magnum opus, main paradigms in this field. In his magnum opus, The Mediterranean The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip IIand the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, Braudel depersona, Braudel depersonal-l-ized history in the long durée. The large structures, spaces, and geogrized history in the long durée. The large structures, spaces, and geogra-a-phy featured inphy featured in hihiss works had their own agency. After the Annales works had their own agency. After the Annales School, British Marxist historians had an impact on the rise of social hiSchool, British Marxist historians had an impact on the rise of social his-s-tory. They, especially E.P. Thompson and Eric Hobsbawm, developed a tory. They, especially E.P. Thompson and Eric Hobsbawm, developed a new concept called history from below. They concentrated on newnew concept called history from below. They concentrated on new agageents, primarily the working class. Thompson’s works such as nts, primarily the working class. Thompson’s works such as The The Making of the English Working ClassMaking of the English Working Class (1963)(1963)9 and Hobsbawm’s works on and Hobsbawm’s works on primitive rebels (1959), bandits (1969), and series on the ages of revprimitive rebels (1959), bandits (1969), and series on the ages of revo-o-lution, capital, empire, and lution, capital, empire, and twentytwenty--first centuryfirst century prepressented the lower ented the lower classes on the stage of academic research. classes on the stage of academic research.

The change in global politics has also affected the academic world

The change in global politics has also affected the academic world and vice versa. Toward the end of the Cold War (1991), the and vice versa. Toward the end of the Cold War (1991), the clashclash of idof ide-e-ologies and the rise of neoliberalism led to postmoderologies and the rise of neoliberalism led to postmodernisnismm. The world . The world entered a new era of neoliberalism and postmodernismentered a new era of neoliberalism and postmodernism,, which spread which spread and flowed and flowed throughout thethroughout the world world via the wave ofvia the wave of globalization. Posglobalization. Post-t-modernism severely criticized the structuralist and deterministic amodernism severely criticized the structuralist and deterministic ap-p-proachesproaches of the Cold War eraof the Cold War era. These di. These discuscusssions and critics led to sions and critics led to changes in historiochanges in historioggraphy.raphy. The The biographical turn was part of the largerbiographical turn was part of the larger histhistoriographicaloriographical developmentsdevelopments, , taking place itaking place in tandem with n tandem with linguistic linguistic turn, cultural turn, the spatial turn, and the aturn, cultural turn, the spatial turn, and the afffective turn. fective turn.

9 Thompson, E.P. Thompson, E.P. The Making of the EnglThe Making of the English Worish Working Class.king Class. New York: Vintage Books, New York: Vintage Books, 1963.1963.

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The

The AAnngloglo--American uniAmerican univversities adopted the biographical turn ear-ersities adopted the biographical turn ear-lier than continental acadlier than continental acadeemia inmia in thethe 1970s1970s. . TThe first works he first works that were that were the harbingers of biogrthe harbingers of biographical turnaphical turn werewere seen in the early 1980sseen in the early 1980s.. TThe he development of the biographical turn also development of the biographical turn also came with came with itsits criticscritics,, espe-espe-ciaciallly from French acly from French acaaddemia. Pierre Bourdieu, emia. Pierre Bourdieu, the French philosopher, the French philosopher, criticized the biography in hcriticized the biography in his is ffaamous mous article “article “The BThe Biographical iographical IIllusion” llusion” in 1986.in 1986.10 He critHe critiicized the structure of biographical work for its narra-cized the structure of biographical work for its narra-tive, meanintive, meaning, and linear hig, and linear hisstory. The maitory. The mainn questions were maiquestions were mainly based nly based on relationship between biogron relationship between biograaphy and social sciences, biography’s ana-phy and social sciences, biography’s ana-lytical scales, its rules, ambiguities, and the issues related to the free-lytical scales, its rules, ambiguities, and the issues related to the free-dom and human rationadom and human rationallity.ity.11 However, despite this crHowever, despite this criticism,iticism, in the in the 1990s 1990s French aFrench annd German acd German acaademia edemia embraced this new genre of histo-mbraced this new genre of histo-riography. riography. Although pAlthough putting the self utting the self ininto academic research to academic research as an agent as an agent was initially was initially a controversial ia controversial isssue,sue, scholars accepted it scholars accepted it through athrough a broad broad consensus.consensus.12

Microhistory, wh

Microhistory, which emerged from Italian schoolich emerged from Italian schoolss of history, coof history, con-n-tritributed to the development of the biography in the 1970s. buted to the development of the biography in the 1970s. Two Italian Two Italian historianshistorians in particularin particular, Carlo Ginzburg and Giovanni Levi, Carlo Ginzburg and Giovanni Levi,, contributed contributed to the flouto the flourrishishinging of microhistory and the development of biograpof microhistory and the development of biographyhy..13 As RendeAs Renderrs states, s states, ““biograbiograpphical research follhical research followed the way of microhiowed the way of microhis-s-tory in terms of mettory in terms of methhodology as source materials and the principle of odology as source materials and the principle of

10 Pierre Bourdioue’ s article “The Biographical Illusion” is aPierre Bourdioue’ s article “The Biographical Illusion” is a one of the key critical texts one of the key critical texts toward the biographical turn. Pierre Bourdiue, “The Biographical Illusiontoward the biographical turn. Pierre Bourdiue, “The Biographical Illusion,,” ” in in The BioThe Biog-g-raphy in Theoryraphy in Theory, , ed.ed. WilhWilhelm Hemelm Hemecker, Erdward Saunders. (ecker, Erdward Saunders. (Berlin, BostonBerlin, Boston: De Gruy-: De Gruy-ter, 2017), 210ter, 2017), 210--216. 216.

On Bourdioue’s article, see also:On Bourdioue’s article, see also: ÖzgürÖzgür Türesay, “Yaşamöyküsü Yanılsaması”, Pierre Türesay, “Yaşamöyküsü Yanılsaması”, Pierre Bourdieu, Pratik nedenler. Eylem Kavramı Üzerine. (Istanbul: Kesit Yayıncılık, 1995), Bourdieu, Pratik nedenler. Eylem Kavramı Üzerine. (Istanbul: Kesit Yayıncılık, 1995), 8181--89.89.

11 Giovanni Levi, “The Uses of Biography,” in Giovanni Levi, “The Uses of Biography,” in Theoretical Discussions of BiographyTheoretical Discussions of Biography, ed. , ed. Arianne Baggerman, Rudolf DekkeArianne Baggerman, Rudolf Dekker, Michael Mascuch (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 62. r, Michael Mascuch (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 62.

12 Renders, “The Biographical Turn,” 3. Renders, “The Biographical Turn,” 3.

13 Carlo Ginzburg, “Microhistory: Two or Three Things That I Know about It,” Carlo Ginzburg, “Microhistory: Two or Three Things That I Know about It,” Critical Critical InquiryInquiry 20, no. 1 (Autumn 1993): 1020, no. 1 (Autumn 1993): 10--35. 35.

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verifiability.

verifiability.””14 However, biography However, biography is a is a step up step up fromfrom microhistory microhistory as it as it follows afollows a spspeecific research methodologcific research methodology in its own righty in its own right. A. Although thlthough theese se two atwo appproaches hproaches had strong ties, the biographical approach rose as a ad strong ties, the biographical approach rose as a separate and specific approach. Nevertheless, both microhistory and separate and specific approach. Nevertheless, both microhistory and biographical approaches followbiographical approaches followed ed the path of history from belowthe path of history from below as de-as de-vevelloped by Britioped by British Marxist historians.sh Marxist historians.15

The

The biobioggraphy releaseraphy releasess the the individual from individual from theirtheir socialsociallyly coconnstruct-struct-ed bindings. ed bindings. The work of Italian historianThe work of Italian historian Carlo GinzburgCarlo Ginzburg tritrigggered the gered the transformtransformation in ation in historiographyhistoriography. Ginzburg. Ginzburg published published IlIl Formaggio e Formaggio e ii VermiVermi ((The Cheese and tThe Cheese and the Wormshe Worms)) in 1976.in 1976.16 In his bookIn his book,, he depicted he depicted the stthe story of a miller from sixteenthory of a miller from sixteenth--centurycentury Italy. His book opened a Italy. His book opened a new age new age byby putputtingting the human at the center of his work. He focused on the human at the center of his work. He focused on ““the notion of the individualthe notion of the individual”” from the lower classes andfrom the lower classes and adopted the adopted the nnarrative instead of aarrative instead of a purely purely ststaatistical approachtistical approach..17 Another pioneer of Another pioneer of this changethis change was Lawrence Stonewas Lawrence Stone and hisand his articlearticle ““The Revival of Narra-The Revival of Narra-tive: Reflections on a New Old Historytive: Reflections on a New Old History,”,”18 which purged historwhich purged historiiography ography from its professional codes adopted after Worldfrom its professional codes adopted after World War II. Stone under-War II. Stone under-scores the scores the cchanging nature of hhanging nature of historiography istoriography in the journal of in the journal of Past Past && PresentPresent in 1979. While emphasizing the rise of narrative, he also mein 1979. While emphasizing the rise of narrative, he also men-n-tiotionsns two critical developmentstwo critical developments:: the changing character of the connethe changing character of the connec-c-tion tion between between different discidifferent disciplines and the importance of thplines and the importance of thee iinndividual dividual in the in the middle of middle of human networkshuman networks and disciplines. and disciplines. Giovanni Levi, the Giovanni Levi, the Italian historian, highlights the analogy between literature and biog-Italian historian, highlights the analogy between literature and biog-rraaphy. phy. However, although they approach each other, literature and bioHowever, although they approach each other, literature and biog-g-

14 Hans Renders, “The Biographical TurnHans Renders, “The Biographical Turn” 3.” 3.

15 This concept was developed by the British Marxist historian E.P. Thompson. Before This concept was developed by the British Marxist historian E.P. Thompson. Before this, historians were placing great politicians, notables, and religious people as the this, historians were placing great politicians, notables, and religious people as the agency. The journal of Past and Present (1952) was the most influential medium agency. The journal of Past and Present (1952) was the most influential medium of of this historian group, leaving a remark in the global historiography.this historian group, leaving a remark in the global historiography.

16 Carlo GinzburgCarlo Ginzburg IlIl Formaggio e iFormaggio e i VermiVermi. Italy: Einaudi, 1976.. Italy: Einaudi, 1976.

17 Sabina Loriga, “The Plurality of the Past,” 37.Sabina Loriga, “The Plurality of the Past,” 37.

18 Lawrence Stone, "The Revival of Narrative: Reflections on a New OlLawrence Stone, "The Revival of Narrative: Reflections on a New Old History," d History," Past and Past and Present Present 85, (November 1979): 385, (November 1979): 3--24. 24.

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

raphy

raphy have different have different characteristsiccharacteristsicss. As Levi points ou. As Levi points out, the biogrt, the biograaphy phy is based on documents or new sources when there is a lack of wriis based on documents or new sources when there is a lack of writtten ten documents. Levi extends the limits of this genre beyond the general documents. Levi extends the limits of this genre beyond the general boundaries of historiographyboundaries of historiography,, because it questions because it questions the rationathe rationallity of the ity of the human anhuman andd the prethe pre--acceptanceacceptance of history that an individual's life should of history that an individual's life should be according to a particular flow of events and contain cebe according to a particular flow of events and contain cerrtainty and ra-tainty and ra-tionality. Levi frees the individual from a certain kind of rationality tionality. Levi frees the individual from a certain kind of rationality thatthat cause distocause distortions during the comprehensionrtions during the comprehension of a peof a perrson.son.19 On thOn the other e other hand, khand, knowing a person nowing a person develops a betterdevelops a better understanding understanding of of the politi-the politi-cal, economic, and social environments surrcal, economic, and social environments surrounoundding theming them. These as-. These as-pects also determine the conflicts, limits, and possibilities pects also determine the conflicts, limits, and possibilities ththe agency e agency faces throughout theirfaces throughout their entire lifeentire life. The bi. The biographer keeps in mind that ographer keeps in mind that people construct every process, institution, concept, conflict, or even people construct every process, institution, concept, conflict, or even possibility, and that is why the biographer should not naturally hipossibility, and that is why the biographer should not naturally hisstori-tori-cize the individualcize the individual’’s story. s story. OtheOtherwise, history is constrwise, history is constiituted otuted off the flow the flow of eventsof events in the framework of rationality and certainty in linear history in the framework of rationality and certainty in linear history rather thanrather than constructed incidents, structures, and situconstructed incidents, structures, and situaations.tions.20

The biographical method of historical research ha

The biographical method of historical research hass beenbeen anan im-im-poporrtanttant methodmethod in terms of in terms of itsits framework and cframework and coonsequences nsequences for histfor histori-ori-calcal analyses.analyses. The biographical genre, however, carries the threat of be-The biographical genre, however, carries the threat of be-ing too subjective. To avoid this, researchers should use primary sources ing too subjective. To avoid this, researchers should use primary sources as much as they can to as much as they can to adadddresress the s the fieldfield’’s ins inherent limitationsherent limitations..21 It is al-It is al-so an so an inteinterrdisdiscciplinary genre. It connects iplinary genre. It connects toto other disciplines other disciplines that aim that aim to to undeunderrstand the context stand the context surroundingsurrounding the individual the individual and the lens through and the lens through which they lookwhich they look. . BBiographical work does not mean iographical work does not mean excludingexcluding ththeoeories ries fromfrom sociosocio--historicalhistorical,, political,political, or or politicopolitico--economic economic aanalysis. On the nalysis. On the contrary, thcontrary, theoretical awareness is needed to make biography a schoeoretical awareness is needed to make biography a schollarly arly research methodology. Biographical research research methodology. Biographical research setssets the human expthe human expeeri-ri-ence ence asas the focal point but surrenders ithe focal point but surrenders it t toto the various contextthe various contexts prs preesentsent

19 Giovanni Levi, “The Uses of Biography,” 62Giovanni Levi, “The Uses of Biography,” 62

20 Giovanni Levi “The Uses of Biography,” 61Giovanni Levi “The Uses of Biography,” 61--74. Cemal Kafadar 74. Cemal Kafadar Kim Var İmiş Biz Burada Kim Var İmiş Biz Burada Yoğ ikenYoğ iken, (Istanbul: Metis Yayınları, 2009), 17, (Istanbul: Metis Yayınları, 2009), 17--26.26.

21 Özgür Türesay, “Tarihyazımı ve Biyografinin Dönüşümü,” Özgür Türesay, “Tarihyazımı ve Biyografinin Dönüşümü,” DoğuDoğu--BatıBatı, July, 2009, 308. , July, 2009, 308.

A Y Ş E K Ö S E B ADUR

in dai

in daily life ly life such such as politias politiccs, economics, and s, economics, and the the socialsocial environment. Bi-environment. Bi-ography ography can can referreferenceence gender, sociology, economy, politics, and gender, sociology, economy, politics, and other other disciplinesdisciplines. These different disciplines also utilize discoveries . These different disciplines also utilize discoveries inin biobiog-g-raphy.raphy. As Rendes states, in biographies,As Rendes states, in biographies, “role“roles are made, but not tas are made, but not takken.” en.” The lives of peopleThe lives of people stostorified in biographiesrified in biographies depict the divergent roles, depict the divergent roles, conflicts, conflicts, and and connections among people. The biography accepts this connections among people. The biography accepts this complexity and relationcomplexity and relationss between various envirobetween various environments. It also allows nments. It also allows us to understand us to understand the people who dominatthe people who dominatee mainstream historiog-mainstream historiog-rraaphyphy——ii.e.,.e., the notables who mathe notables who madde history. e history. TTodayoday,, biography biography isis one of one of the the only only genres of historiography genres of historiography thatthat embodies the individual as an embodies the individual as an agenagent t and and views views human experience human experience as a methodological tool.as a methodological tool.22 By doing By doing so, so, new frameworks might onew frameworks might oppen in front of us. For exampen in front of us. For example, the biog-le, the biog-rraaphies of economists also reveal their impact on the political system, phies of economists also reveal their impact on the political system, agenda, and policies. As Haragenda, and policies. As Harmsmamsma summarizes, “the personal expersummarizes, “the personal experi-i-ence, ecence, ecoonomic tnomic theory and political worldview are revealheory and political worldview are revealed in all its ed in all its complecomplexxiitty and the interplay between y and the interplay between economic expertise and political economic expertise and political leadership tangible.”leadership tangible.”23 Thus, the economy, state, or international relThus, the economy, state, or international rela-a-tions cannot be seen as different from each other, especially tions cannot be seen as different from each other, especially as they as they were even more intertwined with were even more intertwined with each other during the each other during the llong nineteenth ong nineteenth century. For century. For example, example, Cavid BeyCavid Bey’’ss role role as a as a finance minister finance minister was not con-was not con-fined to economy and ffined to economy and fiinance, and the minister of foreign affairs was nance, and the minister of foreign affairs was also very mucalso very much involved with foreign investmenth involved with foreign investments or debts. The quots or debts. The quota-a-tion from Harmsma ation from Harmsma also sums uplso sums up my aim in this dissertation. I would my aim in this dissertation. I would lilike to eke to ennrich the role of Cavid Bey in the legal, political, and foreign rrich the role of Cavid Bey in the legal, political, and foreign re-e-lations fields as well as Ottoman finances.lations fields as well as Ottoman finances.

While

While biograbiography as a genre in Western historiophy as a genre in Western historiographygraphy is well deveis well devel-l-opedoped, its situation , its situation in Turkey iin Turkey iss quite different. quite different. AAlthough lthough a a latelate--comercomer to to Turkish histTurkish histooriographyriography, , biography has beenbiography has been developdeveloping in Turkeying in Turkey in re-in re-

22 Renders, “The Biographical Turn,” 3Renders, “The Biographical Turn,” 3--10.10.

23 Jonne Harmsma, “‘Honest Politics’ A bJonne Harmsma, “‘Honest Politics’ A biiographicographical perspective on economic expetise as al perspective on economic expetise as a political style,” in a political style,” in The Biographical Turn Lives in HistoryThe Biographical Turn Lives in History, ed. Hans Renders, Binne de , ed. Hans Renders, Binne de Haan, and Jonne Harmsma (Routledge: New York, 2017), 37Haan, and Jonne Harmsma (Routledge: New York, 2017), 37--8. 8.

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

cent years. Biography, as mentioned above, gives us the ch

cent years. Biography, as mentioned above, gives us the chance to uance to un-n-dederrstand the life of ordstand the life of ordinary people who are inary people who are active inactive in decisiondecision--making. making. InIn tthe fifteenth and sihe fifteenth and sixxteenth centuries, tteenth centuries, the individual and he individual and the the family family started to started to becomebecome independenindependentt from community ties from community ties throughthrough modernmoderni-i-zation. zation. However, this is not a linearHowever, this is not a linear story witnessed commonly. The risstory witnessed commonly. The rise e of the perception of self and individuof the perception of self and individual started al started tto come forwardo come forward in diin dif-f-ferent times and ferent times and tthrough different hrough different contextscontexts even in preeven in pre--modern timesmodern times. . However, the rise of the individual as an agency began in the nineteenth However, the rise of the individual as an agency began in the nineteenth cecennturtury.y.24 AAs generally discussed, the las generally discussed, the lack of egock of ego--documents in Ottoman documents in Ottoman society wsociety was one of tas one of thhe e major major obstacles obstacles toto the rise of the bthe rise of the biiography. In ography. In recent years, this general opinion recent years, this general opinion has beenhas been questionquestioned ined in recent discurecent discus-s-sions sions andand works works fromfrom historians. In these discushistorians. In these discussions, two major pointssions, two major points areare highlihighlighted. Firstly, the development of cultughted. Firstly, the development of cultural stural studdiesies in Turkey,in Turkey, which would focus on auto/biwhich would focus on auto/biographical textsographical texts,, was was quitequite late. Secondly, late. Secondly, in the Ottoman context, the sources of egoin the Ottoman context, the sources of ego--documents might not appear documents might not appear asas a diary or leta diary or letter but in some otherter but in some other form.form.25 Thus,Thus, tthe reason for the he reason for the latelate--coming of biogrcoming of biography in theaphy in the Ottoman context is a multiOttoman context is a multi--level issue.level issue.

The first discussions on biography in Turkey emphasized the nece

The first discussions on biography in Turkey emphasized the neces-s-sity of subjectivity and lack of the egosity of subjectivity and lack of the ego--documents. They undedocuments. They underrscscored ored the necessity of crossthe necessity of cross--readinreadings. In the meags. In the meanntime, archival sources matime, archival sources may y recount irecount inndividual stories that might be used as dividual stories that might be used as egoego--documents.documents. EEgogo--documents are, as discussed above, sudocuments are, as discussed above, subbjective texts. Although jective texts. Although in in itsits ttext ext itit includeincludess empirical data, iempirical data, it is embedded in the rhetoric of the person t is embedded in the rhetoric of the person who rwho records it.ecords it.26 This contradiction is This contradiction is particparticularular tto this genreo this genre..27 MMeem-m-

24 As Kafadar argues, in the Ottoman context, the modernization peAs Kafadar argues, in the Ottoman context, the modernization period overshadowed riod overshadowed the peculiarity of Ottoman citizens.the peculiarity of Ottoman citizens.

25 Derin Terzioğlu, “Tarihi İnsanlı Yazmak: Bir Tarih Anlatı Türü Olarak Biyografi ve Derin Terzioğlu, “Tarihi İnsanlı Yazmak: Bir Tarih Anlatı Türü Olarak Biyografi ve Osmanlı Tarihyazıcılığı,” Osmanlı Tarihyazıcılığı,” CogitoCogito, Autumn, 2001, 290. , Autumn, 2001, 290.

26 Mehmet Beşikçi, Mehmet Beşikçi, Cihan Harbi’ni Yaşamak ve Hatırlamak Osmanlı Askerlerinin Cephe Cihan Harbi’ni Yaşamak ve Hatırlamak Osmanlı Askerlerinin Cephe Hatıraları ve Türkiye’de Birinci DHatıraları ve Türkiye’de Birinci Dünya Savaşı Hafızasıünya Savaşı Hafızası, (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, , (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2019), 46.2019), 46.

27 Abdülhamit Kırmızı, “Abdülhamit Kırmızı, “Oto/Biyografik Vebal: Tutarlılık ve Kronoloki SorunlarıOto/Biyografik Vebal: Tutarlılık ve Kronoloki Sorunları,” in ,” in Otur Otur Baştan Yaz Beni Oto/Biyografiye Taze BakışlarBaştan Yaz Beni Oto/Biyografiye Taze Bakışlar,, ed. Abdülhamit Kırmızı (Istanbul: Küre ed. Abdülhamit Kırmızı (Istanbul: Küre Yayınları, 2012)Yayınları, 2012), 12, 12--22. 22.

A Y Ş E K Ö S E B ADUR

oirs are

oirs are one example ofone example of ththiis kind ofs kind of docdocuument. Cavid Bey’s memoirs ment. Cavid Bey’s memoirs areare the primary source the primary source used inused in this dissertthis dissertaation. tion. His diariesHis diaries were were crosscross--refreferencederenced with with archival sources, archival sources, other memoirs, andother memoirs, and secondary secondary sources. sources. AAlthough lthough Cavid BeyCavid Bey kkept hept hiis diarys diary aallmostmost daily, daily, ultimately, he is ultimately, he is recourecountingnting the incidents that trickled from his mind and memory. the incidents that trickled from his mind and memory.

I was quite lucky that while conducting this dissertati

I was quite lucky that while conducting this dissertation, the Turkish on, the Turkish Historical Society (Historical Society (Türk Tarih KuTürk Tarih Kurumrum) had published Cavid Bey’s di) had published Cavid Bey’s diaaries, ries, TheThe CCoonstitutional nstitutional Journal Journal ((Meşrutiyet RuznâmesiMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi)),, in the Latin ain the Latin allphabet phabet in 2014. Thein 2014. These fourse four volumesvolumes of his diariesof his diaries becamebecame thethe main source main source forfor my dissertation. Butmy dissertation. But,, I never accepted theI never accepted these diariesse diaries as reality itself. as reality itself. IIt is t is important to remind important to remind the readerthe reader that Cavidthat Cavid Bey’s meBey’s memmoirs had beeoirs had been n published in published in TaninTanin bebetween 1943tween 1943 and and 19461946,, and many scholars of diand many scholars of dif-f-ferent periods refer to his ferent periods refer to his records. records. ThereforeTherefore, I may assert that , I may assert that much of much of the historiography of the Second Constitutional Period the historiography of the Second Constitutional Period hashas alreadyalready beenbeen based on based on Cavid Bey’sCavid Bey’s memoirs. The originalmemoirs. The original memoirs comemoirs connsisted of 2sisted of 24 4 volumes of notebooks. volumes of notebooks. The version published by the Turkish HistorThe version published by the Turkish Historiical cal Society begins on March 8, 1909, and finishes on December 9, 1922. Society begins on March 8, 1909, and finishes on December 9, 1922. AAc-c-cording to the introduction cording to the introduction in in Meşrutiyet RuznâmesiMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi, Volume I, the , Volume I, the Turk-Turk-ish History Societyish History Society also prepared another voalso prepared another volume rlume reegarding his mem-garding his mem-oirs oirs during theduring the Lausanne peace talks and his Lausanne peace talks and his workwork in the Oin the OPDAPDA. . However, this book haHowever, this book hass not been published yet.not been published yet.

The version published by the Turkish His

The version published by the Turkish Historical Society is divided torical Society is divided intointo four volumes, 2four volumes, 2,,905 pages905 pages in totalin total..28 Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s dia’s diaries are a cories are a com-m-pilpilaation oftion of 24 notebooks24 notebooks, each of which are, each of which are 1717 cm x cm x 24 cm. 24 cm. The colossal The colossal

28 Mehmed Cavid Bey. Mehmed Cavid Bey. Meşrutiyet Rûznamesi, Meşrutiyet Rûznamesi, Vol. IVol. I, edited by Hasan Babacan and Servet , edited by Hasan Babacan and Servet Avşar. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2014. Avşar. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2014.

Mehmed Cavid Bey. Mehmed Cavid Bey. Meşrutiyet Rûznamesi, Meşrutiyet Rûznamesi, Vol. IIVol. II, edited by Hasan Babacan and Servet , edited by Hasan Babacan and Servet Avşar. Ankara: Türk Tarih KurumuAvşar. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2015. , 2015.

Mehmed Cavid Bey. Mehmed Cavid Bey. Meşrutiyet Rûznamesi, Meşrutiyet Rûznamesi, Vol. IIIVol. III, edited by Hasan Babacan and Servet , edited by Hasan Babacan and Servet Avşar. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2015. Avşar. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2015.

Mehmed Cavid Bey. Mehmed Cavid Bey. Meşrutiyet Rûznamesi, Meşrutiyet Rûznamesi, Vol. IV,Vol. IV, edited by Hasan Babacan and Servet edited by Hasan Babacan and Servet Avşar. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu,Avşar. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2015. 2015.

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

size of his diaries

size of his diaries indicate that indicate that he washe was a very disciplined a very disciplined writer and pewriter and per-r-son in his dson in his daily lifeaily life. These memoirs . These memoirs beginbegin with the loss of with the loss of Cavid Bey’s Cavid Bey’s first wife, Saniye Hanımfirst wife, Saniye Hanım,, on March 8, 1909.on March 8, 1909. The fourth volume finishes The fourth volume finishes when he departwhen he departs fors for Lausanne for the peace talks on December 8, 1922. Lausanne for the peace talks on December 8, 1922. These volumes do not cover all of the notebooks he had written. Some These volumes do not cover all of the notebooks he had written. Some of the notebooks are missingof the notebooks are missing,, asas II willwill mention in Chapter II. mention in Chapter II. However, However, tthe missing he missing pparts of his notebooks do not cover long periodarts of his notebooks do not cover long periodss of timeof time thatthat would would prevent us from comprehending prevent us from comprehending his life. I tried to refer to his his life. I tried to refer to his talks in the parliament or secondary sources while covering these short talks in the parliament or secondary sources while covering these short peperiodsriods that are missingthat are missing. . Cavid Bey’s finalCavid Bey’s final diary diary waswas written for his sonwritten for his son, , Şiar, fromŞiar, from October 25, 1924October 25, 1924 to June 19, 1926to June 19, 1926. . The name of this diary is The name of this diary is the the Diary of ŞiarDiary of Şiar ((Şiar’ın GünlüğüŞiar’ın Günlüğü).).29 This diary, thoughThis diary, though devoted to his devoted to his son, also revealsson, also reveals his political thoughts and incidents his political thoughts and incidents at the time of wriat the time of writ-t-inging. . Until he was taken intoUntil he was taken into custody ocustody on n June June 19, 1926, 19, 1926, Cavid BeyCavid Bey had had writtenwritten in his diaryin his diary on a regular basis. After he was on a regular basis. After he was arrested,arrested, he reghe reguular-lar-ly wrly wroteote letters to his wife, Aliye Hanımletters to his wife, Aliye Hanım, until August, until August 21, 1926. 21, 1926.

Cavid Bey’s

Cavid Bey’s diariesdiaries provide us with detailed information about his provide us with detailed information about his workflow, meetingworkflow, meetingss, negotiations, plans, , negotiations, plans, actionsactions, programs, domestic , programs, domestic policies, international competition over the Ottoman Empire, and more. policies, international competition over the Ottoman Empire, and more. TheseThese notebooks notebooks bearbear witness witness toto his thoughts and his thoughts and actions.actions. Indeed, they Indeed, they are are very detailed notes. Sometimes he mentions the implicit revery detailed notes. Sometimes he mentions the implicit reaactions of ctions of people that he sensed from their mimicpeople that he sensed from their mimicss and gesturesand gestures, including those , including those ofof very important people very important people such such as the minister of foreign affairs of as the minister of foreign affairs of one of one of the the Great PowerGreat Powers. Ts. The main point is that he gives importance to these he main point is that he gives importance to these detailsdetails,, which which allowsallows us us to to unundderstand the atmosphere of the day. He erstand the atmosphere of the day. He mentionmentionss his work and meetingshis work and meetings in his diariesin his diaries but but usually usually nothing per-nothing per-sonal about himselfsonal about himself. For example,. For example, his family is his family is completelycompletely aabbsent sent fromfrom these notebooks. these notebooks. He also does not mentionHe also does not mention rumors about rumors about certain certain people people in his in his nnotes. He mainly records the current events in detailotes. He mainly records the current events in detail,, from politi-from politi-cal developments to the financial talks or problems in the minical developments to the financial talks or problems in the minisstrtries’ies’ workflows. He gives us a chance to watch his life like workflows. He gives us a chance to watch his life like a a filmfilm. I. In these n these

29 Eski Maliye Nazırı Cavid Bey. Eski Maliye Nazırı Cavid Bey. Şiar’ın DefteriŞiar’ın Defteri. (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 1995). (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 1995)

A Y Ş E K Ö S E B ADUR

frames he is running between European cities, m

frames he is running between European cities, meeetings, demoetings, demonnstra-stra-tions, exile, legislatitions, exile, legislativeve process, loansprocess, loans negotiationsnegotiations, exclusive di, exclusive dinnners, ners, and to Unionist meetingand to Unionist meetings,s, which which prior to the publication of his dprior to the publication of his diiary had ary had remainremained absent fromed absent from historhistorical recordical record. Indeed, unlike. Indeed, unlike otherother long long dia-dia-rieriess wwritten by his critten by his coontemporariesntemporaries,, you feel that you feel that CCaavid Beyvid Bey never met never met anyanyone to relax and chatone to relax and chat,, because he has no time for that. because he has no time for that. AltAlthough he hough he was a workaholicwas a workaholic,, he was also a he was also a bon vivantbon vivant. He was a social man who . He was a social man who used to go to clubs used to go to clubs such such as Cercle as Cercle d’Orient or Tokatlıyan restaurantd’Orient or Tokatlıyan restaurant.. These were where the polThese were where the poliiticians of the day cticians of the day caame together to dine or me together to dine or play cards and talk to each other with diplomats or businessmen from play cards and talk to each other with diplomats or businessmen from different milieu. different milieu. HoHowweverever, , Cavid BeyCavid Bey does not give any details about does not give any details about these social gthese social gatheringsatherings and his private life, including his familyand his private life, including his family. . TThese hese detailed memoirs detailed memoirs were awere allmost cemost cerrtainlytainly supplied by him for the next supplied by him for the next generation as a generation as a form ofform of proof of his intentionproof of his intentionss and considerations dur-and considerations dur-ing the Second Constiting the Second Constituutional Period as thetional Period as the financefinance ministminister and er and a a Un-Un-ionist. Cavid Bey’s meionist. Cavid Bey’s memmoirs oirs are aare a rich source for young academicians rich source for young academicians who would like to work on his life or focus only who would like to work on his life or focus only on on a certain period or a certain period or some issues some issues such such as instas instiitutionalism of the field of finance, decisiontutionalism of the field of finance, decision--making process of making process of tthe CUP, finanche CUP, financial issues ial issues such such as concessions, advanc-as concessions, advanc-eses,, and loans, how internand loans, how internaational power politics affecttional power politics affecteded Ottoman financ-Ottoman financ-es, how the Unionists oes, how the Unionists orrganizedganized while in exilewhile in exile during the National during the National Struggle and their facilities and approach to Ankara during the Struggle and their facilities and approach to Ankara during the EEarly arly RepublicanRepublican Era, et cetera. Era, et cetera. Cavid Bey’s Cavid Bey’s diariesdiaries provide insightful infor-provide insightful infor-mation for this short but hectic and critical pmation for this short but hectic and critical peeriod of Turkish history.riod of Turkish history.

His diaries were also very much related

His diaries were also very much related toto his ability his ability toto remember. remember. Remembering is a Remembering is a subsubjective action jective action that canthat can change inchange inccidents in a spidents in a spe-e-cific way dependcific way depending on ing on the priorities and choices of the agenthe priorities and choices of the agentt. . Scholars Scholars discuss that while agents remember the incidents they note, they are discuss that while agents remember the incidents they note, they are not independent of their group. Therefore, it is possible to discuss the not independent of their group. Therefore, it is possible to discuss the plpluurality of history.rality of history.30 InIn other words, the main question is whetherother words, the main question is whether Cavid Bey had kept his diary as himself or as a Unionist. It is argued that Cavid Bey had kept his diary as himself or as a Unionist. It is argued that

30 Loriga, Sabina. “TheLoriga, Sabina. “The Plurality of thePlurality of the Past” in Past” in The Biographical Turn Lives in HistoryThe Biographical Turn Lives in History, ed. , ed. Hans Renders, Binne de Haan, Jonne Harmsma (New York: Routledge, Hans Renders, Binne de Haan, Jonne Harmsma (New York: Routledge, 2017), 312017), 31--41.41.

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

social groups have an impact on social memory, which plays a key role

social groups have an impact on social memory, which plays a key role in the foundation of the social group. Individual memory and experin the foundation of the social group. Individual memory and experiieence nce are also a part of the social group. However, social groups do not have a are also a part of the social group. However, social groups do not have a firm memory. Memory is constructed differently among different groups firm memory. Memory is constructed differently among different groups and classes.and classes. It is also possible to investigate Cavid Bey’s meIt is also possible to investigate Cavid Bey’s memmoirs from oirs from the social group perspective. It ithe social group perspective. It iss thus also thus also important to trace how much important to trace how much Cavid Bey Cavid Bey records as a product ofrecords as a product of the social patterns of the CUP. Biog-the social patterns of the CUP. Biog-raphy gives raphy gives scholars thescholars the chance to find the cracks and intechance to find the cracks and interrstices among stices among social groups or social groups or other largeother large social structures. social structures. AdditionallyAdditionally, Cavid Bey’s, Cavid Bey’s diaries should be read according to each period. Even bdiaries should be read according to each period. Even beetween 1908 tween 1908 andand 1914, the circumstances and discourses are not the same.1914, the circumstances and discourses are not the same.31 For this For this reason, his diaries are multireason, his diaries are multi--facetedfaceted, which changes a, which changes acccording to the cording to the gegenneral Zeitgeist, circumstances of the Oteral Zeitgeist, circumstances of the Ottoman toman EmEmpire, and Cavid Bey’s pire, and Cavid Bey’s state of mind at the microstate of mind at the micro--level. level.

Cavid Bey’s intellectual character

Cavid Bey’s intellectual character is is also depictalso depicted ined in his diaries. his diaries. He is He is always mindful of the fiction of the textalways mindful of the fiction of the text. . He wrote the text plainly and He wrote the text plainly and linearly. However, it is rich in language. linearly. However, it is rich in language. His TuHis Turkrkish is very fluent. He ish is very fluent. He also uses French and Latin words also uses French and Latin words as as technical technical termsterms when necessarywhen necessary. He . He does not write on behalf of the does not write on behalf of the CUP,CUP, but he writesbut he writes asas a member of the a member of the CUP. CUP. He criticizes his Unionist fellows, but he never steps back He criticizes his Unionist fellows, but he never steps back from his from his position in the position in the CCUUP, even in the most conflictual times. P, even in the most conflictual times. HHe is aware of e is aware of various conflicts various conflicts such such as civil and military conflict, the cracks inside the as civil and military conflict, the cracks inside the CUPCUP,, or the power of the opposition in the Second Constitutional Period. or the power of the opposition in the Second Constitutional Period. However,However, despite the persdespite the personal nature of some of thonal nature of some of theesse memories,e memories, nonone ne of the details are overlyof the details are overly personal. Cavid Bey depictspersonal. Cavid Bey depicts himself ashimself as a very a very optimistic person. He is also a content, overoptimistic person. He is also a content, over--confident person. A sore confident person. A sore point in his character is his arrogancepoint in his character is his arrogance,, which increasewhich increases over thes over the yeayears rs due to his success due to his success at at aa very youngvery young ageage. Other than that, it seems that he . Other than that, it seems that he waswas at peace at peace withwith himself. himself. He also points out some traumatic moments He also points out some traumatic moments in his life, particularly the Empire’s loss of the Balkans and its entrance in his life, particularly the Empire’s loss of the Balkans and its entrance into the Great War. The first of tinto the Great War. The first of these loses was especiallyhese loses was especially ttraumatic due raumatic due

31 Beşikçi, “Cihan Harbi’ni Yaşamak ve Hatırlamak,” 33Beşikçi, “Cihan Harbi’ni Yaşamak ve Hatırlamak,” 33--58. 58.

A Y Ş E K Ö S E B ADUR

to Cavid Bey’s affinity for the Balkans and Selanik

to Cavid Bey’s affinity for the Balkans and Selanik——the place where he the place where he and and most of most of the Unionists borethe Unionists bore thethe dream of a new country. The latter dream of a new country. The latter waswas thethe source of thesource of the biggest conflict biggest conflict that that he he had withhad with his Unionist his Unionist friendfriends. s. In several instances, In several instances, hhee recalls hrecalls how theow the UnioUnionnists hadists had kept the kept the August 2, 1914 alliance agreementAugust 2, 1914 alliance agreement a secreta secret and their harsh reaction aand their harsh reaction af-f-ter his resignation on October 29, 1914. ter his resignation on October 29, 1914.

I decided to write

I decided to write aboutabout Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s life al’s life although there hathough there have alreadyve already been twbeen two biographies published o biographies published aabbooutut him. him. The first was written by The first was written by Nazmi Eroğlu and published in 2008, and the second was written by PNazmi Eroğlu and published in 2008, and the second was written by Po-o-lat Tuncer and published in 2010.lat Tuncer and published in 2010.32 Both of these biographies reference Both of these biographies reference Cavid Bey’s memoirs as published in Cavid Bey’s memoirs as published in Tanin Tanin daily between 1daily between 1943 and 943 and 1946. Nazmi Eroğl1946. Nazmi Eroğluu’’s biography is quite extensive, covering Cavid Bey’s s biography is quite extensive, covering Cavid Bey’s life and his intellectual world from life and his intellectual world from when he started his political career when he started his political career in 1908 in 1908 untiluntil his deathhis death inin 19261926. He also used primary sources obtained . He also used primary sources obtained from the Ottoman Archives. I alfrom the Ottoman Archives. I also reference this biograpso reference this biographhyy in my diin my dissser-ser-tation. tation. Polat Tuncer’s biography is a shorter one primarily based on Polat Tuncer’s biography is a shorter one primarily based on secondary sources.secondary sources.33 I want to add that my dissertation differs from I want to add that my dissertation differs from these two works by its extensive coverage of Cavid Bey’s diaries totally these two works by its extensive coverage of Cavid Bey’s diaries totally and its effort to comprehend hiand its effort to comprehend hiss life with its different facets and details.life with its different facets and details.

As previously mentioned, my dissertation covers the entirety of

As previously mentioned, my dissertation covers the entirety of Mehmed Cavid Bey’s life, from his birth until his death, as anMehmed Cavid Bey’s life, from his birth until his death, as an intelleintellecctu-tu-al, statesman, neal, statesman, negotiator, and Unionist. Nevertheless, I preferred to cov-gotiator, and Unionist. Nevertheless, I preferred to cov-eer 1908 and 1914 in a more detailed fashion than the others. Due to the r 1908 and 1914 in a more detailed fashion than the others. Due to the length of sources, the complexity of the issue, and the abundance of length of sources, the complexity of the issue, and the abundance of events, this dissertation is quevents, this dissertation is quiite long. In thte long. In the nexte next sectiosection, the organizn, the organiza-a-tion of the dissertation will be explainetion of the dissertation will be explainedd in detail.in detail.

32 NaNazmi Eroğlu, zmi Eroğlu, Ittihatçıların Ünlü Maliye Nazırı Cavid BeyIttihatçıların Ünlü Maliye Nazırı Cavid Bey (Istanbul: Ötüken, 2008), 38(Istanbul: Ötüken, 2008), 38--4040; ; Tuncer, Polat. İttihatçı Cavit Bey. Istanbul: Yeditepe Yayınevi, 2010.Tuncer, Polat. İttihatçı Cavit Bey. Istanbul: Yeditepe Yayınevi, 2010.

33 The editors of Ruznâme made correction on the second volume regarding the The editors of Ruznâme made correction on the second volume regarding the information they oinformation they obtained from Polat Tuncer’s biography.btained from Polat Tuncer’s biography.

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

§ 1.3 OOrganization of the rganization of the DissertationDissertation

his dissertation is divided into five chapters. In the Introduction, I fo-

his dissertation is divided into five chapters. In the Introduction, I fo-cused on the contextual framework, especially regardicused on the contextual framework, especially regarding historiography.ng historiography.

In organiorganizzing ing the dissertthe dissertaation, I wanted to ftion, I wanted to foocus on one certain cus on one certain period in period in his life story. Although his life could be his life story. Although his life could be thethe subject of more than one dis-subject of more than one dis-sertation, I sertation, I ended up ended up fofocuscusinging on the period between 1908on the period between 1908 and and 19141914, , which is which is evaluated evaluated overover three different chapterthree different chapterss. . In this In this periodperiod which which overlapsoverlaps with the pluralistic chwith the pluralistic character of the aracter of the Second Second ConstitutionalConstitutional EraEra, , Cavid Bey Cavid Bey is is on the heyday of his careeon the heyday of his career. r. Chapter 2, “Mehmed Cavid Bey: Chapter 2, “Mehmed Cavid Bey: A Game Changer? A Rising Financier and Statesman (1908A Game Changer? A Rising Financier and Statesman (1908––1910),” is 1910),” is quite a comprehensive chapter. It focuses on both his early years be-quite a comprehensive chapter. It focuses on both his early years be-tween 18tween 1876 and 1908 and his early finance and political career. 76 and 1908 and his early finance and political career. This This chapter looks at chapter looks at thisthis period period throughthrough the eyes of Cavid Beythe eyes of Cavid Bey,, who was in who was in the midst of upheathe midst of upheavvals als such such asas thethe 31 March I31 March Inncident. cident. IImportant legisla-mportant legisla-tion tion that underlined the Empire’s democraticthat underlined the Empire’s democratic transfortransformmation towardation toward the the cconstitutional ronstitutional reegime gime was alswas also imo implemented during this perioplemented during this periodd. . As As we will see, we will see, Cavid Bey always Cavid Bey always has a handhas a hand in the in the democratic and liberal democratic and liberal devedevellopmentopment of the state. Butof the state. But,, asas we willwe will also see, for the benefit of the also see, for the benefit of the state, he always stepstate, he always stepss bacbackk from the spotlightfrom the spotlight. One of the most im-. One of the most im-portantportant incincidents idents dudurringing this period wthis period was the 1910 loan crisis. Inas the 1910 loan crisis. In 1910, 1910, when Cavid Bey was finance minister, he goes to Paris when Cavid Bey was finance minister, he goes to Paris tto negotiateo negotiate a a loanloan agreement,agreement, but but iinnstead, he stead, he faces the threat of faces the threat of French French financial con-financial con-trotrol. l.

Chapter 3,

Chapter 3, “No One Can Replace Cavid Bey”: “No One Can Replace Cavid Bey”: DomeDomestic Turmoil, Ustic Turmoil, Un-n-finished Wofinished Work, and the Loss of the Bark, and the Loss of the Balkanslkans (1911(1911––1913),” 1913),” covers the covers the period period fromfrom 1911 1911 to 1to 1913913,, whichwhich included manyincluded many domestic upheavals. domestic upheavals. These domestic upheavals and These domestic upheavals and the the risrisee of of the the oppositionopposition aafffectfecteded Cavid Cavid Bey’s work in a negative way. IBey’s work in a negative way. In 19n 191111,, he was forced to rhe was forced to reesignsign from the from the ministry of financeministry of finance,, and for this reason he had to and for this reason he had to endend his work and rhis work and re-e-form proform projjects in the ministry. In this period, he travels to ects in the ministry. In this period, he travels to both the both the easeast-t-ern ern andand western provincewestern provincess of the Empireof the Empire in 1911. In 1911 and 1912in 1911. In 1911 and 1912,, he he bbecamecame minister of public works.e minister of public works. This position wasThis position was cocommpatible with his patible with his workwork in finances as he wasin finances as he was concernconcerned withed with big pubbig publlic works projects ic works projects

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such

such as railways, roadsas railways, roads,, etcetc.,., which which requiredrequired huge investmenthuge investmentss. . The EThe Em-m-ppire was also entangled in successiveire was also entangled in successive warswars in thin this pis perioderiod. The first . The first of of these wthese warsars was was the Tripolitanianthe Tripolitanian War in SeWar in Sepptember 1911tember 1911,, which ledwhich led to to the fall ofthe fall of the Hakkı Pashthe Hakkı Pashaa government. government. FoFolllowing thelowing the 1912 elections1912 elections, , Cavid BeyCavid Bey continuecontinuedd to work as the minister in the new cabinet. to work as the minister in the new cabinet. InIn the the summer of 1912summer of 1912, , everyteverythinghing turnsturns upside down. The rise of the opposupside down. The rise of the opposi-i-tion tion and the threat of a military uprising causes the Unioand the threat of a military uprising causes the Unionists tonists to step step bbaack and leave the government to Gazi Ahmet Pasha. However, theck and leave the government to Gazi Ahmet Pasha. However, the gogov-v-ernment closes down the pernment closes down the parliamentarliament,, and a hunt for and a hunt for the the Unionists Unionists bbe-e-ginsgins. Me. Meanwhile, the Balkan states declare waranwhile, the Balkan states declare war on the Ottoman Eon the Ottoman Emmpirepire,, andand Kamil Pasha, arcKamil Pasha, archhenemy of the Unioenemy of the Unionistsnists,, comecomess toto power. Cavid power. Cavid Bey, as many other UBey, as many other Unnionistsionists, , fled Istanbul. After a long tour of Europe, fled Istanbul. After a long tour of Europe, Cavid Bey was back Cavid Bey was back inin Istanbul after the coup d’éIstanbul after the coup d’état tat on January 23, on January 23, 1913. 1913.

Chapter 4

Chapter 4, titled as “The, titled as “The NNegotiatioregotiatior (1913(1913––19141914)” details)” details the new the new era of the era of the Second ConstituSecond Constituttional Period. From 1913 on, the Young Turks ional Period. From 1913 on, the Young Turks would would governgovern and lead the country as the sole and lead the country as the sole party inparty in power. Cavid Bey, power. Cavid Bey, rather than taking rather than taking up aup a positionposition in the in the ccabinetabinet, was, was sensentt to Europe with to Europe with Hakkı Pasha to carry out the negotiations on loansHakkı Pasha to carry out the negotiations on loans and conceand concesssionsionss. . Thus, on the eve of the Great War, Thus, on the eve of the Great War, Cavid Bey wasCavid Bey was positionedpositioned in the mid-in the mid-dle ofdle of negotiations between severalnegotiations between several international rivalrinternational rivalriesies. Moreover, he . Moreover, he had to deal with new issues had to deal with new issues such such as as the the Aegean islands Aegean islands andand RussiaRussia’s’s demands while trying to sodemands while trying to solve lve what waswhat was asaskkeded of himof him by by the the Sublime Sublime Porte. ThePorte. Thesese long negotiations would end just before the outbreak of the long negotiations would end just before the outbreak of the wwar. In 1914, Cavid Bey returnar. In 1914, Cavid Bey returneded to Istanbul as the fto Istanbul as the fiinance minister. He nance minister. He worworkkeded in the in the ccabinet actively abinet actively untiluntil the the Empire’s Empire’s eenntrance trance ininto the to the wwar ar on October 2on October 299, 1914. , 1914. However, tHowever, the he Empire’s Empire’s eenntrance trance ininto the war to the war was awas a hhuuge crisis for both the ge crisis for both the ccabinet and Cavid Bey. abinet and Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey wasCavid Bey was the only the only minister minister opposopposeded to this development and woulto this development and would resign after the d resign after the Otto-Otto-man man bombardment of Russian lands bombardment of Russian lands alongalong the the Black Sea. Black Sea. HoweHowevver,er, he he would assist the would assist the ccabinet between August 2abinet between August 2 and and October 29October 29, 1914 in , 1914 in solvingsolving fiscal issuefiscal issuess and the abolishment of capitulations. Cavid Bey and the abolishment of capitulations. Cavid Bey strongly asserted that strongly asserted that the Ottothe Ottoman Empire should remain neutral in the man Empire should remain neutral in the warwar,, especially when the tespecially when the treasurreasuryy was empwas emptty. After his resignation y. After his resignation thethe

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

Unionist

Unionists excluded Cavid Bey from the government, althoughs excluded Cavid Bey from the government, although he would he would continue to serve as the shadow minicontinue to serve as the shadow minisstterer of finance. of finance.

The c

The conclusion coversonclusion covers CCavid Bey’s experiences duringavid Bey’s experiences during the the Great War Great War (1914(1914––1918), the War o1918), the War of f IndependencIndependence e ((19191919––1923),1923), and the Early Re-and the Early Re-publican publican EEra. Thra. This cis chapter opens hapter opens withwith the fleethe fleeinging ofof thethe triumvirate, Etriumvirate, En-n-verver, , CemalCemal, and , and Talat PashasTalat Pashas,, and continues with the establishment of and continues with the establishment of the the new government. Cavid Bey becomes new government. Cavid Bey becomes the the minister of finance for the minister of finance for the llaast time st time for ofor onnly aly a short period. short period. Along with other Along with other prominent Unionistsprominent Unionists, , in 1918 Cavid Bey was court martialed andin 1918 Cavid Bey was court martialed and put on trial put on trial for the Empire’sfor the Empire’s entrance entrance ininto the war, the facilities of the to the war, the facilities of the Special Organization (Special Organization (TeşkilatTeşkilat--ı ı MahsusaMahsusa)),,34 and and statestate corrucorrupption dtion during the uring the GreatGreat War. War. Cavid Bey’sCavid Bey’s long long statementsstatements during his inteduring his interrrogation arerogation are important sourcesimportant sources for under-for under-standing the events of this pstanding the events of this peeriod and have beeriod and have beenn published by various published by various historians.historians.35 He was He was sentenced tosentenced to 15 years o15 years of hard f hard laborlabor anandd went inwent into to hidhidinging in Iin Istanbul for stanbul for several several months. Then, he fled to Europe and months. Then, he fled to Europe and stayed in Switzerland for stayed in Switzerland for several yearsseveral years. . This period of exile is interest-This period of exile is interest-ing because Cavid Bey, ing because Cavid Bey, a bon vivant, does not have sufficient economic a bon vivant, does not have sufficient economic sources to live ansources to live and borrow money d borrow money ffrom his friends. rom his friends. HHe ise is also in also in com-com-munication with the Unionistsmunication with the Unionists in exile as well as thein exile as well as the Ankara govern-Ankara govern-ment. Meanwhile, he falls in love with Aliye Hanımment. Meanwhile, he falls in love with Aliye Hanım,, and they and they get get mar-mar-

34 The Special Organization is the paramilitary organization of the CUP. The CUP always The Special Organization is the paramilitary organization of the CUP. The CUP always had selfhad self--sacrificing soldiers who even worked for the Committee in the presacrificing soldiers who even worked for the Committee in the pre--Revolutionary times. However, the CUP institutionalizeRevolutionary times. However, the CUP institutionalizes this group of soldiers in 1913. s this group of soldiers in 1913. They bThey beecame very active, mainly during the Great War years.came very active, mainly during the Great War years.

35 Kocahanoğlu, Osman Selim. Kocahanoğlu, Osman Selim. İttihatİttihat--Terakki’nin Sorgulanması ve YargılanmasıTerakki’nin Sorgulanması ve Yargılanması. Istanbul: . Istanbul: Temel Yayınları, 1998. Kocahanoğlu, Osman Selim. Temel Yayınları, 1998. Kocahanoğlu, Osman Selim. DivanDivan--ı Harbı Harb--i Örfi Muhakematı i Örfi Muhakematı Zabıt CeridesiZabıt Ceridesi. Istanbul: Temel Yayınları, 2007.. Istanbul: Temel Yayınları, 2007.

Erdinç, Erol Şadi.Erdinç, Erol Şadi. Osmanlı İttihad veOsmanlı İttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti Yargılama-Terakki Cemiyeti Yargılama-larıları BirinciBirinci DünyaDünya Savaşı’ndaSavaşı’nda İttihad veİttihad ve TerakkiTerakki HükûmetlerininHükûmetlerinin Sorumluluğuna dair Sorumluluğuna dair MeclisMeclis--i Mebusan Soruşturması Ii Mebusan Soruşturması I.. Istanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2008. Istanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2008. Erdinç, Erol Şadi.Erdinç, Erol Şadi. Osmanlı İttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti YargıOsmanlı İttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti Yargılamaları 8lamaları 8 Mart Mart 335335 (1919)(1919) TarihliTarihli Kararname ileKararname ile Kurulan DîvânKurulan Dîvân--ıı HarbHarb--i Örfî Yargılaması IIi Örfî Yargılaması II. Istanbul: . Istanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2008.Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2008. Erol Şadi Erdinç, Erol Şadi Erdinç, Osmanlı İttihad ve Terakki Osmanlı İttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti Yargılamaları Ankara İstiklâl Mahkemesi Siyasî YargılamCemiyeti Yargılamaları Ankara İstiklâl Mahkemesi Siyasî Yargılama IIIa III. Istanbul: Türkiye . Istanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2008. İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2008.

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ried in Switzerland.

ried in Switzerland. During this period, he faces the death of his closDuring this period, he faces the death of his close e compancompanions, iions, inncluding Talat Bey.cluding Talat Bey. He He rreeturturnsns to Turkey with Aliye Hanım to Turkey with Aliye Hanım and Hüseyin Cahit’s familyand Hüseyin Cahit’s family on July 1922. His on July 1922. His takes a takes a new job new job asas the dep-the dep-uty of uty of the OPDAthe OPDA——the the representrepresentaative oftive of all all of of the values the values contrary to thecontrary to the Ankara government. Ankara government. Yet, despite his pYet, despite his posiosition, Cavid Beytion, Cavid Bey continuescontinues to to collaboracollaborate with te with the the Ankara goAnkara govvernment. Firsernment. Firstt, he was invited to the , he was invited to the LLaausanne talks in December 1922usanne talks in December 1922, although he could not, although he could not adopt theadopt the opinion of theopinion of the Turkish delegation and conflictTurkish delegation and conflictss with with İİsmet Pasha on smet Pasha on Turkey’sTurkey’s debts. He debts. He hashas toto leave the delleave the deleeggation and ation and returnreturnss to Ito Istanbul. stanbul. Secondly, he prepareSecondly, he preparess an extensive ran extensive reeport on the ecoport on the econnomy omy for thefor the IIsstan-tan-bul for Chamber of Commerce in 1924.bul for Chamber of Commerce in 1924.36 On October 1924, Cavid Bey On October 1924, Cavid Bey becomes becomes a a father and starts to wrifather and starts to write a diary for his son, Şiar. Though te a diary for his son, Şiar. Though CavCavid Bey has no oid Bey has no offficial relationficial relationss withwith thethe Ankara governmentAnkara government,, he has he has strong prejudices strong prejudices againstagainst them.them. As we know, since the early times of the As we know, since the early times of the Second Constitutional Period, Mustafa Kemal Pasha was not very wel-Second Constitutional Period, Mustafa Kemal Pasha was not very wel-comcoming ofing of UnionistUnionistss inside the CUP due to his inside the CUP due to his strstrongong viewsviews suchsuch aas not s not allowingallowing militarmilitary officers y officers inin politics. Cavid Bey was among the politics. Cavid Bey was among the team team leading leading tthe opposition to Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s governmenthe opposition to Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s government. His words . His words about Mustafa Kemal Pashaabout Mustafa Kemal Pasha, even, even in 1917in 1917,, tell us that htell us that he e does notdoes not ap-ap-preciate him despite hispreciate him despite his mimilitary success litary success iin Gallipoli.n Gallipoli.37 In the lIn the last chap-ast chap-terter,, I will end the discuI will end the discusssion sion withwith the reasons why Cthe reasons why Caavid vid BBey was put on ey was put on trialtrial and executed for takingand executed for taking part part in thein the İzmirİzmir assassinationassassination and as well and as well as his reasons for chalas his reasons for challenging the Republican regimelenging the Republican regime. . The coThe conclnclusive usive remarks oremarks off the dithe disssertation willsertation will also take place in the Conclusion chap-also take place in the Conclusion chap-ter.ter.

36 “Ticaret ve Sanayi Odasında Müteşekkil Istanbul İktisat Komisyonu Raporu.” 2006. No: “Ticaret ve Sanayi Odasında Müteşekkil Istanbul İktisat Komisyonu Raporu.” 2006. No: 20062006--52. Istanbul: Istanbul Ticaret Odası.52. Istanbul: Istanbul Ticaret Odası.

37 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IIIRuznâmesi III, 458, 458--60.60.

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

Mehmed Cavid Bey: Rising Financier and Statesman? Mehmed Cavid Bey: Rising Financier and Statesman? (1908(1908--1910)1910)

“Today we use the word (freedom) only in its p“Today we use the word (freedom) only in its po-o-litical sense and how unfortunate for us. For I litical sense and how unfortunate for us. For I fear that thosfear that those who see freedom solely as a pe who see freedom solely as a poolit-lit-icaical conceptl concept will never fullywill never fully grasp its megrasp its meaanning… I ing… I have been made to understand that in my life-have been made to understand that in my life-time freedom has been kind enough to visit our time freedom has been kind enough to visit our country seven or eight times. Yes, seven or eight country seven or eight times. Yes, seven or eight times and no one ever botheretimes and no one ever bothered to say when it d to say when it left; but left; but wheneverwhenever itit came baccame back again, we wouldk again, we would leap out of leap out of our seats in joy and pour into our seats in joy and pour into the the streets to blow our horns and beat our drums. streets to blow our horns and beat our drums.

–

– Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar, The Time Regulation Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar, The Time Regulation InstituteInstitute38

38Ahmet HAhmet Hamdi Taamdi Tanpınar, npınar, The Time Regulation InstituteThe Time Regulation Institute (London: Penguin Books, 2014), 35(London: Penguin Books, 2014), 35--36.36.

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§ 2.1 AA Young Man TowarYoung Man Towardd the Revolutionthe Revolution

Cavid Bey’s first period of life, from his bir

Cavid Bey’s first period of life, from his birth to the 1908 Revolution, th to the 1908 Revolution, is ultimately essential to comprehend his state of mind. Because his is ultimately essential to comprehend his state of mind. Because his principles and approachesprinciples and approaches in politiin politics and economy shaped in this peri-cs and economy shaped in this peri-od. Briefly, it is possible to assert that Cavid Bey became a civil Unionist od. Briefly, it is possible to assert that Cavid Bey became a civil Unionist during his earduring his early adulthood. ly adulthood.

In the first period of his life, there is a lack

In the first period of his life, there is a lack ofof egoego--documentsdocuments penned penned by Cavid Beyby Cavid Bey, unlike the proceedi, unlike the proceeding periods of his life. For this reason, I ng periods of his life. For this reason, I tried to utilize the archival matried to utilize the archival materialsterials, se, secondary sources, and biog-condary sources, and biog-rraaphies of other Unionisphies of other Unionists to complete this section. His birth year in the ts to complete this section. His birth year in the archival document obtained from the Ottoman archives indicates archival document obtained from the Ottoman archives indicates that that hehe was born in was born in 1878 (1294, according to the 1878 (1294, according to the HHegira calendar).egira calendar).39 HoHow-w-ever, his pever, his passportassport taktaken from the Swiss authorities in 1920 indicates en from the Swiss authorities in 1920 indicates tthat he was born in 1876. I preferred to use the latterhat he was born in 1876. I preferred to use the latter date,date, because because Cavid Bey Cavid Bey most likely considered this as his birth ymost likely considered this as his birth yearear. . ThisThis is the same is the same year that Ayear that Abbdülhamid II ascended to the throne. He rudülhamid II ascended to the throne. He ruled theled the OttOttoman oman Empire for thirtyEmpire for thirty--three years, and this perithree years, and this periodod until the Second Constituntil the Second Constitu-u-tional Periodtional Period is called is called the the Hamidian EraHamidian Era (1878(1878––1908)1908). . His rule oveHis rule over-r-lapped withlapped with the age of emthe age of empires, nationalism, social movements, upires, nationalism, social movements, uppheav-heav-als, revolals, revoluutions, colonialism, tions, colonialism, imperiaimperialismlism, peripheralization or , peripheralization or incorporincorporaation with the Westion with the Western economy, expansion of urban spaces, tern economy, expansion of urban spaces, rising bourgeoise, railways, steamships, social life, modern education, rising bourgeoise, railways, steamships, social life, modern education, rising srising secularism, et cetera. It ecularism, et cetera. It isis one of the one of the most most vivid periods of world vivid periods of world history.history. Cavid Cavid BeyBey was born into a family and place was born into a family and place that reflected athat reflected an in in-n-tricate part oftricate part of ththee portraitportrait of this periodof this period. He was born in . He was born in SelanikSelanik as as thethe son of a son of a DönmeDönme ((Jews who converted to IslaJews who converted to Islam in 17m in 17thth centurycentury) family. His ) family. His social environment was very cosmsocial environment was very cosmoopolitan in politan in both theboth the private and pub-private and pub-lic splic spheres. heres. TherTherefore, it is cruciaefore, it is crucial to understand the long reign of l to understand the long reign of Abdülhamid II and Abdülhamid II and society in Ssociety in Seelanik in olanik in orrder der to to comprehendcomprehend the envi-the envi-ronment in which heronment in which he grew up. grew up.

39 BOA_BOA_DH SAİDd___00079_00235. “It is registered to the registry office for that he was DH SAİDd___00079_00235. “It is registered to the registry office for that he was born in Selborn in Selaanik in 1295 (1878).”nik in 1295 (1878).”

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Abdülhamid II c

Abdülhamid II came to ame to powepower in the middle of a state crisis. The cri-r in the middle of a state crisis. The cri-sis hadsis had bothboth domestic and international aspects. domestic and international aspects. First, First, in return for his in return for his throne,throne, he agreedhe agreed with the Young Ottomanswith the Young Ottomans40 that he wouldthat he would declare declare the the cconstitution and open the onstitution and open the pparliamearliamentnt——although italthough it is doubtfulis doubtful how how mumuch hch he shared these ideas at that time. After six hue shared these ideas at that time. After six hunndred years of dred years of monarchy, the Empire had met monarchy, the Empire had met with with ththe concepts of ree concepts of reppresentative de-resentative de-mocracy for the first timemocracy for the first time in this period. It is important to note that in this period. It is important to note that thethese ideasse ideas were nwere notot asas fullyfully developed developed as ias in Europn European ean states. Thstates. This is would become known as thewould become known as the First Constitutional PeriodFirst Constitutional Period, which , which ccooincid-incid-ed with the Russoed with the Russo--Ottoman War (1877Ottoman War (1877––1878)1878). This war. This war prproofoundlyfoundly and and negativelynegatively impacted the Ottoman Empire. In 1876impacted the Ottoman Empire. In 1876––1877 there had been 1877 there had been sevseveral conflicts in the Balkeral conflicts in the Balkans, whans, which ich drewdrew the attethe attenntion of Rution of Russsiasia in in particularparticular. The Great Powers had held a conference. The Great Powers had held a conference——thethe Tersane Con-Tersane Con-ferenceference——in Istanbul in Istanbul in an attempt to reconcile thisin an attempt to reconcile this coconnflict. The Young flict. The Young Ottomans, who were afraid of aOttomans, who were afraid of ann intervention intervention by by tthe Great Pohe Great Powwers, ers, al-al-lowedlowed tthe youhe younng Sug Sultan, Abdülhamid II, ltan, Abdülhamid II, to to declare the declare the cconstitution in-onstitution in-stead of Murat V, who stead of Murat V, who suffered from severesuffered from severe mentmental healthal health problemsproblems. The . The Young Ottomans believed that the remedy Young Ottomans believed that the remedy to solveto solve thethesese ethnic conflicts ethnic conflicts lay in the declaration oflay in the declaration of the the cconstitution and onstitution and the the pparliarliaamment.ent. Uniting the Uniting the Empire under the concept of Ottomanism seemed like the only and Empire under the concept of Ottomanism seemed like the only and most reasonable solutmost reasonable solution to the Young Ottomans. Mithat Pasha was the ion to the Young Ottomans. Mithat Pasha was the leader of this operation, and some other civil officers, ileader of this operation, and some other civil officers, inntellectuals, atellectuals, and nd highhigh--rankrankinging military omilitary officerfficerss supsupported him. ported him. The OttThe Ottooman ruling elite man ruling elite considered that a constitution and parliament would be sufficconsidered that a constitution and parliament would be sufficient to ient to protect the rights of the Empire’s subjects in both dprotect the rights of the Empire’s subjects in both doomestic affairs and mestic affairs and on the international platform. Indeedon the international platform. Indeed, t, this was the fundhis was the fundaamental idmental idea ea

40 The Young Ottomans were an opposition group to The Young Ottomans were an opposition group to ththe Tanzie Tanzimat Reforms. They were mat Reforms. They were against the strict form and topagainst the strict form and top--down character of the reformdown character of the reforms. They opposed the s. They opposed the metmethhods of the reforms, especially in the hands of Tanzimat Pashas, mainly Âli Pasha ods of the reforms, especially in the hands of Tanzimat Pashas, mainly Âli Pasha and Fuat Pasha. The Young Ottomans argued for the necessityand Fuat Pasha. The Young Ottomans argued for the necessity oof the cf the constitution, par-onstitution, par-liliaament, and free speech for Ottoman society. They preferred a morement, and free speech for Ottoman society. They preferred a more evolutionary and evolutionary and Islamic way of reforms. The group consisted of young civil servants and intelleIslamic way of reforms. The group consisted of young civil servants and intellecctuals, tuals, who were also the outcomes of the Tanzimat reforms.who were also the outcomes of the Tanzimat reforms. PerhapsPerhaps yyou can ou can cite a second-cite a second-ary work hereary work here on the Young Ottomanson the Young Ottomans??

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sha

sharred bed by the Young Ottomans, y the Young Ottomans, the the Young Turks, and the Unionists. Sav-Young Turks, and the Unionists. Sav-ing the Empire was the main target, aing the Empire was the main target, and the ideas of frend the ideas of freeedom and jus-dom and jus-tice were secondary aims. tice were secondary aims. SSaving the state aving the state waswas always always thethe priopriorrity for ity for them.them.41

However, theowever, these measures were inadequatse measures were inadequate to e to pprreveneventt a war with a war with Russia. On April 24, 1877, Russia declared Russia. On April 24, 1877, Russia declared wwar on the Ottoman Empire. ar on the Ottoman Empire. After breaking After breaking the Ottoman resistance in Bulgaria, the Russian armthe Ottoman resistance in Bulgaria, the Russian armyy reached Yeşilköy, the outskirts of Istanbul. reached Yeşilköy, the outskirts of Istanbul. As the parliament began to As the parliament began to criticize the palace, criticize the palace, Abdülhamid II suspended the Abdülhamid II suspended the ffirst irst cconstitutional onstitutional rregime. Abdülhamid II prorogued the egime. Abdülhamid II prorogued the pparliament, and the arliament, and the cconsonstitution titution remained alive only on remained alive only on paperpaper..42 The RussoThe Russo--OtOttoman War ended with a toman War ended with a terribleterrible defeat for the Ottoman Empire. The Ayastefanos Treaty defeat for the Ottoman Empire. The Ayastefanos Treaty signed signed byby RussiaRussia and the Ottoman Empire on March 3, 1878 was so severe that and the Ottoman Empire on March 3, 1878 was so severe that itit drew the attention of the Great Powers drew the attention of the Great Powers due to due to Russia’s disRussia’s disproportioproportion-n-ateate gains in the regiongains in the region. . AAnother conference nother conference was held was held in Berlin in June in Berlin in June 1878. 1878. ThisThis was the last of the great congresses was the last of the great congresses within within the system of the system of the the Concert of Europe between 1815Concert of Europe between 1815 and and 1914. The Berlin Treaty of 1878 1914. The Berlin Treaty of 1878 cast a long shadcast a long shadowow over the Ottoman Empire. Firstly, it over the Ottoman Empire. Firstly, it broughtbrought the the Eastern Question inEastern Question intoto the field of international politics. Romania, Sethe field of international politics. Romania, Serrbia, bia, and Montenegro became independent states, but Buand Montenegro became independent states, but Bullgaria remained au-garia remained au-tonomous until 1908. Russia kepttonomous until 1908. Russia kept territory interritory in Kars, Ardahan, aKars, Ardahan, and Batum nd Batum as acquisitions of the as acquisitions of the wwar. Austria occupiear. Austria occupied Bosniad Bosnia and and HerzegHerzegoovina, vina, and Britain occupied Cyprus.and Britain occupied Cyprus.43 MigrantsMigrants poured from the lands lost in poured from the lands lost in

41 Şerif Mardin Şerif Mardin Jön Türklerin Siyasi Fikileri 1895Jön Türklerin Siyasi Fikileri 1895--19081908, (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2007), , (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2007), 305.305.

42 Compared to the Second Constitutional Period, the scope of the first period was Compared to the Second Constitutional Period, the scope of the first period was limited. limited. Both Both coconstitutnstitutionalional periods were based on Ottomanism, whicperiods were based on Ottomanism, which aimedh aimed to gath-to gath-er Ottoman subjects regardless of their ethnic and religious identities. However, their er Ottoman subjects regardless of their ethnic and religious identities. However, their efficiency was different.efficiency was different.

43 Erik Jan Zürcher, Erik Jan Zürcher, A Modern TurkeyA Modern Turkey (London: I.B: Tauris, 2004), 74(London: I.B: Tauris, 2004), 74--75.75.

See See alsalso o MM. Hakan Yavuz, . Hakan Yavuz, ““The Transformation of The Transformation of ““EmEmpirepire”” tthrough Warhrough Wars and Reforms: s and Reforms: IntegIntegration ration vs. Oppressionvs. Oppression,,”” in in War and Diplomacy: The RussWar and Diplomacy: The Russoo--Turkish War of 1877Turkish War of 1877--1878 and the Treaty of Ber1878 and the Treaty of Berlinlin, ed. M. Hakan Yav, ed. M. Hakan Yavuz uz and Peter Sland Peter Slugett (Utah: The Univer-ugett (Utah: The Univer-sity sity ofof Utah PUtah Press, 2011), ress, 2011), 1717--5555;; Aydın BabunaAydın Babuna, , ““The BerThe Berlin Trealin Treatyty, Bos, Bosnian Muslimnian Muslims, s,

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

the

the wwar ar ininto theto the remains of theremains of the Ottoman Empire, including Ottoman Empire, including SSeelaniklanik. . TThe he policies of the Hamidian Era would be policies of the Hamidian Era would be shaped and implshaped and impleemented accord-mented accord-ing to these ing to these eventsevents..

The reign of e reign of Abdülhamid II Abdülhamid II waswas peculiar to his time and his charapeculiar to his time and his charac-c-ter. His reign overlapped with the first wave of globalization ter. His reign overlapped with the first wave of globalization brought on brought on by theby the imperial and colonial agesimperial and colonial ages, which saw many, which saw many longlong--reigningreigning momon-n-archs archs around the around the globglobee. Although the Concert of E. Although the Concert of Eururopeope hadhad dominatdominateded the European political order the European political order and and the international balance of power the international balance of power since 1815since 1815,,44 regional conflicts regional conflicts arose throughout Europearose throughout Europe. The Crimean . The Crimean War War and theand the Moroccan and Macedonian crises Moroccan and Macedonian crises areare sisignificant examples gnificant examples of these conflicts. The Europeaof these conflicts. The European n capitals were already incapitals were already in competition to competition to constitute spheres of influence in lands thousands of kilometers away constitute spheres of influence in lands thousands of kilometers away fromfrom their capital citiestheir capital cities, relying on, relying on their statetheir state’’s capacity and ss capacity and suupremacy premacy over the seas, induover the seas, industry, and technology. Abdülhamid II wistry, and technology. Abdülhamid II wittnessed thisnessed this rrivalry and enjoyed thivalry and enjoyed thee balance of powerbalance of powerss in foreign policy. However, he in foreign policy. However, he failed to understand one key issue: even during the peak of the ifailed to understand one key issue: even during the peak of the immperial perial race, the Great Powers did not race, the Great Powers did not competecompete overover their economic their economic interests in interests in the Ottoman Empire. the Ottoman Empire. IIn n contrastcontrast, when i, when itt came to came to issueissues suchs such as cus-as cus-toms ratestoms rates andand monopolies, themonopolies, the Great PoGreat Powwers collectivelyers collectively united against united against the the ssultan.ultan. Abdühamid II's central foreign policy was to Abdühamid II's central foreign policy was to pitpit one group one group against the other. Sometimes, it against the other. Sometimes, it worked, asworked, as in the case ofin the case of the the BaghBaghdadad d

and Nationalism

and Nationalism,,” ” in in War and Diplomacy: The RussWar and Diplomacy: The Russoo--Turkish War of 1877Turkish War of 1877--1878 and the 1878 and the Treaty of BerTreaty of Berlinlin, ed. M. Hakan Yav, ed. M. Hakan Yavuz uz and Peter Sland Peter Slugett (Utah: The University ugett (Utah: The University oof Utah f Utah Press, 2Press, 201011), 1), 198198--225225;; Justin MJustin McCarthcCarthyy, , ““Ignoring the People: The Effects of the Con-Ignoring the People: The Effects of the Con-gress of Berlingress of Berlin,,” ” in in War and Diplomacy: The RussWar and Diplomacy: The Russoo--Turkish War of 1877Turkish War of 1877--1878 and the 1878 and the Treaty of BerTreaty of Berlinlin, ed. M. Hakan Yav, ed. M. Hakan Yavuz uz and Peter Sland Peter Slugett (Utah: The University ugett (Utah: The University oof Utah f Utah Press, 2011)Press, 2011), , 424299--448448..

44 The Concert oThe Concert of Europe was the international system f Europe was the international system declared in the Congress of declared in the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The Concert of Europe, 1815Vienna in 1815. The Concert of Europe, 1815––1914, was a European system formed by 1914, was a European system formed by the European statesmen to preserve peace mainly on the continent. Apart from re-the European statesmen to preserve peace mainly on the continent. Apart from re-gigional coonal conflicts, the Europeanflicts, the European states did not engage in n states did not engage in internalinternal conconflicts until 1914. flicts until 1914. Richard B. Elrod, "The Concert of Europe: A Fresh Look at an International SyRichard B. Elrod, "The Concert of Europe: A Fresh Look at an International Sysstem," tem," World PolWorld Poliiticstics 28, no. 2, (January 1976): 159.28, no. 2, (January 1976): 159.

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Railway

Railway projecproject. However, as it. However, as isssues sues such such as the rise of customs duties or as the rise of customs duties or the abolishment the abolishment of of conceconcesssionssions onon foreign posts, he failed to see that the foreign posts, he failed to see that the Great Powers would unite against the OGreat Powers would unite against the Otttoman Empire regarding thetoman Empire regarding theirir ccommon interests. ommon interests. Therefore, Therefore, AAbbdülhdülhamamid IIid II’s attempts’s attempts to break the to break the economic tutelage of the Great Powers were mainly inconclusive. economic tutelage of the Great Powers were mainly inconclusive. The The greatest benefit for the Empire was that the Great Powers continued togreatest benefit for the Empire was that the Great Powers continued to support the integrity of the Osupport the integrity of the Otttoman Empire, which toman Empire, which was essential for was essential for the Empirethe Empire’s sur’s survivival and benval and beneeficificial for the powers’ economic gainsal for the powers’ economic gains. The . The economic conflicts between these two sueconomic conflicts between these two subbsequent periods were sequent periods were thus thus similar in terms of the issues and contexts. similar in terms of the issues and contexts.

The

The Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway project was the leading ace in thproject was the leading ace in the e ssultan's ultan's handhand in economic termsin economic terms.. IIn 1899, the concn 1899, the concession for the railway ession for the railway waswas given to Deutsche Bank. The railway project aimed to connect the terrgiven to Deutsche Bank. The railway project aimed to connect the terri-i-tories between Berlin and tories between Berlin and the Persian Gulf.the Persian Gulf.45 This project This project drew the at-drew the at-tetenntion of tion of allall the Great Powers andthe Great Powers and,, mmoreoveroreover,, created a conflict bcreated a conflict be-e-ttweeween them. These trann them. These transportation investments would enable sportation investments would enable transportation between miltransportation between miliitary bases and ports tary bases and ports as well asas well as fertile lands. fertile lands. They were also crucialThey were also crucial forfor the localities to create new opportunities and the localities to create new opportunities and accelerate develoaccelerate developpmement.nt. In 1903, the In 1903, the Baghdad RailwaBaghdad Railwayy ccompany was ompany was foundedfounded. The railway investment proceeded with irrigation facilities in . The railway investment proceeded with irrigation facilities in Konya and Adana plains. On the Konya and Adana plains. On the oneone hand, the abuse of Turkish and hand, the abuse of Turkish and Muslim labor in the railways would be the central Muslim labor in the railways would be the central source of source of workingworking--classclass conflict and riots in the Empiconflict and riots in the Empire re in 1907 and 1908. in 1907 and 1908. TheThe 1900 Act 1900 Act between the Ottoman Empire and Russia was one of the main issues in-between the Ottoman Empire and Russia was one of the main issues in-herited herited fromfrom the Second Constitutional Period, pathe Second Constitutional Period, parrticularly ticularly forfor Cavid Cavid Bey. Due to the importance of the route of the Bey. Due to the importance of the route of the BagBaghhdaddad RailwayRailway, Russia , Russia

45 See more on Baghdad RailSee more on Baghdad Railway way ProjecProjectt SeanSean McMcMeekinMeekin. . The BerlinThe Berlin--BBaghdad Express. aghdad Express. The Ottoman Empire and Germany Bid for World PowerThe Ottoman Empire and Germany Bid for World Power ((Massachusetts: Harvard Uni-Massachusetts: Harvard Uni-versity Press, 2012versity Press, 2012)); ; Murat ÖzyükselMurat Özyüksel, , The BerlinThe Berlin--Baghdad Railway and the Ottoman Baghdad Railway and the Ottoman Empire: IndEmpire: Industrialization, Imperial ustrialization, Imperial GermanyGermany and the and the MiMiddle Eaddle Eastst, (London, I.B. Ta, (London, I.B. Tauris, uris, 2016)2016); ; EEdward Mead Earldward Mead Earle, e, Turkey, the Great Powers, and tTurkey, the Great Powers, and the Bagdad Railway: he Bagdad Railway: AA Study Study in Imperialismin Imperialism (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1923)(New York: The Macmillan Company, 1923)..

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demanded

demanded that that thethe concession of raiconcession of railways be estalways be estabblished in the north-lished in the north-eastern part of Aneastern part of Anaatolia. However, Russia tolia. However, Russia diddid notnot havehave enough capital to enough capital to build the railway in the region. This situation left the region build the railway in the region. This situation left the region underde-underde-velopedveloped and left the governand left the government without railways to dispatment without railways to dispatch ch the sothe sol-l-diers in cadiers in case of war (as inse of war (as in the Battle ofthe Battle of Sarıkamış Sarıkamış duringduring the Great War, the Great War, 19141914––1915). Meanwhile, the Germans' attempt 1915). Meanwhile, the Germans' attempt to buildto build the the Baghdad Baghdad RailwayRailway accelerated accelerated the speed of the speed of other Great Powersother Great Powers’’ prproojects in differ-jects in differ-entent regions of theregions of the Empire, such as FrenchEmpire, such as French projectsprojects in Syria. In 1905in Syria. In 1905,, the the Great Powers Great Powers raised their demands and asked for an interaised their demands and asked for an interrnational fi-national fi-nancial committee composed of European officers nancial committee composed of European officers to governto govern Macedonia. Macedonia. Although Abdülhamid II resisted, he had to accept Although Abdülhamid II resisted, he had to accept this,this, bbeecause the Em-cause the Em-pire was isolated and lonely in the international arena. In 190pire was isolated and lonely in the international arena. In 1907, the 7, the ssul-ul-tan succeeded in obtaining the Great Powers' atan succeeded in obtaining the Great Powers' appproval for the rise of the proval for the rise of the customs duties from 8 percent to 11 percent. However, in return, he had customs duties from 8 percent to 11 percent. However, in return, he had to give new concessions to Britain and Geto give new concessions to Britain and Gerrmany. The surplus would be many. The surplus would be controlled by the OPDA rather tcontrolled by the OPDA rather than the treasury.han the treasury.46 Meanwhile, Meanwhile, AAbbdülhamid II initiated the Hicaz Railway project with the financial dülhamid II initiated the Hicaz Railway project with the financial support of the support of the Empire’s Empire’s Muslims. The project aimed to facilMuslims. The project aimed to faciliitate the pitate the pil-l-grims to reach the Mekke and strengthengrims to reach the Mekke and strengtheneded the bonds among the Mus-the bonds among the Mus-limlim populatipopulati. . AdditiAdditionallyonally, the , the ssultan targeted controlultan targeted control ofof the Arab penin-the Arab penin-sula.sula.

In domestic politics, aIn domestic politics, after fter thethe turmoil of the turmoil of the FFirst Constitutional irst Constitutional Period, Abdülhamid II Period, Abdülhamid II consolidated consolidated his rule. The shadow of his rule. The shadow of the the Young Young Ottomans was Ottomans was erased erased from the political arena from the political arena followingfollowing the the death of death of Mithat Pasha Mithat Pasha while while in exile in 1884. The in exile in 1884. The ssultan ultan had successfully had successfully silenced silenced the critics the critics inin the the pparliament. In the meantime, the Russoarliament. In the meantime, the Russo--Ottoman War Ottoman War hadhad shrshruunk the Ottoman Empire's territory in the Balkans. It also added nk the Ottoman Empire's territory in the Balkans. It also added a new dimension to conflicts a new dimension to conflicts inin MacedoniaMacedonia47 as well as theas well as the ArmArmeenian nian

46 François Georgeon, François Georgeon, Sultan AbdülhamidSultan Abdülhamid (Istanbul: Homer Kitabevi,2006), 409(Istanbul: Homer Kitabevi,2006), 409--33.33.

47 In In the Ottoman contethe Ottoman context,xt, Macedonia was the name of the region constituting of three Macedonia was the name of the region constituting of three provincesprovinces, namely, namely Kosovo, Selânik, and ManastırKosovo, Selânik, and Manastır, but what , but what MaMacedonia is has been a cedonia is has been a historical and contemporary debate ever since. historical and contemporary debate ever since. Please cite one of thePlease cite one of these worksse works

A Y Ş E K Ö S E B ADUR

question.

question.48 The The treaty pavetreaty paved the way towardd the way toward the intervention of the the intervention of the Great Powers in the domestic affairs of the Ottoman Empire. MeaGreat Powers in the domestic affairs of the Ottoman Empire. Meannwhile, while, the population of the Empire had a more Islamic characterthe population of the Empire had a more Islamic character fofolllowing the lowing the RussoRusso––OttOttooman War,man War, which influenced the which influenced the ssultanultan’’s policies. His main s policies. His main concern was to keep the territorial sovereignty of the Empireconcern was to keep the territorial sovereignty of the Empire, and for , and for this reason, he prioritized two central policiesthis reason, he prioritized two central policies:: the balance of power in the balance of power in foreign policyforeign policy49 and panand pan--Islamism in domestic affairIslamism in domestic affairs.s. His main goal was His main goal was to to maintainmaintain the integrity of the Ottoman Empirethe integrity of the Ottoman Empire,, espespeeciallycially the lands the lands densely populated bydensely populated by its Muslim subjects. For the first time, panits Muslim subjects. For the first time, pan--Islamism was raised as an ideology that encoIslamism was raised as an ideology that encompassedmpassed WesWesttern ideolo-ern ideolo-gies and values.gies and values.50 Following the RFollowing the Rusussoso--Ottoman WarOttoman War, the O, the Otttoman Em-toman Em-pirepire still held thestill held the vast territory from the Adriaticvast territory from the Adriatic SeaSea to the Persian Gulf. to the Persian Gulf. The Ottoman Empire had The Ottoman Empire had the the authority over the Straits and the Suez authority over the Straits and the Suez Canal, which Canal, which are essentialare essential to control the to control the EEastern Mediteastern Mediterrranean. Moreo-ranean. Moreo-

48 The RussoThe Russo--Ottoman War caused a massive flow of immigrants to flee to the Ottoman Ottoman War caused a massive flow of immigrants to flee to the Ottoman territory from the Balkans aterritory from the Balkans annd Caucasus. This situation increased the Muslim populd Caucasus. This situation increased the Muslim popula-a-tion of the Empire and strengthened its Islamic charactertion of the Empire and strengthened its Islamic character. The immigrant issue also led . The immigrant issue also led to new conflicts in Anatolia such as land disputes between Muslims and nonto new conflicts in Anatolia such as land disputes between Muslims and non--Muslims. Muslims. The fertile lands close to pThe fertile lands close to poorts began to rise to value, incorporating the Orts began to rise to value, incorporating the Otttoman econ-toman econ-omy into the Western capitalist world as of the 1830somy into the Western capitalist world as of the 1830s. Because of the A. Because of the Arrmenian menian incinci-i-dents that began in the 1860s, the sultan’s reputation deteriorated in Europe.dents that began in the 1860s, the sultan’s reputation deteriorated in Europe. Ya-Ya-vuzvuz,, IntegIntegration ration vs. Oppressionvs. Oppression, , 3388--4949

49 In the international arena, the In the international arena, the sultan’s main foreign policy principle was to balance the sultan’s main foreign policy principle was to balance the Great Powers. On the eve of the twentieth century, theGreat Powers. On the eve of the twentieth century, the main groups of Europe were main groups of Europe were shaped. France and Russia established a Dual Alliance or soshaped. France and Russia established a Dual Alliance or so--called Francocalled Franco--RuRussian ssian Alliance in 1892 against the risinAlliance in 1892 against the rising power of Germany in the middle of Europe. They g power of Germany in the middle of Europe. They tried to contain Germany on the two fronts against its expansiotried to contain Germany on the two fronts against its expansion in the Eurn in the Euroopean con-pean con-tinent. Britain and France had already been the two powers of the Entente Cordtinent. Britain and France had already been the two powers of the Entente Cordiiale ale since the end of the nineteenth century.since the end of the nineteenth century. Therefore, the two blocks of Europe took Therefore, the two blocks of Europe took shape: on the one side, the Entente constituting France, Russia, and Bshape: on the one side, the Entente constituting France, Russia, and Britain; on the ritain; on the other side, Geother side, Gerrmany and its close ally, the Austromany and its close ally, the Austro--Hungarian Empire.Hungarian Empire. Feroze A. K. Feroze A. K. YasameeYasamee,, ““European European Equilibrium or Asiatic Balance of Equilibrium or Asiatic Balance of Power?Power?: : The Ottoman Search foThe Ottoman Search for r Security in the Aftermath of the Congress of Security in the Aftermath of the Congress of BerlinBerlin,,”” in in War and Diplomacy: The RussWar and Diplomacy: The Russoo--Turkish War of 1877Turkish War of 1877--1878 and the Treaty of Ber1878 and the Treaty of Berlinlin, ed. M. Hakan Yav, ed. M. Hakan Yavuz uz and Peter and Peter SlSlugett (Utahugett (Utah: The University : The University ofof Utah Press, 2011), Utah Press, 2011), 5656--78.78.

50 Georgeon, Georgeon, Sultan AbdülhamidSultan Abdülhamid, 396., 396.

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ver, the

ver, the OtOttoman territory sprawled across most of toman territory sprawled across most of SSoutheastern Eu-outheastern Eu-rope, Mesopotamia, and North rope, Mesopotamia, and North AfricaAfrica, including, including rich resources like oil in rich resources like oil in Mesopotamia. These lands were located on the main routes Mesopotamia. These lands were located on the main routes betweenbetween British and French coloniesBritish and French colonies and their imperial capitalsand their imperial capitals. For. For tthis reason, his reason, this territory became athis territory became a battlebattlefieldfield of colonizof colonizaation or, tion or, inin the simplest the simplest term, spheres of influence.term, spheres of influence.51

In terms of the characteristics of the Empire in the Hamidian era,

In terms of the characteristics of the Empire in the Hamidian era, the the population of the Ottoman Empire was population of the Ottoman Empire was close to close to 25 million people.25 million people.52 TheThe eecconomy of the Empire was mainly agricultural. The Ottoman Empire onomy of the Empire was mainly agricultural. The Ottoman Empire lacklackeded transportation and communication networks. transportation and communication networks. AsAs Abdülhamid IIAbdülhamid II consolidated his power, tconsolidated his power, the main questionhe main question in the Empire was whether in the Empire was whether or not heor not he would continue the reform process that had owould continue the reform process that had offffiicially begun cially begun with with the the Tanzimat Act Tanzimat Act in in 18391839..53 He followed He followed this act inthis act in a peculiar waya peculiar way that would ultimatelythat would ultimately change the political paradigm of the Empire. The change the political paradigm of the Empire. The Hamidian Era Hamidian Era presentedpresented both continuities and ruptures with the Taboth continuities and ruptures with the Tan-n-zimat Period. In terms of rupturzimat Period. In terms of ruptureses,, Abdülhamid II ended Abdülhamid II ended the era of bthe era of bu-u-reaucraticreaucratic superiority in the state apparatus and shifted political power superiority in the state apparatus and shifted political power

51 EugeneEugene Rogan, Rogan, The Fall oThe Fall of the Ottof the Ottomanmanss thethe Great War in the Middle EastGreat War in the Middle East, 1914, 1914--19201920 (Great Britain(Great Britain: : Penguin Books, 2Penguin Books, 2016), 016), 11--2828; Mostafa Mina; Mostafa Minawi, wi, The Ottoman Scramble forThe Ottoman Scramble for AAfricafrica Empire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the HijazEmpire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the Hijaz (California: Stanfor(California: Stanfordd Universi-Universi-ty ty Press, 2016), Press, 2016), 11--18.18.

52 In 1900, the populatIn 1900, the population of the Ottoman Empire was around 25 million people. ion of the Ottoman Empire was around 25 million people.

53 The main goal of the Tanzimat Reforms was to strengtThe main goal of the Tanzimat Reforms was to strengthen the stathen the state apparatus and the e apparatus and the military. To revive the Ottoman army, exhausted by defeats in the face of the Rumilitary. To revive the Ottoman army, exhausted by defeats in the face of the Russsian sian and Habsburg Empires, Ottand Habsburg Empires, Ottoman statesmen were fully convinced that centralizoman statesmen were fully convinced that centralizaation tion and education were equally essential to strengthen the mand education were equally essential to strengthen the military. Cenilitary. Centralization and the tralization and the military were bounded to each other. The state had to strengthen its military cmilitary were bounded to each other. The state had to strengthen its military caapacity pacity to gain victories, but toto gain victories, but to do so, it do so, it mustmust raise the income of the treasury. Regularaise the income of the treasury. Regulatting the ing the tax system and governance was essential to sutax system and governance was essential to support the modepport the modernization of the military rnization of the military and the education system. In sum, the Tanzimat Period was a fulland the education system. In sum, the Tanzimat Period was a full--fledged modernizfledged moderniza-a-tion period. The procetion period. The process had its ss had its short fallingsshort fallings such as the inadequacy of human rsuch as the inadequacy of human re-e-sources or communication and transportation networks.sources or communication and transportation networks. However, it However, it was also the bwas also the be-e-ginning of modern education and methodology in the Empire. The Tanzimat rginning of modern education and methodology in the Empire. The Tanzimat reeforms forms were an irreversible process and marwere an irreversible process and marked the modern times of Turkey. New ideas and ked the modern times of Turkey. New ideas and coconncepts entered the Ottoman Empire through the launch of Tanzimatcepts entered the Ottoman Empire through the launch of Tanzimat (1839).(1839).

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from

from the the Sublime Porte to the Sublime Porte to the ppalace. He alace. He moved the sultan’s residencemoved the sultan’s residence to to Yıldız Palace. NoYıldız Palace. No otherother Ottoman sultan Ottoman sultan had lived permanently in this had lived permanently in this palacepalace. The Mabeyin Office (his secretary in the . The Mabeyin Office (his secretary in the ppalace) and the highalace) and the high--rankrankinging bureaucrats chosen by him became the main political actors in bureaucrats chosen by him became the main political actors in governance and politics under his supervisigovernance and politics under his supervision. He preferred to keep the on. He preferred to keep the statesmen loyal to him rather than paying regard to the principlestatesmen loyal to him rather than paying regard to the principless of of merit. merit. BBribery and corruption became widespread among highribery and corruption became widespread among high--rankrankinging bureaucrats. Moreover, bureaucrats. Moreover, as he became increasingly paranoid and susceas he became increasingly paranoid and suscep-p-tible totible to conspiracy thconspiracy theorieseories,,54 he established a wide range of espionage he established a wide range of espionage networks. From state officers to ordinary people, Ottoman subjects networks. From state officers to ordinary people, Ottoman subjects bbe-e-gan to turn ongan to turn on each othereach other and reported infractionsand reported infractions even for minor even for minor oof-f-fensesfenses. Abdülhamid II. Abdülhamid II’s’s main aim was to track the opposition network main aim was to track the opposition network rising rising withwithin the bureaucracy and in the bureaucracy and in in high schools. The concepts of lihigh schools. The concepts of lib-b-eralism, constitutionalism, and parliamentareralism, constitutionalism, and parliamentarianianism were hisism were his worstworst nightmares. For this reason, he held the press under his control and nightmares. For this reason, he held the press under his control and strictly strictly censorcensoreded the press during his reign. the press during his reign.

In t

In terms of continuities, theerms of continuities, the Empire’sEmpire’s centralization, modernizationcentralization, modernization,, and incorporation with the European economy continued as in the Taand incorporation with the European economy continued as in the Tan-n-zimat period. Abdülhamid II promoted the modern zimat period. Abdülhamid II promoted the modern system of system of education education and continued to pursue the educationand continued to pursue the educationalal policies inheripolicies inherited from the ted from the Tanzimat Era. Tanzimat Era. MModern educationodern educational institutionsal institutions spread spread acrossacross the Ethe Em-m-pire. He extended the network of secondary and high schools. pire. He extended the network of secondary and high schools. GGirls’ ed-irls’ ed-ucation was not neglecteducation was not neglected, with, with middle schools openmiddle schools openinging for girls. for girls.

54 TThe sultan’s insecurities were not unfounded, because his uncle, Murad V, ascended to he sultan’s insecurities were not unfounded, because his uncle, Murad V, ascended to the throne through a coup d’état and then lostthe throne through a coup d’état and then lost his sanity. Sultan Abdülaziz, another his sanity. Sultan Abdülaziz, another uncle, was suspiciously found dead. He also faced many uncle, was suspiciously found dead. He also faced many assassinationsassassinations atteattempts dumpts dur-r-ing ing his rule.his rule. SeeSee SelimSelim DeriDeringilngil,, The Well Protected Domains Ideology and the Legitima-The Well Protected Domains Ideology and the Legitima-tion of Power in the Ottoman Empire 1876tion of Power in the Ottoman Empire 1876--19091909 ((New York: I.B. Tauris, 2011New York: I.B. Tauris, 2011));; Benja-Benja-mimin n C. C. Fortna, Fortna, Imperial Classroom Imperial Classroom Islam, the State, and Education in the Late Ottoman Islam, the State, and Education in the Late Ottoman EmpireEmpire ((Oxford: OxforOxford: Oxford Universid University Press,ty Press, 2002)2002); Avner Wishnitzer, ; Avner Wishnitzer, Reading ClocksReading Clocks, Alla , Alla Turca Time and STurca Time and Society in the Late Ottoman Empireociety in the Late Ottoman Empire (Ch(Chiicago: cago: The University of Chicago The University of Chicago Press, 2015); Amy Singer, Press, 2015); Amy Singer, İyilik Yap Denize At Müslüman Toplumlarda Hayırseverlik İyilik Yap Denize At Müslüman Toplumlarda Hayırseverlik (İstanb(İstanbul: Kitul: Kitap Yayıneap Yayınevvi, 2008).i, 2008).

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Abbdülhamid II’sdülhamid II’s modern educationmodern educational systemal system was among his was among his most most pres-pres-titiggious ious workworkss and and was was partpartlyly representatirepresentativeve of his rule. For example, a of his rule. For example, a grandiose building grandiose building atat the entrance to the Bosphorusthe entrance to the Bosphorus was constructed to was constructed to house the house the MedicMedicalal School in Haydarpaşa. School in Haydarpaşa. However, the sultan also tight-However, the sultan also tight-lyly controlled the curriculums of these modern civil and military schools controlled the curriculums of these modern civil and military schools to prevent young students to prevent young students fromfrom catchcatching on toing on to the liberal ideas of the the liberal ideas of the era. era. He alsoHe also kept kept enlisted soldiers (enlisted soldiers (alaylılaralaylılar)) in the armyin the army to bato ballance the ance the officers officers who who graduated from modern military schools.graduated from modern military schools.

In domestic policies, the Hamidian Era used

In domestic policies, the Hamidian Era used modern modern representative representative symbols symbols to histo his benefit. He reconstructed a traditional social state via benefit. He reconstructed a traditional social state via donations and social institutions. His grants werdonations and social institutions. His grants were visiblee visible andand symbolicsymbolic,, which increased the legitimacy of his rule among which increased the legitimacy of his rule among his his Ottoman subjects. Ottoman subjects. CClock towers lock towers were one of the most important were one of the most important visible visible symbols in thesymbols in the Empire’s growingEmpire’s growing urban spaces. His personal philanthropy urban spaces. His personal philanthropy workworked ted to-o-wardward social welfare issuesocial welfare issuess,, and health institutions and health institutions heldheld a new political a new political function. He reconstructed the monarchy according to his own princfunction. He reconstructed the monarchy according to his own princi-i-plesples, creating a, creating a welfare regime welfare regime developed throughdeveloped through donations, social idonations, social in-n-stitutionsstitutions,, and philanthropy activities and philanthropy activities that were that were visible in the publicvisible in the public spsphere.here.55

At the end of the nineteenth century, the free

At the end of the nineteenth century, the free--market ideology was market ideology was the dominant the dominant economic economic ideology all over the world. During the age of ideology all over the world. During the age of liberalism, liberalism, the role of the role of the state the state shrinked shrinked in most of the countriesin most of the countries, and , and the global economy spread the global economy spread across across the the worworld.ld.56 However,However, states adopted states adopted various policies to participate various policies to participate andand protect themselves from the destruprotect themselves from the destruc-c-tive impacts of the laisseztive impacts of the laissez--faire system. faire system. To this end, tTo this end, the Ottoman Ehe Ottoman Emmpire pire continued to implement liberal policies until 1914. continued to implement liberal policies until 1914. TThe Ottoman state he Ottoman state focusfocuseded oon tn the treasury rather than the economy. With the lack of in-he treasury rather than the economy. With the lack of in-dustry, industrial bourgeoisie, and labor class, thedustry, industrial bourgeoisie, and labor class, the OttomanOttoman economy economy

55 Nadir Özbek, Nadir Özbek, OsmanlıOsmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Sosyal Devlet:İmparatorluğu'nda Sosyal Devlet: Siyaset, İktidar ve MeşruiyetSiyaset, İktidar ve Meşruiyet (1876(1876--1914)1914) (Istanbul: İletişim, 20(Istanbul: İletişim, 2008), 35.08), 35.

See See

56 Quinn Slobodian, Quinn Slobodian, Globalists the End of Empire and the Birth of Globalists the End of Empire and the Birth of NeoliberalismNeoliberalism ((Massa-Massa-chuchusetts: Harvarsetts: Harvard University Press, 2018), 1.d University Press, 2018), 1.

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depended on peasants and the merchant class growing

depended on peasants and the merchant class growing throughthrough incoincor-r-porating the European economy and privileges porating the European economy and privileges such assuch as capitulaticapitulationsons. . Briefly, Abdülhamid II continued Briefly, Abdülhamid II continued to implementto implement liberal economy policliberal economy policiesies regulated by the Tanzimat Era.regulated by the Tanzimat Era.57 Although he tried to Although he tried to implementimplement minor minor changes a few times, he could not succeed or compromise in return. As changes a few times, he could not succeed or compromise in return. As mentioned above, the Great Powers, even rmentioned above, the Great Powers, even rivaivalsls suchsuch as Britain and as Britain and Germany, united against the Ottoman EmpireGermany, united against the Ottoman Empire to support their own ecto support their own eco-o-nomic interestsnomic interests. At the end of the nin. At the end of the nineeteenth century, their main focus teenth century, their main focus was to keep the Empire alive and in one piece was to keep the Empire alive and in one piece in order to benefit fromin order to benefit from thetheirir economic expaneconomic expansiosion n over the Empire’sover the Empire’s vast territory. In sum, vast territory. In sum, aallt-t-hough hough the Ottoman bureaucracy withe Ottoman bureaucracy wittnessed the equilibrium changnessed the equilibrium changinging in in favor of favor of the Great Powersthe Great Powers in the economyin the economy, it continued in its, it continued in its classicclassicalal approach toward economy and fapproach toward economy and fiinancenance. .

Abdülhamid II

Abdülhamid II had inherited had inherited a ba broken Ottoman financial system as roken Ottoman financial system as he he ascended to the throne. Theascended to the throne. The state’sstate’s budget deficit was huge, and the budget deficit was huge, and the Empire Empire had had declared a moratorium in 1875declared a moratorium in 1875––1876. 1876. AAfter the Russofter the Russo--Ottoman War, this financial crisis was solved with the Muharrem DOttoman War, this financial crisis was solved with the Muharrem De-e-cree, which establcree, which establishished the Ottoman Public Debt Administration coed the Ottoman Public Debt Administration con-n-sistsistinging of creditorsof creditors ofof Ottoman loans.Ottoman loans.58 Although this institution brought Although this institution brought modern financial methods modern financial methods ininto the bureaucracy, it remained one of the to the bureaucracy, it remained one of the most powerful most powerful symbols of European economic penetration in the Em-symbols of European economic penetration in the Em-pirpire e andand the Republican Era. The the Republican Era. The Empire’s Empire’s loans remained low in the loans remained low in the first decades of the Hamidian Era,first decades of the Hamidian Era, despite the Empiredespite the Empire endurenduringing ffiinancial nancial

57 Both economic liberalism and protectionism were on the rise in this period. Both economic liberalism and protectionism were on the rise in this period. Meanwhile, latecomer countries suchMeanwhile, latecomer countries such as the United States, Germany, and Japan acceas the United States, Germany, and Japan accel-l-erated the proteerated the protecctionist policies. Yavuz Selim Karaktionist policies. Yavuz Selim Karakışlaışla, , “Osmanl“Osmanlı Sanayi İşçisi Sınıfının ı Sanayi İşçisi Sınıfının Doğuşu, 1838Doğuşu, 1838--1923,” in1923,” in Osmanlı’dan Cumhuriyet Türkiyesi’nde İşçiler 1839Osmanlı’dan Cumhuriyet Türkiyesi’nde İşçiler 1839--1950,1950, ed. ed. Donald Quataert, Erik Jan Zürcher, Donald Quataert, Erik Jan Zürcher, (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2011), 32(Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2011), 32;; Deniz T. Deniz T. Kılınçoğlu, Kılınçoğlu, EEconomics and Capitalism in the Ottoconomics and Capitalism in the Ottoman Empireman Empire (N(New York: Rouew York: Routtledge, ledge, 2015), 43.2015), 43.

58 Donald C. Blaisdell Donald C. Blaisdell European Financial Control in the Ottoman Empire A Study of the European Financial Control in the Ottoman Empire A Study of the Establishment, Activities,Establishment, Activities, and Significance of the Administration of the Ottoman Public and Significance of the Administration of the Ottoman Public DeDebtbt, (New York: Colum, (New York: Columbbia University ia University Press, 1929),Press, 1929), 7474--107107;; Zafer Toprak Zafer Toprak Atatürk Ku-Atatürk Ku-rucu Felsefenin Evrimirucu Felsefenin Evrimi, (Istanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Yayınları, 2020), 187., (Istanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Yayınları, 2020), 187.

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

troubles.

troubles. However, the construction of the However, the construction of the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway and the and the momentum of other infrastructure investments accmomentum of other infrastructure investments acceleelerated the Em-rated the Em-pire’s loan processes. The relationship between the debts and fopire’s loan processes. The relationship between the debts and forreign eign investments was one of the financial deadinvestments was one of the financial dead--ends of the Ottoman Empire. ends of the Ottoman Empire. IInfrastructure investments were essential to increase the prnfrastructure investments were essential to increase the prooductionduction--distributiondistribution--sale network in thesale network in the OtOttoman Empire and elstoman Empire and elseewhere in the where in the world. However, there had been a lack of money in the Empire. For this world. However, there had been a lack of money in the Empire. For this reason, the new investments always reason, the new investments always came withcame with ““sideside--dishesdishes”” such such as as further concessions for constructfurther concessions for constructionion firms and coufirms and counntries. Indeed, in the tries. Indeed, in the nineteennineteenth th century, investments, debts, and foreign policcentury, investments, debts, and foreign policiesies were part were part and parcel of each other. and parcel of each other. TheseThese werewere also inherited also inherited byby the Second Con-the Second Con-ststiitutional Era and became one of thetutional Era and became one of the mostmost significant tasks of Cavid significant tasks of Cavid Bey.Bey.

After the Russo

After the Russo--Ottoman War, there had been an ongoiOttoman War, there had been an ongoing guerilla ng guerilla war in Ottoman Macedonia. This guerilla war became intense after the war in Ottoman Macedonia. This guerilla war became intense after the Greek War of 1897Greek War of 1897..59 Despite drought and famine in some regions, eDespite drought and famine in some regions, eco-co-nomic wealth and nomic wealth and the the population increasepopulation increased across the Empired across the Empire. . AAbbdülhamid II gave importance to hidülhamid II gave importance to his phs philanthroilanthropic works accessible pic works accessible for the subjects of the Empire. Thefor the subjects of the Empire. The Hamidian Era was not disastrous for Hamidian Era was not disastrous for the Ottoman Muslim peasants regarding the quality of life compared to the Ottoman Muslim peasants regarding the quality of life compared to the previous erasthe previous eras: their quality of life got slightly better. : their quality of life got slightly better. IncorpIncorpooration ration with with the the Western Western economy increased the value of the land, especonomy increased the value of the land, espeecially in cially in the agriculturally cultivated regions. However, the possession of land the agriculturally cultivated regions. However, the possession of land caused new tensioncaused new tensionss and conflicts between Muslims and nonand conflicts between Muslims and non--Muslim Muslim communities. Although there had been no great wars, tcommunities. Although there had been no great wars, therehere had beehad been n regional conflicts, especially bregional conflicts, especially beetween Muslims and nontween Muslims and non--MuslimsMuslims,, in An-in An-atolia since the 1860s. As a result, the armed conflicts caused casuaatolia since the 1860s. As a result, the armed conflicts caused casuallties, ties, migrmigraation, and suffering in the south and east parts of Anatolia. The Van tion, and suffering in the south and east parts of Anatolia. The Van and especially Adana cand especially Adana conflonflict in tict in the 1890s drew the Great Powers' at-he 1890s drew the Great Powers' at-

59 The period between 1876 and 1900The period between 1876 and 1900 was full of armed conflicts. After the 1877was full of armed conflicts. After the 1877––1878 1878 War, the Armenian conflict in 1895War, the Armenian conflict in 1895––1896 had profound implications on domestic and 1896 had profound implications on domestic and iinnternational scales. The Greek Waternational scales. The Greek War ended with the Ottoman victory, but it de facto r ended with the Ottoman victory, but it de facto lost Crete during the negotiations. Georlost Crete during the negotiations. Georgeon, geon, Sultan AbdülhamidSultan Abdülhamid, 405., 405.

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tention and led

tention and led to to a campaign against the a campaign against the ssultan. During these conflicts, ultan. During these conflicts, the lathe lannd was handed over mostly from nond was handed over mostly from non--Muslims Muslims to Muslims. The to Muslims. The problem of land disputes and human rights violations rproblem of land disputes and human rights violations reemained in the mained in the SSecondecond ConstitConstitutional Period and became one of the utional Period and became one of the main main political is-political is-sues. Thesues. These issuesse issues also became part of the financial negotialso became part of the financial negotiaations. tions.

Additionally

Additionally, the vast censorship and espionage network of the , the vast censorship and espionage network of the ssuul-l-tan closed the Ottoman society to progressive developmtan closed the Ottoman society to progressive developments ents in the in the wworld. Even in the military, his fear of a coup caused the orld. Even in the military, his fear of a coup caused the nnavy toavy to weaken weaken as it spent most of its time dockedas it spent most of its time docked in the Haliç shipyard. Thus, although in the Haliç shipyard. Thus, although Hamidian Istanbul and Hamidian Istanbul and the the Empire reflected a mystic and cosmopolitan Empire reflected a mystic and cosmopolitan environment containing tradenvironment containing traditionitional and mal and modern elements, it odern elements, it laggedlagged the the modern worldmodern world in many aspectsin many aspects. . The sultan’sThe sultan’s attempts attempts atat momoddernization ernization were significant were significant forfor raisraising the ing the new generationnew generation of Ottoman subjects;of Ottoman subjects; but but in terms of progress and development, in terms of progress and development, the sultan’sthe sultan’s aatttempts weretempts were insuinsuf-f-ficientficient. . PPortort citiescities, however, became, however, became hot spotshot spots of trade and the exchange of trade and the exchange of ideas andof ideas and benefitedbenefited the mostthe most from the devefrom the devellooppments of this period. ments of this period. SelanikSelanik, where Cavid Bey was born and gr, where Cavid Bey was born and greew up, was the best w up, was the best example example of thisof this. . It is important tIt is important to keep in mio keep in mindnd ththat Selanat Selanikik was was not only a port not only a port citycity, but, but it was also it was also a a vast territoryvast territory controlled by the militarycontrolled by the military and one of and one of the administrative centers the administrative centers ofthe ofthe MacedoniaMacedonia region of the Ottregion of the Ottooman Em-man Em-pirepire..

2.1.1 The Charming The Charming LocalityLocality: Port: Port CitieCities and Selaniks and Selanik

The development of p

The development of porortt citicities es waswas oone of tne of the most interesting patterns he most interesting patterns of the nineteenth centuryof the nineteenth century..60 During this period, European expansion During this period, European expansion moved toward periphery countries, and portmoved toward periphery countries, and port cities were the gatcities were the gateeways ways toto this expansion. Due to the acceleration of this expansion. Due to the acceleration of economic economic flows, portflows, port citiecities s devedeveloped rloped rapidly apidly as as had had never been never been seen seen before comparing historical before comparing historical coconntexts. texts. TThe two pillars of this expansion were free trade and he two pillars of this expansion were free trade and the the gold gold

60 SSotirios Dimitriadisotirios Dimitriadis, , ““Transforming a lateTransforming a late--Ottoman Ottoman PortPort--City SalonicaCity Salonica, 1876, 1876--19121912,,”” in in WellWell--CConnected Domains Tonnected Domains Towards an Entangled Otowards an Entangled Ottomatoman Historn Historyy, ed. Pascal W, ed. Pascal W. Firges . Firges et al. (Leideet al. (Leiden: Brill, 201n: Brill, 2014), 4), 207207--221221..

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stand

standardard61 imposed byimposed by British hegemony. In the Ottoman case, incorpBritish hegemony. In the Ottoman case, incorpo-o-ration withration with thethe Western economy and adopting Western economy and adopting the the frfree tradee trade systee system m officially bofficially beegan with the Treaty of 1838 signed between the Ottoman gan with the Treaty of 1838 signed between the Ottoman and British governments. It opened the door and British governments. It opened the door for for free trade for the Ofree trade for the Ottto-to-man Empire by annihilating customs in favor of European merchants man Empire by annihilating customs in favor of European merchants and and creatingcreating newnew economiceconomic priprivilegevileges. s. ThisThis was a was a major major transition transition for for thethe economy and economic actors. economy and economic actors. Foreigners and nonForeigners and non--Muslim actors Muslim actors began to dominate the economic field. However, this does not mean that began to dominate the economic field. However, this does not mean that the Muslim merchants disappeared from economic life, andthe Muslim merchants disappeared from economic life, and they mostly they mostly conglomerated in the hconglomerated in the hinterlainterland. However, they were still in the portnd. However, they were still in the port--cities although not dominant in the economic lifecities although not dominant in the economic life.. IInn briefbrief, control , control overover economic life shifted from bureaucrats to merchants, while the imperial economic life shifted from bureaucrats to merchants, while the imperial bureabureauucrats' primary function became to smooth the way for tracrats' primary function became to smooth the way for trade. Thide. This s situationsituation waswas also reflected also reflected in in the sthe soocial fabric of the city. While the eth-cial fabric of the city. While the eth-nic and religionic and religiouus dives diversity of the city was increasing, the city created rsity of the city was increasing, the city created new and diverse public spheres new and diverse public spheres in which to in which to come together come together such such as social as social clubs, trade unions, deparclubs, trade unions, department stment stores, printing houses, theaters, beer tores, printing houses, theaters, beer gardens, and coffee houses. Thegardens, and coffee houses. The populationpopulation was ewas emmbracebracedd and sand shaped haped by the city, by the city, which was which was gaining a more secular and autonomous charagaining a more secular and autonomous charac-c-ter. It was modernization from below, although the catalyzer was the ter. It was modernization from below, although the catalyzer was the state wstate with ith itsits colossal invescolossal investtments ments inin portportss, railways, urban planning, , railways, urban planning, gas lighting, et ceteragas lighting, et cetera. Ho. Howwever,ever, tthhe citye city’’s s residentsresidents were eager to adopt were eager to adopt the tenets of the tenets of modern lifemodern life,, from business to private life. from business to private life. These wereThese were the the essential characteristics of port cities inessential characteristics of port cities in this pthis period. eriod.

The Law of Provinces in 1864 triggered the transformation of urban

The Law of Provinces in 1864 triggered the transformation of urban spaces in the Ottospaces in the Ottomman Empan Empire. This legal code enabled ire. This legal code enabled a local mayor a local mayor to to govern the city. An influential local governancegovern the city. An influential local governance structurestructure strengthened strengthened the port cities and the port cities and allowedallowed thethemm toto gagain relative autonomy from Istain relative autonomy from Istan-n-bul. bul. AAfter this legal codefter this legal code was implementedwas implemented, the local environm, the local environmeent of nt of SSe-e-laniklanik changed drasticallychanged drastically. . In the 1860s and 1870s, urban spaceIn the 1860s and 1870s, urban spaces begans began

61 The global moentary system in the The global moentary system in the nineteenthnineteenth century. Gold or a currency that is century. Gold or a currency that is convertible into gold is used as the fixed price to convertible into gold is used as the fixed price to make international payments. make international payments.

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to change

to change afterafter the old city walls that surrounded the citythe old city walls that surrounded the city were demowere demol-l-ishedished. . This deThis development opened a broader space to settle in the cityvelopment opened a broader space to settle in the city without being confined within thewithout being confined within the narrnarroow strew streets and tiny housesets and tiny houses iinnside side the old city walls. Shortlythe old city walls. Shortly, new neighborhoods were constructed , new neighborhoods were constructed such such as as the Hamidiye neighborhood.the Hamidiye neighborhood. The city’s wThe city’s wealthy famiealthy families lies inin paparrticularticular built new houses for themselves. Tram lines connectbuilt new houses for themselves. Tram lines connecteded the neighbor-the neighbor-hoods, and gas hoods, and gas llightinighting was g was used to used to lightlight upup the cities in the evenings. the cities in the evenings. SelanikSelanik became a center of attractionbecame a center of attraction in the regionin the region with its renovated with its renovated portport andand newly newly constructedconstructed railwayrailways to s to both both Istanbul and MacedoniaIstanbul and Macedonia’’s s hinterland. hinterland. SelanikSelanik was was a landmark ofa landmark of nineteenthnineteenth--century gcentury gllobalizobalization. ation. The city welcomed The city welcomed economiceconomic migrantsmigrants whowho poured into the city after poured into the city after the 1877the 1877––1878 war. 1878 war. During the nineteenth centuryDuring the nineteenth century the the ““population population grew rapidgrew rapidly in aly in all port cities in a similar way to twentiethll port cities in a similar way to twentieth--century ur-century ur-ban areas.ban areas.””62 However, bHowever, before going intefore going intoo thethe ddetails of etails of the the population, it population, it is worth is worth notingnoting thethe city’s growingcity’s growing urban economy, which attractedurban economy, which attracted manymany new new actorsactors. . This economic development had two This economic development had two cocommponentsponents: the : the interaction and transaction between Selanik and its hinteinteraction and transaction between Selanik and its hinterrland and Se-land and Se-lanik and the restlanik and the rest of theof the world. The city's economy is both related to ag-world. The city's economy is both related to ag-ricultural production and its marketing and exporting to other countries ricultural production and its marketing and exporting to other countries and imports from different mand imports from different markets.arkets. IInfrastructure infrastructure innvestments vestments duringduring the the reignreign of Abdülhamid II enabled the city to develop andof Abdülhamid II enabled the city to develop and expandexpand much much more than more than was was expected. expected. NNew ew economic economic sectors emergedsectors emerged in the cityin the city. . Apart from industry, though the city was the most advanced industrial Apart from industry, though the city was the most advanced industrial city ofcity of the Emthe Empire, services developed pire, services developed asas cocommmercemerce expandedexpanded. Unlike . Unlike Istanbul, commerce and merchants were tIstanbul, commerce and merchants were thhe detee deterrminant actors in the minant actors in the city and became the pioneers of urban life in port cities. city and became the pioneers of urban life in port cities. The port cities The port cities became the hub of sociality, material culture and unbecame the hub of sociality, material culture and under theder the shelter of shelter of liberal economyliberal economy in the age of empires.in the age of empires. 63 The port cities were also the The port cities were also the epicentersepicenters of theof the flows of money, goods, people, cultures, and moderni-flows of money, goods, people, cultures, and moderni-

62 Çağlar KeyÇağlar Keyder, “Port Cities in the Belle Epoque”, in der, “Port Cities in the Belle Epoque”, in Cities of the Mediterranean Cities of the Mediterranean fromfrom the the Ottomans to the Present Day,Ottomans to the Present Day, ed. Biray Kolluoğlu, Meltem Toksöz (New York: I.B. Tauris, ed. Biray Kolluoğlu, Meltem Toksöz (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2010), 17. 2010), 17.

63 Keyder, “Port Cities in the Belle Epoque”, 15.Keyder, “Port Cities in the Belle Epoque”, 15.

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ty.

ty. The entrepôts, opera houses, banks, chambers of commerce, insur-The entrepôts, opera houses, banks, chambers of commerce, insur-ance companies, foreign schooance companies, foreign schools, porls, ports, unions were among the little ac-ts, unions were among the little ac-tors of this scene that tors of this scene that also also contributed to the growth of contributed to the growth of tthe porhe portt--citycity..64 The world economy penetrateThe world economy penetratedd agricultural eagricultural emmpires through urban pires through urban spaces and createspaces and createdd a cosmopolitan consonant a cosmopolitan consonant due todue to the structure of the structure of the portthe port city. city. In this case, in a cosmopolitan city, there had been a strong In this case, in a cosmopolitan city, there had been a strong connection between the flow of connection between the flow of ppeople,eople, goods, and capital tiesgoods, and capital ties,, local and local and globalglobal,, regardless of religion and ethnicity. However, the cosmopolitan regardless of religion and ethnicity. However, the cosmopolitan city startcity starteded to establish horizontal linkto establish horizontal linkages beages between communities de-tween communities de-spite the traditional social strata. This linkage is one of the critical spite the traditional social strata. This linkage is one of the critical ppoints oints of the environment in which Cavid Bey was raised. This historical of the environment in which Cavid Bey was raised. This historical periodperiod, however,, however, is not compatible with the chais not compatible with the charracter of the nationacter of the nation--state. Neverthestate. Nevertheless, aless, as seen in the following chas seen in the following chappters, ters, Cavid Bey fought Cavid Bey fought to preserve histo preserve his cosmopolitan way of life icosmopolitan way of life inn all aall asspects, politically, social-pects, politically, social-ly, and economically. ly, and economically. Selanik and its urban space left a deep markSelanik and its urban space left a deep mark on thon thee generation of Unionists and Kemalists.generation of Unionists and Kemalists. AAccordingccording to to hishistoricaltorical circum-circum-stances, they adopted somestances, they adopted some of the mainof the main tetennets ofets of a a secularsecular urban life-urban life-stylestyle. Cav. Caviid Bey d Bey carried carried on on the legacy of the legacy of these cosmthese cosmoopolitan politan port citport cities ies throughout throughout his life. his life.

The impact of growing

The impact of growing industry was also significant in terms of industry was also significant in terms of the the ecoeconomy annomy and social movements. The workingd social movements. The working--class movement was class movement was strong in the city, strong in the city, especiallyespecially after the 1after the 19908 Rev08 Revolution. olution. The city’sThe city’s JewJewish ish population population which constituted nearly half of the population which constituted nearly half of the population waswas the chief the chief actoractor among the among the city’s city’s capitalists and workincapitalists and workingg clclass. Thass. The ideology of so-e ideology of so-cialism flourished in cialism flourished in SelanikSelanik. The first socialist labor federation, . The first socialist labor federation, La Fed-La Fed-ereration Socialiste Ouvriere de Seloniqueation Socialiste Ouvriere de Selonique,, was ewas esstabtabllished ished in the city and in the city and supported mainly by the supported mainly by the city’s city’s tobacco wortobacco workkers.ers.65

64 Biray KolluBiray Kolluoğlu, MeltemToksöz, “Mapping Out the Eastern Mediterranean: Toward a oğlu, MeltemToksöz, “Mapping Out the Eastern Mediterranean: Toward a Cartography of Cities of Commerce”, in Cartography of Cities of Commerce”, in Cities of the Mediterranean Cities of the Mediterranean fromfrom the Ottomans the Ottomans to the Present Dayto the Present Day, ed. Biray Kolluoğlu, Meltem Toksöz (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2010), 6, ed. Biray Kolluoğlu, Meltem Toksöz (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2010), 6--13. 13.

65 DonaldDonald Quataert, “Selanikteki İşçiler 1850 Quataert, “Selanikteki İşçiler 1850 –– 1912,” 971912,” 97--121. 121.

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Port cities ort cities areare politically construpolitically constructed ancted and reconstructed spaces. d reconstructed spaces. TheThesese changing urban space changing urban space brought togetherbrought together the diverse populationthe diverse populationss oof f SelanikSelanik bothboth inin neighborhoods and neighborhoods and the the public sppublic sphhere. Tere. The vertical hi-he vertical hi-erarchy of Ottoman social strata began to erarchy of Ottoman social strata began to deteriorate,deteriorate, and different and different communities startcommunities started to led to live closer to each other. ive closer to each other. This wasThis was also reflected also reflected in in the urban planning of the city. the urban planning of the city. SelanikSelanik hhaadd no monumental religious no monumental religious buildings but clock tobuildings but clock towwers ers rerepresentingpresenting modernity. The children of dimodernity. The children of dif-f-ferent religious and ethnic communities started to gather ferent religious and ethnic communities started to gather in the in the same same schools. The new schools adoptschools. The new schools adoptinging scientific methods scientific methods attractedattracted Muslim Muslim familiesfamilies, who, who startstarted to send their children to the schools of the ed to send their children to the schools of the DDöönme nme cocommunity mmunity such such as Fevziye or Terakki schools.as Fevziye or Terakki schools.66 FFreemason lodges and reemason lodges and the rise of civil society also the rise of civil society also crcreated aeated ann environment environment in whichin which people people livelivedd together closer than ever. together closer than ever. However, tHowever, the proximity of diverhe proximity of diverse com-se com-munities and the accumulation of wealth in munities and the accumulation of wealth in tthe cithe city also triggered polit-y also triggered polit-ical tensions. The population of the city ical tensions. The population of the city ““in the middle of 1870s was in the middle of 1870s was 45,000;45,000; in 190in 1907 7 it it was 98,930. While the local population was 83,430, was 98,930. While the local population was 83,430, the foreignthe foreign population waspopulation was 15,500 peop15,500 people. The population of Muslims le. The population of Muslims waswas 31,703. The Jew31,703. The Jewiish popsh population was 47,312, while the Greekulation was 47,312, while the Greek populpopula-a-tion wastion was 15,012.15,012.””67 The Jewish population The Jewish population accounted foraccounted for alalmost hamost half lf of of allall city dwellers. city dwellers. A large portion ofA large portion of city dwellers were Muslim city dwellers were Muslim DönmesDönmes ofof Greek, JewGreek, Jewishish,, Bulgarian, Bulgarian, RomaRoma, Armenian, , Armenian, or or SerbSerbian origin, amian origin, amoong ng othothers.ers.

The

The diversitydiversity of city dwellers and new migration flows to the city of city dwellers and new migration flows to the city brought different politicalbrought different political and ecand economic perspectives as onomic perspectives as wellwell as various as various conflicting interests. conflicting interests. SelanikSelanik was relatively autonomouwas relatively autonomous and free from s and free from IstanbulIstanbul’’s s opoppressive politics anpressive politics andd becambecame the e the sitesite of competing elites of competing elites and different classes and different classes such such as as the the working class, working class, lumpenlumpen, and intelle, and intellectctu-u-

66 Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was one of these students, although could not continue school Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was one of these students, although could not continue school for a long time due to the sudden loss of his father. Andrew Mango for a long time due to the sudden loss of his father. Andrew Mango Atatürk Modern Atatürk Modern Türkiye’nin KurucusuTürkiye’nin Kurucusu, (Istanbul:, (Istanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 1999), 53Remzi Kitabevi, 1999), 53--44; ; Şükrü Hanioğlu Şükrü Hanioğlu Atatürk Atatürk anan IntelleIntellecctual Biographytual Biography (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2011), 20. (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2011), 20.

67 Mehmet Ö. Alkan, Mehmet Ö. Alkan, İmparatorluk’tan Cumhuriyet’e Selanik’ten Istanbul’a Terakki Vakfı ve İmparatorluk’tan Cumhuriyet’e Selanik’ten Istanbul’a Terakki Vakfı ve Terakki Okulları 1877Terakki Okulları 1877--20002000 (Istanb(Istanbul: Boyut Yayın Grubu, 2000), 52.ul: Boyut Yayın Grubu, 2000), 52.

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als.

als. SelanikSelanik also became a nest for competing ideologies. Different idalso became a nest for competing ideologies. Different ideeo-o-logies logies such such as Islamism, nas Islamism, nationalism, Zionism, socialism, ationalism, Zionism, socialism, and and Christian Christian supsuprremacy emacy competcompeted withed within the city. In a in the city. In a nineteenth century nineteenth century cosmcosmoopol-pol-itan itan city, nationalism was city, nationalism was also also a naturala natural outcomoutcome e ofof the period.the period.68 Greeks, Greeks, Bulgarians, and Young Turks were the main groupsBulgarians, and Young Turks were the main groups competing over competing over whoswhose version of nationalism would reign se version of nationalism would reign suupremepreme. In t. In thhe end,e end, the the Young Turk movement would rise and, for a brief but crYoung Turk movement would rise and, for a brief but cruucial moment, cial moment, dominate the others dominate the others withwithiin n the mthe momentum of omentum of the Revolthe Revoluution. However, tion. However, many newmany new developments developments would quickly would quickly break the spell of thebreak the spell of the RevolRevolu-u-tion.tion.

Selanik

Selanik was was the primarythe primary port city port city forfor intermintermediate agricultural pro-ediate agricultural pro-ducers and consumers across the sea. The pioneers of the city were the ducers and consumers across the sea. The pioneers of the city were the mercmerchanthant clclassass, who were the wealthiest figures. They , who were the wealthiest figures. They also funalso funcctioned tioned as theas the creative classcreative class,, as seen inas seen in ttoday’s societiesoday’s societies, who, who triggertriggereded the the modernization modernization oof the f the city. However, it should be noted that both the city. However, it should be noted that both the ssuul-l-tan and the governors adopted a coherent policytan and the governors adopted a coherent policy to modto modernize urban ernize urban spaces. spaces. SelanikSelanik was the city that witnesswas the city that witnesseded all of these changes together all of these changes together in the in the same period. The modernization of urban space, accsame period. The modernization of urban space, accuumulatimulationon of of wealth, expansion of transportation by both railwaywealth, expansion of transportation by both railway69 and steamship, and steamship, eexxpansionpansion of leisure andof leisure and intellintellectual capacity, and fortifectual capacity, and fortification ofication of thethe city’scity’s local governancelocal governance were just some of the remarkwere just some of the remarkableable achievachievements ements of the city overof the city over ththisis fortyforty--yearyear pperioderiod,, from the 1870s to 1912, from the 1870s to 1912, until until the the loss of the city in the Balkan Wars. loss of the city in the Balkan Wars.

Many

Many groups enjoyed the groups enjoyed the relativrelativeelyly autonomous character of the autonomous character of the city. One of them was the freemasons. At the beginning of the city. One of them was the freemasons. At the beginning of the twentieth twentieth century, freemasonry was vicentury, freemasonry was vibrantbrant in in SelanSelaniikk. Dur. During the Hamidian Era,ing the Hamidian Era, however,however, freemason lodges were closed due to pressure freemason lodges were closed due to pressure fromfrom the the ssuulltan. tan. SelaSelaniknik waswas an oasis for freemasonsan oasis for freemasons,, despite the despite the ssultan’s spies and sur-ultan’s spies and sur-veillance network. Most of the Univeillance network. Most of the Unionists were freemasons. onists were freemasons. FFrereeemason mason

68 Mark MMark Mazower, azower, SaSalonica City of Gholonica City of Ghosts sts ChristiansChristians, Muslims and Jews, 1430, Muslims and Jews, 1430--19195500 (New (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005), 2York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005), 25555--271. 271.

69 SeeSee Basil C. GouBasil C. Gounaris,naris, Steam over Macedonia, 1870Steam over Macedonia, 1870--1912 Socio1912 Socio--Economic Change and Economic Change and the Railwathe Railway Factory Factor ((New YorkNew York: Colmbia University Press, 199: Colmbia University Press, 1993). 3).

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lodges, wh

lodges, whichich benbeneefited fited from the protection of foreign consfrom the protection of foreign consuulates, could lates, could conductconduct closed meetings and facilities in closed meetings and facilities in SelaniSelanikk. This. This situsituaation enabled tion enabled the Unionists to come together and openly and freelythe Unionists to come together and openly and freely didisscuss ideas awaycuss ideas away frofrom the Hamidian spy network. m the Hamidian spy network.

Last but not least, thast but not least, thee politpolitical and economic impact of ical and economic impact of DönmesDönmes waswas one of the most one of the most criticalcritical identity issues in identity issues in the Ottoman Emthe Ottoman Empirepire. A. As men-s men-tioned above, the Jewish population tioned above, the Jewish population made upmade up almost half of thealmost half of the ttootal tal population of Selanipopulation of Selanikk. There had been a . There had been a sizeable sizeable Jewish population liv-Jewish population liv-iinng in tg in the city he city sincesince prepre--modern times. modern times. TThe migration of Sephardic Jews he migration of Sephardic Jews from Spain and Portugal at the enfrom Spain and Portugal at the end of thd of the fifteenth century was a turn-e fifteenth century was a turn-ing point for the citying point for the city’’s Jewish population. The city became one s Jewish population. The city became one of the of the most important Jewish centers of the Easternmost important Jewish centers of the Eastern MediteMediterranean. Arranean. Annother other milestone was in 1666, milestone was in 1666, when when Shabbetai Sevi announced that he was the Shabbetai Sevi announced that he was the messiahmessiah. Fo. Forr a bria brief period, he had a considerable number of followers ef period, he had a considerable number of followers from the Ottoman Empire and Eastern Europfrom the Ottoman Empire and Eastern Europe. His movement drew the e. His movement drew the attention of Sultan Mehmedattention of Sultan Mehmed IV, whIV, who was skeptical o was skeptical ofof the new messiah. the new messiah. After a trial, he was asked to choose between conversion to IAfter a trial, he was asked to choose between conversion to Islam orslam or ex-ex-ecution. ecution. HHee thenthen converted to Islamconverted to Islam, which he claimed to have, which he claimed to have adopted adopted as the final step as the final step inin reachreachinging the messianic prophecy. Shabbetai Sevi be-the messianic prophecy. Shabbetai Sevi be-ccaame me a a DDönmeönme: : aa Muslim in public life but continuedMuslim in public life but continued to practice to practice Jewish Jewish rituals in private life. The rituals in private life. The DönmeDönmess were were thethe Empire’s primary religiousEmpire’s primary religious liminal community. They liminal community. They professed to beprofessed to be MuslimsMuslims in publicin public, but , but in prin pri-i-vatevate, they were Jewish. The, they were Jewish. The Empire’sEmpire’s MuslimsMuslims hharborearbored suspiciond suspicion to-to-ward the ward the DönmesDönmes. On the one hand, the. On the one hand, the DönmeDönme were able towere able to enjoy their enjoy their rights asrights as MuslMuslimim citicitizens of the Ottoman Empire; on the other hand, zens of the Ottoman Empire; on the other hand, they they also gained thealso gained the advantageadvantagess connectconnected toed to EuEuropean ropean nonnon--Muslim Muslim cir-cir-cles. Their position had some cles. Their position had some aadvantadvantages compared to the Jewish and ges compared to the Jewish and Christian communities despite their Christian communities despite their economic economic power. power. Dönmes Dönmes dominat-dominat-ed theed the tobacco, textile, and silk businesses.tobacco, textile, and silk businesses.70 Moreover, as Moreover, as Muslim Muslim Otto-Otto-man citizens, they could ascenman citizens, they could ascend to highd to higherer ranks in the bureaucracy ranks in the bureaucracy afterafter the Tanzthe Tanziimat Pemat Period. riod.

70 Cengiz Şişman Cengiz Şişman Suskunluğun YüküSuskunluğun Yükü, (Istanbul: Doğan Kitap, 2016), 294., (Istanbul: Doğan Kitap, 2016), 294.

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There

There werewere three different sects three different sects inin the the DönmeDönme communitycommunity: t: the Yaku-he Yaku-bis, bis, tthe Kapancıs, and he Kapancıs, and ththe e KarakKarakaş. Cavid Bey’s family belonged to the aş. Cavid Bey’s family belonged to the Karakaş group. The Yakubis were the most radical communKarakaş group. The Yakubis were the most radical community in terms ity in terms of their obedience to religious rules.of their obedience to religious rules. The fiThe first rst DönmeDönme mayormayor of Selanikof Selanik, , Ahmet Hamid BeyAhmet Hamid Bey,, was from the Yakubi group. was from the Yakubi group. The The Kapancı and Karakaş Kapancı and Karakaş ggroups hroups had more seculaad more secular ways of lir ways of lifefe, and both gave impo, and both gave imporrtance to edu-tance to edu-cation. cation. The The Terakki SchoolsTerakki Schools were were established in established in 18771877..71 While the Ka-While the Ka-pancı group foundpancı group foundeed the d the Terakki Scools, the Karakaş were the founders Terakki Scools, the Karakaş were the founders of the Fevziye Schools. of the Fevziye Schools.

The

The Karakaş sect was the Karakaş sect was the least wleast wealthy sect of ealthy sect of the the DönmesDönmes. Ho. Howwever, ever, their position had changed at the end of the nineteenth cetheir position had changed at the end of the nineteenth centuryntury,, andand they quicklythey quickly accumulated wealth accumulated wealth as the fas the faabric obric off the citythe city began to began to changechange. . It is importantIt is important to keep in mindto keep in mind that althoughthat although Cavid Bey’s father Cavid Bey’s father was was a mercha merchant, when we ant, when we look deeper intolook deeper into his life, hehis life, he does not appear does not appear to be the son of a wealthy merchantto be the son of a wealthy merchant, because he, because he constantly sufferconstantly suffereded from his economic from his economic ppositioosition although he worked as a highn although he worked as a high--rankrankinging bu-bu-reareauucrat. One should underscore that crat. One should underscore that although although Cavid Bey’Cavid Bey’s way os way of life f life waswas very bourgeoisevery bourgeoise, it was, it was typical typical ofof what he had seen in what he had seen in SelanikSelanik when when he was growing he was growing up. His education, social life, way of dressing, soup. His education, social life, way of dressing, soccial ial clclubs, et ceteraubs, et cetera, were, were always aalways a centralcentral part of his lifepart of his life and identityand identity. . AsAs he he suffered from suffered from personalpersonal financfinancial problemsial problems all of his life, one should un-all of his life, one should un-dederrstand that he did not stand that he did not receive any income from hireceive any income from hiss family. Although family. Although we do not know we do not know thethe preciseprecise detaidetaillss, it , it is evident from his diaris evident from his diariesies from from 1909 to 1926 that 1909 to 1926 that his livelihood depended onhis livelihood depended on his salary. his salary.

Dönmes

Dönmes, who w, who were ere predominantlypredominantly merchantsmerchants like Cavid Bey’s flike Cavid Bey’s faatherther, , were alsowere also active in the fields of educatiactive in the fields of education and printing. Theon and printing. The majormajor turn-turn-inging pointpoint in terms oin terms off theirtheir position in local politics was the election of a position in local politics was the election of a DönmeDönme, Ahmet Hamid Bey, Ahmet Hamid Bey,, as the mayor of as the mayor of SelanikSelanik. . As BaAs Baer meer menntions, tions, they raised they raised their status their status in politicsin politics through positions inthrough positions in local golocal govvern-ern-ments. The ments. The fastfast--developing economic and urban fields developing economic and urban fields allowedallowed tthhe e Dö-Dö-nmnmeses to gainto gain new political positions at the end of the nineteenth cenew political positions at the end of the nineteenth cenntu-tu-

71 Alkan, Alkan, İmparatorluk’tan Cumhuriyet’e Selanik’ten Istanbul’a Terakki Vakfı ve Terakki İmparatorluk’tan Cumhuriyet’e Selanik’ten Istanbul’a Terakki Vakfı ve Terakki Okulları 1877Okulları 1877--20002000, 72. , 72.

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ry.

ry. They also gained strengtThey also gained strength from h from their power in local govertheir power in local governnance.ance.72 The development of the city also widened the world of the The development of the city also widened the world of the DöDönmesnmes. . They became part of local politics, and due tThey became part of local politics, and due too the Ethe Empire’s mpire’s clashes with clashes with nonnon--Muslims, their importance increased. They also eMuslims, their importance increased. They also ennjoyed the rights joyed the rights entitlentitled to Med to Muslims. They were the wealthiest group among Muslims uslims. They were the wealthiest group among Muslims because because of their centof their centuuriesries--long historylong history iin commerce. Ahmet Hamdi n commerce. Ahmet Hamdi Bey’s Bey’s tenure as mayor tenure as mayor transtransfformed ormed the the modern lanmodern landdscape of the scape of the city city as as he he built new neighborhoods and public areas, devebuilt new neighborhoods and public areas, develloped tram loped tram lines inines in the city, the city, and and enabled gas lightning at nightenabled gas lightning at night. T. The Ohe Otttoman government toman government and Hamdi Bey had starteand Hamdi Bey had started a d a constructionconstruction business in the city, business in the city, which which builtbuilt tthe Newhe New Mosque of the Mosque of the DönmesDönmes in the Hamidiye neighborhood. in the Hamidiye neighborhood. The The mmosque osque is unique in that itsis unique in that its architecturearchitecture isis pecpeculiar to uliar to DönmeDönme cucul-l-ture. The New Mosque ture. The New Mosque can can stillstill be seen todaybe seen today in in SelanikSelanik. . Despite its suDespite its suc-c-cesscess, the , the DönmeDönme community was introvertedcommunity was introverted,, and and inteinterrfaifaitth marrh marriagesiages were not allowed. were not allowed. AlAlthough they were assumed though they were assumed to beto be Muslims in the Muslims in the public sphere, mapublic sphere, marrriage wriage with a Mith a Muslim was not allowed. The CUP uslim was not allowed. The CUP was was the first to challengethe first to challenge this tradition. this tradition. The marriage betweenThe marriage between Sabiha and Sabiha and Zekeriya Sertel was the first mixed marZekeriya Sertel was the first mixed marrriageiage iin Selanikn Selanik. . As Dr. Nazım, As Dr. Nazım, one of the key figures of the CUP who was also a one of the key figures of the CUP who was also a DönmeDönme, told, told Zekeriya Zekeriya SeSertelrtel, t, this shattered the community’shis shattered the community’s strict caste system.strict caste system.73

2.1.2 The Two Pillars of Cavid Bey: Selanik and The Two Pillars of Cavid Bey: Selanik and MülkiyMülkiyee

Selanik

Selanik was a was a vivaciousvivacious city with city with aa high rahigh ratte of ge of growth, deverowth, development, lopment, and lively urban lifeand lively urban lifestylestyle. Although . Although SelanikSelanik was a significant military was a significant military and aand administdministrative center rative center forfor the Empire in Macedonia, it also the Empire in Macedonia, it also was was known for its active social and intelleknown for its active social and intellectual lifectual life. Cavid Bey was . Cavid Bey was at the ceat the cen-n-terter of these deof these devvelopmeelopments and netnts and networks. works. His mother, His mother, FatmaFatma HanımHanım,, was was born in 1857 (1274 according to the Islamic calendar) in born in 1857 (1274 according to the Islamic calendar) in SelanikSelanik. Fatma . Fatma HanımHanım’’s mothers mother waswas namnameded Rakibe, and her father (Cavid BeyRakibe, and her father (Cavid Bey’’s s matemater-r-

72 Marc Baer Marc Baer SelaSelanikli Dönmeler Yahudnikli Dönmeler Yahudilikten Dönenler, Müslüman Devrimciler ve Seküler ilikten Dönenler, Müslüman Devrimciler ve Seküler TürklerTürkler, (Istanbul: Doğan Kitap: 2011), 113, (Istanbul: Doğan Kitap: 2011), 113--19.19.

73 Korhan Atay Korhan Atay SertellerSerteller, (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2021), 99, (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2021), 99--101. 101.

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nal

nal grandfather) wasgrandfather) was namednamed Ali.Ali.74 Cavid Bey’s father, Cavid Bey’s father, Recep Naim Recep Naim EfendiEfendi,, was a merchant. was a merchant. According to Nazmi According to Nazmi Eroğlu, Cavid Bey’s father Eroğlu, Cavid Bey’s father married more than once, and thus, Cavid Bey had two sisters and two married more than once, and thus, Cavid Bey had two sisters and two brothersbrothers. His brothers’ names were Şevkati and Kazım Gerçel. Cavid Bey . His brothers’ names were Şevkati and Kazım Gerçel. Cavid Bey was the eldest brother. was the eldest brother. As detailed above, As detailed above, Cavid BeyCavid Bey was born into was born into a a Dö-Dö-nmenme family from thefamily from the Karakaş community. Unfortunately, Karakaş community. Unfortunately, we do not we do not know many detailsknow many details about Cavid Beyabout Cavid Bey’’s family and personal data about his s family and personal data about his early years. However, we know that he graduated from prearly years. However, we know that he graduated from priimary school mary school atat Şemsi Efendi School. It was the first primary school in Şemsi Efendi School. It was the first primary school in Selanik,Selanik, founfound-d-ed in 1872.ed in 1872.75 The schoolThe school providedprovided a modern educationa modern education primarilyprimarily to the to the children of the children of the DönmeDönme community. Şemsi Efendi was conscious of the community. Şemsi Efendi was conscious of the necessity necessity to provideto provide a modern education that met the social, cua modern education that met the social, culltural, tural, and economic needs of and economic needs of SelanikSelanik, a growing port ci, a growing port city. ty. AAs time s time wentwent by, by, Muslim families who Muslim families who prioritizedprioritized education enrolled their children at education enrolled their children at Şemsi Efendi School. One of these children Şemsi Efendi School. One of these children would become the first pres-would become the first pres-ident of the Republic of Turkey,ident of the Republic of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Education was Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Education was one of the fields that demone of the fields that demolished the strictolished the strict social barrsocial barriiers withiners within Otto-Otto-man sociman societyety in in thisthis port city. port city. CChildren from different communities had a hildren from different communities had a chance to meet at an early age in thchance to meet at an early age in thisis environment. environment.

After graduating from Şemsi Efendi

After graduating from Şemsi Efendi SSchoolchool,,76 Cavid Bey continued Cavid Bey continued his education in Fevhis education in Fevziye Schools.ziye Schools.77 Fevziye Schools officially opened on Fevziye Schools officially opened on December 13, 1885. The original name of the school was FevzDecember 13, 1885. The original name of the school was Fevz--i Sıbyan, i Sıbyan, which was originally awhich was originally a primary school. In the first year, there primary school. In the first year, there werewere only only four classes and fifty students. However, on the fifth annivfour classes and fifty students. However, on the fifth anniversary,ersary, thethe middle school was opened. The students middle school was opened. The students were were taught French taught French during during

74 Salt Galata Archives, XKSO 073 146 97 00003, XKSO 07314697 00Salt Galata Archives, XKSO 073 146 97 00003, XKSO 07314697 00006 E001006 E001

AccordingAccording to Salat Galata Archives, Fatma Hanım was living in Istanbul when Cavid to Salat Galata Archives, Fatma Hanım was living in Istanbul when Cavid Bey was Bey was died,died, and she continued to live there afterwards. and she continued to live there afterwards.

Salt Galata Archives, XKSO 073 146 97 00009, XKSO 073 146 97 00003 E001 Salt Galata Archives, XKSO 073 146 97 00009, XKSO 073 146 97 00003 E001

75 MertMert Sandalcı Sandalcı FeyzFeyz--i Sıbyi Sıbyan’dan Işık’a Feyziye Mektepleri Tarihian’dan Işık’a Feyziye Mektepleri Tarihi, (Istanbul: Feyziye , (Istanbul: Feyziye Mektepleri Vakfı, 2005), 30.Mektepleri Vakfı, 2005), 30.

76 BOA_DH_SAİDd____00079_00235. “… he had his primary education in ŞemsBOA_DH_SAİDd____00079_00235. “… he had his primary education in Şems--i Efendi i Efendi school….”school….”

77 BOA_DH_SAİDd____00079_00235. “… he went to the middlBOA_DH_SAİDd____00079_00235. “… he went to the middlee school of Fevzschool of Fevz--i Sıi Sıbyan…”byan…”

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their

their first years first years inin primary school. primary school. In addition In addition toto education, education, appropriate appropriate dressdress, sanitation, and , sanitation, and hygienehygiene were among the were among the school’s school’s priorities. At the priorities. At the beginning of the 1890s, the scbeginning of the 1890s, the school hool experiencedexperienced economic problems and economic problems and opened a section for girls.opened a section for girls.78 The The Karakaş sect of the Karakaş sect of the DönmesDönmes werewere among theamong the school’sschool’s founders. The founders. The DönmeDönme schools in schools in Selanik wereSelanik were lloocat-cat-ed at the ed at the city city center. According to Baer, center. According to Baer, the schools belonging to the the schools belonging to the Dö-Dö-nme nme community were located around the community were located around the governmentgovernment offices in Soffices in Seelanik. lanik. This situationThis situation indicates the commindicates the commuunity’s strong ties with local govern-nity’s strong ties with local govern-ment.ment.79

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey wentwent to Istanbul for his to Istanbul for his highhigh school education. school education. HHe ee ennrolled rolled inin MektebMekteb--i İdadii İdadi--i Mülki Mülkii and graduated with hoand graduated with honnorsors on November 9, on November 9, 1893. For higher education, he continued 1893. For higher education, he continued on toon to MektebMekteb--i i MülkiyeMülkiye--i Şa-i Şa-hanehane and graduated with and graduated with honorshonors on August 1896.on August 1896.80 He was ready He was ready to be to be aa civil servant civil servant andand spspokeoke French and Greek fluently. French and Greek fluently. His education atHis education at MülkiyeMülkiye was the second factor that was the second factor that shaped shaped hishis state of mind. Indeed, he state of mind. Indeed, he adopted liberalism adopted liberalism atat an early age an early age and did not change his stance dand did not change his stance deespite spite groungrounddbreaking developmentsbreaking developments suchsuch as the Balkan Waras the Balkan Warss, the Great War, the Great War,, or the National Independence War. or the National Independence War.

Mekteb

Mekteb--i Mülkiyei Mülkiye--i Şahane i Şahane was was aa sysymmbolic bolic institutioninstitution of the Tan-of the Tan-zziimmat Period. Âli Pasha, the Grand Vizier and one oat Period. Âli Pasha, the Grand Vizier and one off thethe mostmost prominent prominent figures of the Tanzimat Period, opened figures of the Tanzimat Period, opened the school the school on February 12, on February 12, 1859.1859.81 Abdülhamid II Abdülhamid II visitedvisited MülkiyeMülkiye inin thethe 1870s and assigned 1870s and assigned two two new professors to new professors to the school,the school, Murat Bey (Mizancı Murat) and Recaizade Murat Bey (Mizancı Murat) and Recaizade Ekrem. Ekrem. They were among the promiThey were among the prominnent intellectuals of the Tanzimat. Aent intellectuals of the Tanzimat. A classical liberal approach penetrated the curriculum ofclassical liberal approach penetrated the curriculum of MülkiyeMülkiye. Two . Two professors of economics had a profound impact on professors of economics had a profound impact on the school’s the school’s stu-stu-

78 Mert Sandalcı Mert Sandalcı FeyzFeyz--i Sıbyan’dan Işık’a Feyziye Mektepleri Tarihii Sıbyan’dan Işık’a Feyziye Mektepleri Tarihi 4444--5, 505, 50--51.51.

79 Baer, Baer, Selanikli DönmelerSelanikli Dönmeler, 118., 118.

80 BOA_DH_SAİDd____00079_00235. “… BOA_DH_SAİDd____00079_00235. “… laterlater, he enrolled to the high school section of , he enrolled to the high school section of Mülkiye, and then to MektebMülkiye, and then to Mekteb--ii MülkiyeMülkiye--i Şahane.i Şahane. He graduated from the high school of He graduated from the high school of Mülkiye with a good degree on November 9, 1893. He graduated from MektebMülkiye with a good degree on November 9, 1893. He graduated from Mekteb--i Mülki-i Mülki-yeye--i Şahane and graduated with a very good degree i Şahane and graduated with a very good degree inin August 1896.August 1896.

81 Ali Çankaya Ali Çankaya “Son Asır Türk Tarihinin Önemli Olayl“Son Asır Türk Tarihinin Önemli Olaylararı ile Birlikte” Yeı ile Birlikte” Yeni Mülkiye Tarihi ve ni Mülkiye Tarihi ve MülkiyelilerMülkiyeliler (Mülkiye Şeref Kitabı), (Ankara: Mars Matbaası, 1969), 51.(Mülkiye Şeref Kitabı), (Ankara: Mars Matbaası, 1969), 51.

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

dents

dents: : Ohannes Pasha and Portakal Mikhail Pasha. Ohannes Pasha and Portakal Mikhail Pasha. These tThese two liberal wo liberal economists based economists based ttheir work heir work on two significant factson two significant facts——first, the im-first, the im-portance of economics and how portance of economics and how internationalinternational relations depended on relations depended on economic powereconomic power; s; seeccondly, ondly, how how the the origins of origins of economic power economic power affectedaffected thethe state’sstate’s fiscal ofiscal orrganization and work. Their ganization and work. Their critical critical approach reflecapproach reflect-t-ed ideas such ased ideas such as rreealism and positivism as well as liberalism.alism and positivism as well as liberalism.82 Mülkiye’sMülkiye’s curriculum curriculum extolled the virtues of the state’sextolled the virtues of the state’s free trade policy and the free trade policy and the abolition of international customs. However, while policymakers adopt-abolition of international customs. However, while policymakers adopt-ed liberal doctrine, the economy was deed liberal doctrine, the economy was detteriorating due to theeriorating due to the state’sstate’s enormous expenses and debts. Although there enormous expenses and debts. Although there were manywere many coconntroversial troversial ideas and discussions ideas and discussions duringduring the Hamidian era, liberal dothe Hamidian era, liberal docctrine pre-trine pre-vailed invailed in the Empire’s elitethe Empire’s elite high schools. high schools. SeveralSeveral books books byby the critical the critical economists of thieconomists of thiss period, Ohannes Pasha, Portakal Mikhail Efendi, and period, Ohannes Pasha, Portakal Mikhail Efendi, and Ahmet Mithat Efendi, were published between 1879 and Ahmet Mithat Efendi, were published between 1879 and 18891889. . Howev-Howev-er, wer, while the first two professors hile the first two professors mentioned above mentioned above advadvoocatcated fored for liberal liberal economic policies, the latter defendeconomic policies, the latter defendeded the newly rising economic the newly rising economic ddoc-oc-trine of protectionism, inspired by Germany.trine of protectionism, inspired by Germany.83 The books of Ohannes The books of Ohannes Pasha and Mikhail PashaPasha and Mikhail Pasha became the leading textbookbecame the leading textbookss and the refer-and the refer-ence ence forfor economic doctrine in the Ottoman Empire. economic doctrine in the Ottoman Empire. These works were These works were so deeply embedded into the Ottoman education system so deeply embedded into the Ottoman education system tthat, despite hat, despite many changes during the Second Constitutional Period, emany changes during the Second Constitutional Period, even the CUP ven the CUP government in the Great War could not withdraw the ligovernment in the Great War could not withdraw the libberal doctrine eral doctrine from from high school high school curriculumcurriculum in in MülkiyeMülkiye. . As a matter of fact, As a matter of fact, Cavid Bey Cavid Bey was was also also the student of Ohannes Pashthe student of Ohannes Pashaa and Portakal Mikhail Pasha in and Portakal Mikhail Pasha in MülkiyeMülkiye, where he, where he learnedlearned of of the liberal economthe liberal economic doctrineic doctrine..84

82 Şerif Mardin, Şerif Mardin, Jön Türklerin Siyasi FikileriJön Türklerin Siyasi Fikileri, 50, 50--1.1.

83 Kılınçoğlu, Kılınçoğlu, Economics and Capitalism in the Ottoman EmpireEconomics and Capitalism in the Ottoman Empire, 42., 42.

84 The field of the ecThe field of the econonomy was the weakesomy was the weakest in the Ottoman schools. The economy was t in the Ottoman schools. The economy was perceived as the state’s finances until the Second Constitutional Period. However, this perceived as the state’s finances until the Second Constitutional Period. However, this field would flourish during the Second Constitutional Period. In this new period, the field would flourish during the Second Constitutional Period. In this new period, the liberal doctrine conliberal doctrine contitinued to dominate tnued to dominate the Ottoman curriculum. This situation had he Ottoman curriculum. This situation had begun with the Tanzimat Act. However, there had been exceptions as Musa Akyiğitza-begun with the Tanzimat Act. However, there had been exceptions as Musa Akyiğitza-de, who was defending the necessity of protectionist policies. He was also the profes-de, who was defending the necessity of protectionist policies. He was also the profes-sor of Mustafa Kemal Atatürksor of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.. Citation?Citation?

A Y Ş E K Ö S E B ADUR

Last but not least, in terms of the impact of

Last but not least, in terms of the impact of MülkiyeMülkiye in Cavid Bey’s in Cavid Bey’s life, it is wortlife, it is worthh mentionmentioninging his friendship with Hüseyin Chis friendship with Hüseyin Caahit hit Bey Bey (Yalçın). They met i(Yalçın). They met inn MülkiyeMülkiye and became lifand became lifeelong friendlong friendss. After Cavid . After Cavid Bey’s execution, his son was raised Bey’s execution, his son was raised byby Hüseyin Cahit Bey and adopted Hüseyin Cahit Bey and adopted his surname. his surname. ThroughoutThroughout their lives, they worked together very closely. their lives, they worked together very closely. HüsHüseyieyin Cahitn Cahit BeyBey was a journalist, but his was a journalist, but his journajournallism was intertwined ism was intertwined with politics. His newspaper, with politics. His newspaper, TaninTanin, opened in the aftermath of the Rev-, opened in the aftermath of the Rev-olutionolution andand became became the the mouthpiece mouthpiece ofof the CUP. Cavid Bey also pulled the CUP. Cavid Bey also pulled him him ininto economic affairs, and Hüseyin Cahit became the Oto economic affairs, and Hüseyin Cahit became the Otttoman dep-toman dep-uty of the OPDA. Their uty of the OPDA. Their relarelattionionshipship was very close and intwas very close and intiimate.mate.

After

After hishis graduation from graduation from MülkiyeMülkiye, where he also learned to, where he also learned to speak speak French and Greek fluentlyFrench and Greek fluently, Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey started to work in thestarted to work in the accounting accounting department of thedepartment of the Agricultural BankAgricultural Bank ((Ziraat BaZiraat Bankasınkası)). His salary was . His salary was 300300 piastrespiastres. On January 1, 1898, he was. On January 1, 1898, he was transferred to the Statistics transferred to the Statistics Office of the Ministry of Education with Office of the Ministry of Education with a salary of 250a salary of 250 ppiiastres. Later astres. Later on, his salary was raised to on, his salary was raised to 300300 piastres. He also became a teacher of piastres. He also became a teacher of mathematics in thmathematics in the Ayasofya High School (e Ayasofya High School (Ayasofya RüşdiyesiAyasofya Rüşdiyesi)) in Istan-in Istan-bulbul. The same year, he started to teach finance in the Teacher Training . The same year, he started to teach finance in the Teacher Training College (College (Darü’lDarü’l--MualliminMuallimin) on ) on April 13April 13, 1899. Th, 1899. Thisis lalattterter position was position was crucialcrucial for his career,for his career, because only experiencedbecause only experienced,, highhigh--rankrankiningg bureau-bureau-crats used to teach crats used to teach atat the Teacher Training School.the Teacher Training School.85 However, Cavid Bey However, Cavid Bey waswas an exceptionan exception to this ruleto this rule. . According to Cavid Bey’s interview with According to Cavid Bey’s interview with Zeki Pakalın, he had to Zeki Pakalın, he had to convince Zühtü Pasha, the Minister of Education, convince Zühtü Pasha, the Minister of Education, to get the job. to get the job. Although tAlthough the Teahe Teachers College was looking for a new pro-chers College was looking for a new pro-

85 BOA_BOA_DH SAİDd__DH SAİDd___00079_00235. “… He read and writes in Turkish, French, and Greek… _00079_00235. “… He read and writes in Turkish, French, and Greek… AlthouAlthoughgh he was nineteen years old, he he was nineteen years old, he was was assigned to the statistics office of the ac-assigned to the statistics office of the ac-counting department of the Agricultural Bank… On January 1, 1898 he was trancounting department of the Agricultural Bank… On January 1, 1898 he was transsferred ferred to theto the ststatistics office of the Ministry of Education with a salary of 250 piastres. … his atistics office of the Ministry of Education with a salary of 250 piastres. … his salary was raised to 300 piastres. He also became a teacher of mathematics in the salary was raised to 300 piastres. He also became a teacher of mathematics in the Ayasofya High School (Ayasofya Rüşdiyesi) on June 27, 2898… The same yeaAyasofya High School (Ayasofya Rüşdiyesi) on June 27, 2898… The same year, he start-r, he start-ed toed to teteach finance in the Teacher Training College (Darü’lach finance in the Teacher Training College (Darü’l--Muallimin) on April 13, Muallimin) on April 13, 1899....”1899....” Why include the dWhy include the direct quoirect quote here? te here? You You had the exact same info a page ago had the exact same info a page ago within the textwithin the text

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

fessor

fessor to teach itsto teach its economy class, Cavid Beyeconomy class, Cavid Bey hadhad graduated graduated justjust two two years before. He applied to Zühtü Pasha with a wellyears before. He applied to Zühtü Pasha with a well--prepared petition. prepared petition. In his letter, he stated that he In his letter, he stated that he was well was well prepared to instruct economy prepared to instruct economy in in the the Teachers College. But he also underlined that Teachers College. But he also underlined that the ministry should the ministry should examine the candidates. Uponexamine the candidates. Upon readingreading his letter, Zühtü Pasha invited his letter, Zühtü Pasha invited Cavid Bey to meet him. Zühtü Pasha askCavid Bey to meet him. Zühtü Pasha askeded him him manymany questions about questions about his education, the bookhis education, the bookss he read in Turkish or Frenchhe read in Turkish or French, , including including The The Wealth of NationsWealth of Nations ((İlmİlm--i Serveti Servet--i Mili Mileell) ) byby Ohannes Pasha. AfterOhannes Pasha. After the the meeting,meeting, he was convinced that Cavid Bey had he was convinced that Cavid Bey had a a cocommprehensive prehensive knowledge of the economy knowledge of the economy as he as he studstudied bothied both local and ilocal and innternational ternational scholars, scholars, and and he assigned him to the positiohe assigned him to the position. On October 18, 1899, he n. On October 18, 1899, he was transferred to the Department of Middle Schoolswas transferred to the Department of Middle Schools. . HoHowwever, due to a ever, due to a “journal,” a secret note against Cavid Bey sent t“journal,” a secret note against Cavid Bey sent too Yıldız Palace, he lost his Yıldız Palace, he lost his teachteachinging jjoob. b. This had beenThis had been a critical post for him as a new graduate. a critical post for him as a new graduate. HHe e resigresigned from Ayasofya Middle School, and on August 7, 1902, he left his ned from Ayasofya Middle School, and on August 7, 1902, he left his job at the Department of Middle Schools.job at the Department of Middle Schools.86

During his

During his brief experience ofbrief experience of workworkinging in Istanbul, Cavid Bey also in Istanbul, Cavid Bey also published published tthe first volume of his book on the economyhe first volume of his book on the economy, , The Science of The Science of EconomicsEconomics ((İlmİlm--i İktisadi İktisad), in 189), in 18966.. 87 It was a manifesto It was a manifesto onon laissezlaissez--faire faire economeconomicsics in the context of political economy. in the context of political economy. In his book, hIn his book, he alleges e alleges

86 Mehmet Zeki Pakalın, Mehmet Zeki Pakalın, Maliye Teşkilâtı Tarihi (1442Maliye Teşkilâtı Tarihi (1442--1930)1930) ((Ankara: Maliye BakaAnkara: Maliye Bakanlığı nlığı Tetkik Kurulu Yayını, 1977), 256. Tetkik Kurulu Yayını, 1977), 256.

87 According to Seyfettin Özege Catalogue of PAccording to Seyfettin Özege Catalogue of Printed Works Published in Ottoman rinted Works Published in Ottoman Turkish, the Turkish, the copyrightcopyright of the İlmof the İlm--I İktisad books are as follows:I İktisad books are as follows: Is copyright the correct Is copyright the correct word? word? EditiEditionons perhaps?s perhaps?

Mehmed Cavid Bey Mehmed Cavid Bey İİllmm--i İktisad, Vol Ii İktisad, Vol I, Istanbul: Karabet Matbaası, 1896., Istanbul: Karabet Matbaası, 1896.

Mehmed Cavid Bey Mehmed Cavid Bey İlmİlm--i İktisad, Vol IIi İktisad, Vol II, Istanbul: Mihran Matbaası, 1898., Istanbul: Mihran Matbaası, 1898.

MehmMehmed Cavid Bey ed Cavid Bey İlmİlm--i İktisad Vol IIIi İktisad Vol III, (Istanbul: Karabet Matbaası, 1899)., (Istanbul: Karabet Matbaası, 1899).

Mehmed Cavid Bey Mehmed Cavid Bey İlmİlm--i İktii İktisad, Vol Isad, Vol IVV, (Istan, (Istanbul: Âlem Matbaası, 1900).bul: Âlem Matbaası, 1900).

ÖZEGE; 13120 ÖZEGE; 13120 –– TBTK; 9743. TBTK; 9743.

The copyright of books in The copyright of books in my librarymy library is as follows: is as follows:

Mehmed Cavid Bey Mehmed Cavid Bey İlmİlm--i İktisad, Vol Ii İktisad, Vol I, Istanbul: Karabet Matbaası, 1315/1899, Istanbul: Karabet Matbaası, 1315/1899--1900).1900).

Mehmed Cavid Bey Mehmed Cavid Bey İlmİlm--i İktisad, Vol i İktisad, Vol IIII, Istanbul: Mihra, Istanbul: Mihrann Matbaası, 1315/1899Matbaası, 1315/1899--1900).1900).

Mehmed Cavid Bey Mehmed Cavid Bey İlmİlm--i İktisad, Vol IIIi İktisad, Vol III, Istanbul: Karabet Matbaası, 1316/1900, Istanbul: Karabet Matbaası, 1316/1900--1901).1901).

Mehmed Cavid Bey Mehmed Cavid Bey İlmİlm--i İktisad, Vol IVi İktisad, Vol IV, (Istanbul: Alem Matbaası, 1317/1901 , (Istanbul: Alem Matbaası, 1317/1901 –– 1902).1902).

A Y Ş E K Ö S E B ADUR

that the liberal economy presents an opportunity for the Ottoman E

that the liberal economy presents an opportunity for the Ottoman Em-m-pire to overcome its underdeveloped position.pire to overcome its underdeveloped position.88 AccordinAccording to his integ to his inter-r-view with Pakalın, Zühtü Pasha keview with Pakalın, Zühtü Pasha keptpt the parts of his books the parts of his books that had that had beenbeen censorcensoreded..89 Cavid Bey claims that, in addition to his job at the Cavid Bey claims that, in addition to his job at the Teachers College, this was the second time that Zühtü Pasha had prTeachers College, this was the second time that Zühtü Pasha had pro-o-tected him. tected him. A conciseA concise version of hisversion of his bbook was published as a textbook ook was published as a textbook for high schools in 1910.for high schools in 1910.90 After the publication ofAfter the publication of this book, Cavid Bey this book, Cavid Bey became one of thebecame one of the mostmost critical icritical inntellectuals in the field of economtellectuals in the field of economicsics after his graduationafter his graduation..

Hüseyin Cahit wrote the

Hüseyin Cahit wrote the foreword foreword of thof thisis book.book.91 Cavid BeyCavid Bey begins begins his book with his book with anan introductionintroduction intointo the conceptual background of eco-the conceptual background of eco-nomnomicsics, political economy, and state finances. The first , political economy, and state finances. The first volume volume didisscussescusses issues such as theissues such as the naturenature of the economyof the economy, work, different ve, work, different verrsions of sions of capital, accumulation of capital, thecapital, accumulation of capital, the organization of work, morganization of work, maachines, chines, propropperty, erty, andand competition. The second competition. The second volumevolume of the book focuses on of the book focuses on the distribution of capital. It covers issues the distribution of capital. It covers issues such such as property, population, as property, population, interest rates, profitinterest rates, profitss, wage, wagess, et cetera. The third , et cetera. The third voluvolumme discusses hise discusses his researesearch on the circulation of capital. It covers exchange, value, curren-rch on the circulation of capital. It covers exchange, value, curren-cy, currency value, credit, emissioncy, currency value, credit, emissions,s, banks, pricebanks, pricess, inte, interrnational com-national com-merce, and crimerce, and crisses. The fourth es. The fourth volumevolume covers issues such as the balance covers issues such as the balance of commerce, expenses, savings, luxury, povertof commerce, expenses, savings, luxury, poverty and subsy and subsiidies, taxes, dies, taxes, and loans.and loans.

It is

It is reasonable to reasonable to believebelieve that Cavid Beythat Cavid Bey ffollowed the work of his ollowed the work of his contemporaries such as William Stanley Jcontemporaries such as William Stanley Jeevons and Eugen von Böhmvons and Eugen von Böhm--Bawerk. And as an oppBawerk. And as an oppoonent of socialism, he oftentimes criticized Karl nent of socialism, he oftentimes criticized Karl Marx in his book.Marx in his book. He was also influenced by both the British Manchester He was also influenced by both the British Manchester School and by classical French economists such as Jean Baptiste Say and School and by classical French economists such as Jean Baptiste Say and Frederic BastiatFrederic Bastiat.. In his opinion, the state was the common organ of so-In his opinion, the state was the common organ of so-ciety in the formation of a nation; and protection (defenseciety in the formation of a nation; and protection (defense), security, ), security,

88 Georgeon, Sultan Abdülhamid, 4Georgeon, Sultan Abdülhamid, 407.07.

89 Pakalın, MalPakalın, Maliiye Teşkilâtı ye Teşkilâtı Tarihi, 256.Tarihi, 256.

90 Mehmed Cavid Bey Mehmed Cavid Bey İlmİlm--i İktisad. Mekâtibi İktisad. Mekâtib--i İdadiyei İdadiye. Istanbul: Âmire Matbaası, 1911. . Istanbul: Âmire Matbaası, 1911.

91 Mehmed Cavid Mehmed Cavid Bey Bey İlmİlm--i İktisad, Vol Ii İktisad, Vol I (Istanbul: Karabet Matbaası, 1899), i(Istanbul: Karabet Matbaası, 1899), i--vii.vii.

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and serving justice were amongst the primary duties of the state.

and serving justice were amongst the primary duties of the state. EEco-co-nomically, nomically, he believed that he believed that the service of public works and ithe service of public works and innfrastruc-frastruc-tural investments should be undertaken by the state. Freedom means tural investments should be undertaken by the state. Freedom means the absence of the intervethe absence of the intervenntion of thtion of the state, as well as the prevention of e state, as well as the prevention of doing what one desires. According to Cavid Bey, liberalism may encoun-doing what one desires. According to Cavid Bey, liberalism may encoun-ter difficulties and diveter difficulties and diverrsions due sions due tto different levels of development be-o different levels of development be-tween countries.tween countries.92 We can adopt the following framework to help fur-We can adopt the following framework to help fur-ther graspther grasp Cavid Bey’s economic view: first of all, he was engaged in Cavid Bey’s economic view: first of all, he was engaged in liberal capitalism, and he thought that there should be universal laws liberal capitalism, and he thought that there should be universal laws independent independent oof time and place. Cavid Bey, as an economist in favor of f time and place. Cavid Bey, as an economist in favor of the market economy, ethe market economy, emmphasiphasizedzed private property, freedoprivate property, freedom, and com-m, and com-petition. Furthermore, Cavid Bey was of the view that the role of the petition. Furthermore, Cavid Bey was of the view that the role of the state should be limited in favor of the markestate should be limited in favor of the market t andand believed thabelieved thatt capital capital should be free. He advshould be free. He advoocated for foreign capital; the statecated for foreign capital; the state’’s support for s support for the local bourgeoisie seemed the local bourgeoisie seemed suspicious to him. He was against the tra-suspicious to him. He was against the tra-dition of confiscation in Ottoman culture and stated that private entre-dition of confiscation in Ottoman culture and stated that private entre-preneurs should be free. He alspreneurs should be free. He alsoo believed in the right to unionizbelieved in the right to unionizee, to , to strike and strike and llockock--out, but he also added that these rights should have a out, but he also added that these rights should have a lelegal basis. Concerning laborgal basis. Concerning labor--capital relations, he sided with capital and capital relations, he sided with capital and thought that Karl Marx's effort to provide general equality was delu-thought that Karl Marx's effort to provide general equality was delu-sisioonal.nal.93

In this book, Cavid Bey

In this book, Cavid Bey purely advocatpurely advocateded for for comparative advacomparative advanntages tages theory and asserttheory and asserteded that the Ottoman Ethat the Ottoman Empire should develop mpire should develop throughthrough expanding its agricultural productionexpanding its agricultural production rather thanrather than supporting infrastruc-supporting infrastruc-ture investments. ture investments. He also believed that theHe also believed that the allocation of rallocation of reesources to sources to develop indudevelop indusstry was gainless. try was gainless. He believed that tHe believed that the free trade system he free trade system would be in favwould be in favor of the Ottoman Empireor of the Ottoman Empire,, especiallyespecially afterafter it would com-it would com-plete the transportation plete the transportation networksnetworks withwithin in itsits vast tevast terrritory. This was ritory. This was how Britain develohow Britain developpeded, he cited, he cited. Although the Great Powers were apply-. Although the Great Powers were apply-

92 Diren Çakmak, Diren Çakmak, OsmOsmanlı İktisat Düşüncanlı İktisat Düşüncesesinin Evrimi: Sociinin Evrimi: Societas ve Universitas Gerilimietas ve Universitas Gerilimi (Istanbul: Libra Kitapçılık ve Yayıncılık, 2012), 159.(Istanbul: Libra Kitapçılık ve Yayıncılık, 2012), 159.

93 Deniz Karaman, "UlûmDeniz Karaman, "Ulûm--i İktisadiye ve İçtimaiye Mecmuası," i İktisadiye ve İçtimaiye Mecmuası," C.Ü. Sosyal BilimlerC.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi Dergisi 28, no. May (1) (28, no. May (1) (22004): 73004): 73--4.4.

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ing customs ta

ing customs tarriffs to protect their domestic markets, Cavid Biffs to protect their domestic markets, Cavid Bey was ey was against highagainst higherer tariffstariffs, which , which could halt the commerce in the Ocould halt the commerce in the Ottttooman man Empire. Unlike List, his Empire. Unlike List, his book was inspired bybook was inspired by Émile Le VaÉmile Le Vassseur, Chaseur, Charrles les Gide, Henri Baudrillart, Paul Beauregard, and Paul LeroyGide, Henri Baudrillart, Paul Beauregard, and Paul Leroy--Beaulieu.Beaulieu.94

In the 1890s, a new and popular economic

In the 1890s, a new and popular economic debate focuseddebate focused on the on the dispute between liberalism and protectionism. Cavid Bey and Musa dispute between liberalism and protectionism. Cavid Bey and Musa Akyiğitzade representAkyiğitzade representeded the two pillars of this debate. the two pillars of this debate. There were also There were also other economists involved in this debate such as Ahmet Mithat Efendi, other economists involved in this debate such as Ahmet Mithat Efendi, who who criticizcriticized ed laissezlaissez--faire economicsfaire economics. . CCavid Bey’s books responded to avid Bey’s books responded to the arguments in Musa Akyiğitzade Efendi’s bookthe arguments in Musa Akyiğitzade Efendi’s book thatthat assertasserteded the ne-the ne-cecesssity of protectionism for the Ottoman Empire. sity of protectionism for the Ottoman Empire. TThree yearshree years beforebefore Cavid Bey published his book, Musa AkyiğitzadeCavid Bey published his book, Musa Akyiğitzade EfendiEfendi published published his his book book EcEcoonomics or the nomics or the Science of Wealth: Freedom of Exchange and the Science of Wealth: Freedom of Exchange and the System of ProtectionismSystem of Protectionism ((İktisad yâhud İlmİktisad yâhud İlm--ii Servet: ÂzâdegiServet: Âzâdegi--ii Ticâret ve Ticâret ve UsûlUsûl--ii HimâyeHimâye). ). He He discussdiscusseded two rival economic approaches: liberalism two rival economic approaches: liberalism and protectionismand protectionism in his bookin his book. . HHe was inspired by the German inte was inspired by the German intelleellec-c-tuals, particularly Friedrich List.tuals, particularly Friedrich List. List was the pioneer of protectioList was the pioneer of protectionnism ism and the national economy in the economic literature. Akyiğitzade and the national economy in the economic literature. Akyiğitzade critcriti-i-cized cized the the liberalliberal argumentargument that the Ottoman Empire shouldthat the Ottoman Empire should continue to continue to developdevelop as as anan agricultural economy duagricultural economy due to its comparative advantage. e to its comparative advantage. Because agricultural production depended on varBecause agricultural production depended on variious paradigms ous paradigms such such as nature and external developments, as nature and external developments, he argued thathe argued that industry should be industry should be protectedprotected, similar to in the United States, similar to in the United States..95 Meanwhile, during the last Meanwhile, during the last quarter of thequarter of the nineteenth century, states began to assume positive funnineteenth century, states began to assume positive func-c-tions. The interventionist state was on the agenda at various levels, but tions. The interventionist state was on the agenda at various levels, but in the Ottoman Empire, the most obvious example of such policies was in the Ottoman Empire, the most obvious example of such policies was seen onlyseen only after 1913. after 1913.

As a young officer and professor

As a young officer and professor in various schools, Cavid Bey rose in various schools, Cavid Bey rose in the field of the economy with his hard work. However, despite his in the field of the economy with his hard work. However, despite his popularity at the Academy, civil servant life in Istanbul was not easy. popularity at the Academy, civil servant life in Istanbul was not easy. Although Istanbul was a very Although Istanbul was a very livelylively city, it was under the strict control of city, it was under the strict control of

94 Kılınçoğlu, Kılınçoğlu, Economics and Capitalism in the Ottoman EmpirEconomics and Capitalism in the Ottoman Empiree, 68., 68.

95 KılınçoğlKılınçoğlu, u, Economics and Capitalism in the Ottoman EmpireEconomics and Capitalism in the Ottoman Empire, 64, 64--6.6.

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

the e ssultan. ultan. Clientelism and bribery were widespread in the bureaucracy Clientelism and bribery were widespread in the bureaucracy as well as the eas well as the esspionage system founded directly by the sultan. Cavid pionage system founded directly by the sultan. Cavid Bey was a vBey was a very active and hardery active and hard--working person. working person. His professional life His professional life was based on modern principles such as merwas based on modern principles such as meriitocratocracy. As cy. As Cavid Bey Cavid Bey toldtold Pakalın, due to Pakalın, due to intelligenceintelligence against himagainst him, he lost his jo, he lost his job b at the Teacher at the Teacher Training School. Then he rTraining School. Then he reesigned from his other posts and returned to signed from his other posts and returned to SelanikSelanik in 1902. in 1902.

Cavid Bey lived in

Cavid Bey lived in Selanik, his hometownSelanik, his hometown betbetween 1ween 1902 and 1908. 902 and 1908. FevzFevziye iye Schools offered him Schools offered him the position ofthe position of director in director in SelanikSelanik. Due to . Due to the the insistence of his friendsinsistence of his friends suchsuch as Süleyman Kani, Hasan Tahsin, and as Süleyman Kani, Hasan Tahsin, and Hüseyin CahitHüseyin Cahit,, he accepthe accepteded the job. During this pthe job. During this peeriod, riod, he washe was also a also a teacher of economics inteacher of economics in the the SSelanikelanik High SchoolHigh School. . AAcccording to his record cording to his record in the Ministry of Internal Affairs related to his bureaucratic career, in the Ministry of Internal Affairs related to his bureaucratic career, his his petition to the ministry of education and petition to the ministry of education and the the ministry’s response is dat-ministry’s response is dat-ed 1906.ed 1906.96

Cavid Bey directed the Fevziye Schools for almos

Cavid Bey directed the Fevziye Schools for almost six t six years. He was years. He was not not a sta stranger to the order of the school ranger to the order of the school sincesince he was a graduate. he was a graduate. HoHow-w-ever, tever, thehe economic situation ofeconomic situation of Fevziye Schools was pretty Fevziye Schools was pretty dismaldismal in in these years. these years. Remedying the school’sRemedying the school’s budget deficit was the most signifbudget deficit was the most signifi-i-cant task ahead of Cavid Bcant task ahead of Cavid Bey. Caey. Cavid Bey was hopefuvid Bey was hopeful l ababout the future ofout the future of the school. He madethe school. He made significant changessignificant changes as the director of the school and as the director of the school and enabled tangible progress. His primary focus was on the quality of the enabled tangible progress. His primary focus was on the quality of the education, bringeducation, bringing ining in more foreign teachers, and openmore foreign teachers, and openinging a boara boardding ing scschool hool as well asas well as nenew brw branches. He also gave lectures anches. He also gave lectures on on economy, eco-economy, eco-nomic geography, accounting methods, law, and ethics. He initiated nomic geography, accounting methods, law, and ethics. He initiated monthly, tmonthly, triri--monthlymonthly,, and annual reports and annual reports onon the school. The reports ethe school. The reports en-n-

96 BOA_ MF_MKT__00957_00003_001_001BOA_ MF_MKT__00957_00003_001_001

“I am the director of the private school“I am the director of the private school called Fevziye Schools. I request you to assign called Fevziye Schools. I request you to assign me to the vacant position of economics professorshipme to the vacant position of economics professorship tutorage at the Setutorage at the Selanlanik High ik High School…” August 8, 1906. School…” August 8, 1906.

BOA_ MF_MKT__00957_00003_002_002BOA_ MF_MKT__00957_00003_002_002

“Cavid Bey was assigned to the Selanik High Scool as the economi

“Cavid Bey was assigned to the Selanik High Scool as the economics professor with a cs professor with a eighty piastre salary, ….” August 13, 1906.eighty piastre salary, ….” August 13, 1906.

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able

abled the state and the studentsd the state and the students to track the to track the financfinancial position of thial position of the e scschool hool overover short periods. He also initiated public relations for the short periods. He also initiated public relations for the school and prepared and distributed brochures school and prepared and distributed brochures forfor the school. His tathe school. His tarrget get group was wealthy families living outside of group was wealthy families living outside of SelanikSelanik. His public rel. His public relaations tions work work yieldedyielded goodgood results, and childresults, and children ren from from asas far far awayaway as as BagBaghhdad dad aand nd Trablusgarp Trablusgarp enrolled in the school. During Cavid Beyenrolled in the school. During Cavid Bey’s directorate’s directorate, , Fevziye Schools Fevziye Schools became a fullbecame a full--fledgedfledged institution. He also organized so-institution. He also organized so-cial eventscial events suchsuch as local trips for the students. The devas local trips for the students. The deveellopmeopments re-nts re-garding Fevzgarding Fevziye iye Schools became Schools became major major news in the newspnews in the newspaapers pers in Se-in Se-lanik such as lanik such as The CenturyThe Century ((AsırAsır). His efforts ). His efforts also yielded quick, positive also yielded quick, positive resultsresults and were appreciated by theand were appreciated by the city’scity’s highhigh--rankrankinging offoffiicers.cers.97 Cavid Cavid Bey aimed to increase the number of students, open a new branch, and Bey aimed to increase the number of students, open a new branch, and attract affluent students to attract affluent students to the the school. For this reason, he openeschool. For this reason, he opened a new d a new branch to the Yalılar neighborhood of branch to the Yalılar neighborhood of SelanikSelanik in 1905. Yalılar was a in 1905. Yalılar was a wealthy neighborhood. wealthy neighborhood. TThe Yalılar branch of the Fevziye School would he Yalılar branch of the Fevziye School would be successful very be successful very early onearly on. He also wanted to make it easier for stu-. He also wanted to make it easier for stu-dents who lived away from the school to rdents who lived away from the school to reach the school. He also each the school. He also opened opened dormitoriesdormitories in 1905 for the students from distanin 1905 for the students from distantt proprovvinces of inces of the Ottoman Empire. He also opened a kindergathe Ottoman Empire. He also opened a kindergarrten ten atat the school and a the school and a gymnasium for the students. Although the fugymnasium for the students. Although the funndamentalists protestdamentalists protesteded these kinds of activitiethese kinds of activities, secular education continued without halting in s, secular education continued without halting in SelanikSelanik..98

In 1904, the foundation of a business high school

In 1904, the foundation of a business high school for Selanik was onfor Selanik was on Cavid Bey’sCavid Bey’s agenda. agenda. The project was realized thanks to the initiative ofThe project was realized thanks to the initiative of Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, tthe General Inspector of Rumelia,he General Inspector of Rumelia, and Hasan and Hasan Fehmi Pasha, the governor of Fehmi Pasha, the governor of SelanikSelanik. . This initiative was carried foThis initiative was carried for-r-ward through the ward through the cooperation cooperation betweenbetween Fevziye and Terakki Schools, Fevziye and Terakki Schools, from from two rival sects, two rival sects, the the Karakaş and Kapancı, of the Karakaş and Kapancı, of the Dönme Dönme ccommommuunity. nity. The process of foundThe process of foundinging the school procthe school proceeeded very eded very quicklyquickly. Even . Even Abdülhamid II donated Abdülhamid II donated 150 l150 lira to the school. ira to the school. AA commission consistcommission consisting ing of members fromof members from both schoolsboth schools was formed,was formed, and Cavid Bey became the and Cavid Bey became the

97 Sandalcı, Sandalcı, FeyzFeyz--i Sıbyan’dan i Sıbyan’dan Işık’a Feyziye MekIşık’a Feyziye Mekttepleri Tarihiepleri Tarihi, 73. , 73.

98 Sandalcı, Sandalcı, FeyzFeyz--i Sıbyan’dan Işık’a Feyziye Mektepleri Tarihii Sıbyan’dan Işık’a Feyziye Mektepleri Tarihi, 92, 92--8.8.

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president of it.

president of it. TThe business school was openedhe business school was opened in September 1904in September 1904. . Cavid Bey gave the first claCavid Bey gave the first classs in the field of economs in the field of economicsics. Cavid Bey . Cavid Bey gavegave lectures on financial economy, translation, clerkship, and commercial lectures on financial economy, translation, clerkship, and commercial code. In the first year, eight students were enrolled, and they code. In the first year, eight students were enrolled, and they receivedreceived thetheirir education in a class in Fevziye Schools. Nevertheless, education in a class in Fevziye Schools. Nevertheless, shortlyshortly after after the school opened, thethe school opened, the twotwo religious sects began to arguereligious sects began to argue with each oth-with each oth-er, and the school er, and the school was was not as longnot as long--lived as hoped lived as hoped for for by the state oby the state offfic-fic-ers. Later on, eachers. Later on, each sect sect opened business classes opened business classes for students in their last for students in their last two years of high schooltwo years of high school..99

Whi

Whille Cavid Bey was busy at work at Fevziye Schoolse Cavid Bey was busy at work at Fevziye Schools,, he did not he did not keep akeep a diarydiary——at least that weat least that we know of. Therefore,know of. Therefore, it is not easy to foit is not easy to folllow low his life step by step his life step by step in thein the prepre--revolutionary revolutionary periodperiod. . WWe know very little e know very little about himabout him from secondary sourcesfrom secondary sources. The informa. The informattion we ion we do do know about know about himhim from these years is from these years is thatthat he he gotgot mamarrried, ried, he was the school director he was the school director of the Fevziye Schools, he contributed to the publicof the Fevziye Schools, he contributed to the publicaations that tions that became became the voice of the Ottoman Freedom Socthe voice of the Ottoman Freedom Sociietyety such as such as The Children's GardenThe Children's Garden ((Çocuk BağçeÇocuk Bağçesisi)),,100 hehe waswas a freemason, a freemason, and lastly, he and lastly, he became became aa member member of the CUP. of the CUP.

First, we know that he married Saniye Hanım before the 1908 Rev

First, we know that he married Saniye Hanım before the 1908 Revo-o-lution. However, she lution. However, she becamebecame very sick, and very sick, and passed away on March 8/9, passed away on March 8/9, 1909. Cavid Bey mentions his wife1909. Cavid Bey mentions his wife’’s death at the s death at the begibeginnning ofning of his his dia-dia-riesries. H. He had many kind words to say aboute had many kind words to say about his wife.his wife.101 However, tHowever, there is here is no no additionaladditional information about his marriage with Saniye Hanım. information about his marriage with Saniye Hanım. UUnntiltil his second marriage in 1921, his second marriage in 1921, Cavid BeyCavid Bey lived as a lived as a busy busy single man. single man.

We can assume that Cavid Be

We can assume that Cavid Bey liy likkely metely met his fellow Unionists his fellow Unionists through his social networks in Selanik, including the freemasons. through his social networks in Selanik, including the freemasons. In the In the freemason lodges in Selanik, likefreemason lodges in Selanik, like--minded people were able to come tminded people were able to come to-o-

99 Sandalcı, Sandalcı, FeyzFeyz--i Sıbyan’dan Işık’a Feyziye Mektepleri Tarihii Sıbyan’dan Işık’a Feyziye Mektepleri Tarihi, 94, 94--55;; Alkan, Alkan, İmparator-İmparator-luk’tan Cumhuriyet’e Selanik’teluk’tan Cumhuriyet’e Selanik’ten Istanbul’a Terakki Vakfı vn Istanbul’a Terakki Vakfı ve Terakki Okulları e Terakki Okulları 18771877--20002000, , 8282--3.3.

100 Şükrü Şükrü HanioğluHanioğlu,, PreparationPreparation for A Revolution: The Young Turks, 1902 for A Revolution: The Young Turks, 1902 –– 19081908, New , New York: OxfordYork: Oxford University Press, 2001), 213.University Press, 2001), 213.

101 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 19 19 --20.20.

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gether and met freely. The isolated environment of the freem

gether and met freely. The isolated environment of the freemaason lodg-son lodg-es enabled tes enabled the Yhe Yooung Turung Turks to meet and discuss changes to the pks to meet and discuss changes to the poolitical litical regime of the Ottoman Empire. They provided free spaces to neregime of the Ottoman Empire. They provided free spaces to nettwork work among the Unionists and protected them against the spies of the sultanamong the Unionists and protected them against the spies of the sultan,, as the connectionas the connectionss between freembetween freemaasonry and the Young Turksonry and the Young Turks cos couuld not ld not be proven by the spies and offbe proven by the spies and offiicers of the regime.cers of the regime.102 Cavid Bey was a Cavid Bey was a member of the member of the Spanish mason lodge called the Spanish mason lodge called the Perserveancia Lodge. His Perserveancia Lodge. His close friend Emanuel Karasso was the maclose friend Emanuel Karasso was the masster of the Italian Obedter of the Italian Obediience ence Macedonia Resort. Most of the promineMacedonia Resort. Most of the prominent Unt Unnionistsionists were memberwere memberss of of this lodge.this lodge. AccoAccording to the list in Orhan Koloğlu’s book, prominent Un-rding to the list in Orhan Koloğlu’s book, prominent Un-ionists began to join the freemasons in 1903. These iionists began to join the freemasons in 1903. These inncluded Mithat cluded Mithat Şükrü (Şükrü (BleadaBleada), Mehmet Talat, Fazlı Necip, Manyasizade Refik, İsmail ), Mehmet Talat, Fazlı Necip, Manyasizade Refik, İsmail Canbulat, and Hakkı İsmail.Canbulat, and Hakkı İsmail.103 In terms of the relationship betweeIn terms of the relationship between the n the Young Turks and freemasons, three people played vital roles. These Young Turks and freemasons, three people played vital roles. These were Talat Bey, Karasso Efendi, and Manyasizade Refik, who established were Talat Bey, Karasso Efendi, and Manyasizade Refik, who established a network among the freemasons and Unionists to ea network among the freemasons and Unionists to exxpand the move-pand the move-ment.ment.104 Talat Bey was the key person inside the CUTalat Bey was the key person inside the CUP that Cavid Bey had P that Cavid Bey had worked worked with with very closely until the end of the Second Constitvery closely until the end of the Second Constituutional Pe-tional Pe-riod.riod.105 Talat Bey was born in Edirne, and he worked at the post office in Talat Bey was born in Edirne, and he worked at the post office in the same city. His secret group was rthe same city. His secret group was reeported to the authorities, and he ported to the authorities, and he was arrested in 189was arrested in 18966..106 AAffter a short prison sentence, he was sent to ter a short prison sentence, he was sent to

102 However, aHowever, afftter the er the joy of the revolutijoy of the revolution passed, freemasonon passed, freemasonry became the target of the ry became the target of the opposition. Notably, Cavid Bey became a target of the opposition due to his affiliation opposition. Notably, Cavid Bey became a target of the opposition due to his affiliation with the Dönme community and freemasonry following the 31 March Incident. Orhan with the Dönme community and freemasonry following the 31 March Incident. Orhan Koloğlu, Koloğlu, İttİttiihhatçılaratçılar ve Masve Masonlaronlar (Istan(Istanbul: Pozitif Yayınlabul: Pozitif Yayınları, 2012), 67rı, 2012), 67--77. Paul77. Paul Dumont, Dumont, Osmanlıcılık, Ulusçu Akımlar ve MasonlukOsmanlıcılık, Ulusçu Akımlar ve Masonluk (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 1999), 631999), 63--70.70.

103 Koloğlu, Koloğlu, İttihatçılar ve Masonlarİttihatçılar ve Masonlar, (Istanbul: Pozitif Yayınları, 2012), 23,24, 28; Ero, (Istanbul: Pozitif Yayınları, 2012), 23,24, 28; Eroğğlluu, , İttihİttihatçılatçıların Ünlü Maların Ünlü Maliye Nazırı Cavid Beyiye Nazırı Cavid Bey, 33., 33.

104 Koloğlu, Koloğlu, İttihatçılar ve Masonlarİttihatçılar ve Masonlar, 51, 51--7.7.

105 There had been different power groups in the CUP. Talat Bet was the backbone of the There had been different power groups in the CUP. Talat Bet was the backbone of the whole organization respected by whole organization respected by bothboth civil and military members. Alcivil and military members. Although though hehe was a was a civil man, hcivil man, his approach to politics wais approach to politics was resembled with military wing of the CUP. s resembled with military wing of the CUP.

106 HansHans--Lukas KieserLukas Kieser, , Talaat Pasha Father of Modern TurkeTalaat Pasha Father of Modern Turkey,y, Architect of GenocideArchitect of Genocide (New (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2012018), 428), 42--46.46.

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Selanik in 1897

Selanik in 1897––1898. However, these questions regar1898. However, these questions regardding the political ing the political system of the Ottoman Empire rsystem of the Ottoman Empire reemained in his mind. He was bmained in his mind. He was beelieved lieved that creating an organization should be a priority in the process of that creating an organization should be a priority in the process of ccre-re-ating a new society. He began to work at the post office, which aating a new society. He began to work at the post office, which alllowed lowed him to know the city and the people because he had to distribute the him to know the city and the people because he had to distribute the posts by hand. He met new friends and started meeting them regposts by hand. He met new friends and started meeting them reguularly larly at at Beşçınar or Yonyo. His friends included Beşçınar or Yonyo. His friends included MMithat Şükrü, İsmail Canbu-ithat Şükrü, İsmail Canbu-lat, Kazım Nami, Burslat, Kazım Nami, Bursaalı Tahir Bey, Naki Bey, Ömer Naci, lı Tahir Bey, Naki Bey, Ömer Naci, and and Edip Ser-Edip Ser-vetvet..107 Cavid Bey is not among these names. However, it would be wise Cavid Bey is not among these names. However, it would be wise to recall that Sto recall that Seelanik was Cavid Bey’s hometown and nlanik was Cavid Bey’s hometown and now, he was one of ow, he was one of the prominent school’s the prominent school’s directorsdirectors. In addition, he was recently ma. In addition, he was recently marrried. ried.

Due to the secret character of the CUP and the Unionists, the lack of

Due to the secret character of the CUP and the Unionists, the lack of the archivethe archivess relatedrelated the CUPthe CUP, and the lack of, and the lack of of egoof ego--documents, we have documents, we have very few details about very few details about CCavid Bey’s early actions in the CUP. The earliest avid Bey’s early actions in the CUP. The earliest historical accounthistorical account on the CUP ison the CUP is dateddated 1903. According to Şükrü 1903. According to Şükrü Hanioğlu, the Young Turks were worried about the revolt in Ilinden, Au-Hanioğlu, the Young Turks were worried about the revolt in Ilinden, Au-gust 1903. For this reason, Talat Bey, Major Cemal, Cavid Bey, Rahmi gust 1903. For this reason, Talat Bey, Major Cemal, Cavid Bey, Rahmi (A(Arrslan), and Hacı Adil Bey visited a British diplomat. They ask for for-slan), and Hacı Adil Bey visited a British diplomat. They ask for for-eign support for theign support for their movement if they could gather more people. eir movement if they could gather more people. However, they However, they werewere not one hundred percent certain that they hanot one hundred percent certain that they hadd an an adequate number of “sympathizers.” The British diplomat responded adequate number of “sympathizers.” The British diplomat responded that it was not the right time for a revolt, which is why they should leathat it was not the right time for a revolt, which is why they should leavvee it behindit behind..108 This anecdote belongs to a date long before the foundation This anecdote belongs to a date long before the foundation of the Ottoman Freedom Society in 1906. of the Ottoman Freedom Society in 1906.

After the Illinden r

After the Illinden reevolt in volt in August August 1903, the Great Powers asked the 1903, the Great Powers asked the ssultan to accept ultan to accept the the Mürzsteg Plan on October 22, 1903. Mürzsteg Plan on October 22, 1903. As Mazower As Mazower statestatess,, iit was “the last real cooperation bt was “the last real cooperation beetween two major Powerstween two major Powers, , Aus-Aus-triatria--HungaryHungary and Russiaand Russia, , involved in the involved in the BalkansBalkans.”.”109 This reform plan This reform plan

107 Tevfik Çavdar, Tevfik Çavdar, Bir Örgüt UBir Örgüt Uststasının asının Yaşamöyküsü Talât PaşaYaşamöyküsü Talât Paşa (Ankara: İmge K(Ankara: İmge Kitabevi, itabevi, 2001), 2001), 4242--66.66.

108 Hanioğlu, PreparationHanioğlu, Preparation for A Revolution: The Young Turks, for A Revolution: The Young Turks, 1902 1902 –– 19081908, 211., 211.

109 Mark Mazower, Mark Mazower, The Balkans: from the End of Byzantium The Balkans: from the End of Byzantium to the Present Dayto the Present Day, (London:, (London: Weidenfeld&Nicolson, 2000), 105.Weidenfeld&Nicolson, 2000), 105.

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prepared by Austria and Russia has r

prepared by Austria and Russia has reestricted the sovereignty of the stricted the sovereignty of the ssul-ul-tan in the region via the assignment of European tan in the region via the assignment of European cciivil and military offic-vil and military offic-ers. Germany did not support the Otters. Germany did not support the Ottooman Empire, and the man Empire, and the ssultan ac-ultan ac-cepted the plan involuntarily.cepted the plan involuntarily. The main problem of the Ottoman Empire The main problem of the Ottoman Empire was that it did not hawas that it did not haveve enough ecenough ecoonomic power to implement thenomic power to implement thesese reforms reforms plans plans by itself.by itself.

This

This rereforformm program coverprogram covered theed the three provinces three provinces in Macedonia:in Macedonia: SSe-e-laniklanik, Manastır, and Üsküp. This program established foreign control in , Manastır, and Üsküp. This program established foreign control in the region, the region, includingincluding the foundation of the foundation of a a foreign gendarmerie under foreign gendarmerie under an an Italian commander. Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha was assigned as tItalian commander. Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha was assigned as the he iinnspespecctor tor general to the region general to the region accordingaccording to the reform plan.to the reform plan.110 Meanwhile, the Meanwhile, the officers of the Third Army, who would later join the CUP, foughtofficers of the Third Army, who would later join the CUP, fought against against the Bulgarian and Greek guerillathe Bulgarian and Greek guerillass and the newly founded geand the newly founded genndarmeriedarmerie’’s s abuses in the region. Although vabuses in the region. Although variarioouus steps were taken, armed cos steps were taken, armed connflictflictss continued. continued. TThe Mürzsteg Plan was not he Mürzsteg Plan was not sufficient tosufficient to halt the cohalt the connflictsflicts across Macedoniaacross Macedonia. . UUntil thentil the start of thestart of the Balkan Wars, coBalkan Wars, connflicts would flicts would continue in the region, continue in the region, helping to develophelping to develop the Young Turkthe Young Turk’s pr’s proogramgram in in termterms os off military methods and politics. Secondly, themilitary methods and politics. Secondly, the nature of thenature of the armed conflict had changed, and the nationalist movarmed conflict had changed, and the nationalist moveements adopted ments adopted guerilla guerilla ((çeteci çeteci -- komitacıkomitacı)) methods. These methods would be adopted methods. These methods would be adopted by the Unionist soldiersby the Unionist soldiers,, whowho brieflybriefly fought against themfought against them, a, anndd would would later be used in the 1908 revolutionlater be used in the 1908 revolution. The. The conflicts inconflicts in MacedoniaMacedonia func-func-tioned as a sort of fieldtioned as a sort of field school for them. school for them.

During this period, when conflicts continued in the Balkans, Talat

During this period, when conflicts continued in the Balkans, Talat Bey and his friends founded the Ottoman Bey and his friends founded the Ottoman FreedomFreedom Society in 1906Society in 1906..111

110 He remained in the same position until 1908 and ignored the UHe remained in the same position until 1908 and ignored the Unionionists’ nists’ activities in activities in the region. In the Secothe region. In the Second Constitutional Period, he became a Grand Vizier and worked nd Constitutional Period, he became a Grand Vizier and worked closely with Cavid Beclosely with Cavid Bey. During the Great War yeary. During the Great War years, he was the ambassador to Vienna. s, he was the ambassador to Vienna.

111 The Ottoman Freedom Society was not the first opposition grThe Ottoman Freedom Society was not the first opposition groupoup or comor committee found mittee found in the Hamidian Era. Thein the Hamidian Era. The Ottoman Unity Society was founded by four students in the Ottoman Unity Society was founded by four students in the military medical collegemilitary medical college in 1889. Unlike the Committin 1889. Unlike the Committee, in 1906, they were mainly ee, in 1906, they were mainly from the eastern territories of the Empire. The group aimed to restofrom the eastern territories of the Empire. The group aimed to restore re the parthe parliameliamen-n-tary regime, but the spies of ttary regime, but the spies of the sultan discovered them on the eve of a coup d’état. he sultan discovered them on the eve of a coup d’état. MeaMeannwhile, Ahmet Rıza, an agwhile, Ahmet Rıza, an agricultural engineer who wentricultural engineer who went to Paris for the centenary to Paris for the centenary

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

Sellanik was the most appropriate city in which to establish such an oanik was the most appropriate city in which to establish such an or-r-ganization in terms of social networks and human resources. ganization in terms of social networks and human resources. The The foufounnders of the Society were ten people who emergedders of the Society were ten people who emerged fromfrom the the HHigh igh CoCommmittee (mittee (HeyetHeyet--i Aliyei Aliye). The founders were ). The founders were the the DistDistrricict t GGovernor of overnor of Bursa Tahir Bey, MBursa Tahir Bey, Maajor Naki Bey, Lieutenant Edip Servet Bey, Marshall jor Naki Bey, Lieutenant Edip Servet Bey, Marshall Aide Kazım Nami Bey, Lieutenant Ömer Naci Bey, and Lieutenant Ismail Aide Kazım Nami Bey, Lieutenant Ömer Naci Bey, and Lieutenant Ismail CaCannbolat Bey. The civilian members included Mehmet Talat Bey, Rahmi bolat Bey. The civilian members included Mehmet Talat Bey, Rahmi

of the French Revolution, stayed in Paris and became the strongest pil

of the French Revolution, stayed in Paris and became the strongest pillarlar of theof the oppoppoosi-si-tion in Europe. He was a solidtion in Europe. He was a solid positivist inspired by the French philosopher Auguste positivist inspired by the French philosopher Auguste Comte. The opposition movemeComte. The opposition movements also spread in the Ottomnts also spread in the Ottoman Empire. The ones who an Empire. The ones who were discovered escaped to Paris, Geneva, or Cairo. The Paris branch surviwere discovered escaped to Paris, Geneva, or Cairo. The Paris branch survivedved duringduring these years until the 1908 Revolutiothese years until the 1908 Revolution. n. Ahmet Rıza would be the oldest UAhmet Rıza would be the oldest Unnionist in the ionist in the CUP and hold the Ottoman Chamber's presidency for a long time. Murat Bey, or MCUP and hold the Ottoman Chamber's presidency for a long time. Murat Bey, or Mi-i-zancı Murat, was one of the pillars of the Young Turks in Europe. Mithat Şükrü, the zancı Murat, was one of the pillars of the Young Turks in Europe. Mithat Şükrü, the general secretary of the CUP, also joined the general secretary of the CUP, also joined the Young Turks in Europe. However, the Young Turks in Europe. However, the movement split up significantly after the emergence of Prince Sabahattin, the son of movement split up significantly after the emergence of Prince Sabahattin, the son of Mahmut CMahmut Ceelalettin Pasha (sonlalettin Pasha (son--inin--law of Sultan Abdülmecid). Ahmet Rıza's approach law of Sultan Abdülmecid). Ahmet Rıza's approach depended on the centralization of the state against thdepended on the centralization of the state against the intervention of the Great Poe intervention of the Great Pow-w-ers in order to achieve the revolution. On the other hand, Prince Sabahaddin advers in order to achieve the revolution. On the other hand, Prince Sabahaddin advoocated cated decentralization in terms of governance and supported the Great Powers' help. Hodecentralization in terms of governance and supported the Great Powers' help. How-w-ever, he faced the challenges of both nationalist and cenever, he faced the challenges of both nationalist and centralist groups in the CUP and tralist groups in the CUP and separatist leanings among the Muslim elements of the Ottoman Empire such as Alba-separatist leanings among the Muslim elements of the Ottoman Empire such as Alba-nians and Arabs. The Congress held in 1902 split up the movement. Prince Sabnians and Arabs. The Congress held in 1902 split up the movement. Prince Sabaahattin hattin established the Socestablished the Sociiety of Ottoman Liberals, whileety of Ottoman Liberals, while Ahmet Rıza Ahmet Rıza remained the CUP lead-remained the CUP lead-er in Paris. Prince Sabahattin had established the League for Private Initiative and De-er in Paris. Prince Sabahattin had established the League for Private Initiative and De-centralcentraliization as the third group in addition to those of Ahmet Rıza and Mizancı Murat zation as the third group in addition to those of Ahmet Rıza and Mizancı Murat Bey. Conflict and competition remained between tBey. Conflict and competition remained between the groups. In 1907, the Ahe groups. In 1907, the Arrmenian menian Revolutionary Committee led a congress in Paris, and Ahmet Rıza Bey and Prince Sa-Revolutionary Committee led a congress in Paris, and Ahmet Rıza Bey and Prince Sa-bahattain came together. In the meantime, Mizancı Murat had already rbahattain came together. In the meantime, Mizancı Murat had already reeturned to Is-turned to Is-tanbul upon the generous offer of the sultan. The second Cotanbul upon the generous offer of the sultan. The second Conngress of the Young Turks gress of the Young Turks in Paris united all of the opponents in Europe. In September 1907, by the initiation of in Paris united all of the opponents in Europe. In September 1907, by the initiation of Dr. Nazım and Bahattin Şakir, the Paris and Selanik commiDr. Nazım and Bahattin Şakir, the Paris and Selanik committtees merged. In the end, the tees merged. In the end, the Committee of Union and Progress came into existence. EriCommittee of Union and Progress came into existence. Erik Jan Zük Jan Zürrcher, "Who were cher, "Who were the Young Turks?", in the Young Turks?", in The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building from the OttThe Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building from the Ottooman man Empire to Atatürk’s TurkeyEmpire to Atatürk’s Turkey, ed. Erik Jan Zürcher, (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2010), 97, ed. Erik Jan Zürcher, (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2010), 97--88;; Ahmed BAhmed Beedevi Kuran, devi Kuran, İnkılâp Tarihimiz ve Jön Türklerİnkılâp Tarihimiz ve Jön Türkler (Istanbul:(Istanbul: Tan Matbaası, 1945), Tan Matbaası, 1945), 234234--243243; ; Mardin, Mardin, Jön Türklerin Siyasi FikirleriJön Türklerin Siyasi Fikirleri, 303., 303.

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Bey, and Mi

Bey, and Middhat Şükrü Bey. Membehat Şükrü Bey. Memberrs s whwhoo joined the Committee were joined the Committee were assigned member numbers beginning with 100. The organization of the assigned member numbers beginning with 100. The organization of the CommiCommitttee was inspired by the Italian Carbonari system and had a tee was inspired by the Italian Carbonari system and had a closed struclosed struccture. The CUP tried to remain anonymous. Each member ture. The CUP tried to remain anonymous. Each member knew only a few other memknew only a few other membberers.s. They each took a secret oath to bThey each took a secret oath to be-e-come a member of the CUP. They were brought blindfolded to an ucome a member of the CUP. They were brought blindfolded to an un-n-known location and swore an oath on the Qur'an and a gun. known location and swore an oath on the Qur'an and a gun. IIt is worth t is worth mentionmentioninging that Cavid Bey was not among the founders of the CUP that Cavid Bey was not among the founders of the CUP aallt-t-houghhough he he had had paparrtiticicippated in the meetings of the group since 1903. It ated in the meetings of the group since 1903. It seems that the seems that the ““High CouncilHigh Council”” of the committee consisted of Tof the committee consisted of Taalat Bey, lat Bey, İsmail Canbulat, and Mustafa Rahmi, and they excluded the İsmail Canbulat, and Mustafa Rahmi, and they excluded the Dönmes Dönmes from the committeefrom the committee at the very beginningat the very beginning..112

In n the same year, in a the same year, in a cicity ty far away from Selanik, a young soldier also far away from Selanik, a young soldier also established a similar society with the same intention: to form a coestablished a similar society with the same intention: to form a constnsti-i-tutional regime. Atutional regime. A young captain in young captain in DamascusDamascus, Mustafa Kemal Bey, Mustafa Kemal Bey founded a committee called Homeland (founded a committee called Homeland (VatanVatan) with his colleagues Müfit ) with his colleagues Müfit (Ö(Özdzdeş)eş), Hacı Mustafa Bey, and Süleyman Bey. Mustafa Kemal Bey o, Hacı Mustafa Bey, and Süleyman Bey. Mustafa Kemal Bey ob-b-tained petained perrmission from the military and tried to estamission from the military and tried to establish the blish the SelanikSelanik branch of Homelandbranch of Homeland, where he, where he gathered with his officer colleagues from gathered with his officer colleagues from the Third Army. Although he founded the the Third Army. Although he founded the SelanikSelanik brancbranch, h, hehe eventuallyeventually had to rhad to reeturn to Yafa, where he was assigned. Meanwhile, the CUP turn to Yafa, where he was assigned. Meanwhile, the CUP would contact the Third Army, anwould contact the Third Army, and at last, Mustafa Kemal Bey would d at last, Mustafa Kemal Bey would be-be-come come affiliateaffiliated withd with the CUP in 1907.the CUP in 1907.113

According to Kazım Karabekir

According to Kazım Karabekir’’s s memoirs, memoirs, Ittihat ve Terakki CemiyetIttihat ve Terakki Cemiyetii, , Cavid Bey was one of the members who were Cavid Bey was one of the members who were ““taken in latertaken in later,”,” and he and he be-be-camecame member no.member no. 295. Mustafa Kemal 295. Mustafa Kemal Bey Bey became a member around became a member around the same time as him and was registered as member no.the same time as him and was registered as member no. 323222..114 AAy-y-demir wrote that Enver Pasha joined the committee in 1906demir wrote that Enver Pasha joined the committee in 1906,, aand nd in the in the

112 HanioğluHanioğlu, , PreparationPreparation for A Revolutionfor A Revolution, , 212.212.

113 Ernest Edmonson Ramsour, Ernest Edmonson Ramsour, Jön Türkler ve 1908 İhtilaliJön Türkler ve 1908 İhtilali (Istanbul: Sander Yayınları, (Istanbul: Sander Yayınları, 1972), 1141972), 114--119.9.

114 Karabekir, Kazım Karabekir, Kazım Ittihat ve TerIttihat ve Terakki Cemiyetiakki Cemiyeti (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayninlari, 2017), (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayninlari, 2017), 106. 106.

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same year, Hakk

same year, Hakkıı Bey, one of the committeeBey, one of the committee’’s founders, had s founders, had invitedinvited Mus-Mus-tafa Kemal to join them. tafa Kemal to join them. ItIt is possible to deduce from Cavid Beyis possible to deduce from Cavid Bey’’s regis-s regis-trationtration number that, as mentioned in number that, as mentioned in TTunayaunaya’s work’s work and and KarKaraabekir’s bekir’s memoirs, he joined memoirs, he joined before Mustafa Kemalbefore Mustafa Kemal..115 Cavid Bey Cavid Bey may have bmay have be-e-come a member atcome a member at the end of 1906 or, according to the old cathe end of 1906 or, according to the old callendar, endar, March of 1907.March of 1907.

A main turning point main turning point toward the Revolution toward the Revolution was the mergwas the merginging ofof thethe Selanik and ParSelanik and Paris groups uis groups unnder the same organization, the Committee of der the same organization, the Committee of Progress and Union, later the CommiProgress and Union, later the Committee of Union and Progressttee of Union and Progress (CUP)(CUP). . This mergerThis merger was the result of the exwas the result of the extensive efforts of Dr. Nazım and Ba-tensive efforts of Dr. Nazım and Ba-hattin Şakir, two prominent Uniohattin Şakir, two prominent Unionnists. ists. The tThe two groups merged in the wo groups merged in the Congress of the CUPCongress of the CUP in Paris in 1907. in Paris in 1907. This incident was a turning point This incident was a turning point for the durability and stability of the organization.for the durability and stability of the organization. The second im-The second im-portant deveportant develloopment toward the Revolution was pment toward the Revolution was recruiting soldiers recruiting soldiers fromfrom amongamong the Sethe Seccond and Third Army officers. This incident also ond and Third Army officers. This incident also changed the equilibriumchanged the equilibrium between civilian and military officers amongbetween civilian and military officers among the CUP members. the CUP members. IIt is possible to draw the portrait of the CUPt is possible to draw the portrait of the CUP’s’s foufounnd-d-ers according toers according to the profile ofthe profile of the Committee methe Committee memmbers. First of all, bers. First of all, members members werewere male, raised chiefly in urban centers, educated in the male, raised chiefly in urban centers, educated in the schools schools that provided athat provided a modern education in the Hamidian Era, and modern education in the Hamidian Era, and mainly from the southeastern Balkansmainly from the southeastern Balkans suchsuch as as SSeelanilanik ork or Manastır. As Manastır. As Zürcher states, Zürcher states, ““they are the children of the bothey are the children of the borrderlandderland..””116 Members of Members of the CUP camethe CUP came from middlefrom middle--class familiesclass families.. TThey were lowhey were low--rankrankinging milmili-i-tary officers or civil setary officers or civil serrvants or educators, doctorsvants or educators, doctors,, or lawyers.or lawyers. Most Most members were part ofmembers were part of the the petpetit bourgeoisit bourgeois who who received their salaries received their salaries fromfrom the state, the militarythe state, the military,, and civil servand civil serviceice. Most of them grew up in . Most of them grew up in the developing the developing uurrban ban cities of Macedonia. The CUP was cities of Macedonia. The CUP was the the movement movement of of thethe generation primarily born in the 1880s. From the 1900s to 1908, generation primarily born in the 1880s. From the 1900s to 1908, theythey garneredgarnered support from the military and civilsupport from the military and civiliansians in Macedonia. in Macedonia. The The CUP CUP waswas represenrepresentative oftative of the officers of the state from both the officers of the state from both the the milmili-i-

115 Şevket Süreyya Aydemir, Şevket Süreyya Aydemir, Enver Pasha, Vol IEnver Pasha, Vol I (Istanbul: Remzi Kitabevi,2003), 490.(Istanbul: Remzi Kitabevi,2003), 490.

116 Erik Jan Zürcher "The Young Turks: Children of the Erik Jan Zürcher "The Young Turks: Children of the Borderlands?Borderlands?"" International International Journal of Turkish StudiesJournal of Turkish Studies 9, 9, no. 1no. 1--2 (2003), 2752 (2003), 275--286286. .

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tary and civil

tary and civilianian wings. On the brink of the 1908 Revolution, Armenian wings. On the brink of the 1908 Revolution, Armenian groups groups such such as as the the Armenian Revolution FederArmenian Revolution Federaatition, on, ii.e. .e. Dashnak-Dashnak-tsutyun, were also one of the pioneer groups tsutyun, were also one of the pioneer groups that participated inthat participated in the the 1907 Co1907 Conngress of the CUPgress of the CUP along with thealong with the Bulgarian revolBulgarian revoluutionary tionary groups groups who who supported the CUP.supported the CUP.117 However, thHowever, thisis honeymoon did not honeymoon did not last last longlong. . As we will see in the next chaptAs we will see in the next chapter, ter, the posthe post--revolutionary peri-revolutionary peri-od was full of upheavals leading to the demolod was full of upheavals leading to the demoliition of the coalitions tion of the coalitions founded to restore the pafounded to restore the parrliamentary regime. liamentary regime.

As Cavid Bey mentioned in his diaries

As Cavid Bey mentioned in his diaries thethe Young TurksYoung Turks had had carried carried outout the revolutithe revolution on witwith the aim ofh the aim of protectprotectiningg Macedonia. Macedonia. On the one On the one hand, thand, the Young Turks closely and starkly ohe Young Turks closely and starkly obbserved the gap served the gap in thein the quali-quali-ty of life, ty of life, accumulationaccumulation of wealth, and privof wealth, and priviileges. On the other hand, life leges. On the other hand, life was rapidly developing beyond the classwas rapidly developing beyond the classiical Ottoman sociacal Ottoman social stral strata. The ta. The development ofdevelopment of transportation, social life, commerce, transportation, social life, commerce, and and education had education had shown that a different kind of life shown that a different kind of life waswas possible for the Young Turks. It possible for the Young Turks. It was irreversible. was irreversible. TThe Young Turks were the group of young man repre-he Young Turks were the group of young man repre-senting senting aa dynamic and moderndynamic and modern llifestyifestyle andle and wanted to changwanted to change the polit-e the polit-ical system under the ideology of Ottical system under the ideology of Ottoomanism, the unmanism, the uniification of fication of all all el-el-ements of Ottoman society. Ottomanism ements of Ottoman society. Ottomanism encompassedencompassed both Muslims both Muslims and nonand non--Muslims regardless of ethnicity and religion. UMuslims regardless of ethnicity and religion. Unnlike the other like the other Balkan natioBalkan nations ns sucsuch h as as the the Serbs, GreeksSerbs, Greeks, Bulgarians, and even Armeni-, Bulgarians, and even Armeni-ans from Anatolia, the Young Turks were ans from Anatolia, the Young Turks were still nostill not influenced from t influenced from na-na-tionalismtionalism at the time of the Revolutionat the time of the Revolution..118

117 Zafer Toprak, Zafer Toprak, Türkiye’de Milli İktisatTürkiye’de Milli İktisat 11908908--1918, (Istanbul: Doğan Kitap, 2012), 1031918, (Istanbul: Doğan Kitap, 2012), 103--04.04.

118 Erik Jan Zürcher, "Young Turks, Ottoman MuslErik Jan Zürcher, "Young Turks, Ottoman Musliims and Turkish Nationalists," in ms and Turkish Nationalists," in Ottoman past and today's TurkeyOttoman past and today's Turkey, ed. Kemal Karpat, (Leiden:, ed. Kemal Karpat, (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 150Brill, 2000), 150--7979; ; NNad-ad-erer Sohrabi, Sohrabi, ““Reluctant Nationalists, ImReluctant Nationalists, Imperial Nationperial Nation--State, and NeoState, and Neo--Ottomanism: Ottomanism: Turks, Albanians, and the AntiTurks, Albanians, and the Antinomies of the End of nomies of the End of EmpiEmpirere,,”” Social SciSocial Scienence Historyce History 4242,, no. 4 (Winter 2018), 837.no. 4 (Winter 2018), 837.

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

In the pre

In the pre--revolutionrevolutionaryary period,period, revolts revolts occurred occurred on both sides of on both sides of IIs-s-tanbul, in Macedonia tanbul, in Macedonia and Anaand Anatoliatolia. In addition t. In addition too ththe revolts in thee revolts in the BaBal-l-kankanss, there , there were severalwere several revoltrevolts acrosss across Anatolia. The tax revolts in 1906 Anatolia. The tax revolts in 1906 and 1907 had shaken theand 1907 had shaken the foundations of thefoundations of the Empire. The Empire. The income income tax tax and cattle tax issues and cattle tax issues stirred reactions acrossstirred reactions across AnatoliaAnatolia,, from Kasfrom Kastamonu tamonu to Van, Erzurum, andto Van, Erzurum, and Trabzon. Both Muslim and nonTrabzon. Both Muslim and non--Muslim communMuslim communi-i-ties ties opposedopposed these new taxes. Moreover, the tax issue was these new taxes. Moreover, the tax issue was representrepresenta-a-tive of thetive of the abuse of state officers in the Ottoman territory. Thabuse of state officers in the Ottoman territory. Thisis unrest unrest brought the question of brought the question of the the restoration of restoration of the parthe parliamentary regime toliamentary regime to the public agenda. The CUP the public agenda. The CUP drewdrew courage from thcourage from thee unrest of the peunrest of the peo-o-ple.ple.119

At this point,

At this point, we shouldwe should briefly discuss why thbriefly discuss why this movement is movement stemmed stemmed from the Balkansfrom the Balkans in 1900sin 1900s. . TThe Balkans he Balkans is ais a geography in which diverse geography in which diverse national and relinational and religious igious identities codentities co--exist. exist. The idea of nThe idea of naationalism, tionalism, the the utmost output of the utmost output of the French Revolution French Revolution in global polin global poliiticstics, reached this , reached this areaarea, , the westernthe western landlandss of the Empireof the Empire, in the b, in the beeginning of the nine-ginning of the nine-teenth century. teenth century. Although the Although the nineteenthnineteenth century had wicentury had wittnessednessed such such sstruggles, the truggles, the ideoloideology of thegy of the army officers that would later be iarmy officers that would later be innvolved volved inin guerrilla warfare andguerrilla warfare and restoring the restoring the cconstitutional ronstitutional reegimegime,, evolved in a evolved in a different direction. The conflicts that different direction. The conflicts that beganbegan withwith thethe BuBullgarian and garian and Greek guerrillas escalated with Greek guerrillas escalated with the 190the 1903 Uprising of Bu3 Uprising of Bullgargarians. As a ians. As a result, a whole generation, spanning from Enver Pasha to Ömer Sey-result, a whole generation, spanning from Enver Pasha to Ömer Sey-fettin, was fettin, was familiar withfamiliar with harsh waves of nationalism, and they developed harsh waves of nationalism, and they developed their their corresponding corresponding conceptualizations of thconceptualizations of thisis ideology. Even though ideology. Even though ““OttomanismOttomanism”” was swas still in view after till in view after tthe he 19081908 RevolutionRevolution, since the , since the Em-Em-pire’s ipire’s imperial heritage was still dominant, the fresh memperial heritage was still dominant, the fresh memmory of the ory of the guerrilla warfareguerrilla warfare in the Balkans accelerated thein the Balkans accelerated the Turkish nTurkish naationalistionalist t movementmovement. It would dominate the political, economic, and s. It would dominate the political, economic, and soocial arcial arenas enas that that were destrwere destroyed during theoyed during the Balkan Wars. Balkan Wars.

The most important development toward July 1908 was the Ravel

The most important development toward July 1908 was the Ravel Meeting (Meeting (June 10, 1908)June 10, 1908) between the British King and the Russian Tzar, between the British King and the Russian Tzar,

119 Aykut KansuAykut Kansu,, 1908 Devrimi1908 Devrimi (Ist(Istanbul: İletişanbul: İletişiim Yayınları, 2015),m Yayınları, 2015), 95.95.

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two archenemies of the Ottoman Empire, which changed the paradigm

two archenemies of the Ottoman Empire, which changed the paradigm of inteof international developmenrnational developments. Even ts. Even though the Ottoman Empire was though the Ottoman Empire was considered considered “t“the Sick Man of Europehe Sick Man of Europe”” throughout the throughout the nineteenthnineteenth cecenntury, tury, it owed its eit owed its exxistence to the success of the balancistence to the success of the balancinging game that took ad-game that took ad-vantage of the competition between Britain and Rvantage of the competition between Britain and Russiaussia. . According to the According to the outoutcomes of this meeting, these two rivals agreed to set up a new re-comes of this meeting, these two rivals agreed to set up a new re-form plan on Macedonia without the knowledge of the Ottoman Eform plan on Macedonia without the knowledge of the Ottoman Emmpire. pire. This incident rapidly This incident rapidly accelerated the movement of Rumelian revaccelerated the movement of Rumelian revoolu-lu-tiotionnaries and became the scene aries and became the scene of a suof a sudden rupture dden rupture from thfrom the previous e previous era.era.120

Enver Pasha left his house on the night of June 25, 1908, and N

Enver Pasha left his house on the night of June 25, 1908, and Niiyazi yazi Bey on July 3, 1908, to join the guerrilla war.Bey on July 3, 1908, to join the guerrilla war.121 They became the two They became the two leading figures of the revolution. In the meantime, tleading figures of the revolution. In the meantime, the he ppalace was alace was cecer-r-taitainly nly awaaware of the events takre of the events taking place in ing place in SelanikSelanik and Manastır. As teand Manastır. As ten-n-sionsionss rose, political assassinations became determinant factors in this rose, political assassinations became determinant factors in this process. The breaking point was the process. The breaking point was the murdermurder of Şemsi Pasha by a Uof Şemsi Pasha by a Unnion-ion-ist selfist self--sacrificing volunteer (sacrificing volunteer (fedaifedai)) on July 7, 1908.on July 7, 1908.122 As one of the As one of the ssul-ul-tantan’’s most trusted sos most trusted soldiers in the region, Şemsi Pasha ldiers in the region, Şemsi Pasha was killed while was killed while leleavingaving the post office after sending a telegram to the the post office after sending a telegram to the ppalace with the alace with the news that all was well under his control. Lieutenant Atıf had eluded the news that all was well under his control. Lieutenant Atıf had eluded the police and military officerspolice and military officers and shot and shot Şemsi PashaŞemsi Pasha. . From thisFrom this point on, point on, local authorities continuouslylocal authorities continuously sent sent telgrams telgrams to Istanbul. to Istanbul. TheThe sultan de-sultan de-cided to send thecided to send the troops troops from from İzmirİzmir to Selanik to suto Selanik to suppport his army port his army therethere. . On July 8, 1908On July 8, 1908,, the eight companies of soldiers who had been the eight companies of soldiers who had been sent from sent from İzmirİzmir to quell the insurgencto quell the insurgency in Macedonia switched sides af-y in Macedonia switched sides af-ter believing the intense propaganda promulgated by wellter believing the intense propaganda promulgated by well--known Un-known Un-

120 Tarık Zafer Tunaya, Tarık Zafer Tunaya, Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol. III İttihat ve TeTürkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol. III İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir rakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin TarihiKuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2011), 45.(Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2011), 45.

121 Aydemir, Aydemir, Enver Pasha, IEnver Pasha, I, 521, 521--26.26.

122 The selfThe self--sasacrificrificing volunteecing volunteerrs (Fedai) would be one of the peculiar characteristics of s (Fedai) would be one of the peculiar characteristics of the Committee of Union and Progress. Tthe Committee of Union and Progress. This group would evolve to a paramilitary group his group would evolve to a paramilitary group which would be used for secret missions under the Special Organization (Teşkîlâtwhich would be used for secret missions under the Special Organization (Teşkîlât--ı ı Mahsusa) inMahsusa) in the the nationalist cnationalist coontext. ntext.

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

ionist Dr. Nazim, who had infiltrated the soldiers di

ionist Dr. Nazim, who had infiltrated the soldiers dissguised as a hodja. guised as a hodja. However, However, according to Aaccording to Ayydemir, thedemir, the soldierssoldiers did not shout did not shout ““Long live Long live Our Sultan!Our Sultan!”” but but ““Long live freedom!Long live freedom!””123 On July 20, 1908, thousands of On July 20, 1908, thousands of Albanians gathered in Firzovik, and the Unionists worked to turn the Albanians gathered in Firzovik, and the Unionists worked to turn the gathering into a massive protest. They sent telegrams to the gathering into a massive protest. They sent telegrams to the ppalace ask-alace ask-ing for the proclamation of the ing for the proclamation of the cconstitution. On July 22, Eyüp onstitution. On July 22, Eyüp Sabir Sabir Tuncer and his group of men abducted Müşir Osman Pasha, Tuncer and his group of men abducted Müşir Osman Pasha, who had who had been been sent to Monastir as sent to Monastir as the cthe commander of the state of emergency.ommander of the state of emergency. Meanwhile, Meanwhile, AAbbdulhamid II gathered his ministers in dulhamid II gathered his ministers in the pthe palace. alace. AbdüAbdüllhamid II dismissed Grand Vizier Ferid Pasha and hamid II dismissed Grand Vizier Ferid Pasha and appoappointedinted SaSait it PPaashasha inin his his stestead. ad. SaitSait Pasha had to deal with the dozens of telegrams Pasha had to deal with the dozens of telegrams rreeceived from Macedonia ceived from Macedonia onon the proclamation of the the proclamation of the cconstitution. The onstitution. The subsequent telegrams sent by people to the subsequent telegrams sent by people to the ppalace led to panic in the alace led to panic in the Imperial Court. Imperial Court. Grand Vizier SaitGrand Vizier Sait Pasha tells the ministers thatPasha tells the ministers that,, because because ofof the the telegrams raining telegrams raining intointo the the aasssembly from Macedonia, sembly from Macedonia, a “ca “constitonstitu-u-tiontion”” should be declared and that they should write a short but clear no-should be declared and that they should write a short but clear no-tice to the tice to the susultan. ltan. On July 23, without waiting for approval from IstOn July 23, without waiting for approval from Istaan-n-bulbul, Colonel Sadık Bey, head of the CUP M, Colonel Sadık Bey, head of the CUP Maanastnastıır branch, fired a salute r branch, fired a salute for the proclamation of the for the proclamation of the cconstitution. This actonstitution. This action wasion was a step forward a step forward for the for the SelanikSelanik branch. branch. CCelebrations had started to spread in the proelebrations had started to spread in the prov-v-inces of Macedonia. inces of Macedonia. On the same day, tOn the same day, thhee ccababinet wrinet wroteote a notice aa notice ad-d-dressing thedressing the ssultan and signultan and signeded it July 23, 1908 (July 10, 1324). This date it July 23, 1908 (July 10, 1324). This date is ris reegarded as the birth of garded as the birth of tthe he Second Second Constitutional PeriodConstitutional Period,, since since AbdüAbdüllhamid II agreed hamid II agreed to the cto the cabinetabinet’s offer’s offer and issued a decree (and issued a decree (iradeirade) ) with the same with the same ddate.ate. AAcccording to the decree, all the governors of cording to the decree, all the governors of the the pprorovvinces and Sanjak governors would prepare for elections. This an-inces and Sanjak governors would prepare for elections. This an-nouncement nouncement waswas pupubblished in short in the newlished in short in the newsspapers in Istanbul.papers in Istanbul.124 The announcement was made public the next day, on July 24, 1908, anThe announcement was made public the next day, on July 24, 1908, andd

123 Aydemir, Aydemir, Enver Pasha IEnver Pasha I, 551. , 551.

124 Aydemir, Aydemir, Enver Pasha IEnver Pasha I, 557, 557--58.58.

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thi

this news wass news was published in the newspapers.published in the newspapers.125 AAffter thirty years, the ter thirty years, the cconstitutiononstitution had been reinstated thanks to the insuhad been reinstated thanks to the insurrgencies ingencies in Macedo-Macedo-nia. It was nia. It was aa fait accompli.fait accompli.126 However, it markeHowever, it markedd the beginning of a new the beginning of a new era for the Ottoman Empireera for the Ottoman Empire anandd forfor CaCavid Beyvid Bey as weas wellll. .

July 23, 1908, was a turning point for the Ottoman Empire and uly 23, 1908, was a turning point for the Ottoman Empire and allall

its subjects and individuals living in its territory. That day, the constit

its subjects and individuals living in its territory. That day, the constitu-u-tion was reinstated after it had been suspended for 30 tion was reinstated after it had been suspended for 30 yeayears. It was a rs. It was a moment of happiness and freedom that moment of happiness and freedom that was celebrated on the streets of was celebrated on the streets of Manastır (Monastir), Selanik, Üsküp (Skopje), and in other cities in Manastır (Monastir), Selanik, Üsküp (Skopje), and in other cities in MMaacedonia. This joy spread from Macedonia to Istanbul and then on to cedonia. This joy spread from Macedonia to Istanbul and then on to the other lands of the Empire. Tthe other lands of the Empire. The he revolution embraced four concepts, revolution embraced four concepts, iinnspired by thespired by the French Revolution: "liberté, égalité, fraternité, et justice." French Revolution: "liberté, égalité, fraternité, et justice." After 30 years of absolutism, those who poured onto the streets were After 30 years of absolutism, those who poured onto the streets were jubilant and felt free from spies, police, and military officers. It wjubilant and felt free from spies, police, and military officers. It was as a a magical moment in which every subject of the Empmagical moment in which every subject of the Empire felt free and ire felt free and equal. Individuals from different ethnic and religious communities came equal. Individuals from different ethnic and religious communities came up and hugged one another for the first time in the Empire's history. It up and hugged one another for the first time in the Empire's history. It was a revolutionary momentwas a revolutionary moment——and it was onand it was only ly the beginning. The joy the beginning. The joy and feeling of having such and feeling of having such freedom of expression invoked strong feefreedom of expression invoked strong feel-l-ings within both CUP members and ordinary civilians. Now, they hoped ings within both CUP members and ordinary civilians. Now, they hoped

125 Sacit Kutlu, Sacit Kutlu, DidDidârâr--ı Hürriyet : Kartpostallarla İkinci Meşrutiyet (1908ı Hürriyet : Kartpostallarla İkinci Meşrutiyet (1908--1913)1913) (Istanbul: (Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2008), 359Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2008), 359--60; and Tunaya, 60; and Tunaya, TüTürkiyerkiye’de Siyasal P’de Siyasal Paar-r-tiler Vol.III İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi, 3tiler Vol.III İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi, 3--112. 112.

126 Aykut Aykut Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913 (Istanbul: İletişim (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2016), 1Yayınları, 2016), 1--19.19.

Heller states that, “before July 1Heller states that, “before July 1908, 908, many of the Gmany of the Grreat Powers were not aware of the eat Powers were not aware of the facilities of the Unionists. They hid themselves not only from facilities of the Unionists. They hid themselves not only from the sharp eyes of the sul-the sharp eyes of the sul-tan but also from the embassies’ widespread networks. At the time of the Revolution, tan but also from the embassies’ widespread networks. At the time of the Revolution, the German Ambassador, Baron Mathe German Ambassador, Baron Marscharschall, was on vall, was on vaccation, and many of his officers ation, and many of his officers were also out of Istanbul. Meanwhile, the UK Foreign Office, whiwere also out of Istanbul. Meanwhile, the UK Foreign Office, which kept an eye on inci-ch kept an eye on inci-dents all over the world, was also unprepared for the Revolution. British diplomats dents all over the world, was also unprepared for the Revolution. British diplomats had prhad preeviously shown no interest inviously shown no interest in thesthese young and pe young and paassionate officers. It was the ssionate officers. It was the French Embassy that eventually supplied London with some sort of iFrench Embassy that eventually supplied London with some sort of information about nformation about the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP).” Joseph Heller, the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP).” Joseph Heller, British Policy Towards The British Policy Towards The Ottoman EOttoman Emmpire 1908pire 1908--19141914 (London: Fran(London: Frank Cask Cass, 1983), 6.s, 1983), 6.

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that

that the the constitutional regime would act as a cure for their problems. constitutional regime would act as a cure for their problems. First, however, it wasFirst, however, it was titime to celebrate. After receiving an invitation me to celebrate. After receiving an invitation frofrom the Selanik branch of the CUP, Enver Beym the Selanik branch of the CUP, Enver Bey——who had already prwho had already pro-o-claimed the constitution in Köprüclaimed the constitution in Köprülü and Tikveşlü and Tikveş——arrived in Selanik by arrived in Selanik by train, where he was met by his comrades Talat Bey and Cemal Pasha as train, where he was met by his comrades Talat Bey and Cemal Pasha as wwell as a large crowd of people who greeted him as the “champion of ell as a large crowd of people who greeted him as the “champion of freedom.” Meanwhile, Major Niyazi and Major Eyüpfreedom.” Meanwhile, Major Niyazi and Major Eyüp Sabri (Akgöl) were Sabri (Akgöl) were ststaationed in Mationed in Manastır. The base of the revolutionary movement had nastır. The base of the revolutionary movement had shifted to Selanik, which had become “the Mecca of Freedom” (shifted to Selanik, which had become “the Mecca of Freedom” (KâbeKâbe--i i hürriyethürriyet))..

When

When Cavid Bey first heard the good news of the revolution, he was Cavid Bey first heard the good news of the revolution, he was in Bucharest having luncin Bucharest having lunch in an openh in an open--air café. A newspaper air café. A newspaper seller iseller in-n-formed him that Abdülhamid II had declared the constitutional regime, formed him that Abdülhamid II had declared the constitutional regime, much to his disbelief. When he was able to confirm that it was in fact much to his disbelief. When he was able to confirm that it was in fact true, he arrived at the border via Sofia, overwhelmed with joy. He ntrue, he arrived at the border via Sofia, overwhelmed with joy. He no-o-titiced how people on the roads or at tced how people on the roads or at the stations also seemed jubilant to he stations also seemed jubilant to hear the news, and he even sensed a feeling of celebration in the way hear the news, and he even sensed a feeling of celebration in the way they greeted each other. He they greeted each other. He encounteredencountered a similar crowd at the Üsküp a similar crowd at the Üsküp ststaation, as well. Meanwhile, at the station, htion, as well. Meanwhile, at the station, he met two of his friendse met two of his friends——Talat Bey Talat Bey and Hafiz Hakkı Beyand Hafiz Hakkı Bey——who were already aware of the respowho were already aware of the respon-n-sibility that had landed on their shoulders. Cavid Bey and his friends sibility that had landed on their shoulders. Cavid Bey and his friends continued their journey and arrived at night in Selanik, where a massive continued their journey and arrived at night in Selanik, where a massive crowd had gathered atcrowd had gathered at the station.the station.127 As in other areas, aAs in other areas, a wave of festive wave of festive excitexciteement also swept over Selanik. Muslim hodjas, rabbis, and Greek ment also swept over Selanik. Muslim hodjas, rabbis, and Greek priests embraced each other in the streets, where they were joined by priests embraced each other in the streets, where they were joined by bearded Bulgarian revolutionaries, who had emerged from their bearded Bulgarian revolutionaries, who had emerged from their hidhideeouts in the hills. According to Miouts in the hills. According to Mithat that Şükrü (Bleda)’s memoirs, Şükrü (Bleda)’s memoirs, huhunndreds of thodreds of thouusands of people of all agessands of people of all ages——young and old alikeyoung and old alike——were on the streets to celebrate. He writes, “People who did not know were on the streets to celebrate. He writes, “People who did not know the meathe meanning of the constitution were on the streets, singing La Marseil-ing of the constitution were on the streets, singing La Marseil-laise, spilaise, spittting on the corting on the corpses of Abdülhamid II’s spies who had been pses of Abdülhamid II’s spies who had been

127 EroEroğlu, ğlu, İttihatçıların Ünlü Maliye Nazırıİttihatçıların Ünlü Maliye Nazırı, 38, 38--40. 40.

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shot and laid down u

shot and laid down unnder the trees.”der the trees.”128 In Selanik, the enthusiasm of the In Selanik, the enthusiasm of the people was extraordpeople was extraordiinary and unprecedented. The main roads and nary and unprecedented. The main roads and neighborhoods, including Iskele Street, the front of the White Tower, the neighborhoods, including Iskele Street, the front of the White Tower, the mainmain streets of Yalılar and Kerimefendi, and Paminonda, were decorat-streets of Yalılar and Kerimefendi, and Paminonda, were decorat-ed with flags. La Marseillaise was playing in the streets, and the photo-ed with flags. La Marseillaise was playing in the streets, and the photo-graphs of Mithat Pasha, Enver, Niyazi, and Eyüp Sabri were being circu-graphs of Mithat Pasha, Enver, Niyazi, and Eyüp Sabri were being circu-lated. Several pelated. Several peoople, including Cavid Bey, gave sple, including Cavid Bey, gave speeches on almost peeches on almost every corner of the Turkish, French, Spanish, and Greek parts of the city. every corner of the Turkish, French, Spanish, and Greek parts of the city. The police did not interfere with the celebrations, but the The police did not interfere with the celebrations, but the fedais fedais (self(self--sacrificing volusacrificing volunnteer officers) were on guard to protect the streets. Res-teer officers) were on guard to protect the streets. Res-taurants distritaurants distribbuuted free meals to the people, who were happy and al-ted free meals to the people, who were happy and al-ready drunk. These French Revolutionready drunk. These French Revolution--style ideals jarred the officers of style ideals jarred the officers of the Third Army. Athe Third Army. Affter all, when Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha announced ter all, when Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha announced Abdülhamid's decree to the masses in Selanik, this meanAbdülhamid's decree to the masses in Selanik, this meantt that the peo-that the peo-pple were ile were innstantly transtantly transsformed from ‘servants’ of the sultan into ‘citi-formed from ‘servants’ of the sultan into ‘citi-zens.’zens.’129

The immediate impact of the revolution on Cavid Bey’s life was his

The immediate impact of the revolution on Cavid Bey’s life was his transformation into a public speaker. He found himself giving speeches transformation into a public speaker. He found himself giving speeches on the revolution and its meaning, possion the revolution and its meaning, possible consequences, etc. Along ble consequences, etc. Along with Ömer Naci, he became one of the CUP’s most prominent spokewith Ömer Naci, he became one of the CUP’s most prominent spokes-s-people. As Hüseyin Cahit people. As Hüseyin Cahit Bey Bey stated, he never got tired of speaking, even stated, he never got tired of speaking, even when his face turned red or his throat hurt.when his face turned red or his throat hurt.130 In Cavid Bey’s own In Cavid Bey’s own words, “words, “I don't know howI don't know how it happened, but I found myself as a spokeit happened, but I found myself as a spokes-s-person that day when I addressed the people for the first time in my life. person that day when I addressed the people for the first time in my life. I was preaching on every corner: at the station, by the Vardar River, at I was preaching on every corner: at the station, by the Vardar River, at the Olimpos Squarethe Olimpos Square——the square of freedomthe square of freedom——and finally in Hamidiyeand finally in Hamidiye Garden, where a few thousand people were gathered... I spoke so much Garden, where a few thousand people were gathered... I spoke so much

128 Mithat Şükrü Bleda, Mithat Şükrü Bleda, İmparatorluğun Çöküşü: Ittihat ve Terakki Kâtibİmparatorluğun Çöküşü: Ittihat ve Terakki Kâtib--i Ûmumisii Ûmumisi (Beyoğlu, Istanbul: Destek Yayın(Beyoğlu, Istanbul: Destek Yayınları, 2010), 66ları, 2010), 66--67.67.

129 Tunaya, Tunaya, Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler VolTürkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol.. 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin TarihiPartinin Tarihi, 47., 47.

130 Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın Siyasal Anılar,Siyasal Anılar, (Istanbul: Türkiye Iş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, (Istanbul: Türkiye Iş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 1976), 1111976), 111--12.12.

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that my voice was gone for two days, I couldn't speak. Then, many ot

that my voice was gone for two days, I couldn't speak. Then, many oth-h-ers followed this first day of ecstasy.ers followed this first day of ecstasy.””131

The unfolding of events during this time leads one to ask how the

The unfolding of events during this time leads one to ask how the revolutiorevolution was received throughout the world. The Great Powers mostly n was received throughout the world. The Great Powers mostly supported the revolutionsupported the revolution—or at least it did not have a negative impact or at least it did not have a negative impact on them. First of all, the general atmosphere of peace in the Baon them. First of all, the general atmosphere of peace in the Ballkans al-kans al-lowed Russia and Britain, in particular, to postponelowed Russia and Britain, in particular, to postpone the Reform Package the Reform Package for Macedonia. Russia, which had set out to initiate a reform plan for for Macedonia. Russia, which had set out to initiate a reform plan for Macedonia with Britain, expressed its pleasure at the proclamMacedonia with Britain, expressed its pleasure at the proclamaation of tion of the constitution. However, Bayur contends that the Russian Athe constitution. However, Bayur contends that the Russian Ammbassador bassador to Istanbul was not conteto Istanbul was not content with the current situation and was not op-nt with the current situation and was not op-timistic about its success.timistic about its success.132 Russia had multiple concerns: first of all, Russia had multiple concerns: first of all, they did not want to see a strong Ottoman State; secondly, Russia did they did not want to see a strong Ottoman State; secondly, Russia did not want the constitutional regime to have an impact on its Muslim not want the constitutional regime to have an impact on its Muslim popopulation. Austriapulation. Austria--Hungary took this opportunity to annex Bosnia and Hungary took this opportunity to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina.Herzegovina.133 AustriaAustria--Hungary also seemed content with the situation Hungary also seemed content with the situation in the Ottoman Empire and showed its appreciation by pulling its soin the Ottoman Empire and showed its appreciation by pulling its sol-l-diers out of the region. This move allowed the Ottodiers out of the region. This move allowed the Ottoman Empire to aman Empire to ad-d-vance into Macedonia for only a few months. Britain was also content vance into Macedonia for only a few months. Britain was also content with the revolution as it spontaneously increased the country’s leverage with the revolution as it spontaneously increased the country’s leverage due to its emphasis on liberal values. Britain would become an actor due to its emphasis on liberal values. Britain would become an actor whom the Unionists wanted to whom the Unionists wanted to win over after win over after a decadesa decades--long period of long period of strained relations during the Hamidian Era. France also appreciated the strained relations during the Hamidian Era. France also appreciated the revolution, particularly at what was achieved by the Ottoman officers, revolution, particularly at what was achieved by the Ottoman officers, who had embraced the ideals of the French Revolution. Furthermore, who had embraced the ideals of the French Revolution. Furthermore, due todue to the possibility of strenthe possibility of strengthening their economic interests, France gthening their economic interests, France was focused on ensuring that the Ottoman Empire was not dismem-was focused on ensuring that the Ottoman Empire was not dismem-bered. Germany’s position was a bit different in that the country held a bered. Germany’s position was a bit different in that the country held a strong position within the Empire during the Hamidian strong position within the Empire during the Hamidian Era, particularly Era, particularly

131 Nazmi Eroğlu, Nazmi Eroğlu, İttihatçıların Ünlü Maliye Nazırıİttihatçıların Ünlü Maliye Nazırı , 38, 38--40.40.

132 Yusuf Hikmet Bayur Yusuf Hikmet Bayur Türk Inkilâbı Tarihi VolTürk Inkilâbı Tarihi Vol.. I/III/II (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1991), 92Basımevi, 1991), 92--993.3.

133 Fahir H. Armaoğlu Fahir H. Armaoğlu SiySiyasi Tarih, 1789asi Tarih, 1789--19141914 (Istanbul: Timaş Yayınları, 2013), 588.(Istanbul: Timaş Yayınları, 2013), 588.

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since t

since the he Baghdad RaiBaghdad Raillwayway agreement of 1903. Therefore, Germany’s agreement of 1903. Therefore, Germany’s feelings and ideas about the revolution were a bit more mixed; on the feelings and ideas about the revolution were a bit more mixed; on the one hand, they respected the one hand, they respected the revolutionary revolutionary movement, which was led movement, which was led by Germanby German--educated officers. On theeducated officers. On the other, Germany was concerned other, Germany was concerned about itsabout its investments.investments.134 According to the director of Deutsche Bank, Dr. According to the director of Deutsche Bank, Dr. Karl Helfferich,Karl Helfferich,135 ““the German position had been built on friendship the German position had been built on friendship with the Sultan and they had fallen… cowith the Sultan and they had fallen… commpletely beneath the wheels.pletely beneath the wheels.””136

The 1908 Revolut

The 1908 Revolution is referred to as the “reform” (ion is referred to as the “reform” (inkinkılâpılâp) by its ) by its contemporary witnesses as well as Turkish historians. However, I prcontemporary witnesses as well as Turkish historians. However, I preefer fer to call it the revolution, because although few people were engaged in to call it the revolution, because although few people were engaged in its fruition, it was widely acclaimed. On the one hand, the events of July its fruition, it was widely acclaimed. On the one hand, the events of July 23, 1908, transformed the23, 1908, transformed the political system in Turkey irreversibly. Fol-political system in Turkey irreversibly. Fol-lowing considerable back and forth, the political system became palowing considerable back and forth, the political system became parrtic-tic-ipatory, inclusive, and part and parcel of the public sphere in which dif-ipatory, inclusive, and part and parcel of the public sphere in which dif-ferent classes and groups could negotiate and reconcile, although faferent classes and groups could negotiate and reconcile, although far r from perfect. On the other hand, the Second Constitutional Era did not from perfect. On the other hand, the Second Constitutional Era did not have the characteristics of a revolution that emerged due to economic have the characteristics of a revolution that emerged due to economic pressure from various classes. The revolution did not embody changes pressure from various classes. The revolution did not embody changes to the regime’s dimensions and structureto the regime’s dimensions and structure——itsits only intent was to tranonly intent was to trans-s-form an absolutist reign into a constitutional regime.form an absolutist reign into a constitutional regime.137 As Toprak meAs Toprak men-n-tions, the 1908 Revolution was a movement started by the generation tions, the 1908 Revolution was a movement started by the generation who who ultimatultimately ely established the Republic of Turkey. This generation wit-established the Republic of Turkey. This generation wit-nessed and shared some enessed and shared some essential exssential experiences that allowed them to periences that allowed them to transform the country’s political regime. transform the country’s political regime. FirstFirst, this group was composed , this group was composed

134 Armaoğlu, Armaoğlu, Siyasi Tarih, 1789Siyasi Tarih, 1789--19141914, 93, 93--44, 100. , 100.

135 Dr. Karl Theodor Helfferich (1872Dr. Karl Theodor Helfferich (1872––1924) was a German financier, economist, and 1924) was a German financier, economist, and politician. He was the director of Deutsche Bank who worked on tpolitician. He was the director of Deutsche Bank who worked on the Baghdad Railway he Baghdad Railway issue. Cavid Bey had long worked and negotiated with him. He served as the German issue. Cavid Bey had long worked and negotiated with him. He served as the German MiMinister of Finance and Minister of the Interior during the First World War and was nister of Finance and Minister of the Interior during the First World War and was noted for his firm opposition to the postnoted for his firm opposition to the post--war Weimar Republic. war Weimar Republic.

136 John G. Williamson John G. Williamson Karl Helfferich, 1872Karl Helfferich, 1872--1924: Economist, Financier, Politician,1924: Economist, Financier, Politician, (New (New JeJersey: Princeton University Press, 1971), 88rsey: Princeton University Press, 1971), 88--9.9.

137 Tunaya, Tunaya, Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler VolTürkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin TariPartinin Tarih, h, 402.402.

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of many smaller groups in terms of different identities and occupations.

of many smaller groups in terms of different identities and occupations. It was not a monolithic group or movement. The CUP included mIt was not a monolithic group or movement. The CUP included members embers fromfrom small provincial officers in salaried positions to laborers and mili-small provincial officers in salaried positions to laborers and mili-tary officers who tary officers who trackedtracked Macedonian Macedonian revolutionariesrevolutionaries. However, even . However, even most of these salaried employees could rarely receive their salaries on most of these salaried employees could rarely receive their salaries on time due to the statetime due to the state's financial crises. 's financial crises. TThe CUP emerged as a repre-he CUP emerged as a repre-sesenntative of these military and civil service officers in opposition to the tative of these military and civil service officers in opposition to the cucurrrent administration. Some nonrent administration. Some non--Muslim and nonMuslim and non--Turkish parties such Turkish parties such as the Armenian Dashnaksutyun and the Bulgarian revolutionary faas the Armenian Dashnaksutyun and the Bulgarian revolutionary fac-c-tions also supportedtions also supported the 1908 Revolution the 1908 Revolution toto achieve their own goals. achieve their own goals. Most ofMost of the merchants of Selanik and the landlords of Serez also sup-the merchants of Selanik and the landlords of Serez also sup-ported the CUP.ported the CUP.138

The CUP aimed to transform the political system in order to resist

The CUP aimed to transform the political system in order to resist foreign pressure foreign pressure in the Balkans. Partiin the Balkans. Particularly middlecularly middle--ranrank soldiers who k soldiers who participated in the Committee had been fighting in the guerilla war participated in the Committee had been fighting in the guerilla war against Bulgarian guerilla groups (against Bulgarian guerilla groups (çeteci çeteci –– komitacıkomitacı). Their primary se). Their primary sen-n-sibilities were the foreign forces supporting independence movements sibilities were the foreign forces supporting independence movements against the Ottoman state. These circumstances strengthened the CUP’s against the Ottoman state. These circumstances strengthened the CUP’s primary goal of saving the state, which became representative of the primary goal of saving the state, which became representative of the core cell ocore cell of the CUP in the very early period of the new political regime. f the CUP in the very early period of the new political regime. Although the CUP sought political independence, this idea differed from Although the CUP sought political independence, this idea differed from the concept of national sovereignty adopted by the national forces duthe concept of national sovereignty adopted by the national forces dur-r-ing the Independence War (ing the Independence War (KuvvacıKuvvacı). Moreover, it a). Moreover, it also lacked an antilso lacked an anti--imperial approach. It is important to note that the CUP emerged from imperial approach. It is important to note that the CUP emerged from within the Ottoman Empire, which remained one of its core characteriwithin the Ottoman Empire, which remained one of its core characteris-s-tics, at least until 1913. Nationalism did not join the ideological ranks of tics, at least until 1913. Nationalism did not join the ideological ranks of the Empire until the vthe Empire until the very end of the Ottoman era. After Ottomanism and ery end of the Ottoman era. After Ottomanism and PanPan--Islamism had failed to unify the Empire, the Young Turks only Islamism had failed to unify the Empire, the Young Turks only adopted nationalism until after the revolution, thus raising it from an adopted nationalism until after the revolution, thus raising it from an ideology of the ordinary people to that of the imperial elite. ideology of the ordinary people to that of the imperial elite.

138 Zafer Toprak, Zafer Toprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908--19181918 (Istanbul: Doğan Kitap, 2012), 104.(Istanbul: Doğan Kitap, 2012), 104.

A Y Ş E K Ö S E B ADUR

For

For this reason, the Unionists first adopted Ottomanism to secure this reason, the Unionists first adopted Ottomanism to secure the survival of the Empire, which consisted of various identities. While the survival of the Empire, which consisted of various identities. While the most significant works related to nationalism, although very few, the most significant works related to nationalism, although very few, had already been published by 1908,had already been published by 1908,139 the main mottothe main motto of the revolu-of the revolu-tion was Ottomanism, which was conceived in order to create a shelter tion was Ottomanism, which was conceived in order to create a shelter to protect the Empire. However, as underscored in the literature many to protect the Empire. However, as underscored in the literature many times, the CUP did not have a concrete program for the posttimes, the CUP did not have a concrete program for the post--revolutionary era. In this way, the CUP harevolutionary era. In this way, the CUP had only imitated the French d only imitated the French Revolution, which was compatible with the Committee’s Jacobin charaRevolution, which was compatible with the Committee’s Jacobin charac-c-ter. Although the CUP had penetrated Ottoman society, they had diffter. Although the CUP had penetrated Ottoman society, they had diffiicul-cul-ty maintaining their legitimacy, power, and unity against various ity maintaining their legitimacy, power, and unity against various innter-ter-est groups. est groups.

Nevert

Nevertheless, as Cavid Bey’s biography points out, although the CUP heless, as Cavid Bey’s biography points out, although the CUP did not have a cohesive program, its members who were experts in didid not have a cohesive program, its members who were experts in dif-f-ferent fields proceeded with great determination. Its main obstacle was ferent fields proceeded with great determination. Its main obstacle was political opposition. After seizing power, the leaderspolitical opposition. After seizing power, the leaders of the Young Turks of the Young Turks expanded its revolutionary ideas in order to further the constitutional expanded its revolutionary ideas in order to further the constitutional programs of their predecessors. They prioritized policies covering programs of their predecessors. They prioritized policies covering mainly Westernization, secularism, and centralization, which had rmainly Westernization, secularism, and centralization, which had re-e-mained enshrined within the vamained enshrined within the values of the Ottoman elite throughout lues of the Ottoman elite throughout mosmostt of the centuryof the century..

Istanbul was initially in shock and disbelief due to the long period

Istanbul was initially in shock and disbelief due to the long period spent under the suppressive rule of the sultan, the city began celebrat-spent under the suppressive rule of the sultan, the city began celebrat-ing the revolutioning the revolution on July 24, 1908. In the meantime, someon July 24, 1908. In the meantime, some new regula-new regula-tions were established under the auspices of the new regime. First of all, tions were established under the auspices of the new regime. First of all, on July 24, 1908, government censorship was abolished. On July 31, an on July 24, 1908, government censorship was abolished. On July 31, an amnesty law providing amnesty for political criminalsamnesty law providing amnesty for political criminals—which which had al-had al-ready been adopted on July 24 by Aready been adopted on July 24 by Abdülhamid IIbdülhamid II——was implemented. . One of the most important developments was the abolition of the sul-One of the most important developments was the abolition of the sul-

139 YusufYusuf Akçura published his work called Akçura published his work called Üç TarzÜç Tarz--ı Siyasetı Siyaset in Cairo, in 1907. However, it in Cairo, in 1907. However, it had tohad to wait for the second publication in 1911 to be a magnum opus of nationalist ide-wait for the second publication in 1911 to be a magnum opus of nationalist ide-oollogy. François Georgeon ogy. François Georgeon Türk Milliyetçiliğinin Kökenleri Yusuf Akçura 1876 Türk Milliyetçiliğinin Kökenleri Yusuf Akçura 1876 –– 1935,1935, (I(Issttanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 2005), 48. anbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 2005), 48.

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

tan’s spy network, which had become an institution within the Empire.

tan’s spy network, which had become an institution within the Empire. On August 1, Hüseyin CahitOn August 1, Hüseyin Cahit, a very close friend a very close friend of Cavid Bey of Cavid Bey from from Mülki-Mülki-yeye,, started to pustarted to publish blish TaninTanin,, a daily a daily which bwhich beecame the strongest organ of came the strongest organ of the press followed by the CUP during the Second Constitutional Era. The the press followed by the CUP during the Second Constitutional Era. The newspaper was composed of opinions and news on local and foreign newspaper was composed of opinions and news on local and foreign actors and instiactors and institutiontutions.s.140 Cavid Bey, who was the CUP’s nomineeCavid Bey, who was the CUP’s nominee for the for the Ministry of Finance from the very begiMinistry of Finance from the very beginnning, also contributed to politi-ning, also contributed to politi-cal affairs at that time.cal affairs at that time.141

According to a telegraph from the Selanik headquarters of the CUP, ccording to a telegraph from the Selanik headquarters of the CUP, which was published in Ottoman newspwhich was published in Ottoman newspapers apers dadated July 31, 1908, a ted July 31, 1908, a committee that incommittee that included Staff Major Cemal and Hakki Bey, Necip Bey, cluded Staff Major Cemal and Hakki Bey, Necip Bey, Talat Bey, Rahmi Bey, Cavid Bey, and Hüseyin Bey arrived in Istanbul.Talat Bey, Rahmi Bey, Cavid Bey, and Hüseyin Bey arrived in Istanbul.142 According to BayurAccording to Bayur, who referred to the memoirs of Sait Pasha, the visit who referred to the memoirs of Sait Pasha, the visit was made upon twas made upon the reqhe requeuest of the General Inspector Hüseyin Hist of the General Inspector Hüseyin Hilmi Plmi Pa-a-sha to establish ties between Istanbul and the Committee. Since the lsha to establish ties between Istanbul and the Committee. Since the lo-o-cation of the CUP’s headquarters was still a secret, the committee mecation of the CUP’s headquarters was still a secret, the committee mem-m-bers would be taken one by one and brought to the upper floors obers would be taken one by one and brought to the upper floors of the f the prprinting office of inting office of Ikdam Ikdam daily. Some difdaily. Some differences between the Istanbul ferences between the Istanbul and Selanik branches also surfaced during the visit. For example, as cit-and Selanik branches also surfaced during the visit. For example, as cit-ed in Hüseyin Cahit’s memoirs, there were major differences between ed in Hüseyin Cahit’s memoirs, there were major differences between the “Istanbul” press and the free constithe “Istanbul” press and the free constitutiontutionalal press that flourished in press that flourished in Macedonia.Macedonia.143 During this time Cavid Bey was engaged in the issue of During this time Cavid Bey was engaged in the issue of the new cabinet along with Talat Bey as mentionthe new cabinet along with Talat Bey as mentioneed below. Thus, Cavid d below. Thus, Cavid Bey proceeded through the closed halls of politics, far from the boister-Bey proceeded through the closed halls of politics, far from the boister-ous voice of tous voice of the strhe streeteets.s.144

140 Tamer Erdoğan Tamer Erdoğan II. Mesrutiyet'in İlk Yılı: 23 TemII. Mesrutiyet'in İlk Yılı: 23 Temmuz 1908 muz 1908 -- 23 Temmuz 1909,23 Temmuz 1909, (Istanbul: (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2018), 63Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2018), 63--4.4.

141 Cavid Bey became the Minister of Finance Cavid Bey became the Minister of Finance onon June 26, 1909. June 26, 1909.

142 Bayur, Bayur, Türk Inkilâbı Tarihi, I/II,Türk Inkilâbı Tarihi, I/II, 6868--69; Kâzım Karabekir 69; Kâzım Karabekir Ittihat ve Terakki Ittihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti Cemiyeti 18961896--1909,1909, (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2017), 219.(Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2017), 219.

143 Yalçın, Yalçın, Siyasal Anılar,Siyasal Anılar, 25.25.

144 YalYalçın, çın, Siyasal AnılarSiyasal Anılar, 21, 21--2, 31. 2, 31.

A Y Ş E K Ö S E B ADUR

Even though the revolution had co

Even though the revolution had come about through strenuous and me about through strenuous and daring efforts, Abdülhamid II was still on the throne, and his loyal pdaring efforts, Abdülhamid II was still on the throne, and his loyal pa-a-shas retained their status. Moreover, Abdülhamid II seemed to resist shas retained their status. Moreover, Abdülhamid II seemed to resist handing over power to the government. Ohanding over power to the government. On Augun August st 1, Abdülhamid II 1, Abdülhamid II published a decree apublished a decree announcing his commitment to restore the constitnnouncing his commitment to restore the constitu-u-tion, which had established trust between the sultan and the CUP. On tion, which had established trust between the sultan and the CUP. On August 2, 1908, two decreesAugust 2, 1908, two decrees145 were issued related to the elections, were issued related to the elections, which provided instructionwhich provided instructions to ps to publublic authorities.ic authorities.146 The Unionists had The Unionists had alalso started their campaign for elections in various cities in Anatolia and so started their campaign for elections in various cities in Anatolia and Macedonia, which also trained the new members of the CommiMacedonia, which also trained the new members of the Committteetee. . While the CUP started to expand its organization in Anatolia, it also pur-While the CUP started to expand its organization in Anatolia, it also pur-sued sued its dual structure. The dual structure cits dual structure. The dual structure consisted of a legal organiza-onsisted of a legal organiza-tion and a secret revolutionary society, and the latter carried out the il-tion and a secret revolutionary society, and the latter carried out the il-legal works on behalf of the Committlegal works on behalf of the Committee and its sacred targets. The ee and its sacred targets. The distinction inside the organization of the CUP distinction inside the organization of the CUP continued until the disso-continued until the disso-lution of the Clution of the Committee.ommittee.147 During these days, Abdülhamid II also de-During these days, Abdülhamid II also de-clared that the Sultan would aclared that the Sultan would appoint theppoint the ministers of war and navy as ministers of war and navy as well as grand vizier and shaykh alwell as grand vizier and shaykh al--islam.islam.148 The CUP opposed this deci-The CUP opposed this deci-sion. Yet, they had alreadysion. Yet, they had already chosen their candidates for these positchosen their candidates for these positions. ions. The CUP’s candidate for the Minister of War was Recep Pasha, Governor The CUP’s candidate for the Minister of War was Recep Pasha, Governor of Trof Trablusgarp.ablusgarp. This issue became a longThis issue became a long--term bargaining chip between term bargaining chip between the CUP and the goverthe CUP and the governnment. For this reason, a group of Unionists, in-ment. For this reason, a group of Unionists, in-ccluding Cavid Bey, visited Grand Vizier Sluding Cavid Bey, visited Grand Vizier Sait Pasha in August 1908. In the ait Pasha in August 1908. In the

145 ‘Instructions About the Execution of the Law of Elections’ and ‘The Law on Elections of ‘Instructions About the Execution of the Law of Elections’ and ‘The Law on Elections of Members of Parliament’.Members of Parliament’.

146 The elections were The elections were held according to a system on two levels. The election system was held according to a system on two levels. The election system was liberal but not democraliberal but not democratic: groups that could not afford to pay taxes, such as women, tic: groups that could not afford to pay taxes, such as women, could not vote. could not vote. Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 280, 280--81.81.

147 In September, the CUP had started its campaign in the Anatolian cities. Cavid Bey In September, the CUP had started its campaign in the Anatolian cities. Cavid Bey probablprobably participated in the election campaign. As seen from his life story, Cavid Bey y participated in the election campaign. As seen from his life story, Cavid Bey always coalways contributed to campaigns as spokesperson of the CUP. Following their cam-ntributed to campaigns as spokesperson of the CUP. Following their cam-paign, the Congress of the CUP was held after in Selanik, between October 8 and No-paign, the Congress of the CUP was held after in Selanik, between October 8 and No-vember 17, 1908vember 17, 1908..

148 Ahmed Bedevi Kuran, Ahmed Bedevi Kuran, İnkilap Tarihimiz ve Jön Türkler,İnkilap Tarihimiz ve Jön Türkler, 254.254.

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meantime

meantime, Sai, Saitt Pasha founded the new cabinet a Pasha founded the new cabinet a few days afew days ago but it was go but it was already wornalready worn--out. A group of Unionists visited Saiout. A group of Unionists visited Saitt Pasha. Sait Pasha’s Pasha. Sait Pasha’s first impression of the young Unionists,first impression of the young Unionists, including Talat Bey and Cavid including Talat Bey and Cavid Bey, was Bey, was that they were not very warm.that they were not very warm.149 The Unionists expressed their The Unionists expressed their loyalty to the suloyalty to the sullttan and empan and emphasized that they would also work to keep hasized that they would also work to keep peace and order in the country.peace and order in the country.150 The assignment of these two im-The assignment of these two im-portant minsters bportant minsters beeccame a total cabinet crisis. Besides the ame a total cabinet crisis. Besides the importance importance of their position, the Minister of War and the Minister of Navy wouldof their position, the Minister of War and the Minister of Navy would also contalso control the army and the budget. It would also threaten the posi-rol the army and the budget. It would also threaten the posi-tion of the Committee in the armytion of the Committee in the army. Ta. Taninnin, which, which began publishing obegan publishing on the n the same day, criticized the sultan’s same day, criticized the sultan’s will to appoint the ministers of war and will to appoint the ministers of war and navy.navy.151 Sait Pasha could not remain in pSait Pasha could not remain in power for loower for long. After a series of ng. After a series of inconclusive meetings with two loyal politicians of Abdülhaid II, Sait Pa-inconclusive meetings with two loyal politicians of Abdülhaid II, Sait Pa-sha resigned, and Ksha resigned, and Kaamil Pasha mil Pasha became the grand vizier on August 5, became the grand vizier on August 5, 1901908. Although Kamil Pasha’s cabinet was in keeping with monarchist 8. Although Kamil Pasha’s cabinet was in keeping with monarchist tradition, it wtradition, it would also bould also be filled with experienced, energetic, and famous e filled with experienced, energetic, and famous figures.figures.152 In his article published in In his article published in TaninTanin,, Hüseyin Cahit claimHüseyin Cahit claimeded that that the the establishment of the Kamil Pasha cabinetestablishment of the Kamil Pasha cabinet ended the political crisis ended the political crisis that had begun with the appointment of highthat had begun with the appointment of high--rankingranking military offmilitary offic-ic-ers.ers.153 Kamil Pasha announced a detailed government program that Kamil Pasha announced a detailed government program that promised fiscal reforms, efforts to balance the budget, as promised fiscal reforms, efforts to balance the budget, as well as new well as new regulations within the adminregulations within the administristraation and the army. International tion and the army. International

149 Sina Akşin Sina Akşin Jön Türkler ve İttihat ve Terakki İktidarıJön Türkler ve İttihat ve Terakki İktidarı, (Ankara: İmge Kİtabevi, 2014), 143. , (Ankara: İmge Kİtabevi, 2014), 143. Aydemir, Şevket Süreyya. Aydemir, Şevket Süreyya. Enver Paşa Vol. IIIEnver Paşa Vol. III (Istanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 2016), 52(Istanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 2016), 52--33..

150 Bayur, Bayur, Türk Inkilâbı Tarihi, I/IITürk Inkilâbı Tarihi, I/II, 69., 69. Eroğlu, Eroğlu, İttihatçıların Ünlü Maliye Nazırı Cavid Bey,İttihatçıların Ünlü Maliye Nazırı Cavid Bey, 40.40.

151 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 167, 167--70.70.

152 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 175, 178, 175, 178--80;80; Ahmad, Ahmad, Ittihat ve Terakki,1908Ittihat ve Terakki,1908--1914 (Jön Türkler)1914 (Jön Türkler), 48., 48.

153 KansuKansu, , İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 182., 182.

A Y Ş E K Ö S E B ADUR

agreements were to be reviewed, and certa

agreements were to be reviewed, and certain measures win measures would be taken ould be taken to promote economic development.to promote economic development.154

Cavid Bey started working on fiscal issues during the Kamil Pasha

Cavid Bey started working on fiscal issues during the Kamil Pasha governmentgovernment (August 5, 1908(August 5, 1908––February 14February 14, 1909, 1909) with) with Ziya Pasha, then Ziya Pasha, then Minister of Finance. New regulations were introduced right aftMinister of Finance. New regulations were introduced right after the er the revolurevolution, particularly after the dismissal of the staff of the Ministry of tion, particularly after the dismissal of the staff of the Ministry of Finance. On August 10, 1908, the first draft bill waFinance. On August 10, 1908, the first draft bill wass published on the published on the dismissal of officersdismissal of officers——the number of whom was approximately 100the number of whom was approximately 100——in in the ministry.the ministry.155 The number of departThe number of departments in the ments in the ministry was re-ministry was re-duced until only five remained. Cavid Bey also started to initiate reforms duced until only five remained. Cavid Bey also started to initiate reforms in the ministry such as the aboliin the ministry such as the abolisshment of “the Directorate of Tithe, Taxhment of “the Directorate of Tithe, Tax, , and Treasury of Islam.” However, more robust reforms would also be and Treasury of Islam.” However, more robust reforms would also be iimmplementedplemented during Cavidduring Cavid Bey’s tenure as minister.Bey’s tenure as minister.156

In the early days of the revolution, the CUP faced two arduous cha

In the early days of the revolution, the CUP faced two arduous chal-l-lenges. The first was tightelenges. The first was tightenning its grip on the army in order to doing its grip on the army in order to dommi-i-nate the political system, and the second was to become a legal, constnate the political system, and the second was to become a legal, consti-i-tutionatutional political ol political organization. While attempting to attract members of rganization. While attempting to attract members of the top brass of the army through favorable appointments and the ethe top brass of the army through favorable appointments and the ex-x-panspansiion of military autonomy, the CUP turnedon of military autonomy, the CUP turned a deaf ear to requests a deaf ear to requests that it should transform itself into a mere political pathat it should transform itself into a mere political party of the corty of the constitnstitu-u-tional regime. tional regime. TThe CUP had instigated an officerhe CUP had instigated an officer--led rebellion to force led rebellion to force

154 Stanford Shaw and Ezel Kuran Shaw Stanford Shaw and Ezel Kuran Shaw Osmanlı İmOsmanlı İmparatorluğu ve Modern TürkiyeVol II paratorluğu ve Modern TürkiyeVol II Reform, Devrim ve Cumhuriyet: Modern Türkiye’nin Doğuşu, 1808Reform, Devrim ve Cumhuriyet: Modern Türkiye’nin Doğuşu, 1808--1975,1975, (Istanbul: E (Istanbul: E Yayınları, 1994), 333.Yayınları, 1994), 333.

155 “Cemiyet“Cemiyet--i rüsumiye azasının tenzili rüsumiye azasının tenzil--i adediyle heyeti adediyle heyet--i teftişiyei teftişiye--i rüsumiyenin lağvu i rüsumiyenin lağvu hakkında iradehakkında irade--i seniye”, Noi seniye”, No: 10, Page, 39, 1908, 29. Düstur: Tertib: 10, Page, 39, 1908, 29. Düstur: Tertib--i Sani. i Sani. ((https://acikerisim.tbmm.gov.tr/xmlui/handle/11543/71https://acikerisim.tbmm.gov.tr/xmlui/handle/11543/71), 13. ), 13.

156 Those departments of the Ministry of Finance organized by Cavid Bey during thThose departments of the Ministry of Finance organized by Cavid Bey during the first e first months of the Second Constitutional Period were: months of the Second Constitutional Period were:

DefterDefter--i Kebir Muhasebesii Kebir Muhasebesi

Varidat MuhasebesiVaridat Muhasebesi

Mesarif MuhasebesiMesarif Muhasebesi

DDuyunuyun--ı Umumiye Muhusebesiı Umumiye Muhusebesi

Hukuk Müşavirliği ve Ser VeznedarlıkHukuk Müşavirliği ve Ser Veznedarlık

See See Toprak, TToprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908ürkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908--11918918, 397., 397.

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

the sultan and his government to reinstate th

the sultan and his government to reinstate thee OOtttoman Constitution of toman Constitution of 1876. Although1876. Although this revolution was led by offthis revolution was led by offiicers, it was not a coucers, it was not a coup. In p. In fact, thfact, the top brass of the Ottoman army re top brass of the Ottoman army reemained loyal to the Hamidian mained loyal to the Hamidian regime or was neutral between the two parties.regime or was neutral between the two parties. While the CUP proudly While the CUP proudly boasted that theboasted that the Ottoman army had paved the way for the Ottoman army had paved the way for the reinstatement reinstatement of the constitutional regime, the realitof the constitutional regime, the reality was that a rey was that a rebellion was initiat-bellion was initiat-ed by a civil political organization that relied on lowed by a civil political organization that relied on low--ranking officers.ranking officers.157

Apart from the consolidation of power over the army,

Apart from the consolidation of power over the army, tthe major he major problem of the Unionists was hproblem of the Unionists was how they would take control of the goow they would take control of the gov-v-ernment. As will ernment. As will be seen in the be seen in the period between 1908 and 1913, the CUP period between 1908 and 1913, the CUP remained only a supervisory power. Nevertheless, the CUP could not remained only a supervisory power. Nevertheless, the CUP could not take control of the government nor was it take control of the government nor was it aable to fully cement itself on ble to fully cement itself on the politthe political stage after the success of July 1908. First of alical stage after the success of July 1908. First of all, the princl, the princi-i-plples applied during the long experiment of Ottoman politics had ees applied during the long experiment of Ottoman politics had exxclud-clud-ed the inexperienced and naive Young Turks from the state appared the inexperienced and naive Young Turks from the state apparaatustus——or at leastor at least from the top brass of the bureaucracy. from the top brass of the bureaucracy. The social background The social background of the Young Turks, as was the cof the Young Turks, as was the case with Cavid ase with Cavid Bey, meant that they Bey, meant that they were the graduates of new, modern schools and had rather new occupa-were the graduates of new, modern schools and had rather new occupa-tions, such as lawyers, journalists, professors, lowtions, such as lawyers, journalists, professors, low--rankinrankingg bureaucrats, bureaucrats, or they were graduates ofor they were graduates of the Westernthe Western--style military schools and were style military schools and were still in still in the lower ranksthe lower ranks of the army. Some of them had not even graduat-of the army. Some of them had not even graduat-ed from high school. What was common among the Young Turks was ed from high school. What was common among the Young Turks was that they had no experience in the fithat they had no experience in the fieeld of state affairs. After realizing ld of state affairs. After realizing ththat he could not halt the developments in Macedonia, Abat he could not halt the developments in Macedonia, Abdülhamid II dülhamid II quiquickly declared the proclamation of the constitution. This new, radical ckly declared the proclamation of the constitution. This new, radical shift paved the way for the bureaucrats and the cabshift paved the way for the bureaucrats and the cabiinet members to lose net members to lose theirtheir power and control.power and control.158 The “old hand” pashThe “old hand” pashas, who had been grand as, who had been grand viziers, would not let up in thviziers, would not let up in the face of this e face of this change and held onto their change and held onto their control of the mechanisms of power. However, the Young Turks, who control of the mechanisms of power. However, the Young Turks, who

157 M. ŞükrM. Şükrü Hanioğlu, "Civilü Hanioğlu, "Civil--Military Relations in the Second Constitutional Period, 1908Military Relations in the Second Constitutional Period, 1908––1918," 1918," Turkish Studies Turkish Studies 12, no. 2 (2011): 17712, no. 2 (2011): 177--89.89.

158 Feroz Feroz Ahmad Ahmad İttihat ve Terakki,1908İttihat ve Terakki,1908--1914 (Jön Türkler)1914 (Jön Türkler) (Istanbul: Sander Yayınları, (Istanbul: Sander Yayınları, 1971), 39.1971), 39.

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were not able to seize power, were not pleased at this

were not able to seize power, were not pleased at this moment in time. moment in time. According to Feroz AhmAccording to Feroz Ahmad, Cavid Bey ad, Cavid Bey saidsaid to the First Secretary of the to the First Secretary of the BritiBritish Embassy thatsh Embassy that the Young Turks were inethe Young Turks were inexxperienced in state af-perienced in state af-fairs and that experience and seniority were more important in the Ot-fairs and that experience and seniority were more important in the Ot-toman Empire than in other countoman Empire than in other counttries.ries. However, However, later, later, CavCavid Beyid Bey would would ccontradict this sentiment: “ontradict this sentiment: “I am onlyI am only upset about oneupset about one thing... That thing... That we we did not take the matters of governance in our own hands at the time... did not take the matters of governance in our own hands at the time... However, we wanted to display to the public that we did not act upHowever, we wanted to display to the public that we did not act upon on any idany idea of interest.”ea of interest.” This interview, which CThis interview, which Cavid Bey gave to Jean avid Bey gave to Jean Rhodes of Rhodes of Le TLe Tempsemps newspaper, newspaper, expressed his dexpressed his discontent and remorse iscontent and remorse about the choice of policy adopted by the CUP after 1908. A prominent about the choice of policy adopted by the CUP after 1908. A prominent journalist, Falih Rıfkı Atay, made a similar cojournalist, Falih Rıfkı Atay, made a similar connfession: fession: “I don't know if “I don't know if there was any rethere was any revolutiovolutionary nary party in history which overtook the whole party in history which overtook the whole of state power and yet of state power and yet llet the government be run by men of the former et the government be run by men of the former order. order. Ittihat ve TerakkiIttihat ve Terakki did not see itself worthy of this position up until did not see itself worthy of this position up until 1913.”1913.”159 HüseHüseyin Cahityin Cahit also mentions the oddness of the situatalso mentions the oddness of the situation in his ion in his memoirs, in that the CUP elites questioned the lack of any memoirs, in that the CUP elites questioned the lack of any pprogram or rogram or plan after the revolution. This led to confusion among the citizens that, plan after the revolution. This led to confusion among the citizens that, alongside a legal government, there was a alongside a legal government, there was a committeecommittee that had that had an almost an almost mystical and holy character. Wmystical and holy character. While this Committee had initiated a hile this Committee had initiated a movement, it was not visible in thmovement, it was not visible in thee public sphere and not a political par-public sphere and not a political par-ty. Unlike its counterparts in Europe, the CUP was unable to transform ty. Unlike its counterparts in Europe, the CUP was unable to transform itself into an open and demitself into an open and democratic pocratic politolitiical partycal party.. However, although the However, although the CUCUP entered the political arena by a revolutionary incident, it soon be-P entered the political arena by a revolutionary incident, it soon be-came part of the legal political framework.came part of the legal political framework.160

It was as if Ottoman society was waiting for a sign that the absolutist

It was as if Ottoman society was waiting for a sign that the absolutist regime would come toregime would come to aan end. Jn end. Just after the revolution, it was impossust after the revolution, it was impossi-i-ble to calm down people at work or at home; they were overwhelmed ble to calm down people at work or at home; they were overwhelmed with a sense of joy and were looking for a magical remedy for their with a sense of joy and were looking for a magical remedy for their problems, which included economic and social woes. As mentioned eaproblems, which included economic and social woes. As mentioned ear-r-

159 Tunaya, Tunaya, Türkiye’de Siyasal ParTürkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Voltiler Vol.. 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin TarihPartinin Tarih, 62., 62.

160 Yalçın, Yalçın, Siyasal ASiyasal Anınılarlar, 25., 25.

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lier,

lier, tthe revolhe revolution had a liberal character, as its moution had a liberal character, as its motto was “freedom.” tto was “freedom.” With the contribution of the press and publishing sector, this “freedom” With the contribution of the press and publishing sector, this “freedom” was interpreted in a very broad way. The surge in the press was seen in was interpreted in a very broad way. The surge in the press was seen in both the numbers and the variety of papersboth the numbers and the variety of papers aand magaznd magazines that were ines that were published. Hundreds of papublished. Hundreds of papers and periodicals came out. For instance, pers and periodicals came out. For instance, the Empire’s Armenians published more than 200 papers between 1908 the Empire’s Armenians published more than 200 papers between 1908 and 1914. As scholars refer to it, this was a period of cultural reand 1914. As scholars refer to it, this was a period of cultural rennais-ais-sance for the Ottoman Esance for the Ottoman Emmppire.ire.161 InIn particular, books and booklets on particular, books and booklets on freedfreedom allowed the ideas of a free society to spread among the people. om allowed the ideas of a free society to spread among the people. However, in the summer of 1908, strikes broke out across different rHowever, in the summer of 1908, strikes broke out across different re-e-gions and sectors.gions and sectors.162 The first strike was carried out by workers on feThe first strike was carried out by workers on fer-r-rriies who wes who were carrying passengers to the Princes Iere carrying passengers to the Princes Islands on July 30, slands on July 30, 1908.1908.163 Along with the increase in the number of journals and newspAlong with the increase in the number of journals and newspa-a-pers throughout the Empire, workers’ strikes were among the most sipers throughout the Empire, workers’ strikes were among the most sig-g-nificant phenomena during these early days of freedonificant phenomena during these early days of freedomm.. The strThe strikes ikes were widespread throughout the Ottowere widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire, from man Empire, from Istanbul to Istanbul to Ka-Ka-valavala, , SamsunSamsun, , Haifa, Haifa, andand İzmirİzmir. The strikes among workers in the pub. The strikes among workers in the public lic sector as well as the private sector gave the impression and fed the fear sector as well as the private sector gave the impression and fed the fear that socialism was taking effthat socialism was taking effect in Ottect in Ottoomanman lands, as well.lands, as well.164 HoweverHowever, , thethe main main ingredient for socialismingredient for socialism——the working classthe working class——was very limiwas very limited ted and narrow in the Ottoman Empire. The CUP, which was rooted in Se-and narrow in the Ottoman Empire. The CUP, which was rooted in Se-lanik, was one of the strongest centers of the labor movement and un-lanik, was one of the strongest centers of the labor movement and un-ionism, and iionism, and initnitially, ially, they considered the strikes after 1908 athey considered the strikes after 1908 a positive positive development. In particular, it was the strikesdevelopment. In particular, it was the strikes by the railway workers af-by the railway workers af-ter the revolution that compelled the CUP to support them through the ter the revolution that compelled the CUP to support them through the

161 Çağlar Keyder Çağlar Keyder Türkiye'de Devlet ve Sınıflar Türkiye'de Devlet ve Sınıflar (Istanbul: İleti(Istanbul: İletişişim Yayınları, 2015), 86.m Yayınları, 2015), 86.

162 One of the other key social groups was women besides the laborers who raised theirOne of the other key social groups was women besides the laborers who raised their voices after the Revolution. Gender and labor movements were rising in the Empire voices after the Revolution. Gender and labor movements were rising in the Empire due to the basic motto of the Young Turks Revolution: freedom.due to the basic motto of the Young Turks Revolution: freedom. Charles Issawi, Charles Issawi, ThThe e Economic History of Turkey 1800Economic History of Turkey 1800--19141914 (Chicago, Ill.; London: University of Chicago (Chicago, Ill.; London: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 51.Press, 1980), 51.

163 TTopoprak, rak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat 1908Türkiye'de Milli İktisat 1908--19181918, 92, 92--95.95.

164 Can Nacar, Can Nacar, Labor and power in the Late Ottoman Empire Labor and power in the Late Ottoman Empire Tobacco WorkTobacco Workersers, Managers,, Managers, and the States, 1872and the States, 1872--19119122 (Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 107(Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 107--1134. 34.

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Committee. More than any other sector, the railway bus

Committee. More than any other sector, the railway busineiness was ss was a bur-a bur-den on the Ottoman government, due den on the Ottoman government, due to the kilometer guarantees that to the kilometer guarantees that had to be paid to the rhad to be paid to the railway companies. Trotsky’s observation about ailway companies. Trotsky’s observation about the strikes is pretty interesting. First of all, he treats the Turkish prole-the strikes is pretty interesting. First of all, he treats the Turkish prole-tariat as a “tariat as a “quantité négligquantité négligeabeable,le,”. T”. Then, he depicts the first days of hen, he depicts the first days of strikestrikes after the first months of the Revolution as follows: s after the first months of the Revolution as follows: ““[t]he first [t]he first weeks of the Turkish revolution were marked by strikes in the public weeks of the Turkish revolution were marked by strikes in the public bakeries, printing works, textiles, transport, the tobacco factories,bakeries, printing works, textiles, transport, the tobacco factories, ththe e workeworkers in the ports and the railwaymen. The rs in the ports and the railwaymen. The boycott of the Austrian boycott of the Austrian goods goods should have mobilized and should have mobilized and inspired the young proletariat of Tuinspired the young proletariat of Tur-r-key even more key even more –– especially the dockers especially the dockers –– who played a decisive role in who played a decisive role in this campaign. But how did the new regime this campaign. But how did the new regime resrespond topond to the political the political birth of the working clasbirth of the working class? By a law imposing forced labour for a strike. s? By a law imposing forced labour for a strike. The proThe program of the “Young Turks” does not have a word concerning any gram of the “Young Turks” does not have a word concerning any precise measure to help the workers.precise measure to help the workers.””165

In August, Cavid Bey responded to the strikes by

In August, Cavid Bey responded to the strikes by penpenning anning an article article and publishing it in and publishing it in ServetServet--i Fi Fünunünun. His article was short but compr. His article was short but compre-e-hensive in terms ohensive in terms of addressing different aspects of the strikes; his main f addressing different aspects of the strikes; his main point being that he considered that strikes were workers’ natural rights. point being that he considered that strikes were workers’ natural rights. In the Ottoman EmpirIn the Ottoman Empire, e, strikesstrikes were ambiguous incidents, bwere ambiguous incidents, beecause re-cause re-porports of them having taken place were only seen in newspts of them having taken place were only seen in newspaapepers’ foreign rs’ foreign news pages. But, after the proclamation of the constitution, workers news pages. But, after the proclamation of the constitution, workers discovered that they had an opportunity to speak up against any unjusdiscovered that they had an opportunity to speak up against any unjust t ttreatmenreatment. The workers had two main grievances: t. The workers had two main grievances: first, the unjust con-first, the unjust con-ditions of their work (long hours oditions of their work (long hours of work, low wages); sef work, low wages); seccond, the vul-ond, the vul-gar way in which the gar way in which the officersofficers had had treated workers. According to Cavid treated workers. According to Cavid

165 Trotsky, "The Young Turks (January 1909),Trotsky, "The Young Turks (January 1909),"" iin n The War Correspondence of Leon The War Correspondence of Leon Trotsky,Trotsky, Kievskaya MyslKievskaya Mysl 3, January 33, January 3, , 19091909, , htthttps://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1909/01/1909ps://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1909/01/1909--turks.htmturks.htm

This paragraph means that theThis paragraph means that theyy rran the risk of serious unexpected events. The power an the risk of serious unexpected events. The power of the contemporary proletariat, even when its number is small, rests on the fact that it of the contemporary proletariat, even when its number is small, rests on the fact that it holds in its handholds in its hands the concentrated productive capas the concentrated productive capaccity of the country and the control ity of the country and the control of the most significant of the most significant mmeaeans of communication.ns of communication.

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Bey, the labor ought to have taken two things

Bey, the labor ought to have taken two things intinto co consonsideration while ideration while organizing a strike: timorganizing a strike: timing and not demanding too much. In this case, ing and not demanding too much. In this case, the timingthe timing of the strikes was not advantageous, because the rof the strikes was not advantageous, because the reeform pro-form pro-cess (cess (inkılâpinkılâp) was quite new, and the economic actors from various ) was quite new, and the economic actors from various fields, such as industry anfields, such as industry and cd commerce, could not place their trust in the ommerce, could not place their trust in the new regime. As elaborated upon by Cavid Bey, as in the case of Régie new regime. As elaborated upon by Cavid Bey, as in the case of Régie Tobacco,Tobacco,166 the workers would succeed in their demandsthe workers would succeed in their demands when their when their economic equality would be sustained on behalf of the labor. The impli-economic equality would be sustained on behalf of the labor. The impli-cationcations os of Cavid Bey’s statement are very clear: first, the workers should f Cavid Bey’s statement are very clear: first, the workers should clarify their demands in line with other or similar branches of indus-clarify their demands in line with other or similar branches of indus-tries. Furthermore, according tries. Furthermore, according to him, the workers should write out their to him, the workers should write out their demands for the company and allow the companydemands for the company and allow the company sosome time to decide. me time to decide. At the end of the time allotted, if the company refuses to aAt the end of the time allotted, if the company refuses to acccept the de-cept the de-mands or forces the laborers to work under unacceptable conditions, mands or forces the laborers to work under unacceptable conditions, then tthen they should go on strike. The workers should behave according to hey should go on strike. The workers should behave according to the principles of logic the principles of logic andand keep reason in mind, as opposed to dreaming keep reason in mind, as opposed to dreaming beyond the realities of the day. In this way, Cavid Bey abeyond the realities of the day. In this way, Cavid Bey arrgues that work-gues that work-ers ought to achieve their demands from their emers ought to achieve their demands from their employers by keeping a ployers by keeping a calm demeanor rather than using force and violence, which might putcalm demeanor rather than using force and violence, which might put ththeir cause in jeopardy.eir cause in jeopardy.167 His key points were the prHis key points were the prootection of both tection of both laborers and the constitutional regime, which had been established only laborers and the constitutional regime, which had been established only a short time before. The sa short time before. The strikes followed one another in quick succes-trikes followed one another in quick succes-sion from the beginning of August until Octobsion from the beginning of August until Octobersers. The strike carried out . The strike carried out

166 In 1883, the Ottoman government granted a tobacco monopoly to a foreign company In 1883, the Ottoman government granted a tobacco monopoly to a foreign company called the Société de la Régie Cointeressée des Tabacs dcalled the Société de la Régie Cointeressée des Tabacs de l'Empire Ottoman (Memâlike l'Empire Ottoman (Memâlik--ı ı Osmaniye Duhanları Müşterekü’l Menfa’a Reji Şirketi) Osmaniye Duhanları Müşterekü’l Menfa’a Reji Şirketi) –– simply, tsimply, thhe e Régie. The Régie Régie. The Régie opened its largest factory in the Cibali district of Istanbul in 1884. The factory wiopened its largest factory in the Cibali district of Istanbul in 1884. The factory wit-t-nessed strikes as of 1908, and the labor movement reachenessed strikes as of 1908, and the labor movement reached their peak in 1911 when d their peak in 1911 when some 2,000 workers launched what would be one of the longest strikessome 2,000 workers launched what would be one of the longest strikes inin late Ottlate Otto-o-man history. man history. Can Nacar, "The Régie Monopoly and Tobacco Workers in Late Ottoman Can Nacar, "The Régie Monopoly and Tobacco Workers in Late Ottoman Istanbul," Istanbul," Comparative Studies of South Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle EastAsia, Africa and the Middle East 34, no. 1 34, no. 1 (2014): 206(2014): 206--19.19.

167 Mehmed Cavid Bey, “Mehmed Cavid Bey, “TatilTatil--i Eşgal Meselesii Eşgal Meselesi," Servet," Servet--i Fünun, 15 August, 1908, in i Fünun, 15 August, 1908, in Erdoğan, II. Meşrutiyet’in İlErdoğan, II. Meşrutiyet’in İlk Yılı 23 Temmuz 1908 k Yılı 23 Temmuz 1908 -- 23 Temmuz 190923 Temmuz 1909, 103, 103--04.04.

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by tram workers on September 13

by tram workers on September 13––14, 1908 effe14, 1908 effecctively put a halt to Is-tively put a halt to Is-tanbul’s tram transportation system. Railway workers from different tanbul’s tram transportation system. Railway workers from different comcompanies such as the Orientpanies such as the Orient--Express Railway and the Anatolian Otto-Express Railway and the Anatolian Otto-man Railway Company alsoman Railway Company also wewent on strike. The government neither ap-nt on strike. The government neither ap-proved of nor tolerated these actions. The CUP, though, was in favor of proved of nor tolerated these actions. The CUP, though, was in favor of the workers and decided to put an end to the strikes athe workers and decided to put an end to the strikes as soon as possible; s soon as possible; however, the strikes continued throughout September and October. Forhowever, the strikes continued throughout September and October. For ththis reason, a decree on the Ottoman Strike Law was accepted by the is reason, a decree on the Ottoman Strike Law was accepted by the government on October 8, 1908 based on Agovernment on October 8, 1908 based on Arrticle 36 of the Constitution, ticle 36 of the Constitution, without waiting for the conswithout waiting for the consent of the paent of the parrliament. This was the first de-liament. This was the first de-cree law of the new era, and it was used morcree law of the new era, and it was used more ae as a deterrent than a reg-s a deterrent than a reg-ulation. According to the law, the strikes concerning public services ulation. According to the law, the strikes concerning public services such as railways, ports, trams, electricity, irrigation, and gas servicsuch as railways, ports, trams, electricity, irrigation, and gas services as es as well as the OPDA and Régie Tobacco were prohibited. It should be noted well as the OPDA and Régie Tobacco were prohibited. It should be noted that the puthat the publiblic sector was the main sector in the economy. A balance c sector was the main sector in the economy. A balance had to be achieved between strikes and the public good. had to be achieved between strikes and the public good. Cavid BeyCavid Bey, who , who was a liberal economist, distanced himswas a liberal economist, distanced himself from socialism. However, he elf from socialism. However, he did support the right to establish labor udid support the right to establish labor unnions, which hions, which he he had considered ad considered extremely beneficial for the economy.extremely beneficial for the economy.168 In short, everybodyIn short, everybody——including including Cavid BeyCavid Bey——faced a new dimension of social life after the revolution. faced a new dimension of social life after the revolution. Due to his liDue to his liberal economic stance, Cavid Beyberal economic stance, Cavid Bey’s priority was to respect ’s priority was to respect freedom of association and stfreedom of association and strikrikes as well as sustaining the Rees as well as sustaining the Revolution volution and the new regime. and the new regime.

September 1908 was a time of upheaval. First, Prince Sabahaddin

September 1908 was a time of upheaval. First, Prince Sabahaddin,, one of the opone of the opponents of the ponents of the HHamidian reamidian regime butgime but also contradicted with also contradicted with the the Unionists mainly represented by Ahmet Rıza,Unionists mainly represented by Ahmet Rıza, returned to Istanbul returned to Istanbul on September 2 due to his father’s death. He was welcomed by a cheer-on September 2 due to his father’s death. He was welcomed by a cheer-ing crowd, and he swiftly goting crowd, and he swiftly got invinvolved in politics upon his return. olved in politics upon his return. Though Prince Sabahaddin looked for a way to approach tThough Prince Sabahaddin looked for a way to approach the CUP, he he CUP, he was unable to garner the support from the CUP he had hoped for.was unable to garner the support from the CUP he had hoped for.169 From this point on, he became one of the main figures behind the scenes From this point on, he became one of the main figures behind the scenes

168 Toprak, Toprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908--19181918, 94, 94--5.5.

169 Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 266, 266--68.68.

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leading the op

leading the opposiposition to the CUP. On September 14, 1908, the Ottoman tion to the CUP. On September 14, 1908, the Ottoman Liberal Party (Liberal Party (Osmanlı Ahrar PartisiOsmanlı Ahrar Partisi) ) was founded by a group of people was founded by a group of people that had been close to Prince Sabahaddin before the elections.that had been close to Prince Sabahaddin before the elections.170 The The party was organized around the prince’s own ideparty was organized around the prince’s own ideoological principles, logical principles, which were in favor of private enterprise and decewhich were in favor of private enterprise and decenntralization.tralization.171 So, an So, an opposition partopposition party was established one and a half months after the y was established one and a half months after the strikes, which further indicates the pluralist and listrikes, which further indicates the pluralist and libberal character of this eral character of this period. The party was established by Ahmet Samim, Bedi Kazanova, period. The party was established by Ahmet Samim, Bedi Kazanova, Nâzım Bey, Şevket Bey, Celaleddin Arif, aNâzım Bey, Şevket Bey, Celaleddin Arif, and Mnd Maahir Sait. The two political hir Sait. The two political parties resembled one another in terms of their liberal economic poli-parties resembled one another in terms of their liberal economic poli-cies. However, they were cies. However, they were quite different from each other when it came quite different from each other when it came to the argument over centralization. While the Ahrar Party was based to the argument over centralization. While the Ahrar Party was based on decentralizaon decentralization tion –– which was welcomed by minorities which was welcomed by minorities –– the CUP fol-the CUP fol-lowed a stricter centralist line. While Cavid Beylowed a stricter centralist line. While Cavid Bey’s economic approach ’s economic approach was was also also liberal, he had aligned himself with the CUP’s centralist poli-liberal, he had aligned himself with the CUP’s centralist poli-cies. cies.

After the revolution, the Young Turks had two differen

After the revolution, the Young Turks had two different libt liberal aeral ap-p-proaches toward determining the economy's direction. First of all, duproaches toward determining the economy's direction. First of all, dur-r-ing the first years of the Constitutional reging the first years of the Constitutional regime, the leading economic ime, the leading economic policy was liberal, depended on freepolicy was liberal, depended on free--market, entrepreneurism via mamarket, entrepreneurism via mar-r-ket means, extending infrastructureket means, extending infrastructure inveinvestments, resisting capitulations stments, resisting capitulations but hoping to save the economy despite the privileges and capitu-but hoping to save the economy despite the privileges and capitu-aştions. Overall, this ecaştions. Overall, this economic policy did not have an antionomic policy did not have an anti--imperialistic imperialistic approach and more or less continued in that way at least until 1914. As approach and more or less continued in that way at least until 1914. As mentionementioned, thd, there had been two versions of liberalism, Prince Sa-ere had been two versions of liberalism, Prince Sa-bahaddin's decentralized approach, and Cavid Beybahaddin's decentralized approach, and Cavid Bey's centralist approach. 's centralist approach.

170 ThouThough Prince Sabahaddin was not one of the founders of the party, he was the head gh Prince Sabahaddin was not one of the founders of the party, he was the head of the daily caof the daily callleled Terakki, which was supporting the party. The party was brought d Terakki, which was supporting the party. The party was brought ececoonomic liberalism and entrepreneurship to the forefront. On September 16, 1908, nomic liberalism and entrepreneurship to the forefront. On September 16, 1908, Prince SabahPrince Sabahaddin gave a speech at the Théatre des Variétés in the Haleb Passage on addin gave a speech at the Théatre des Variétés in the Haleb Passage on the Grand Rue de Pera.the Grand Rue de Pera. HiHis thoughts on semis thoughts on semi--autonomous regions with autonomous autonomous regions with autonomous budgets were welcomed by the public, especially by Greeks, Armenians, and Arabs.budgets were welcomed by the public, especially by Greeks, Armenians, and Arabs.

171 Mango, Mango, AtatürkAtatürk, 218., 218.

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Interestingly, Cavid Bey

Interestingly, Cavid Bey did not lean did not lean towardstowards decentralizdecentralizationation even even whenwhen he he developeddeveloped conflicts with the CUP. Prince Sconflicts with the CUP. Prince Sabahaddin's ap-abahaddin's ap-proach is baseproach is based on sociology and inspired by Le Play, a conservative d on sociology and inspired by Le Play, a conservative thinker, to achieve the model of private enterprise andthinker, to achieve the model of private enterprise and decentralization. decentralization. Cavid BeyCavid Bey was inspired by classical liberalism, and he argued that the was inspired by classical liberalism, and he argued that the state should remain outside state should remain outside of the economic field and clof the economic field and clear the way for ear the way for the free market economy. While both ideologies supported economic the free market economy. While both ideologies supported economic individuaindividuallism, Prince Sabahaism, Prince Sabahaddin's ideology was based on sociology, ddin's ideology was based on sociology, and Cavid Beyand Cavid Bey's was based on economic theory and had a more con-'s was based on economic theory and had a more con-temporary charatemporary characteristic than the former. Ccteristic than the former. Cavid Beyavid Bey's economic liberal-'s economic liberal-ism made sense in political terms where the CUP was the main actor. ism made sense in political terms where the CUP was the main actor. However, he wasHowever, he was also never questioning the superiority of the Western also never questioning the superiority of the Western economy. He also considered that they should imitate the economeconomy. He also considered that they should imitate the economic pol-ic pol-icies of the Western cicies of the Western countries to survive, sustain and develop sooner or ountries to survive, sustain and develop sooner or later. This point was a presumed acceptance in the liberalslater. This point was a presumed acceptance in the liberals' minds, ' minds, whether from a decentralized or opposite approach.whether from a decentralized or opposite approach.

Moreover, Cavid Bey

Moreover, Cavid Bey had a vision for the country's economyhad a vision for the country's economy, and a, and ac-c-cording to him, thiscording to him, this should be determined and implemented from the should be determined and implemented from the center, Istanbul. He would never ask the locals about their pricenter, Istanbul. He would never ask the locals about their priorities, orities, wills about their regions' economic future. His economic approach was wills about their regions' economic future. His economic approach was also conceptual and was not intertwinedalso conceptual and was not intertwined with the politics and somwith the politics and some-e-ttimes the real life. According to Cavid Beyimes the real life. According to Cavid Bey, the local interest groups and , the local interest groups and notables should be represented in Panotables should be represented in Parliament. However, then, there rliament. However, then, there would be a conflict between the Parliament and the government, or in would be a conflict between the Parliament and the government, or in other words, betweother words, between the executive power and len the executive power and legislative power. This egislative power. This dispute is one of the central conflicts of Turkish politics dispute is one of the central conflicts of Turkish politics forfor centcentuuries. In ries. In these casthese cases, as his biography would indicate, he would also seek ways to es, as his biography would indicate, he would also seek ways to pass the Parliament up sometimes.pass the Parliament up sometimes.172

As Yeniay

As Yeniay states, in September 1908, the states, in September 1908, the Imperial Ottoman Bank Imperial Ottoman Bank gave out the first loan of the Second Constitutional Era to the amount of gave out the first loan of the Second Constitutional Era to the amount of 4,711,124 Liras (net4,711,124 Liras (net: 3,910,000 Liras) with 4% interest: 3,910,000 Liras) with 4% interest--rate, and 0,5 % rate, and 0,5 %

172 Toprak, Toprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908--19181918, 33, 33--5.5.

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amortization.

amortization.173 The Ottoman government urgently needed moThe Ottoman government urgently needed money to ney to bridge the budget deficibridge the budget deficit and pay the term bonds of advances with hight and pay the term bonds of advances with high--interest rates. Besides, the government should realize the transitioninterest rates. Besides, the government should realize the transition to to the constitutional regime, hold the elections, pay the salaries, and suthe constitutional regime, hold the elections, pay the salaries, and sus-s-tain public life.tain public life.174 The French sidThe French side had high expectations of the e had high expectations of the RevolRevolu-u-tion due to its liberal inclination. Stephen Pichon, the Minister of Fotion due to its liberal inclination. Stephen Pichon, the Minister of For-r-eign Affairs at that time, saw in the eign Affairs at that time, saw in the Young Turk revolution “a general Young Turk revolution “a general movement of sympathy for liberal and republican France,” and was con-movement of sympathy for liberal and republican France,” and was con-vinced tvinced that the French government couldhat the French government could achieve a privileged posachieve a privileged posiition tion in Istanbul. As a gesture of goodwill towards the new regime, he agreed in Istanbul. As a gesture of goodwill towards the new regime, he agreed to provide anto provide an unconditional loan of 25,000,000 francs.unconditional loan of 25,000,000 francs.175

October 1908 was full of turmoil due to incidents in the intern

October 1908 was full of turmoil due to incidents in the internaatition-on-al arena. On October 5, al arena. On October 5, BulgaBulgaria declared her independence and oria declared her independence and occcu-cu-pied the railroad passing through her territory, due to the strikes held in pied the railroad passing through her territory, due to the strikes held in SeSeptember. In February 1909, Russia mediated for reconciliptember. In February 1909, Russia mediated for reconciliaation be-tion be-tween the two states, which resulted in Bulgatween the two states, which resulted in Bulgaria’s indepenria’s independdence.ence.176 The The next dnext day, Austriaay, Austria--Hungary declared that she had annexed BosniaHungary declared that she had annexed Bosnia--Herzegovina.Herzegovina.177 On October 6, 1908, Crete declared that it haOn October 6, 1908, Crete declared that it had united d united

173 Yeniay, İ. Hakkı.Yeniay, İ. Hakkı. Yeni Osmanlı Borçları TarihiYeni Osmanlı Borçları Tarihi (Istanbul: Ekin Basımevi, 1964), 103. (Istanbul: Ekin Basımevi, 1964), 103.

174 Biltekin Özdemir, Biltekin Özdemir, Osmanlı Devleti Dış Borçları: 1854Osmanlı Devleti Dış Borçları: 1854--1954Döneminde Yüzyıl Süren 1954Döneminde Yüzyıl Süren CendereCendere (Istanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 2017), 121(Istanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 2017), 121--22.22.

175 Bruce L. Fulton, "France Bruce L. Fulton, "France andand The End Of The Ottoman Empire," in The End Of The Ottoman Empire," in The Great Powers The Great Powers and thand the End of the Ottoman Empiree End of the Ottoman Empire, ed. Marian Kent (London: Frank Cass, 1996), 150., ed. Marian Kent (London: Frank Cass, 1996), 150. Though Cavid Bey was not involved in this loan agreement he always mentions it duThough Cavid Bey was not involved in this loan agreement he always mentions it dur-r-ing his preliminary speeches on the loans or the budget.ing his preliminary speeches on the loans or the budget.

176 The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria signThe Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria signed two treaties related to this issue. First, Bul ed two treaties related to this issue. First, Bul

garia would pay 5 million in British gold as compensation in return for its indepengaria would pay 5 million in British gold as compensation in return for its independ-d-ence. However, the Ottoman Empire did not receive this money because it was the ence. However, the Ottoman Empire did not receive this money because it was the same amount of money it owed to Russsame amount of money it owed to Russia through the Berlin Treaty. At last, Bulgaria ia through the Berlin Treaty. At last, Bulgaria became a fully independent state and the debt was cleared. became a fully independent state and the debt was cleared. Armaoğlu, Armaoğlu, Siyasi Tarih, Siyasi Tarih, 17891789--19141914, 610., 610.

177 After the Berlin Treaty of 1878, AustriaAfter the Berlin Treaty of 1878, Austria--Hungary had occupied BosniaHungary had occupied Bosnia--Herzegovina Herzegovina and Yeni Pazar Sanjak. Austriaand Yeni Pazar Sanjak. Austria--Hungary obtained the concessiHungary obtained the concession in February 1908 on in February 1908 coconntaining the Sarajevotaining the Sarajevo--Yeni PazarYeni Pazar--ÜsküpÜsküp--Selanik route, as it also wanted to be the Selanik route, as it also wanted to be the domdomiinant country in the region. To achieve this aim, Austrianant country in the region. To achieve this aim, Austria--Hungary needed to annex Hungary needed to annex

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with Greece.

with Greece.178 TThehe Ottoman government recuperated its economic Ottoman government recuperated its economic damage from the loss of its territories by adamage from the loss of its territories by acccepting compensation. The cepting compensation. The AustriaAustria--Hungary Empire would pay 2.5 miHungary Empire would pay 2.5 milllion Liras lion Liras toto put an end to put an end to the Ottoman invasion of Yeni Pazathe Ottoman invasion of Yeni Pazarr Sanjak. In Sanjak. In addition, Austriaaddition, Austria--Hungary Hungary accepted the removal of their capitulations, while the other European accepted the removal of their capitulations, while the other European countries agreed to do the same. As mentioned above, Bulgaria also countries agreed to do the same. As mentioned above, Bulgaria also agreed to pay 5 million in Briagreed to pay 5 million in Brittish Pounds.ish Pounds.179 However, the biggest con-However, the biggest con-sequence wassequence was a huge econoa huge economic boycott of Austriamic boycott of Austria--Hungary after the Hungary after the calls for a boycott in the press. Though the first call was made in calls for a boycott in the press. Though the first call was made in ServetServet--i i FünunFünun on October 7, 1908, the main articles that pushed for the boycott on October 7, 1908, the main articles that pushed for the boycott were written by Hüseyin Cahit in were written by Hüseyin Cahit in TaninTanin. The strikes d. The strikes daamaged the ecmaged the econ-on-omy and were still ongoing when trade negotiations with Austria began. omy and were still ongoing when trade negotiations with Austria began. The boycott and the coThe boycott and the connflict between the two countries was not re-flict between the two countries was not re-solved until February 1909solved until February 1909 whenwhen an agreement an agreement was was signed by both par-signed by both par-ties.ties.180

Bosnia and Herzegovina, particularly to stop Serbia, which also wis

Bosnia and Herzegovina, particularly to stop Serbia, which also wished to gain access hed to gain access to the Adriatic Sea. to the Adriatic Sea. Armaoğlu, Armaoğlu, Siyasi Tarih, 1789Siyasi Tarih, 1789--19141914, 610., 610.

178 Although Crete had not been legally bound to the Ottoman Empire since 1898, it was Although Crete had not been legally bound to the Ottoman Empire since 1898, it was still accepted as a territory of the Ottostill accepted as a territory of the Ottoman Empire. However, domestic turmoil in man Empire. However, domestic turmoil in Greece in 1908 and 1909, including two coups d’état, meant that Crete was to remain Greece in 1908 and 1909, including two coups d’état, meant that Crete was to remain under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire for a while longer. under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire for a while longer. Armaoğlu, Armaoğlu, Siyasi TarihSiyasi Tarih 17891789--1914,1914, 610610--11.11.

179 Akşin,Akşin, Jön Türkler ve IttiJön Türkler ve Ittihat Terakkihat Terakki, 151, 151--53.53.

180 Y. Doğan Çetinkaya, Y. Doğan Çetinkaya, 1908 Osmanlı Boykotu: Bir Toplumsal Hareketin Analizi 1908 Osmanlı Boykotu: Bir Toplumsal Hareketin Analizi (Istanbul: (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2004), 103İletişim Yayınları, 2004), 103--18.18. However, the annexation of BosniaHowever, the annexation of Bosnia--Herzegovina was Herzegovina was not only hastened by the Ottomans but also the Germans, who had lost gnot only hastened by the Ottomans but also the Germans, who had lost ground in the round in the Empire after the fall of Abdulhamid II. According to the biography of Karl Helfferich, a Empire after the fall of Abdulhamid II. According to the biography of Karl Helfferich, a prominent figure in Germany before and during the Great War (1914prominent figure in Germany before and during the Great War (1914––1918) and one 1918) and one of Cavid Bey’s correspondents during the long negotiations on the loans anof Cavid Bey’s correspondents during the long negotiations on the loans and conced conces-s-sions, Germany had had better relations with the Ottoman Empire than at that time. As sions, Germany had had better relations with the Ottoman Empire than at that time. As Helfferich states, “Helfferich states, “despite his advice and that of Marschall, von Bülow had backed Aus-despite his advice and that of Marschall, von Bülow had backed Aus-tria unconditionally in its annexation of Bosniatria unconditionally in its annexation of Bosnia--Herzegovina. Second, most oHerzegovina. Second, most of the key f the key German diplomats had been on vacation during the crisis. Third, the odium of aGerman diplomats had been on vacation during the crisis. Third, the odium of abbsolut-solut-ism was stuck as firmly to them as the aureole of parliamentarianism to the Enism was stuck as firmly to them as the aureole of parliamentarianism to the Engglish. As lish. As Helfferich states, this situation was to the advantage of Britain. He accoHelfferich states, this situation was to the advantage of Britain. He accordingly pro-rdingly pro-posed renewed efforts to come to terms with the English, suggesting the offer of the posed renewed efforts to come to terms with the English, suggesting the offer of the

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October 6, 1908

October 6, 1908 had also had also proved toproved to be a hecbe a hecttic day in Istanbul.ic day in Istanbul.181 On On October 6, the CUP started its campaign for the elections and published October 6, the CUP started its campaign for the elections and published a programa program——which mainly addressed the constitution and political which mainly addressed the constitution and political rightsrights——consisting of 21 articles. consisting of 21 articles. The most important issue for the UThe most important issue for the Un-n-ionistsionists was for was for lliberal diberal deemocratic principles to become dominant in the mocratic principles to become dominant in the political arena. political arena. In the field of economy, the election program covered the In the field of economy, the election program covered the legal regulations on the relationship between employees and elegal regulations on the relationship between employees and emmploy-ploy-ers, as well as the development of the agriculturaers, as well as the development of the agricultural sector.l sector. The partThe part of the of the program that addressed agriculture could be referred to as “agrprogram that addressed agriculture could be referred to as “agriicultural cultural reform.” This included low interest rates for the peasants who pos-reform.” This included low interest rates for the peasants who pos-sessed land, while preserving the property rights of more wealthy land-sessed land, while preserving the property rights of more wealthy land-owners (Article 14). owners (Article 14). Second, Second, iit also it also inncluded the removal of the tithe cluded the removal of the tithe and replacing it with a new kind of agricultural tax (Article 15).and replacing it with a new kind of agricultural tax (Article 15).182 When When it came to labor, the program aimed to reorganize the relations between it came to labor, the program aimed to reorganize the relations between employees and employers (Article 13).employees and employers (Article 13).183

Though there is a lac

Though there is a lack of egok of ego--ddocumentsocuments from Cavid Beyfrom Cavid Bey from before from before the revolutionthe revolutionaryary times, secondary resources help us to shed light on times, secondary resources help us to shed light on this this periodperiod.. Firstly, Firstly, aas can be gleaned from the state as can be gleaned from the state arrchives, he was ap-chives, he was ap-pointed to pointed to MülkiyeMülkiye as professor of ecas professor of ecoonomics (nomics (İİlmilmi--i iktisadi iktisad) and statis-) and statis-tictics s on Octoon Octobber 28, 1908. His salary was a total of 1,000 piastre. Howev-er 28, 1908. His salary was a total of 1,000 piastre. Howev-er, in June 1909, her, in June 1909, he discontinuee discontinuedd his sthis staatistics class and hired another tistics class and hired another

Baghdad

Baghdad--Gulf section of the railway. Marschall was not so inclined to despair as Gulf section of the railway. Marschall was not so inclined to despair as Helfferich. He believed that since the revolution was carried out by GermanHelfferich. He believed that since the revolution was carried out by German--tratrained ined officers, who might will be expected to seek more instruction, Germany’s position was officers, who might will be expected to seek more instruction, Germany’s position was more secure than it appeared. He recommended hammering away at the theme that more secure than it appeared. He recommended hammering away at the theme that the aim of the new Turkey and Germany being the same and letting events take their the aim of the new Turkey and Germany being the same and letting events take their coucourse. He was also less inclined than the bankers to parley with the English.”rse. He was also less inclined than the bankers to parley with the English.” William-William-sonson, Karl Helfferich, 1872, Karl Helfferich, 1872--1924: Economist, Financier, Politician1924: Economist, Financier, Politician, 88, 88--9.9.

181 It should be noted that there were also some insurgencies in Istanbul such as the “Kör It should be noted that there were also some insurgencies in Istanbul such as the “Kör Ali Incident”. These were the reactions oAli Incident”. These were the reactions of fundamentalist people protesting against the f fundamentalist people protesting against the liberal and cosmopolitan atmosphere of the Revolution. liberal and cosmopolitan atmosphere of the Revolution. Ahmad, Ittihat ve Terakki Ahmad, Ittihat ve Terakki 19081908--1914 (Jön Türkler)1914 (Jön Türkler), 53., 53.

182 Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 232, 232--35.35.

183 Erdoğan, II. Mesrutiyet'in ilk Yılı: 23 Temmuz 1908 Erdoğan, II. Mesrutiyet'in ilk Yılı: 23 Temmuz 1908 -- 23 Temmuz 190923 Temmuz 1909, 173., 173.

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teacher, and for this reason he received only half of this salary, 300 pias-

teacher, and for this reason he received only half of this salary, 300 pias-tre. Howevtre. Howeverer,, he would get 5,000 phe would get 5,000 piiastres salaryastres salary for being the deputy of for being the deputy of Selanik.Selanik.184 Getting a jobGetting a job at Mülkiye is one of the first attempts of Cavid at Mülkiye is one of the first attempts of Cavid BeyBey for for his future life in Ishis future life in Istanbul. Secondly, he tanbul. Secondly, he continued his political continued his political carcareer eer asas anticipated.anticipated. The CUP held its fiThe CUP held its firrst st congress in Selanik between congress in Selanik between October 17October 17 and November 8. It is fair to say that it was an extremely im-and November 8. It is fair to say that it was an extremely im-portaportant cont conngress bgress beetween the revolution and the elections (which were tween the revolution and the elections (which were held in September and October). Prominent Unionists such as Talat Bey, held in September and October). Prominent Unionists such as Talat Bey, AAhhmed Rıza Bey,med Rıza Bey, and Hakkı Bey moved from Istanbul to and Hakkı Bey moved from Istanbul to SSelanik.elanik.185 After After the CUP’s Congress, the organization the CUP’s Congress, the organization accelerated thaccelerated theeir cair cammpaign. Un-paign. Un-doubtedly, Cavid Beydoubtedly, Cavid Bey contributed to the campaign process. As one of the contributed to the campaign process. As one of the most prominent figures and spokesperson of the CUPmost prominent figures and spokesperson of the CUP, he was qualified , he was qualified to be in the field and to promotto be in the field and to promotee CUP propaganda in places such as the CUP propaganda in places such as the CUP Clubs. TheCUP Clubs. The campaign and campaign and ddays leading up to the election were hec-ays leading up to the election were hec-tic, as the struggle was carried on not only by parties but also by the tic, as the struggle was carried on not only by parties but also by the press, clubs, and organizapress, clubs, and organizations that supported the CUP. tions that supported the CUP.

In November and Dece

In November and Decemmber 1908, the Empire experienced a combber 1908, the Empire experienced a combi-i-nation of conation of competition, excmpetition, exciitement, and joy.tement, and joy.186 The candidates for the The candidates for the election of the Chamber of Deputies were from the CUP, the Ottoman election of the Chamber of Deputies were from the CUP, the Ottoman Liberal Party, and independenLiberal Party, and independent nominees. The Liberal Party was the sole t nominees. The Liberal Party was the sole oppositioppositioon party to enter the elections. The other oppositionn party to enter the elections. The other opposition groups groups consisconsistted of Arabs, Greeks, and Albanians, who neither joined the Otto-ed of Arabs, Greeks, and Albanians, who neither joined the Otto-man Liberal Party nor established a party of their own. There were oth-man Liberal Party nor established a party of their own. There were oth-er ier independent candidates from minority groups and who ndependent candidates from minority groups and who iinndividually dividually ran against the CUP.ran against the CUP.187 However, especiallHowever, especially the Greeksy the Greeks——wwhho had prior o had prior

184 For the original document, see BOA. DH.SAİD.d 79, (page 467), for a translation, see For the original document, see BOA. DH.SAİD.d 79, (page 467), for a translation, see Mehmet Z. Pakalın Mehmet Z. Pakalın Maliye Teşkilatı Tarihi (1442Maliye Teşkilatı Tarihi (1442--1930), Vol IV1930), Vol IV (Ankara: Mali(Ankara: Maliye Bakanlıye Bakanlığı ı Tetkik Kurulu, 1978), 238.Tetkik Kurulu, 1978), 238.

185 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidarİttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi,Mücadelesi, 19081908--19131913, 246., 246.

186 The elections were held according to the Election Law passed in 1876. The General The elections were held according to the Election Law passed in 1876. The General Assembly consisted of two different assemblies: the Chamber of Deputies and the SeAssembly consisted of two different assemblies: the Chamber of Deputies and the Sen-n-ate. The elections were held for the Chamber of Deputies. ate. The elections were held for the Chamber of Deputies. Tunaya, İttihat ve Terakki, Tunaya, İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi, 3,Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi, 3, 206206--13.13.

187 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 274., 274.

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experience with elections according to the rules of their reli

experience with elections according to the rules of their religgious insti-ious insti-tutionstutions——were the main opposition to the CUP, and thewere the main opposition to the CUP, and they ran the Union-y ran the Union-ists close with their experience in ists close with their experience in tthis field, especially in Ihis field, especially in Isstanbul.tanbul.188 The first electiThe first election of the Secoon of the Seconnd Constitutional Era was held in Novem-d Constitutional Era was held in Novem-ber and December 1908. ber and December 1908. As Kansu states, tAs Kansu states, the CUP had a strong position he CUP had a strong position in western Anatolian cities iin western Anatolian cities in the coastal regions such as n the coastal regions such as İzmirİzmir but was but was not vernot veryy strong in the interior of Anatolia, where monarchisstrong in the interior of Anatolia, where monarchists and con-ts and con-servservaatives were quite popular.tives were quite popular.189

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey was elected as a deputy for Selanik, which was a seat that was elected as a deputy for Selanik, which was a seat that hadhad aa primary electorate of 26,000 and a primary electorate of 26,000 and a secondary electorate of secondary electorate of 60,00060,000. The total number of. The total number of deputiesdeputies elected for Selanik was 13.elected for Selanik was 13.190 The The candidatescandidates from the CUP from the CUP wwho were elected as deputies included Cavid ho were elected as deputies included Cavid BeyBey, Mustafa Rahmi (Aslan), Dr. Nazım, Emmanuel Karasso, Midhat , Mustafa Rahmi (Aslan), Dr. Nazım, Emmanuel Karasso, Midhat Şükrü (Bleda), and Rıza Bey. CŞükrü (Bleda), and Rıza Bey. Cavid Beyavid Bey was a wellwas a well--known persknown person in the on in the city due tocity due to his occupation as both the director of Fevziye Schoohis occupation as both the director of Fevziye Schools and as ls and as an ean ecconomics professor with a superior talent for public speaking. The onomics professor with a superior talent for public speaking. The election in Selanik province ended on November 8, 1908.election in Selanik province ended on November 8, 1908.191

The parliament

The parliament opened on December 17, 1908. opened on December 17, 1908. Of the deputies, 142 Of the deputies, 142 wwere Turks, 60 Arabs, 25 Albanians, 23 Greeks, 12ere Turks, 60 Arabs, 25 Albanians, 23 Greeks, 12 Armenians, fivArmenians, fivee JeJews, ws, four Bulgarians, three Serbs, and one Vlach (Romanian). The Liberal four Bulgarians, three Serbs, and one Vlach (Romanian). The Liberal Party, however, could not enter the parliament despite its strongParty, however, could not enter the parliament despite its strong candcandi-i-dates such as Ali Kemal,dates such as Ali Kemal, the editorthe editor--inin--chief chief ooff IkdamIkdam daily, who was daily, who was

188 Tunaya, Tunaya, Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Partinin Tarih, Tarih, 208208..

189 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 307., 307.

190 In 1908, the population of Selanik was approIn 1908, the population of Selanik was approxximately 922,imately 922,000, consisting of 265,000 000, consisting of 265,000 Greeks; 222,000 Muslims, 150,000 Bulgarians, 52,000 Jews, 22,000 Wallachs, and aGreeks; 222,000 Muslims, 150,000 Bulgarians, 52,000 Jews, 22,000 Wallachs, and ap-p-proximately 1,000 Armenians living in the city. proximately 1,000 Armenians living in the city. Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 326, 326--8.8.

191 The deputies for Selanik The deputies for Selanik werewere Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mustafa Rahmi Bey, Midhat Şükrü Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mustafa Rahmi Bey, Midhat Şükrü (Bleda), Yunus N(Bleda), Yunus Naşaşidid Bey, GheoBey, Gheorghi Artas, Gheorghi Khoneos, Dimitri Vlahof, Dimitri rghi Artas, Gheorghi Khoneos, Dimitri Vlahof, Dimitri Dinkas and Hristo Dalchev for Siroz, and Rıza Bey for Drama. Dinkas and Hristo Dalchev for Siroz, and Rıza Bey for Drama. KKansu, ansu, İttihadçıların Re-İttihadçıların Re-jim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908jim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--1913, 1913, 331.331.

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supported by Prince Sabah

supported by Prince Sabahaddin and Kamiladdin and Kamil PasPasha.ha.192 The only candi-The only candi-date date elected elected from its ranks from its ranks was Mahir Sait Bey, one of the founders of was Mahir Sait Bey, one of the founders of the party, who was elected the party, who was elected from from Ankara Ankara thanks tthanks too his own efforts.his own efforts.193

The new as

The new assembly consisted of hsembly consisted of heeterogenous members who were terogenous members who were readready to divide and could potentially sy to divide and could potentially split plit aat any moment. The election t any moment. The election was not held in an environment in which the multiwas not held in an environment in which the multi--party regime had party regime had been well established. In this way, tbeen well established. In this way, the group was temporarily unitehe group was temporarily united d under the roof of tunder the roof of thhe CUP, and the differences betwee CUP, and the differences between the members en the members would surface after would surface after only only aa short period of time.short period of time.194 One could make an One could make an argument for the differences between the Unionist MPs and the MPs argument for the differences between the Unionist MPs and the MPs supporting the CUP. Howsupporting the CUP. However, there were approximatelyever, there were approximately 281 281 deputiesdeputies in in the the pparliament, according to Kansu, aarliament, according to Kansu, and nd only 54 only 54 deputiesdeputies out of the totout of the totaal l were hawere harrdcore Unionists.dcore Unionists.195 Cavid BeyCavid Bey fell into this latter group. That fell into this latter group. That saidsaid, independent MPs usually supported the CUP during the legisl, independent MPs usually supported the CUP during the legislative ative process.process. The deputies, wThe deputies, who were also members ho were also members oof the CUP, disagreed on f the CUP, disagreed on a framework of a solid program. The CUP’s ma framework of a solid program. The CUP’s mission was to fight to keep ission was to fight to keep its group united under its controlits group united under its control. .

The elections were met with celebrations and rejoicing. According to

The elections were met with celebrations and rejoicing. According to TaTanin nin daily, in Istanbul, peopledaily, in Istanbul, people were marching in thewere marching in the streets, with stu-streets, with stu-dents accompanying these marches, adents accompanying these marches, and ballot boxesnd ballot boxes were paraded on were paraded on horses. The celebrations were hhorses. The celebrations were heeld in an organized way and carried out ld in an organized way and carried out among every community. Muslims, Armenians, and Gramong every community. Muslims, Armenians, and Greeks took part in eeks took part in these festivthese festivities.ities.196 On December 1On December 177, 1908, Istanbul was also buzzing , 1908, Istanbul was also buzzing with a sense of enwith a sense of enthusiasm and exthusiasm and excitement. People were ecitement. People were eaagerly waiting gerly waiting in the strin the streeets or in the windows of their houses to wave to the MPs who ets or in the windows of their houses to wave to the MPs who would pass by in their carrwould pass by in their carriages on their way to the paiages on their way to the parrlliament. Flags iament. Flags were flwere floown, and people were cheeringwn, and people were cheering—not only for the MPs bunot only for the MPs but also t also

192 Ahmad, Ahmad, Ittihat ve Terakki,1908Ittihat ve Terakki,1908--1914 (Jön 1914 (Jön Türkler)Türkler), 57, 57..

193 Erdoğan, Erdoğan, II. Mesrutiyet'in ilk Yılı: 23II. Mesrutiyet'in ilk Yılı: 23 Temmuz 1908 Temmuz 1908 -- 23 Temmuz 190923 Temmuz 1909, 203., 203.

194 Tunaya, Tunaya, Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, BiTürkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir r Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi,Partinin Tarihi, 208.208.

195 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktiİttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908dar Mücadelesi, 1908--1913,1913, 356356--59.59.

196 Erdoğan,Erdoğan, II. MesruII. Mesrutiyet'in ilk Yılı: 23 Temmuz 1908 tiyet'in ilk Yılı: 23 Temmuz 1908 -- 23 Temmuz 190923 Temmuz 1909, 205., 205.

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for ever

for everyone throughout the Ottoman Empire. Beyazıt Squayone throughout the Ottoman Empire. Beyazıt Squarre, Divan e, Divan Street, and Sultanahmet were filled with ordinary people and students Street, and Sultanahmet were filled with ordinary people and students cheering cheering for the MPs who were trying to access the pafor the MPs who were trying to access the parrliament building, liament building, which was located which was located next to the Hagia Sophinext to the Hagia Sophia. The MPs werea. The MPs were welcomed at welcomed at Arifi Pasha’s mansion in NuruosmaniyArifi Pasha’s mansion in Nuruosmaniye, with a short tea break at the e, with a short tea break at the Ministry of War building in Beyazıt before finally goinMinistry of War building in Beyazıt before finally going on to the par-g on to the par-liament. As Hüseyin Cahit Bey stated, it was the happiest moment oliament. As Hüseyin Cahit Bey stated, it was the happiest moment of his f his life, in which hilife, in which his childhood dres childhood dreams became a reality.ams became a reality.197 We can probably We can probably assume thaassume that all the MPs who were wholeheartedly committed to the t all the MPs who were wholeheartedly committed to the CUP held the same sentiment, inclCUP held the same sentiment, including Cavid Beyuding Cavid Bey. After they took their . After they took their places in the parliament building, Abdülhaplaces in the parliament building, Abdülhamid II entered the parlmid II entered the parlia-ia-ment, and thement, and they listened to his speech read out by the Chief Cly listened to his speech read out by the Chief Clerk, Cevad erk, Cevad Bey.Bey.198 Abdülhamid’s speech highlighted certain iAbdülhamid’s speech highlighted certain isssues that are also vi-sues that are also vi-tal to atal to an understanding of this era. n understanding of this era. FirstFirst, a, acccording to him, the responsi-cording to him, the responsi-bility fbility for the prorogation of 1or the prorogation of 1878, wh878, which had been asich had been assumed to be tem-sumed to be tem-porary, lay with the the leporary, lay with the the leading figures of the state affaading figures of the state affaiirrs. He claims to s. He claims to have adopted the constitution once again withohave adopted the constitution once again without showing any incon-ut showing any incon-stancy despite the rejection of some of the ministers stancy despite the rejection of some of the ministers and highand high--ranking ranking bureabureaucrats. ucrats. He also claims He also claims that during the 30that during the 30--year suspension of par-year suspension of par-lliament, progress in education, which had improved the talents and iament, progress in education, which had improved the talents and knowledge of the people, had knowledge of the people, had paved the way for the restatement of the paved the way for the restatement of the constitution. Therefore, despite constitution. Therefore, despite his actual rhis actual reejection ojection of the cof the constitution, nstitution, he he argues that he approved the proclamation oargues that he approved the proclamation of the constitution.f the constitution.199

One of the first things that the parliament did was to elect the pres

One of the first things that the parliament did was to elect the presi-i-dentdent of the Assembly.of the Assembly.200 The ideologue of the CUP, Ahmet Rıza, who The ideologue of the CUP, Ahmet Rıza, who re-re-

197 Yalçın, Yalçın, Siyasal AnılarSiyasal Anılar, 56, 56--57.57.

198 Erdoğan, Erdoğan, II. Mesrutiyet'in ilk Yılı: 23 Temmuz 1908 II. Mesrutiyet'in ilk Yılı: 23 Temmuz 1908 -- 23 T23 Temmuz 1909emmuz 1909, 231., 231.

199 Yalçın, Yalçın, Siyasal Anılar,Siyasal Anılar, 58.58.

200 On December 1908, 30 members of the Senate were appOn December 1908, 30 members of the Senate were appointed by Abdülhamid II. The ointed by Abdülhamid II. The previous grand vizier of Abdülhamid II, who wouprevious grand vizier of Abdülhamid II, who would soon be assigned the same duty, ld soon be assigned the same duty, Sait Pasha, became the president of the Senate.Sait Pasha, became the president of the Senate.

Tunaya, İTunaya, İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, ttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin TarihiBir Partinin Tarihi, 3, 237; Erdoğan, , 3, 237; Erdoğan, II. II. Mesrutiyet'in ilk Yılı: 23 Temmuz Mesrutiyet'in ilk Yılı: 23 Temmuz 1908 1908 -- 23 Temmuz 190923 Temmuz 1909, 244, 244, 2, 250.50.

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turned

turned from Paris in Septembefrom Paris in Septemberr201 along witalong with other politich other political exiles, was al exiles, was elected as speaker of telected as speaker of the chamber.he chamber.202 As Hüseyin Cahit writes in his As Hüseyin Cahit writes in his stimulating memoir, stimulating memoir, Cavid BeyCavid Bey lobbied for Talat Belobbied for Talat Bey to y to hold the position hold the position of vice president. He asked Hüseyin Cahit to vote for Tof vice president. He asked Hüseyin Cahit to vote for Talat Bey. Howev-alat Bey. Howev-er, Hüseyin Caher, Hüseyin Cahit did not knowit did not know Talat Bey closely.Talat Bey closely.203 While Hüseyin Cahit While Hüseyin Cahit was from Istanbul, Cavid Beywas from Istanbul, Cavid Bey was from Selanik and had lived in Istanbul was from Selanik and had lived in Istanbul during his high schduring his high school aool and college years, which was why he also knew nd college years, which was why he also knew the milieu of both cities vethe milieu of both cities very well. This would enable him ry well. This would enable him to expand his to expand his nnetwork even etwork even furtherfurther. .

Sultan Abdülhamid II gave a feast in the Grand Muayede Hall of the

Sultan Abdülhamid II gave a feast in the Grand Muayede Hall of the Şale Mansion at Yildiz Palace following the oŞale Mansion at Yildiz Palace following the opening of the Assembly and pening of the Assembly and to celebrate Eid Alto celebrate Eid Al--Adha. Abdülhamid II placAdha. Abdülhamid II placed a great deal of im-ed a great deal of im-poporrtance in thitance in this event as he ws event as he was granted the privilas granted the privileege of witnessing this ge of witnessing this oocccasion. The table and the chairs were arranged in a horseshoe shape, casion. The table and the chairs were arranged in a horseshoe shape, and Abdülhamid II had Grand Vizier Kamil Pasha sit on his right side and Abdülhamid II had Grand Vizier Kamil Pasha sit on his right side and the president of and the president of the Chamber of Deputies Ahmed Rthe Chamber of Deputies Ahmed Rııza Bza Bey on his ey on his left left side. He directed hisside. He directed his attention and compliments to Ahmed Rattention and compliments to Ahmed Rııza Bey, za Bey, and he even personally handed water. At some point, he asked Ahmed and he even personally handed water. At some point, he asked Ahmed RRızıza about the representatives by his side. In a low voice,a about the representatives by his side. In a low voice, Ahmed RızaAhmed Rıza told told the Sultanthe Sultan ““Talat, Mehmed CavidTalat, Mehmed Cavid, I ment, I mentioned tioned them before; Lütfi hem before; Lütfi FikrFikri, he studiedi, he studied in Europe; Hüseyin Cahit, the editorin Europe; Hüseyin Cahit, the editor--inin--chief of chief of TaninTanin.” .” The Chief Clerk Ali Cevat Bey read aloud another of Abdülhamid's The Chief Clerk Ali Cevat Bey read aloud another of Abdülhamid's speeches during dispeeches during dinnner. When it was finished, the attendants shouted ner. When it was finished, the attendants shouted all together “all together “Long livLong live our Se our Sultan!ultan!” and applauded ” and applauded him,him,204 which wwhich waas, to s, to say the least, a shocsay the least, a shockking scene for some of the Unionists.ing scene for some of the Unionists.

The dinner invitation meant a lot for the Unionists because they had

The dinner invitation meant a lot for the Unionists because they had fought for the reinstating of the constitutional regime. Abdülhamid IIfought for the reinstating of the constitutional regime. Abdülhamid II was the antagowas the antagonist of the Young Turknist of the Young Turks. Now, they had been together at s. Now, they had been together at his palace as both deputies and Sultan’s guesthis palace as both deputies and Sultan’s guests. Their main target was to s. Their main target was to

201 Erdoğan, Erdoğan, II. Mesrutiyet'in iII. Mesrutiyet'in ilk Yılı: 23 Temmuz 1908 lk Yılı: 23 Temmuz 1908 -- 23 Temmuz 190923 Temmuz 1909, 144., 144.

202 Mango, Mango, Atatürk,Atatürk, 218.218.

203 Yalçın, Yalçın, Siyasal AnılarSiyasal Anılar, 60., 60.

204 Kutlu, Kutlu, DidârDidâr--ı Hürriyet : Kartpostallarla İkiı Hürriyet : Kartpostallarla İkinci Meşrutiyet (1908nci Meşrutiyet (1908--1913)1913), 160, 160--61.61.

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reclaim the constitution and reopen the parliament. The Sultan was still

reclaim the constitution and reopen the parliament. The Sultan was still there, and it was a constitutional regthere, and it was a constitutional regime with Abdülhime with Abdülhamid II.amid II.

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Figure

Figure 22.1.1 Young Cavid BeyYoung Cavid Bey. . A pA photoghotographraph of Mehmed Cavid Beyof Mehmed Cavid Bey from a magazine in French. The article is related to his from a magazine in French. The article is related to his visit to Paris in visit to Paris in 1913. The author of the a1913. The author of the arrticle is Mollah Zaadticle is Mollah Zaadéé Chukri Bey. The photChukri Bey. The photo-o-graph should bgraph should belong to his early yeaelong to his early years. rs.

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

§ 2.2 CavidCavid BeyBey,, Young DeputyYoung Deputy with a Full Agendawith a Full Agenda

This

This section encompasses the period from December 1908 to June section encompasses the period from December 1908 to June 1909, including the 311909, including the 31 March Incident. It covers Cavid BeyMarch Incident. It covers Cavid Bey’s firs’s firstt days as days as aa member of Parlimentmember of Parliment until he beuntil he became the Ministcame the Minister of Finance in June er of Finance in June 1909. 1909. During this period, he faced five main professional issues: During this period, he faced five main professional issues:

▪ Preparing the budget with the Financial Commission, of which he Preparing the budget with the Financial Commission, of which he was a member. was a member.

▪ The workflow regarding the ministry, including fiscalThe workflow regarding the ministry, including fiscal and aand addmin-min-istrative istrative regulations. regulations.

▪ IIncreasingncreasing the options the options for the Ottoman Empire to obtain loansfor the Ottoman Empire to obtain loans.. rather than going through therather than going through the Imperial Ottoman BankImperial Ottoman Bank ((IOBIOB)) and and OPDA.OPDA.

▪ Establishing the National Bank of Turkey (NBT). Establishing the National Bank of Turkey (NBT).

▪ Publishing a new journal called Publishing a new journal called Journal ofJournal of Economic and SocialEconomic and Social SciencesSciences with with a group oa group off fellow intefellow intellectuals. llectuals.

The Assembly opened on

The Assembly opened on December 17, 1908 andDecember 17, 1908 and operated based on operated based on tthhe legislation enacted 30 ye legislation enacted 30 yeears prior, during the First Constitutional ars prior, during the First Constitutional Era.Era.205 The first legislative periodThe first legislative period——which lasted four yearswhich lasted four years——began began with awith ann opening ceremoopening ceremony and was characterizny and was characterized as the most dynamic, ed as the most dynamic, effeffiicient, pluralist, and multicient, pluralist, and multi--party period of the party period of the eera.ra.206 What did the What did the new parlnew parliiament mean for the Ottoman state’s political scene? The con-ament mean for the Ottoman state’s political scene? The con-stitstituution and the parliament were to limit the power oftion and the parliament were to limit the power of the sultan, a pthe sultan, a po-o-

205 According to the Constitution of 1876, the Ottoman Parliament was comprised of three According to the Constitution of 1876, the Ottoman Parliament was comprised of three different chambers: As mentioned above, the General Assembly which consisted of the different chambers: As mentioned above, the General Assembly which consisted of the members of the two different parliaments undernemembers of the two different parliaments underneath: the Chamber of Deputies and ath: the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The elections were held for the Chamber of Deputies. The members of the the Senate. The elections were held for the Chamber of Deputies. The members of the Senate had formerly been appointed by the Sultan. During the Second Constitutional Senate had formerly been appointed by the Sultan. During the Second Constitutional Era (1908Era (1908--1918) the two assemblies only opened together 1918) the two assemblies only opened together for five years which meant for five years which meant three legislative periods.three legislative periods.

206 Tunaya, Tunaya, Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarih, Partinin Tarih, 213.213.

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sition that had been

sition that had been the sovereign power of the Ottoman establishment the sovereign power of the Ottoman establishment for centuries. Second, it wfor centuries. Second, it waas an essential tool of reps an essential tool of reprresentation that esentation that awaawakkened a strong desire and will in peoples’ minds for both political ened a strong desire and will in peoples’ minds for both political rereaasons and economic ones, sons and economic ones, ssuch as the payiuch as the paying of taxes. Third, thng of taxes. Third, the par-e par-liliaament was crucial because it was the main and key tool for the checksment was crucial because it was the main and key tool for the checks and balance to control theand balance to control the government. The superiority of the Parligovernment. The superiority of the Parlia-a-ment was quite significant for the Unionists between 1908 ment was quite significant for the Unionists between 1908 –– 1913. 1913. HoweverHowever,, they would seethey would see how hard it is to conhow hard it is to convince the Parliament and vince the Parliament and reconcile the deputies representing different ideasreconcile the deputies representing different ideas and interests quickly.and interests quickly.

Cav

Caviid Beyd Bey had his own agenda as ahad his own agenda as a MPMP, minister, and Unionist. In his , minister, and Unionist. In his case, his plan was to address financial, economiccase, his plan was to address financial, economic,, and public worand public works iks is-s-sues that coveredsues that covered various subjects and that aligned with the CUP’s main various subjects and that aligned with the CUP’s main policies such as indepolicies such as indeppendence. When the parliameendence. When the parliamennt opened, the CUP t opened, the CUP was aware that any shift in the Empire’s economic system would be was aware that any shift in the Empire’s economic system would be quite important in the evolutiquite important in the evolutioon of the politin of the political system. Just aftercal system. Just after the the revolution, various demandsrevolution, various demands——such as for a strike law, increasing cusuch as for a strike law, increasing cus-s-tomtomss duty, etc.duty, etc.——from differentfrom different groups of people came onto the agenda groups of people came onto the agenda of both the CUP and the parliament. Cavid Beyof both the CUP and the parliament. Cavid Bey was on the front lines was on the front lines confronconfrontting all of thesing all of these issues and problems e issues and problems while trying to produce while trying to produce sustainable, or sometimes temporary, solutions to mesustainable, or sometimes temporary, solutions to meeet both the urgent t both the urgent needs ofneeds of the state and to implement the necessary regulations and pro-the state and to implement the necessary regulations and pro-cesses that had to be actualized. His main goals were cesses that had to be actualized. His main goals were mmodernizing Ot-odernizing Ot-totoman finances, rising rman finances, rising rates of the customs duties, rate, developing the ates of the customs duties, rate, developing the economy in line with freeeconomy in line with free--mmaarket principles with new lrket principles with new loocal entrcal entreepre-pre-neurs operating in it, expanding customs operations, and finding neurs operating in it, expanding customs operations, and finding enough cash to fund the urgent needs enough cash to fund the urgent needs oof the army. He f the army. He was at the begiwas at the begin-n-ning oning of a long and hard road, which was mostly obstructed by political f a long and hard road, which was mostly obstructed by political incidents aincidents annd upheavals or conflicts od upheavals or conflicts off interests. It should be acknowinterests. It should be acknowl-l-edged that he strived to achieve edged that he strived to achieve allall these ends during this period. these ends during this period.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey wawas a very active s a very active MP in the parliamenMP in the parliament from his very first t from his very first day in office. As an economist who had graduated from day in office. As an economist who had graduated from MMülkiyeülkiye, he was , he was familiar wifamiliar witth the administrative process of state ah the administrative process of state afffairs. He was not as-fairs. He was not as-signed as a spokesperson, but naturally, due to his entsigned as a spokesperson, but naturally, due to his enthuhusiasm to spon-siasm to spon-tantaneously share his ideously share his ideas, he became one of the most prominent speak-eas, he became one of the most prominent speak-

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

ers of the Committee. He also

ers of the Committee. He also ccontinued his speeches in tontinued his speeches in thhe parliament. e parliament. He was well known for making long speeches without even glancing at He was well known for making long speeches without even glancing at his notes. his notes. As can be observed in As can be observed in ththe minutes of thee minutes of the Assembly, Cavid BeAssembly, Cavid Beyy joined joined allall the sessions beginning from the very first meetings.the sessions beginning from the very first meetings. His firHis firstst task was to prepare a certask was to prepare a certtificate of appreciation for Abdülhamid II as a ificate of appreciation for Abdülhamid II as a response to his speech during the opening ceremony of the Chamber. response to his speech during the opening ceremony of the Chamber. ThThe draft prepared bye draft prepared by the Commithe Commisssion sion was read out by Cavid Beywas read out by Cavid Bey..207 Cavid BeyCavid Bey complained about the slowness of the wcomplained about the slowness of the wororkflow during the kflow during the first dayfirst dayss of the Assembly. He iof the Assembly. He innsisted that the work that had been de-sisted that the work that had been de-layed by writing a response to the sultan’s speech or layed by writing a response to the sultan’s speech or reresponding to the sponding to the celcelebratory messageebratory messages from foreign parliaments should be done imme-s from foreign parliaments should be done imme-diately.diately.208 This is also one of This is also one of ththe key points of Cavid Beye key points of Cavid Bey’’ss character: do-character: do-ing things properly and thoroughly in a very short period of time, with-ing things properly and thoroughly in a very short period of time, with-out procrastination. out procrastination.

During t

During this short phis short peeriodriod, th, the maine main tatasks in the parliament were, sks in the parliament were, first, to establish commifirst, to establish commisssions, such as the Financial Commission and sions, such as the Financial Commission and Budget Commission; seBudget Commission; seccond, to prepare the main budget and the provi-ond, to prepare the main budget and the provi-sional budget; third, new legislation; ansional budget; third, new legislation; and d lalastly, other routistly, other routine work. ne work. While iWhile in Isn Istanbultanbul, C, Cavid Beyavid Bey often took the floor of the parliament to often took the floor of the parliament to speak on several issues, incluspeak on several issues, includding the operational processes of the par-ing the operational processes of the par-liament related to financial iliament related to financial isssues, such as debts or the sues, such as debts or the Baghdad Rail-Baghdad Rail-wayway. He knew t. He knew thehe ffinancial iinancial isssues tsues that were on the hat were on the tabltable of te of the he Ottoman Ottoman Empire very well, and thus he was able to provide concrete suggestions Empire very well, and thus he was able to provide concrete suggestions for dealing with them. for dealing with them.

All the deputies were divided into different sections of the parlill the deputies were divided into different sections of the parlia-a-ment. Cavid Beyment. Cavid Bey was in the fourth was in the fourth brbrananch,ch, and he was immeand he was immediately adiately ap-p-pointepointed tod to the Cothe Commimmission of “The Response to the Sultan’s Speech” ssion of “The Response to the Sultan’s Speech” ((Nutku Cevabî).Nutku Cevabî).””209 He was one of the key MPs who contributed to prHe was one of the key MPs who contributed to pre-e-

207 MMillet Meclisi Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, illet Meclisi Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, Cilt:Cilt: 1, 15 December 1324 (28 1, 15 December 1324 (28 DecemberDecember 1908), 1908), 64.64.

208 Millet Meclisi Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, Millet Meclisi Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, Cilt: Cilt: 1, 13 1, 13 DecemberDecember 1324 (26 1324 (26 DecemberDecember 1908), 1908), 5555--9.9.

209 Millet Meclisi Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, Millet Meclisi Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, Cilt:Cilt: 2, 6 December 1324 2, 6 December 1324 (1(199 January 1909), 11.January 1909), 11.

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100

paring and finalizing the response to Abdülhamid II’s speech during the

paring and finalizing the response to Abdülhamid II’s speech during the opening ceremony of opening ceremony of ththe pe parliament. Thesearliament. These kinds of dutieskinds of duties werwere amonge among hihis secondary works he has to accomplish. From the first day, he was s secondary works he has to accomplish. From the first day, he was very much in the forefront on issues related to the legislative process. In very much in the forefront on issues related to the legislative process. In his speech regarding the response to the Sultan’s opening speehis speech regarding the response to the Sultan’s opening speechch inin the the Parliament,Parliament, Cavid BeyCavid Bey used used the the expressexpressionion “national sovereignty” (“national sovereignty” (ha-ha-kimiyetkimiyet--i milliyei milliye) and emphasized the supremacy of the nation’s co) and emphasized the supremacy of the nation’s connsti-sti-tution over other institutions. tution over other institutions. LaterLater, he would also use a similar term, , he would also use a similar term, “financial sovereignty,” when discu“financial sovereignty,” when discussssing the first budgeing the first budget. In his speecht. In his speech resrespondpondinging to the sultan, he declared that economic reform would take to the sultan, he declared that economic reform would take top priority in the country and that the treasury would be managed in top priority in the country and that the treasury would be managed in accordance with economic principles such as having a baaccordance with economic principles such as having a ballanced budget anced budget and the nand the nececessary legal arrangessary legal arrangements.ements.210

One of

One of CaviCavid Bed Beyy’s’s jobs during his first days in parliament was to ejobs during his first days in parliament was to es-s-tablish the Financial Commission (tablish the Financial Commission (Maliye KomisyonuMaliye Komisyonu), which consisted ), which consisted of 15 people. The commission, which was established on January 13, of 15 people. The commission, which was established on January 13, 1909,1909,211 had two main ahad two main aimims: first, to examins: first, to examine the draft bille the draft bill of of the the budbudget get law; second, to prepare the draft bill related to increasing or decreasing law; second, to prepare the draft bill related to increasing or decreasing the state’s revenues or expenses.the state’s revenues or expenses.212

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey’s work focused on two main lines: administrative and fi’s work focused on two main lines: administrative and fis-s-cal regulations. Fiscal regucal regulations. Fiscal regulalations included of ttions included of the budget, the Ghe budget, the Genereneral al AAccoccounting Law, and establishing a financial reform commission. Aunting Law, and establishing a financial reform commission. Ad-d-ministrative regulations dealt with reshaping the ministry, including the ministrative regulations dealt with reshaping the ministry, including the reorganization of the ministry, the Law of Severance, opening a school reorganization of the ministry, the Law of Severance, opening a school oof f finance, sending stfinance, sending students and youngudents and young offofficericers ts to Europe, among other o Europe, among other thingsthings——all of which had to be carried out both in Istanbul and in the all of which had to be carried out both in Istanbul and in the provinces. Ziya Pasha had been the Minister of Finance since Dprovinces. Ziya Pasha had been the Minister of Finance since Deecember cember 1905 and remained in his position until Februa1905 and remained in his position until Februaryry 1909.1909.213 In other In other

210 Akşin, Akşin, Jön Türkler ve Ittihat TerakkiJön Türkler ve Ittihat Terakki, 177, 177--78.78.

211 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, Cilt: Cilt: 1, 31 Kanunuevvel 11, 31 Kanunuevvel 1323244 (13 January 1909), 180. (13 January 1909), 180.

212 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, Cilt: Cilt: 1, 17 Kanunuevvel 1324 (30 December 1908), 87. 1, 17 Kanunuevvel 1324 (30 December 1908), 87.

213 Abdülhamit Kırmızı, "Tanzimat'tan Cumhuriyet'e Maliye Nazırları (1838Abdülhamit Kırmızı, "Tanzimat'tan Cumhuriyet'e Maliye Nazırları (1838--1922)," 1922)," Türkiye Araştırmaları LiteratüTürkiye Araştırmaları Literatür r DDergisiergisi 1, no. 1 (2003): 971, no. 1 (2003): 97--114.114.

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words, he was the rds, he was the firsfirst mit minisnister of finance of the new regime and the ter of finance of the new regime and the last of the old regime. Cavid Beylast of the old regime. Cavid Bey was very active during his ministry, be-was very active during his ministry, be-cause Ziya Pasha, though not a Unionist, respected his young cocause Ziya Pasha, though not a Unionist, respected his young collleague’s league’s knowledge and capacitknowledge and capacity y to introduce new reto introduce new regulations and egulations and esstabltablish ish newnew links with international actors in the field of economy. Ziya Pasha and links with international actors in the field of economy. Ziya Pasha and Cavid BeyCavid Bey were the two ministers who made the most prwere the two ministers who made the most proogress in the gress in the field of finance between 1908 and 1911.field of finance between 1908 and 1911.214

As a member of the Financia

As a member of the Financial l Commission, Cavid BCommission, Cavid Beyey tackled thesetackled these ississues ues oneone by one. Within this scope, the priority was to determine the by one. Within this scope, the priority was to determine the extent of incomes and debt. Second, some autonomous financial institextent of incomes and debt. Second, some autonomous financial institu-u-tions which had critical importance, attached to the Ministry of Finance, tions which had critical importance, attached to the Ministry of Finance, sucsuch h as the Customs, Posas the Customs, Post, and Telegram t, and Telegram GeneGeneral ral DirDirectorates, the fiscal ectorates, the fiscal department of department of DefterDefter--i Hâkanî,i Hâkanî, and the retirement fund of Hicaz. Moreo-and the retirement fund of Hicaz. Moreo-ver, reforms that dealt with the organization of the ministry needed to ver, reforms that dealt with the organization of the ministry needed to be put into practice. There were other issuebe put into practice. There were other issues s that needed athat needed atttentitention, on, such as dismsuch as dismissaissals, ls, thethe collection of assets, or real estate tax. However, collection of assets, or real estate tax. However, first on the list was the budget, which had needed to be afirst on the list was the budget, which had needed to be adddressed for dressed for decades. decades.

One of the primary tasks of Cavid Bey

One of the primary tasks of Cavid Bey was the preparation of the was the preparation of the first modefirst modernrn budget of the Ottobudget of the Ottoman Empire. Althman Empire. Althoughough thethe wowork on the rk on the first budget would be interrupted by the 31 March Incidentfirst budget would be interrupted by the 31 March Incident, it was an , it was an outcome of hectic and disciplined teamwork led by Cavid Beyoutcome of hectic and disciplined teamwork led by Cavid Bey. He start-. He start-ed to work on and lead these critical issues even before heed to work on and lead these critical issues even before he bbecame the ecame the minister minister of finance. Workof finance. Work on on the the budbudget was accelerated after the open-get was accelerated after the open-ing of the parliament. The budget was calculated based on the gross ing of the parliament. The budget was calculated based on the gross revenue method. This means that there ought to be only one treasury, revenue method. This means that there ought to be only one treasury, and it needed to be controlled by theand it needed to be controlled by the MMinistry of Finance,inistry of Finance, which was which was wherewhere allall thethe inincomes and expenses were regulated. The only thing that comes and expenses were regulated. The only thing that the ministry could not control was the share of incomes controlled by the ministry could not control was the share of incomes controlled by the OPDA to pay off foreign loans. The budget system and its legal back-the OPDA to pay off foreign loans. The budget system and its legal back-ground, whicground, which h was mainly establiswas mainly established by Cavid Beyhed by Cavid Bey, r, reemainmained ed in force in force

214 Muharrem Öztel, Muharrem Öztel, IIII. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı Maliyesi . Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı Maliyesi (Istanbul: Kitabevi, 2009), 5.(Istanbul: Kitabevi, 2009), 5.

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until 1927. This became the basis of state accounting. The main point

until 1927. This became the basis of state accounting. The main point here was to practice caution when it came to the budget deficit. Howev-here was to practice caution when it came to the budget deficit. Howev-er, military expenses and the share of the OPDA were the twer, military expenses and the share of the OPDA were the two o main rea-main rea-sons for thsons for the Empire’s chrone Empire’s chronic bic budgeudget dt deficit. Another criteficit. Another critiical issue was cal issue was that, during this period, the Ottoman financial authority tried to avoid that, during this period, the Ottoman financial authority tried to avoid any negative criticism that might come from European financial circles. any negative criticism that might come from European financial circles. Therefore, they were extremeTherefore, they were extremelyly careful about the careful about the budget deficit ibudget deficit in thn the e nenew bw budget of 1909. udget of 1909.

Besides the preparation of the budget, a new law, the General A

Besides the preparation of the budget, a new law, the General Ac-c-counting Law, was alsocounting Law, was also beingbeing preparprepareded to implement the new budget to implement the new budget rules.rules.215 Cavid BeyCavid Bey made the team among the ministry bureaucratmade the team among the ministry bureaucrats,s, and and he worked day he worked day and night on thiand night on this iss isssue. ue. But he But he was not all alone. Accord-was not all alone. Accord-ing to Özavcı, Charles Laurent (1856ing to Özavcı, Charles Laurent (1856––1939), a prominent French finan-1939), a prominent French finan-cier, was appointed as the advisor of the Ottoman Ministry of Financecier, was appointed as the advisor of the Ottoman Ministry of Finance before the 1908 Revolutionbefore the 1908 Revolution. Laurent. Laurent’s mi’s missssion wion was to help theas to help the financial financial diffdiffiicultculties of the Oies of the Ottoman Empire. He stayed in Istanbul until the early ttoman Empire. He stayed in Istanbul until the early omonths of 1911. Laurent could omonths of 1911. Laurent could arrive inarrive in Istanbul on October 27 afteIstanbul on October 27 after-r-math of the Revolution.math of the Revolution. LLaurent was surprised by the traurent was surprised by the traditional work-aditional work-flows in theflows in the OOttoman ministry ottoman ministry off ffiinance. It was nance. It was a dea delicate period for the licate period for the Ottoman Empire, with both a high level of enthusiasm and fear and a Ottoman Empire, with both a high level of enthusiasm and fear and a poorly organized imperial adminpoorly organized imperial adminiistration. On the other hand, the politi-stration. On the other hand, the politi-cal atmosphere had a more ncal atmosphere had a more naationalist point in the afttionalist point in the afterermath of the math of the RevolRevoluuttion. Laurent staion. Laurent startedrted his work in the Ministry along with Cavid his work in the Ministry along with Cavid BeyBey, and their first task was , and their first task was to determine the debts of the state to determine the debts of the state –– domes-domes-tic and foreign tic and foreign -- to prepare the budget.to prepare the budget.216 However, on January 16,However, on January 16, 1909, 1909, Cavid BeyCavid Bey asked Abdülaziz Masked Abdülaziz Mececdi Efenddi Efendi,i, MP for KMP for Karesi, to delay aresi, to delay the the budget deadline due to the lack of data. Cavid Beybudget deadline due to the lack of data. Cavid Bey had adopted a com-had adopted a com-parative analysis and approach based on examples from European parative analysis and approach based on examples from European

215 Öztel, Öztel, II. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı MaliyesiII. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı Maliyesi, 27, 27--31.31.

216 Ozan H. Özavcı, "A Little Light in The Darkness’: The Mission of CharOzan H. Özavcı, "A Little Light in The Darkness’: The Mission of Charle Laurent and the le Laurent and the Young Turks, 1908Young Turks, 1908--1911," in 1911," in Abdülhamid II and his Legacy: Studies in Honour of F. A. K. Abdülhamid II and his Legacy: Studies in Honour of F. A. K. Yasamee,Yasamee, ed. F. A. K. Yasamee, S. Tufan Buzpınar, and Gökhan Çetinsaya (Istanbuled. F. A. K. Yasamee, S. Tufan Buzpınar, and Gökhan Çetinsaya (Istanbul: The : The ISIS Press, 2019), 203ISIS Press, 2019), 203-- 206206--8.8.

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countries. The fundame

countries. The fundamenntal problem here was that ttal problem here was that the Minister of fi-he Minister of fi-nance could not rnance could not receceive theeive the bbudgetary udgetary documents that hdocuments that he ree requested quested from the other ministries, afrom the other ministries, allthough European cases demonstrated that though European cases demonstrated that the minister of finance had political clout over other ministries. In the the minister of finance had political clout over other ministries. In the Ottoman case, this responsOttoman case, this responsiibilbility for maintaining control over tity for maintaining control over thehe cabi-cabi-netnet bbranches branches belonged to the gelonged to the grandrand vizier. Despite these bureaucratic vizier. Despite these bureaucratic difficulties, the budget should be ready at the end of Marchdifficulties, the budget should be ready at the end of March..217 It was the It was the end of the fiscal year. end of the fiscal year. SincSince the Ministry of Finance could not obtain e the Ministry of Finance could not obtain ad-ad-equate financial information, thequate financial information, the e Council Council ofof MinisterMinisters declared a decs declared a decree ree through which creditors in all provinces were asked to list the amount through which creditors in all provinces were asked to list the amount that the Empire owed them within one month. that the Empire owed them within one month. According to the hectic According to the hectic work in the ministry, “work in the ministry, “the budget deficit the budget deficit was no less than 13 million Li-was no less than 13 million Li-ras ras (2(296 milli96 millionon francs)francs)..””218

In his first

In his first longlong speech in the Chamber on January 16, 1909, he speech in the Chamber on January 16, 1909, he spoke about the spoke about the Baghdad RaiBaghdad Raillwaywayissue. The deputy for issue. The deputy for BaghdadBaghdad, Ba-, Ba-banzade İsmail Hakkı Bey’s subanzade İsmail Hakkı Bey’s subbject of interpellation was on the delay of ject of interpellation was on the delay of the the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway. Sina Akşin points out that they questioned the . Sina Akşin points out that they questioned the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway as an ouas an outtcome of the shift in come of the shift in foreign policy that led the foreign policy that led the Unionists to raUnionists to rappproach the Unitedproach the United KinKingdom.gdom.219 While German investors While German investors wanted to keep their contracts as they were, the Unionists challenged wanted to keep their contracts as they were, the Unionists challenged the the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway contract in terms of its fiscal dimension.contract in terms of its fiscal dimension.220 How-How-ever, Cavid Beyever, Cavid Bey’s response was realistic and practical in that he knew ’s response was realistic and practical in that he knew that this coulthat this could nod not be changed, though it could be modified in favor of t be changed, though it could be modified in favor of the Ottthe Ottooman Empire under the new political and international circum-man Empire under the new political and international circum-stances.stances.221 Cavid BeyCavid Bey took the floor and gave a lengthy and detailed took the floor and gave a lengthy and detailed speech starting from the construction process of the speech starting from the construction process of the Baghdad RaiBaghdad Railwaylway

217 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, Cilt:Cilt: 1, 15 Kanunuevvel, 1324, (28 1, 15 Kanunuevvel, 1324, (28 DecemberDecember 1908), 651908), 65--6. 6.

218 Ozan H. Özavcı, "A Little Light in The Darkness’: The Mission of Charle Laurent and the Ozan H. Özavcı, "A Little Light in The Darkness’: The Mission of Charle Laurent and the Young Turks, 1908Young Turks, 1908--1911," 208.1911," 208.

219 Akşin, Akşin, Jön Türkler ve Ittihat TerakkiJön Türkler ve Ittihat Terakki, 349., 349.

220 Seda Örsten Esirgen, Osmanlı Devleti'nde Yabancılara Verilen Kamu Hizmeti İmtiyazları Seda Örsten Esirgen, Osmanlı Devleti'nde Yabancılara Verilen Kamu Hizmeti İmtiyazları (Ankara: Turhan Kitabevi, 2012), 189.(Ankara: Turhan Kitabevi, 2012), 189.

221 MM ZMM Zaabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, bıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, Cilt:Cilt: 1, 3 3 Kânunusani 1324 (16 January 1909), 64. 1, 3 3 Kânunusani 1324 (16 January 1909), 64.

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in the Hamidian Era. By looking at his speech, it can be

in the Hamidian Era. By looking at his speech, it can be SaitSait that that he had he had been wellbeen well--prepared about the subject beforehand. He further elaborated prepared about the subject beforehand. He further elaborated on his point by providing examples of other railway projects in Europe-on his point by providing examples of other railway projects in Europe-an countries. Cavid Beyan countries. Cavid Bey expressed hexpressed hiis crs criticism of the construction of iticism of the construction of the the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway through the financial lens. The reasons for his ob-through the financial lens. The reasons for his ob-jejecctions included the following: tions included the following: firstfirst, he considered that such an e, he considered that such an exxpen-pen-sive project was a burden on the treasury, rendering it unnecessary. Fusive project was a burden on the treasury, rendering it unnecessary. Fur-r-thermore, mthermore, many useful and beneficial projects had been turned down any useful and beneficial projects had been turned down because so much money was funneled into the because so much money was funneled into the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway. He . He claims that similar railway lines built in many other countries such as claims that similar railway lines built in many other countries such as India were half the cost of the India were half the cost of the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway. In . In IIndia, for andia, for a similar similar railway, the cost of a 1 km long line was 130,000 Francs. railway, the cost of a 1 km long line was 130,000 Francs. WhereasWhereas a 1km a 1km long stretch of the long stretch of the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway cost 269,000 Francs. And bcost 269,000 Francs. And beecause it cause it was slated to pass through zones that had a low population density and was slated to pass through zones that had a low population density and was a common nomad was a common nomad rroute, the oute, the BaBaghdad Railwayghdad Railway would not be able to would not be able to compensate for this amount of money. Another objection that he had compensate for this amount of money. Another objection that he had was that the route of the railway would not pass through İskenderun was that the route of the railway would not pass through İskenderun and the fertile lands of the Amik Plain. His third objection was about thand the fertile lands of the Amik Plain. His third objection was about thee resources aresources allocated for this project, which included the surplus of in-llocated for this project, which included the surplus of in-come allocated to the OPDA, surplus income from customs, the surplus come allocated to the OPDA, surplus income from customs, the surplus that would be obtained by the increase in customs duties, and lastly, the that would be obtained by the increase in customs duties, and lastly, the income obtained from the prevention of abincome obtained from the prevention of abuuse and rse and reeforforms in the cus-ms in the cus-toms. If it was impossible to abolish the project, he says, his recommen-toms. If it was impossible to abolish the project, he says, his recommen-dations were quite brief: improve the route and dations were quite brief: improve the route and the provisions. Moreo-the provisions. Moreo-ver, if all the surplus obtained from various items would be spent on the ver, if all the surplus obtained from various items would be spent on the construconstrucction of the tion of the Baghdad Baghdad RailwayRailway, the go, the govvernment would need to get ernment would need to get a loan, which would make it more difficult to improve Ottoman finances. a loan, which would make it more difficult to improve Ottoman finances. In short, Cavid BeyIn short, Cavid Bey claims that this prclaims that this prooject was a political project initiat-ject was a political project initiat-ed for illegal or unjustified reasons.ed for illegal or unjustified reasons.222

In a

In a ssession dated Februaression dated February 4, 1909, Cavid Beyy 4, 1909, Cavid Bey was elected to the was elected to the Budget Commission (Budget Commission (MuvazeneMuvazene--i Maliye Encümenii Maliye Encümeni). He was also chosen ). He was also chosen

222 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, , Cilt:Cilt: 22, 14 , 14 FFebruary 1324 (27 ebruary 1324 (27 FebruaryFebruary 1909), 721909), 72--7. 7.

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to report to the com

to report to the commmission.ission.223 Cavid BeyCavid Bey worked in the commission worked in the commission quite effectively and achieved many fruitful results. One of thquite effectively and achieved many fruitful results. One of thee long long speeches that speeches that he gave at the Assembly touched upon the government he gave at the Assembly touched upon the government bill regarbill regardding the “1908 Loans” (ing the “1908 Loans” (1908 Senesi İstikrazının Esbab1908 Senesi İstikrazının Esbab--ı Mucibe ı Mucibe LayLayiihasıhası).).224 This bill was essentially drafted by the Budget Commission This bill was essentially drafted by the Budget Commission and had been presented to the representand had been presented to the representatatives a few days priives a few days prior. Finan-or. Finan-cially speaking, the government was in a difficult position. According to cially speaking, the government was in a difficult position. According to CaCavid Beyvid Bey, foreign indebtedness was starting to become a major issue , foreign indebtedness was starting to become a major issue since its first time in 1856. The attitude of obtaining loans to close the since its first time in 1856. The attitude of obtaining loans to close the budget dbudget defeficit, which also reicit, which also remained inadequate for investments, mained inadequate for investments, dragged the previous government to the brink of badragged the previous government to the brink of bankruptcy in foreign nkruptcy in foreign and domeand domesstic markets, which practically destroyed the reputation of the tic markets, which practically destroyed the reputation of the country both on the international and the domestic stages.country both on the international and the domestic stages. TThus, the hus, the Empire’s cEmpire’s creditors founded the Ottoman Public Debt Administration reditors founded the Ottoman Public Debt Administration (OPDA) concerning the loans f(OPDA) concerning the loans for which neither the principal nor inter-or which neither the principal nor inter-est paest payyments were being made. Thanks to the new administration, this ments were being made. Thanks to the new administration, this damadamagging outlook was in the process of reing outlook was in the process of recocovery to some extentvery to some extent; deben-; deben-ture bonds that had previously become worthless in London, Berlin, and ture bonds that had previously become worthless in London, Berlin, and on the on the Paris Stock Exchange were being reissued in those markets. Paris Stock Exchange were being reissued in those markets. HoHowwever, still the situation was so desperate that the state was not even ever, still the situation was so desperate that the state was not even able to pay the sable to pay the salalaries of civil servaries of civil servants without going into debt. The ants without going into debt. The 1908 Reform took place just when all the paths came1908 Reform took place just when all the paths came to a dead end. This to a dead end. This did not do much for the Ministry of did not do much for the Ministry of Finance sinceFinance since the treasury was prac-the treasury was prac-

223 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, , Cilt:Cilt: 22, 4 , 4 Şubat Şubat 1324 (17 1324 (17 FebruaryFebruary 1909), 6791909), 679--82. 82.

224 The 1The 1990808 Loan was the first loan agreement of the Second Constitutional Period. It Loan was the first loan agreement of the Second Constitutional Period. It was realized for supporting the armed forces and navy; for making reforms to the was realized for supporting the armed forces and navy; for making reforms to the gendagendarrmarie and navy; innovation in the field of public works and education; for pay-marie and navy; innovation in the field of public works and education; for pay-ing the budgeing the budgett ddeficit, advance payments, and short time debts. The provisions were eficit, advance payments, and short time debts. The provisions were some part of the income from customs; and km guarantees of some of the railways. some part of the income from customs; and km guarantees of some of the railways. The loan agreement was made by the Ottoman Bank amounting to 4,711,124 Ottoman The loan agreement was made by the Ottoman Bank amounting to 4,711,124 Ottoman LLiiras (net output was 3,ras (net output was 3,991010,000 Ottoman Liras). ,000 Ottoman Liras). Özdemir, Özdemir, Osmanlı Devleti Dış Borçları: Osmanlı Devleti Dış Borçları: 18541854--1954 Döneminde Yüzyıl Süren Cendere1954 Döneminde Yüzyıl Süren Cendere, 1, 121.21. Though the 1908 Loan was realized Though the 1908 Loan was realized on September 19, 1908, it would be valid when the Chamber of Deputies and the Seon September 19, 1908, it would be valid when the Chamber of Deputies and the Sen-n-ate approved the agreement. ate approved the agreement. 99.99.

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tically empty.

tically empty. Moreover, in the Second Constitutional Period, the rela-Moreover, in the Second Constitutional Period, the rela-tionship tionship between the state, economy, and the people crystallized. between the state, economy, and the people crystallized. The The state began to realize that it was not sovereign overstate began to realize that it was not sovereign over the people anymore the people anymore but rather that its sole rabut rather that its sole raiison d'être was in fact to serve the people. As son d'être was in fact to serve the people. As the state came to realize this, the people begathe state came to realize this, the people began to spn to speakeak out about it and out about it and direct their demands to the state. Along with civil servants, contractors, direct their demands to the state. Along with civil servants, contractors, and other uand other unpaid groups, the provinces began to ask for money from npaid groups, the provinces began to ask for money from Istanbul for their Istanbul for their needs,needs, whereas before that, they would have sent their whereas before that, they would have sent their surplus revsurplus reveenues tonues to IsIstanbul. In the past, when a soldier received his tanbul. In the past, when a soldier received his discharge pdischarge paapers, he did not receive his salary in cashpers, he did not receive his salary in cash; however, at this ; however, at this juncture, to prove that change was afoot in the country, the soldiers had juncture, to prove that change was afoot in the country, the soldiers had to be paid. Lastly, it was inevitable for debt toto be paid. Lastly, it was inevitable for debt to be takbe taken en on in order to reon in order to re--enforce constitutional governance. The debt talks had already begun enforce constitutional governance. The debt talks had already begun before the openingbefore the opening of the parliament in 1908. The critical point regard-of the parliament in 1908. The critical point regard-ing this debt issue was that, in addition to the Empire’s ing this debt issue was that, in addition to the Empire’s threethree million million Liras of debt, Liras of debt, ononee millimillion on lira was also needed to cover the debts of the lira was also needed to cover the debts of the Royal TreaRoyal Treassury (ury (HazineHazine--i Hassai Hassa). As seen in this case, th). As seen in this case, the constitutional e constitutional regime had made the royal family and its institutions a part of the state regime had made the royal family and its institutions a part of the state just like any other institution. The palace’s finanjust like any other institution. The palace’s financial iscial issuesues such as the s such as the budget, salbudget, salaaries, allocations, etc., were determined by the representative ries, allocations, etc., were determined by the representative regime, which wregime, which was the parliament. Some changes were made to the debt as the parliament. Some changes were made to the debt agreagreeement such as the formal regulation that only the minister of fi-ment such as the formal regulation that only the minister of fi-nance could sign thenance could sign the state’state’s ds debt agreements. The signatures of the ebt agreements. The signatures of the grand vgrand viizier and OPDA were removed, and the minister of finance be-zier and OPDA were removed, and the minister of finance be-came the only authorized person to deal with and sign debt agreements. came the only authorized person to deal with and sign debt agreements. As meAs menntioned earlier, the loan of 1908 exceeded 4 million liras at a 4%tioned earlier, the loan of 1908 exceeded 4 million liras at a 4% intereinterest st rate.rate.225 TheThe Ottoman Bank received its share of criticism due to Ottoman Bank received its share of criticism due to the debt configuration. In addition to thithe debt configuration. In addition to this, the state made two more s, the state made two more agreements: one with the Ottoman Bank and another on an advanced agreements: one with the Ottoman Bank and another on an advanced loan contract with French, German, and British crloan contract with French, German, and British creditorseditors. A . A third third

225 Although the the 1908 Loan agreement were signed between the Bank and the Although the the 1908 Loan agreement were signed between the Bank and the Government, it should be ratified by the Parliament. The Loan was taken right after the Government, it should be ratified by the Parliament. The Loan was taken right after the July Revolution to meet the urgent needs as the budgef defJuly Revolution to meet the urgent needs as the budgef deficit. icit.

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agreement co

agreement conncerned the 1.36 millioncerned the 1.36 million--lira loan equally shared by Brit-lira loan equally shared by Brit-ish, German, and French groupish, German, and French groups. This agreement was significant as it s. This agreement was significant as it made it possible for Ottoman bonds (made it possible for Ottoman bonds (tahviltahvil) to enter the British market. ) to enter the British market. At this point in time, CavidAt this point in time, Cavid BeyBey asasked ked the Assembly to act quickly and the Assembly to act quickly and approve the legislation concerning of the 1908 Loan as soon as possi-approve the legislation concerning of the 1908 Loan as soon as possi-ble.ble.226

Although work on the 1909 budget had been mostly completed b

Although work on the 1909 budget had been mostly completed be-e-fore March 1909, the 31 March Incident postponed its implementation. fore March 1909, the 31 March Incident postponed its implementation. ConsequenConsequentlytly, Ca, Cavid Beyvid Bey had to prepare a provisional budget covehad to prepare a provisional budget coverring ing April and May due to the end of the fiscal year havApril and May due to the end of the fiscal year having been in March. ing been in March. The financial The financial situationsituation after the 1908 Revolution was in complete chaos. after the 1908 Revolution was in complete chaos. The main problem was that for the last 50The main problem was that for the last 50––60 year60 years, ts, there had consist-here had consist-ently been an amount of debt close to 6ently been an amount of debt close to 6––7 million Liras from the previ-7 million Liras from the previ-ous year. The amouous year. The amount of debt that passed on to 1909 from 1908 was nt of debt that passed on to 1909 from 1908 was around 7around 7––8 million Liras. The situation was so complex that in 1909, the 8 million Liras. The situation was so complex that in 1909, the state was unsure exastate was unsure exactly hoctly how muw much debt it owed. The goch debt it owed. The govvernment took ernment took a step forward by proposing an amendment to the law that would helpa step forward by proposing an amendment to the law that would help to pay the salaries of civil servants, debt to contractors, and other debts to pay the salaries of civil servants, debt to contractors, and other debts from 1908. The debt from 1908 was going to be paid with the amoufrom 1908. The debt from 1908 was going to be paid with the amount nt alloallottedtted for 1909. However, Cavid Beyfor 1909. However, Cavid Bey opposed this attempt, as he opposed this attempt, as he thought that this move would run contrary to tthought that this move would run contrary to the prinche princiiple of unity in ple of unity in the new budget that had been recently passed.the new budget that had been recently passed.227 Aside from this, the Aside from this, the economy was already in poor condition, both befoeconomy was already in poor condition, both before and re and afteafter the 1908 r the 1908 ReRevolutionvolution. State salaries were not being paid, both in Ista. State salaries were not being paid, both in Istannbul and in bul and in the provinces. Therefore,the provinces. Therefore, it was necessary to create a new budget so it was necessary to create a new budget so that these debts could be repaid.that these debts could be repaid.228 Another significant deveAnother significant devellopment opment that points to the conflicthat points to the conflict between t between tthe gohe government and the pavernment and the parrliament liament is that the latter tried to build its own identity during the first months. is that the latter tried to build its own identity during the first months.

226 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, , Cilt:Cilt: 22, 4 , 4 Şubat Şubat 1324 (27 1324 (27 FebruaryFebruary 1909), 6511909), 651--721. 721.

227 MM Zabıt Ceriedi, MM Zabıt Ceriedi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, , Cilt:Cilt: 2,2, 7 Mar7 Martt 1325 (20 March 1909), 3671325 (20 March 1909), 367--8.8.

228 MM Zabıt Ceriedi, MM Zabıt Ceriedi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, , Cilt:Cilt: 22, 7 Mar, 7 Martt 1325 (20 March 1909), 3731325 (20 March 1909), 373. Use Ibid in . Use Ibid in referring to referring to tthe exact same set of sourcehe exact same set of sources please. Is please. Ibid should be in the sbid should be in the style sheet for tyle sheet for citations, no?citations, no?

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While Cavid Bey

While Cavid Bey did not get involved in governmental affairs, he thought did not get involved in governmental affairs, he thought that it would be the parliament that would make the final decisthat it would be the parliament that would make the final decision on ion on thethe proviprovisional budget. Interestingly enough, the Assembly voted on sional budget. Interestingly enough, the Assembly voted on and passed this article, with Cavid Beyand passed this article, with Cavid Bey amongamong those who voted “those who voted “yesyes.”.”229

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey prepared a draft bill entitled “The Bill about Defrayal in prepared a draft bill entitled “The Bill about Defrayal in April and May and Using the Income of DutiApril and May and Using the Income of Duties Collectes Collecteed in d in May.” He May.” He worked on this draft bill alongside French Counsellor Charles Laurent. It worked on this draft bill alongside French Counsellor Charles Laurent. It consisted of the provconsisted of the provisional budget; however, the isional budget; however, the provisionalprovisional budget for budget for March had been rejected by both the parliament and the Senate due to March had been rejected by both the parliament and the Senate due to the lack of detthe lack of detailed infoailed inforrmatiomation and tables on expenses and incomes. n and tables on expenses and incomes. Therefore, in the meeting held on April 10, 1909, the provisional Therefore, in the meeting held on April 10, 1909, the provisional budg-budg-et, which consisted of the budgets of March, April, and May, was dis-et, which consisted of the budgets of March, April, and May, was dis-cussed. First, Cavid Beycussed. First, Cavid Bey read the commission’s mandate. This draread the commission’s mandate. This draft bill ft bill gagavve pere permission to the Ministry of Finance for the payment of the sala-mission to the Ministry of Finance for the payment of the sala-ries from March, April, and May and to colries from March, April, and May and to collect the amount of lect the amount of 422,860,000 lira demanded by state offices. Though the budget draft 422,860,000 lira demanded by state offices. Though the budget draft was given to both the Chamber and the Senate, thewas given to both the Chamber and the Senate, they were hesy were hesiitant tant to to approve it. Cavid Beyapprove it. Cavid Bey underlined the urgency of this situation underlined the urgency of this situation andand em-em-phasized that provisional bphasized that provisional budgets were not typically regarded as good udgets were not typically regarded as good and positive things in financial affairs. He created a detailed table show-and positive things in financial affairs. He created a detailed table show-ing income and expenses.ing income and expenses. The The only fonly fault in the budget was that the sala-ault in the budget was that the sala-ries were not shown one by one. Because there was a strict time limiries were not shown one by one. Because there was a strict time limit, t, the commission approved the expenses. Cavid Beythe commission approved the expenses. Cavid Bey generally cut large generally cut large chunks off the state expenses, including the salaries and expenses of chunks off the state expenses, including the salaries and expenses of the the pprovincrovinces.es.230 In general, the highest costs belonged to buildings, the In general, the highest costs belonged to buildings, the Ministry of War, and the Ministry of Navy.Ministry of War, and the Ministry of Navy. The highest cost cutting oper-The highest cost cutting oper-ation in the provisional budget was made in the budget of the Royal ation in the provisional budget was made in the budget of the Royal Family. Cavid BeyFamily. Cavid Bey remarked that he was sureremarked that he was sure thatthat the sthe sultan would ap-ultan would ap-prove of it as ordinary officers had made sacrifices themselves. Accord-prove of it as ordinary officers had made sacrifices themselves. Accord-ing to him, the mosing to him, the most important aspect of this budget was cost cutting, t important aspect of this budget was cost cutting,

229 MM Zabıt Ceriedi, MM Zabıt Ceriedi, Devre:Devre: 11, , Cilt:Cilt: 22, 7 Mar, 7 Martt 1325 (20 March 1909), 3781325 (20 March 1909), 378--7979

230 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, , Cilt:Cilt: 1,1, 28 Mart 1325 (10 April 1909), 12. 28 Mart 1325 (10 April 1909), 12.

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which included the expenses of the palace, which was also sy

which included the expenses of the palace, which was also symmbolic of bolic of national sovereigntnational sovereignty. y.

Cavid Bavid Beyey, though pessimistic, declared that the budget would be , though pessimistic, declared that the budget would be completed in June.completed in June.231 He stated that in preparatHe stated that in preparation for this provisional ion for this provisional budget, they had worked three days and nights and that they had been budget, they had worked three days and nights and that they had been working for one month on the budget.working for one month on the budget.232 This drafThis draft rect received eived its share of its share of criticism, particularly from Krikor Zöhrap Efendi,criticism, particularly from Krikor Zöhrap Efendi,233 regarding the regregarding the regu-u-lation of the income lation of the income items. However, Zöhrap Efendi, one of the deputies items. However, Zöhrap Efendi, one of the deputies who severely Cavid Beywho severely Cavid Bey in the Parliament in the Parliament –– another deputy was Lütfü another deputy was Lütfü Fikri Fikri -- was impressed was impressed by thby the extee extent of Cavid Beynt of Cavid Bey’s knowledge.’s knowledge.234

As Toprak states, the Unionists revolted against the tradition of the

As Toprak states, the Unionists revolted against the tradition of the concconcept of servants of the state (ept of servants of the state (kapikulukapikulu), which represented wide ), which represented wide range of people serving the state. This system was helpful at the begirange of people serving the state. This system was helpful at the begin-n-ning oning of thef the OttomOttoman Empire but now, due to radical changes in the milan Empire but now, due to radical changes in the mili-i-tary and political system of the Ottoman Empire, ittary and political system of the Ottoman Empire, it became an obsolete became an obsolete system. The CUP brought a new understanding to society: individualism system. The CUP brought a new understanding to society: individualism was the basic philosophy of the society, and the inwas the basic philosophy of the society, and the individdividual muual must be dst be de-e-fended against the state. From this point onward, the individual would fended against the state. From this point onward, the individual would be transformed into the “be transformed into the “entrepreneur,” which would then become the entrepreneur,” which would then become the main philosophy of the Ottoman society.main philosophy of the Ottoman society.235 The CUP began the implThe CUP began the imple-e-mentation of this policy through pmentation of this policy through passinassing the g the Law of Severance. Cavid Law of Severance. Cavid BeyBey was the architect of this law. Even before its acceptance into law, it was the architect of this law. Even before its acceptance into law, it was awas already de facto beginning to be implemented. Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha lready de facto beginning to be implemented. Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha unwillingly and regretfully signed the decree.unwillingly and regretfully signed the decree.236

In February 1909, the Kamil

In February 1909, the Kamil PashaPasha govergovernment fell. When he bnment fell. When he be-e-came the Grand Vizier on August 6, 1908, he acted like a Tanzimat came the Grand Vizier on August 6, 1908, he acted like a Tanzimat

231 MM Zabıt CerMM Zabıt Cerididesi, esi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, , Cilt:Cilt: 1, 28 Mart 1325 (10 April 1909), 101, 28 Mart 1325 (10 April 1909), 10--11. 11.

232 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, , Cilt:Cilt: 11, , 28 Mart 1325 28 Mart 1325 (10 April 1909), 31. (10 April 1909), 31.

233 Krikor Zöhrap Efendi (1861Krikor Zöhrap Efendi (1861--1915): An Armenian MP for Istanbul. He was a lawyer but 1915): An Armenian MP for Istanbul. He was a lawyer but also an influential writer and palso an influential writer and pololtician. He was not a Unionist. He lost his life in 1915. tician. He was not a Unionist. He lost his life in 1915.

234 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, , Cilt:Cilt: 1, 28 Mart 1325 (10 1, 28 Mart 1325 (10 April 1909), 42April 1909), 42--3. 3.

235 Toprak, Toprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908--1918,1918, 35.35.

236 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi Vol IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi Vol I--IVIV, ed. Hasan Babacan and Servet Avşar, , ed. Hasan Babacan and Servet Avşar, Vol I (Ankara: TürkVol I (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 2014), 30Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 2014), 30--3.3.

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statesman during

statesman during the new era. He wanted to conduct the government the new era. He wanted to conduct the government without any interference from the Unionists, who were a source of fruwithout any interference from the Unionists, who were a source of frus-s-tration for him. At ttration for him. At the behe beginninginning, the Committee supported him, due to g, the Committee supported him, due to his Anglophile stance, his strong relations with Britain, and hishis Anglophile stance, his strong relations with Britain, and his attitude attitude of caving of caving intointo CUP demands, such as appointing Recep Pasha to be MiCUP demands, such as appointing Recep Pasha to be Min-n-ister of War. But after the opening of the parliament, the balister of War. But after the opening of the parliament, the balance ance bbe-e-tweetweenn the two parties had changed. This was a natural consequence of the two parties had changed. This was a natural consequence of Kamil Pasha’s character. Ahmad argues tKamil Pasha’s character. Ahmad argues that he neglected to pay attehat he neglected to pay atten-n-tion to the Unionists and underestimated the CUP. Although he later ation to the Unionists and underestimated the CUP. Although he later as-s-signed Manyasizade Refik Bey as Minister osigned Manyasizade Refik Bey as Minister of Jusf Justice atice annd Hüseyin Hilmi d Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, who was known to be close to the CUP when he was the InspePasha, who was known to be close to the CUP when he was the Inspec-c-tor General of Macedotor General of Macedonia, as the Minister of Domestic Affairs,nia, as the Minister of Domestic Affairs,237 the CUP the CUP was not pleased with Kamil Pasha, who was close to the Osmanlı Ahrar was not pleased with Kamil Pasha, who was close to the Osmanlı Ahrar Party during the elecParty during the election tion periodperiod.. Kamil Pasha was strongly suKamil Pasha was strongly suppported ported by Great Britain, which is why the Unionists tolerated him as the gby Great Britain, which is why the Unionists tolerated him as the grand rand vizier. However, things panned out differently in the endvizier. However, things panned out differently in the end——as we will see as we will see belowbelow——as Britain kept its distance from the CUP and supported tas Britain kept its distance from the CUP and supported the he MaMarch 31rch 31 Incident. The CUP had wanted to keep Kamil Pasha in power Incident. The CUP had wanted to keep Kamil Pasha in power in order to keep him in check so that he coulin order to keep him in check so that he could not usurp all the power. d not usurp all the power.

On February 10, 1909, Kamil Pasha appointed a new person to hold

On February 10, 1909, Kamil Pasha appointed a new person to hold the titles of Ministers of War and Navy. Nazim Pthe titles of Ministers of War and Navy. Nazim Pasha asha replacreplaceed Ali Rıza d Ali Rıza Pasha as the Minister of War, and Admiral Hüseyin Pasha replaced Arif Pasha as the Minister of War, and Admiral Hüseyin Pasha replaced Arif Pasha as the Minister Pasha as the Minister of the Navy. This caused a crisis and led to the reof the Navy. This caused a crisis and led to the res-s-ignation of Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha and other cabinet members. ignation of Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha and other cabinet members. Tanin Tanin dde-e-scribed this developmescribed this development asnt as a coua coupp against the government and an aagainst the government and an at-t-tack against the rights of the parliament and the Constitution. On tack against the rights of the parliament and the Constitution. On February 13, 1909, the parliament gathered to ask for a statement from February 13, 1909, the parliament gathered to ask for a statement from

237 Meanwhile, the leading military members of the CUP did remove themselves from the Meanwhile, the leading military members of the CUP did remove themselves from the domestic politicadomestic political l arena. On January 13, 1909, Major Enver was appointed military arena. On January 13, 1909, Major Enver was appointed military attaché in Berlin. Major Fethi (Okyar) was posted toattaché in Berlin. Major Fethi (Okyar) was posted to Paris, Major Ali Fuat (Cebesoy) to Paris, Major Ali Fuat (Cebesoy) to Rome, and Major Hafız İsmail Hakkı to Vienna. The behavior of Major Niyazi, who was Rome, and Major Hafız İsmail Hakkı to Vienna. The behavior of Major Niyazi, who was the first to raise the first to raise ththe standard of revolt, was even more honorable and more disintee standard of revolt, was even more honorable and more disinter-r-ested. ested. Mango, Mango, AtatürkAtatürk, 217., 217.

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the grand vizier. The navy anchored near Dolmabahçe Palace and sent

the grand vizier. The navy anchored near Dolmabahçe Palace and sent two ptwo petitietitions toons to the parliament asking the grand vizier to make a statthe parliament asking the grand vizier to make a state-e-ment. On February 14, 1909, he and his cabinet were dismissed. This ment. On February 14, 1909, he and his cabinet were dismissed. This was the first and only time in the history of the Ottoman Empire that the was the first and only time in the history of the Ottoman Empire that the cabinet had fallen cabinet had fallen because ofbecause of a vote ofa vote of no cno confideonfidence in thence in the parliament. parliament. The same day, Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha was assigned to the post of grand The same day, Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha was assigned to the post of grand vizier (February 14vizier (February 14––April 13, 1909).April 13, 1909).238 In the end, the mIn the end, the maajority held by jority held by the CUP in the parliament was strong and could not be defeated within the CUP in the parliament was strong and could not be defeated within the scope of the scope of the cthe constitonstitutional orutional order. According to his program read out der. According to his program read out in parliament on February 17, Grand Vizier Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha de-in parliament on February 17, Grand Vizier Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha de-clared domestic politics were to be carried out according to liberal prin-clared domestic politics were to be carried out according to liberal prin-ciples that would serve social needs, and therefore, this ciples that would serve social needs, and therefore, this progrprogram wasam was compatiblcompatible with CUP policies. His cabinet was established according to e with CUP policies. His cabinet was established according to parliamentary procedures even before the related amendments to the parliamentary procedures even before the related amendments to the constitution were done.constitution were done.239

§ 2.3 IIncreasing thencreasing the LLeverage of Ottoman Financeseverage of Ottoman Finances

In addition to his work on other big

In addition to his work on other big issueissues in ts in the arena ohe arena of domestic polf domestic poli-i-tics, Cavid Beytics, Cavid Bey had plans to improve the economic situation of the Ohad plans to improve the economic situation of the Ot-t-toman Empire, which had been chronically in debt.toman Empire, which had been chronically in debt. As he emphasized in As he emphasized in his parliamentary speeches, he also aimed to ensure the financial indhis parliamentary speeches, he also aimed to ensure the financial inde-e-pendence ofpendence of the the OttomaOttoman Empire. n Empire. However, it should be noted that dHowever, it should be noted that de-e-spite his opposition to capitulations and the OPDA, his concept of sospite his opposition to capitulations and the OPDA, his concept of sovver-er-eignty is much more permeable than that of the National Forces eignty is much more permeable than that of the National Forces ((KuvvacıKuvvacı)) that would dominate the scthat would dominate the scenene ie in early 1920sn early 1920s. To achiev. To achieve thie this s aim,aim, he had twhe had two specific targets: first, distao specific targets: first, distanngglle the Empire from the e the Empire from the Great Powers, especially from the OPDA’s boundaries in terms of foreign Great Powers, especially from the OPDA’s boundaries in terms of foreign loans. Secondly, annhiliate French finaloans. Secondly, annhiliate French finanncial control over the domestic cial control over the domestic institutions. Abdülhamid II’s foreiinstitutions. Abdülhamid II’s foreign pogn pollicy wicy was also sias also similar. The Umilar. The Unnion-ion-

238 Ahmad, Ahmad, Ittihat ve Terakki,1908Ittihat ve Terakki,1908--1914 (Jön Türkler)1914 (Jön Türkler), 58, 58--66.66.

239 Tunaya, Tunaya, İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihiİttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi, , 3,3, 8686--87.87.

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ists more or less

ists more or less ppursued his policiesursued his policies. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey’s target was to distance ’s target was to distance the IOB and ethe IOB and esspecially the OPDA from the loan process and to entice pecially the OPDA from the loan process and to entice Britain into the Ottoman fBritain into the Ottoman fiinancial game once again. His main aim was to nancial game once again. His main aim was to incrincrease ease the lethe leverage andverage and options of the Ottoman governmentoptions of the Ottoman government in loan in loan negotiations in order to achieve benegotiations in order to achieve bettter coter connditions.ditions.

First of all, as I argue below, Cavid Bey

First of all, as I argue below, Cavid Bey tried to enhance the Ottoman tried to enhance the Ottoman Empire’s opportunities to obtain more loans. After the 1875 bankruptcEmpire’s opportunities to obtain more loans. After the 1875 bankruptcy y of of the Suthe Sublime Portblime Porte and the establishment of the OPDe and the establishment of the OPDAA,,240 partially bpartially be-e-cause of increasing Turkophobia, British investors exited the Ottoman cause of increasing Turkophobia, British investors exited the Ottoman securities scene, and French investments in public works gradually securities scene, and French investments in public works gradually re-re-placplaced theed themm. By 1880, three. By 1880, three--fourths of thfourths of the Empe Empire’s foreiire’s foreign debt wagn debt was s held by France. Meanwhiheld by France. Meanwhille, the Imperial Ottoman Banke, the Imperial Ottoman Bank——which had which had been established in 1863 as an Anglobeen established in 1863 as an Anglo--French enterpriseFrench enterprise——had not only had not only become predominantly French but also had come to serve as an “Otto-become predominantly French but also had come to serve as an “Otto-man” state bank. After the 1908man” state bank. After the 1908 RevoRevolution, lution, GerGermany,many, and and France, which France, which had been prohad been promminent financial actors during the Hamidian era, stepped inent financial actors during the Hamidian era, stepped back from the financial scene, and Britain came forward to support the back from the financial scene, and Britain came forward to support the aspiring Ottoman democracy. As an Anglophile, Kamil Paspiring Ottoman democracy. As an Anglophile, Kamil Paasha was seen as sha was seen as someonesomeone whowho could facicould facilitate matlitate matters for the Unioters for the Unionnists.ists.241 HHoowever, as a wever, as a French businessmen would complain very soon, the Empire’s economic French businessmen would complain very soon, the Empire’s economic relations with each Great Power were as forelations with each Great Power were as folllows: “lows: “the Ottoman Navy the Ottoman Navy Minister buys boats from England, the OttMinister buys boats from England, the Ottooman Minister of man Minister of War War buys buys gun frgun from Germanyom Germany and the Ottoman Minister and the Ottoman Minister oof Finance asks for loan f Finance asks for loan only in Paris.only in Paris.””242 Cavid BeyCavid Bey was one of the key figures who wanted to was one of the key figures who wanted to

240 The Imperial Ottoman Bank was established in 1863 and functioned like a central The Imperial Ottoman Bank was established in 1863 and functioned like a central bank. The Ottoman Public Debt Administration was establishbank. The Ottoman Public Debt Administration was established according to the Mu-ed according to the Mu-harrem Decree in 1881 to collect income in the name of the creditors and syndharrem Decree in 1881 to collect income in the name of the creditors and syndiicates cates that gave loans to the Ottoman Empire from different countries. The OPDA, which be-that gave loans to the Ottoman Empire from different countries. The OPDA, which be-came a state body, also allowed the Ottoman bureaucrats to learn abocame a state body, also allowed the Ottoman bureaucrats to learn about the methods ut the methods of modern finance. of modern finance. Toprak,Toprak, TTürkiye'de ürkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908Milli İktisat, 1908--19181918, 251., 251.

241 Özavcı, "A Little Light in The Darkness’: The Mission of Charles Laurent and the Young Özavcı, "A Little Light in The Darkness’: The Mission of Charles Laurent and the Young Turks, 1908Turks, 1908--1911," 205.1911," 205.

242 Jacques Thobie, "Finance et Politique: Le Refus en France de l’Emprunt Ottoman Jacques Thobie, "Finance et Politique: Le Refus en France de l’Emprunt Ottoman 1910," Revue Historique 231910," Revue Historique 239, no. 2 (1968): 3279, no. 2 (1968): 327--50.50.

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change the Empire’s economic situation, which had been placing pres-

change the Empire’s economic situation, which had been placing pres-sure on the Empire due to both high interest sure on the Empire due to both high interest raterates and conces and concessions. Hissions. His s main policy was to challmain policy was to challeenge the dominance of the IOB and the OPDA. nge the dominance of the IOB and the OPDA. These institutions were like twins that had become the most ascendant These institutions were like twins that had become the most ascendant institutions in the Einstitutions in the Emmpire.pire.243 The main question was why Britain, par-The main question was why Britain, par-ticularly the Foreign Oticularly the Foreign Offficefice, supported, supported a bank ina bank in Istanbul apart from the Istanbul apart from the IIOOB when its partner, France, already had a strong position in the Em-B when its partner, France, already had a strong position in the Em-pire. We should also epire. We should also exxamine what Cavid Beyamine what Cavid Bey’s role was in the estab-’s role was in the estab-lishment of the bank.lishment of the bank.

The National Bank of Turkey was founded in 1909

The National Bank of Turkey was founded in 1909 by Bby British capiritish capitatal-l-ists whists who were supported by the Foo were supported by the Forreign Office. Despite the Entente Cor-eign Office. Despite the Entente Cor-diale between Britain and France, the key British figure in Istanbul, diale between Britain and France, the key British figure in Istanbul, OPDA President Sir Adam Block,OPDA President Sir Adam Block,244 was anxious about the nonwas anxious about the non--participation of British financiers in vparticipation of British financiers in varioarious railway us railway enterpriseenterprises and fi-s and fi-nancial operationsnancial operations,, which would ultimately place Britain in a weak pwhich would ultimately place Britain in a weak po-o-litical position in Istanbul. As Marian Kent states, from 1906 onwards, litical position in Istanbul. As Marian Kent states, from 1906 onwards, BlockBlock warned warned the Foreign Office to consider the Foreign Office to consider adopting new ways to adopting new ways to sse-e-cure Anglocure Anglo--FrenFrench fch financial coinancial cooperation operation in Istanbul.in Istanbul.245 Although theAlthough the French did not fully understand this concern, the Ottoman Society was French did not fully understand this concern, the Ottoman Society was formed under the auspice of the Ottoman Bank.formed under the auspice of the Ottoman Bank.246 However, this socHowever, this sociiety ety did not remain intact, because the negotiations between British adid not remain intact, because the negotiations between British and nd FFrench instirench institutions brtutions broke down on November 14, 1oke down on November 14, 19908. As far as we 08. As far as we know from secondary sources,know from secondary sources,247 Boghos Nubar and Calouste GulbeBoghos Nubar and Calouste Gulbennki-ki-an later prepared the first draft of the bank agreement. Both came from an later prepared the first draft of the bank agreement. Both came from wealthy families involved in international finance wealthy families involved in international finance and and had inveshad investtmments ents worldworldwide and throughout twide and throughout thhe Ottoman territory. They held the talks in e Ottoman territory. They held the talks in

243 Toprak, Toprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908--19181918, 251., 251.

244 The British and Belgian representatives on the OPDA council.The British and Belgian representatives on the OPDA council.

245 Marian Kent, "Agent of Empire? The National Bank of Turkey and British Foreign Marian Kent, "Agent of Empire? The National Bank of Turkey and British Foreign Policy," Policy," The Historical JournalThe Historical Journal 18, no. 2 (1975): 36718, no. 2 (1975): 367--6868..

246 Jonathan Conlin, "Debt, Diplomacy and Dreadnoughts: Jonathan Conlin, "Debt, Diplomacy and Dreadnoughts: TheThe National Bank of Turkey, National Bank of Turkey, 19091909––1919," M1919," Middle Eastern Studiesiddle Eastern Studies 52, 52, no. 3 (2016): 528.no. 3 (2016): 528.

247 John Burman, "Politics and Profit: John Burman, "Politics and Profit: TheThe National Bank of Turkey Revisited," National Bank of Turkey Revisited," OriensOriens 37 37 (2009): 225(2009): 225--36.36.

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London in the name of the Ottoman Cabinet.

London in the name of the Ottoman Cabinet. However, Gulbenkian had However, Gulbenkian had doubts about a British Bank because it could approach the Ottoman doubts about a British Bank because it could approach the Ottoman Bank and become its satelliBank and become its satellite. te. AfterAfter looking folooking for partnersr partners, the Ottoman , the Ottoman finafinanncicieers partnered with Sir Ernest Cassel. In 1908, Cassel was rs partnered with Sir Ernest Cassel. In 1908, Cassel was also also en-en-coucourraged by the Foreign Office to establish the bank. aged by the Foreign Office to establish the bank. The first meeting The first meeting of the bank project of the bank project was held in Istanbul on January 29, was held in Istanbul on January 29, 1909,1909, in whicin which h Cavid BCavid Beyey was alsowas also presepresent nt along with Şerif Pashaalong with Şerif Pasha (1865(1865––1951), former 1951), former OOtttoman ambassador to Stockholm, and Hasan Fehmi Pasha (1836toman ambassador to Stockholm, and Hasan Fehmi Pasha (1836––1910), president of the Council of State. Reşid Sadi, who edited the 1910), president of the Council of State. Reşid Sadi, who edited the Young Turk newspaper Young Turk newspaper IkdamIkdam, and Meguerditch Essayan, G, and Meguerditch Essayan, Gulbenkianulbenkian’s ’s uncleuncle alalso parso particticipated to the meeting.ipated to the meeting. According to According to Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s’s memem-m-oirs, after his return from Selanik on March 15, 1909,oirs, after his return from Selanik on March 15, 1909,248 Cavid BeyCavid Bey vivissit-it-ed his friends Mutrans and Mr. Cassel. On March 16, 1909, ed his friends Mutrans and Mr. Cassel. On March 16, 1909, Cavid BeyCavid Bey and Adam Block worked on the foundingand Adam Block worked on the founding principlprinciples of the es of the NNationaational l BBank of Turkeyank of Turkey. The bank was formed by a decree dated on . The bank was formed by a decree dated on March 30, March 30, 1909. 1909. As Conlin states, “As Conlin states, “a total ofa total of £1m worth of £10 shares were issued, £1m worth of £10 shares were issued, the vast majothe vast majorrity of which were held by Cassel (32,918), Reveity of which were held by Cassel (32,918), Revellstoke stoke (32,115), and Sir A(32,115), and Sir Alexander lexander Henderson (Henderson (31,11631,116). ). The remainder were The remainder were divided between Cavid Beydivided between Cavid Bey (500), Essayan (500), Gulbenkian (100), (500), Essayan (500), Gulbenkian (100), Reşid Sadi (100), Ahmed Cemal (100), and Cemal Pasha (100). Small Reşid Sadi (100), Ahmed Cemal (100), and Cemal Pasha (100). Small holdings of 20 Founders Shares were given to Cavid Beyholdings of 20 Founders Shares were given to Cavid Bey, Sait P, Sait Paasha, sha, Prince SPrince Sait Halimait Halim Pasha, MarPasha, Marshal Cshal Cemiemil Pasha, Reşid Sadi, and Hal Pasha, Reşid Sadi, and Hasssan san Fehmi PashaFehmi Pasha..” Sir Henry Babington Smity became the president of the ” Sir Henry Babington Smity became the president of the Bank. Bank. A consultA consultaative committee was also set up. Hüseyin Cahit, Nail Bey, tive committee was also set up. Hüseyin Cahit, Nail Bey, the future Mithe future Minnister of Finance, Block, and Ahmed Cemalister of Finance, Block, and Ahmed Cemal Bey Bey bbeecacame the me the membmembers ofers of ththis committeeis committee..249 The reason I narrowed my focus on the The reason I narrowed my focus on the establisestablishhment of the National Bank of Turkey was to undement of the National Bank of Turkey was to underrline the role line the role that Cavid Beythat Cavid Bey played in stirring up the market to increase the number played in stirring up the market to increase the number of opportunities under which theof opportunities under which the Empire cEmpire could take oould take out loaut loans ns with with more appropriate conditions. The talks concerning the foundation pro-more appropriate conditions. The talks concerning the foundation pro-

248 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 20., 20.

249 Conlin, "Conlin, "Debt, Diplomacy and Dreadnoughts: Debt, Diplomacy and Dreadnoughts: TheThe National Bank of Turkey, 1909National Bank of Turkey, 1909––1919," 5271919," 527--30.30.

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cess of the bank had also accelerated after the opening of the parlia-

cess of the bank had also accelerated after the opening of the parlia-ment in Dment in Deecember 1908. cember 1908.

§ 2.4 AAnn IIntellectual Handntellectual Hand

Anothe

Another major accr major accomplisomplishmehment of Cavid Beynt of Cavid Bey during this period was during this period was pubpublishing the lishing the Journal of Economic and Social SciencesJournal of Economic and Social Sciences250 (JSES(JSES) () (UlUlûûmm--u u İktisİktisââdiyye ve İçtimdiyye ve İçtimââiyye Mecmiyye Mecmûûası) along with a group of intellectuals ası) along with a group of intellectuals including Ahmet Şuayip and Rıza Tevfik. The maincluding Ahmet Şuayip and Rıza Tevfik. The magazine fegazine featured artiatured articles cles tthahat focused on liberal economic arguments, st focused on liberal economic arguments, similar to the ideology of imilar to the ideology of the Ottoman Empire.the Ottoman Empire.251

250 BOA DH.MKT 1282.40 (2.1) Fi 16 Recep 326/ Fi 31 Temmuz 324 BOA DH.MKT 1282.40 (2.1) Fi 16 Recep 326/ Fi 31 Temmuz 324

“A legal permission should be granted to Cavid Bey by the Ministry of Police to publish “A legal permission should be granted to Cavid Bey by the Ministry of Police to publish a journal called “Joa journal called “Journal of Economic and Social Sciences according to the third and urnal of Economic and Social Sciences according to the third and fourth articles of the Press Law.” fourth articles of the Press Law.”

Permission for translation of the book from İdarePermission for translation of the book from İdare--i Matbuat office of the Ministry of i Matbuat office of the Ministry of Interior Affairs.”Interior Affairs.”

251 Ahmed Şuayip, Rıza Tevfik, Mehmed Cavid. Ahmed Şuayip, Rıza Tevfik, Mehmed Cavid. UlûmUlûm--i İktisâdiye ve İçtimâîye Mecmuasıi İktisâdiye ve İçtimâîye Mecmuası. . Istanbul: Tanin Matbaası, 1909. Istanbul: Tanin Matbaası, 1909.

Çakmak, Çakmak, OsmanlOsmanlı İktisat Düşüncesinin Evrimi: Societas ve Universitas Gerilimiı İktisat Düşüncesinin Evrimi: Societas ve Universitas Gerilimi, 89., 89.

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Figure 2.2 Mehmed Cavid Bey and Rıza Tevfik. Taha Toros

online archive.

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Figure 2.3 The envelope. The Envelope of the photograph indicate

the source of this photograph.

http://openaccess.marmara.edu.tr/bitstream/handle/11424/139672/

001561758008.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y

As Toprak states, a new understanding of economics emerged with the

Second Constitutional Era. The Ottoman state was seen from a new perspective,

and economic development became the main trajectory of the

state instead of fiscal policies, which meant that economic life would not

be limited to providing the treasury with the best resources. As a reflection

of nation-state ideology, the state’s role was to reinforce the economy,

allow for a free economic environment in which individuals could

pursue entrepreneurial goals, and provide an indirect flow of income

for itself by enhancing citizens’ capacity to pay higher taxes.252 In this

way, concepts such as “individualism,” “freedom,” and “individual enterprise”

were introduced into Ottoman social life during the Second Con-

252 Toprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908-1918, 35.

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stitutional

stitutional Era. However, the CUP was indecisive aboutEra. However, the CUP was indecisive about its economic pol-its economic pol-icy.icy. This hesitation was increased by the lack of accumulation of capital This hesitation was increased by the lack of accumulation of capital in the country and the in the country and the rising crrising criticism of iticism of liberaliberalilism in Europe. Finally, sm in Europe. Finally, the concept of state socialism (the concept of state socialism (socialisme d’étatsocialisme d’état) made its way into Ot-) made its way into Ot-toman intellectual dtoman intellectual debates through the CUebates through the CUP. Meanwhile, the JSES con-P. Meanwhile, the JSES con-tinued to voice the liberal perspective in its publications as oppotinued to voice the liberal perspective in its publications as opposed to sed to ststate socialiate socialism. Insm. In tthe Assembly, nonhe Assembly, non--Muslim MPs typically defended the Muslim MPs typically defended the socialist view, whilesocialist view, while the Muslim Union defended the liberal viethe Muslim Union defended the liberal view.w.253 Still, Still, support fosupport for liberalism in Ottoman society peaked between 1908 and r liberalism in Ottoman society peaked between 1908 and 1912. 1912.

The Ottoman Empire’s role as t

The Ottoman Empire’s role as the providhe provider of raw mer of raw materiaaterialsls to the to the capitalist world economy did not change during the Second Consticapitalist world economy did not change during the Second Constittu-u-tional Era. Merchants and landowners wertional Era. Merchants and landowners were amongst those who be amongst those who benene-e-fited from this dynamic the most. This structure of the Ottoman ecofited from this dynamic the most. This structure of the Ottoman econno-o-my occupied the ideasmy occupied the ideas of econoof economic thinkermic thinkers, as s, as wewell. Çakmak claims that ll. Çakmak claims that Ottoman economic thinkers viewed the field of ecoOttoman economic thinkers viewed the field of economy as an artnomy as an artiisanal sanal arena where the aim warena where the aim was to provide solutioas to provide solutions to actual problems rather ns to actual problems rather than a scientific field with abstract and universal laws. The rethan a scientific field with abstract and universal laws. The reaason for son for this is thathis is that Ottot Ottomaman economists were initially concerned with saving n economists were initially concerned with saving the Empire from collapthe Empire from collapse. Therefore, Ottoman economic thinkers cse. Therefore, Ottoman economic thinkers con-on-sidered themselves sidered themselves closer to the German historicist school. In this con-closer to the German historicist school. In this con-text, they felt more aligned with Germanytext, they felt more aligned with Germany, which h, which had the expead the experiencerience oof f latelate--capitalization, more so than with Britain, where capitalism was capitalization, more so than with Britain, where capitalism was bborn and had advanced.orn and had advanced.254 Cavid BeyCavid Bey's book en's book entitled titled The Science ofThe Science of the the EconomEconomicsics ((İlİlmm--i i İİktisatktisat))——which was published in 1899 and had bwhich was published in 1899 and had be-e-come a course book in high schoolscome a course book in high schools255 and universitiesand universities——rreflective ofeflective of his his lilibberal economic view long before the publication of eral economic view long before the publication of the journal. The the journal. The

253 Toprak, Toprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat (1908Türkiye'de Milli İktisat (1908--1918)1918), 86, 86--91.91.

254 Çakmak, Çakmak, OOsmanlı İktisat Düşüncesinin Evrimi: Societas ve Universitas Gerilimismanlı İktisat Düşüncesinin Evrimi: Societas ve Universitas Gerilimi, 93, 93--9494, , 102102--03.03.

255 MehmeMehmed Cavid Bey d Cavid Bey İlmİlm--i İktisad Mekatibi İktisad Mekatib--i İdadiyeye Mahsusi İdadiyeye Mahsus, Istanbul: Âmire Matbaası, , Istanbul: Âmire Matbaası, 1911. The second print of the book was published by Kanaat Publishing House in 1911. The second print of the book was published by Kanaat Publishing House in 1913. Özege; 13120 1913. Özege; 13120 –– TBTK; 9743. TBTK; 9743.

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fact that Cavid Bey

fact that Cavid Bey insisinsisted on this liberal positited on this liberal positionon despite despite the cthe change in hange in cicirrcumstances, even during the Lausanne Peace meetings following the cumstances, even during the Lausanne Peace meetings following the National Struggle, constitutes one of the essential critical questions of National Struggle, constitutes one of the essential critical questions of this thesis. This apthis thesis. This approach, which became the main reason as toproach, which became the main reason as to why he why he ended up on the siended up on the sidede of the oof the opposipposition during the Early Republican Era, tion during the Early Republican Era, was coherent from his own point of view, but it also jeopardized his was coherent from his own point of view, but it also jeopardized his sit-sit-uationuation. .

Following the declaration of the constitution in 1908

Following the declaration of the constitution in 1908——and with it, and with it, the elimination of censorshithe elimination of censorship of the mediap of the media——there was athere was an n explosionexplosion in in ppublishing activities. These publications ranged from humor to science, ublishing activities. These publications ranged from humor to science, they had a limited number of pages, and their lifespan was rather short. they had a limited number of pages, and their lifespan was rather short. Both Istanbul and the periphBoth Istanbul and the periphery enjoyed the richness and exhilaration ery enjoyed the richness and exhilaration of these publications, whiof these publications, whichch mirroredmirrored the the enthusiasm stimulated by the enthusiasm stimulated by the Second Constitutional Era. This was the environment in which the Second Constitutional Era. This was the environment in which the JouJour-r-nal of Social and Economic Sciencesnal of Social and Economic Sciences was born. It was among the journals was born. It was among the journals coconsumed by the intelligentsia of the time.nsumed by the intelligentsia of the time.256

The JSES was published be

The JSES was published betwtween Decemeen December 2ber 29, 9, 1908,1908, and March 14, and March 14, 1911, in 27 issues.1911, in 27 issues.257 However, since issues no. 18However, since issues no. 18––21 were published 21 were published as a single volume, there were actually 24 issues. Cavid Beyas a single volume, there were actually 24 issues. Cavid Bey, Ahmet , Ahmet Şuayip, and RŞuayip, and Rııza Tevfik founded the journal.za Tevfik founded the journal.258 There werThere were 22 signe 22 signa-a-tures in the jourtures in the journanal, and tl, and thhe mose most prolific writer was Ahmet Şuayip. t prolific writer was Ahmet Şuayip. Cavid BeyCavid Bey was the second most featured author with 27 articles.was the second most featured author with 27 articles.259 Cavid BeyCavid Bey's articles were usually theoretical and mostly defended ec's articles were usually theoretical and mostly defended eco-o-nnomic liberalism.omic liberalism.

In a general sense, the J

In a general sense, the JSES SES is considered to beis considered to be thethe ffirst libirst libeeral pral publubli-i-cation in Turkey. It should be added that the journal had a positivist cation in Turkey. It should be added that the journal had a positivist

256 Çakmak, Çakmak, Osmanlı İktisat Düşüncesinin Evrimi: Societas ve Universitas GerilimiOsmanlı İktisat Düşüncesinin Evrimi: Societas ve Universitas Gerilimi, 159, 159--79.79.

257 ThThe articles of the journal also published like a book. Ahmed Şuayib, Rıza Tevfik, and e articles of the journal also published like a book. Ahmed Şuayib, Rıza Tevfik, and Mehmed Cavid, Mehmed Cavid, UlûmUlûm--i İktisâdiyye ve İçtimâiyye Mecmûasıi İktisâdiyye ve İçtimâiyye Mecmûası (Istanbul: Tanin Matbaası, (Istanbul: Tanin Matbaası, 1910). 1910).

258 Karaman, "UlûmKaraman, "Ulûm--ı İktisadiye ve İçtimaiye Mecmuası,"ı İktisadiye ve İçtimaiye Mecmuası," 65.65.

259 Haluk Alkan and Atila Doğan,Haluk Alkan and Atila Doğan, Osmanlı Liberal Düşüncesi, UlumOsmanlı Liberal Düşüncesi, Ulum--ı İktisadiye vı İktisadiye ve İçtimaiye e İçtimaiye MecmuasıMecmuası, (Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2010), 66., (Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2010), 66.

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background. The ideas expressed within the framework of the JSES

background. The ideas expressed within the framework of the JSES were drawn from four internatiowere drawn from four international sources: Le Play School, Comtean nal sources: Le Play School, Comtean positpositivism, Spencerian evolutionivism, Spencerian evolution, , and orgaand organnism tism theory, in addition to heory, in addition to the liberal approach toward parliamentarism as advocated by J.S. Mill. the liberal approach toward parliamentarism as advocated by J.S. Mill. The common view of these sources is that social events and institutions The common view of these sources is that social events and institutions can becan be understood through scientific methodologiunderstood through scientific methodologies. These thinkers es. These thinkers sought wsought wayays to res to re--eestablstablish the stability that was jeopardized by the ish the stability that was jeopardized by the chaos ignited by the French Revolution, and they were, partially or chaos ignited by the French Revolution, and they were, partially or completely, in favor of the implementation of scientific completely, in favor of the implementation of scientific methods devemethods devel-l-oped in natural sciences or toped in natural sciences or the social sciences. The dirhe social sciences. The direcection of tion of tthe he jojournal was presented in the preface to the first issue, which higurnal was presented in the preface to the first issue, which highhlighted lighted that economic and political eventthat economic and political event are two sides of the same coin and are two sides of the same coin and that countries that do not acthat countries that do not accomplish economic development cannot complish economic development cannot becombecome political powers in the e political powers in the ininternationternational aral arena. The journal also ena. The journal also aimed to address economic and financial matters through coaimed to address economic and financial matters through commparative parative analysis.analysis.260 The preface and the program declared that the journal The preface and the program declared that the journal would defend freewould defend free trade and that it would support the abolitrade and that it would support the abolition of all tion of all sorts of obstasorts of obstaclcles againses against intt international commerce.ernational commerce.261

The articles in the journal, as is detected from their titles as well,

The articles in the journal, as is detected from their titles as well, were divided into two sections: articles on the economy and articles on were divided into two sections: articles on the economy and articles on societysociety. The subjects addressed in the economic a. The subjects addressed in the economic articles were money rticles were money and finand finanance, statece, state debtdebts, trade, agriculture, and the stock market crisis. s, trade, agriculture, and the stock market crisis. Cavid BeyCavid Bey wrote extensively on the debts of the state, trade, and the wrote extensively on the debts of the state, trade, and the stock market crisis. He published “debt agreementsstock market crisis. He published “debt agreements” on the past loans of ” on the past loans of the Ottoman State, the Ottoman State, and additionally, he proviand additionally, he provideded informad information tion about the about the current debts of the state. When it came to commerce, he wrote about current debts of the state. When it came to commerce, he wrote about trading companies. He produced a series of articles on the subject of the trading companies. He produced a series of articles on the subject of the stock market and gastock market and gave detailed information about how stock mave detailed information about how stock market rket operations are defineoperations are defined d and execuand executed.ted.262

260 Doğan and Alkan, Doğan and Alkan, Osmanlı Liberal Düşüncesi, UlûmOsmanlı Liberal Düşüncesi, Ulûm--i İktisâdiye ve İçtimâîye Mecmuası i İktisâdiye ve İçtimâîye Mecmuası 77--8.8.

261 Karaman, "UlûmKaraman, "Ulûm--ı İktisadiye ve İçtimaiye Mecmuası," 67.ı İktisadiye ve İçtimaiye Mecmuası," 67.

262 Toprak, Toprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908--19181918, 92, 92--94.94.

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Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey’s articles underline the fact that a strong financial system ’s articles underline the fact that a strong financial system is rooted in a strong economy. Since countries with advanced economic is rooted in a strong economy. Since countries with advanced economic structures have reliable tax sstructures have reliable tax systems, according to him, it is mandatory ystems, according to him, it is mandatory to collect taxes on time ato collect taxes on time andnd implemenimplement prot progressive methods of taxation. gressive methods of taxation. On the one hand, transportation is portrayed in his articles as one major On the one hand, transportation is portrayed in his articles as one major problem that needed to be solved. He had two articles on railways tiproblem that needed to be solved. He had two articles on railways titled tled Our Public WorksOur Public Works. He argues that the . He argues that the insufficiency of the meansinsufficiency of the means oof f transpotransportatirtation was one of the main reasons why the production level in on was one of the main reasons why the production level in the Ottoman Empire did not surpass the level of subsistence. Railways the Ottoman Empire did not surpass the level of subsistence. Railways were crucial not only for production but alwere crucial not only for production but also for military purposes. Den-so for military purposes. Den-iz Karaman ariz Karaman argues, however, that Cavid gues, however, that Cavid BeBeyy’s artic’s articles wles were about the ere about the Rumeli and SelanikRumeli and Selanik--Manastır Railways in particular. On the other hand, Manastır Railways in particular. On the other hand, during his speech at the Assembly on February 27, 1909, Cavid Beyduring his speech at the Assembly on February 27, 1909, Cavid Bey ob-ob-jects to the constrjects to the construction of the uction of the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway, stating that the ex-, stating that the ex-penditure is way too high and thatpenditure is way too high and that the choice of route was also illthe choice of route was also ill--advised.advised.263 According to Cavid BeyAccording to Cavid Bey, “, “a railway, in fact, is not efficient. a railway, in fact, is not efficient. Each means of transportation should be chosen according to the benefit Each means of transportation should be chosen according to the benefit it will bring to the economy. What is good for one place may not be ben-it will bring to the economy. What is good for one place may not be ben-eficialeficial for anotherfor another. What is beneficial for a period. What is beneficial for a period may not be beneficial may not be beneficial at a later dateat a later date. That is why. That is why when a state decides to make an economic when a state decides to make an economic enterprise, it should thoroughly research the time and placement, the enterprise, it should thoroughly research the time and placement, the general conditions, whethgeneral conditions, whether this projecter this project seems rseems reasoeasonnable or not, and able or not, and whether it would fit its interest or not.whether it would fit its interest or not.””264 Thus, it is possible to state Thus, it is possible to state that Cavid Beythat Cavid Bey may have approved of a matter that is important to him, may have approved of a matter that is important to him, such as the railways, in a certain situation; however, when it comsuch as the railways, in a certain situation; however, when it comes to es to politicalpolitical mattersmatters, Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey tended to make more atended to make more ammbiguous state-biguous state-ments on the same subject.ments on the same subject.

Another significant issue in Cavid Bey

Another significant issue in Cavid Bey’s articles was corporatism. ’s articles was corporatism. According to Cavid BeyAccording to Cavid Bey, “, “trade is the highest form of human activitytrade is the highest form of human activity.” .” The The nineteenthnineteenth centurcentury economy owed y economy owed its succits success to the development ess to the development

263 Karaman, "UlûmKaraman, "Ulûm--ı İktisadiye ve İçtimaiye Mecmuası," 68, 72ı İktisadiye ve İçtimaiye Mecmuası," 68, 72--4.4.

264 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre:I, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre:I, Cilt: 2Cilt: 2, 14 Şubat , 14 Şubat 1324 (27 February 1909), 721324 (27 February 1909), 72--7. 7.

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of co

of corrporatism and joint stock companies. However, in the Ottoman poratism and joint stock companies. However, in the Ottoman Empire, the Muslim community rarely established companies that went Empire, the Muslim community rarely established companies that went beyond mere artisans and craftsmen (beyond mere artisans and craftsmen (esnaflıkesnaflık). In the early ). In the early twentiethtwentieth centurcentury, a propaganday, a propaganda campaigcampaign carried out by the press helped to en-n carried out by the press helped to en-courage Muslims to enter new businesses. Publications such as the courage Muslims to enter new businesses. Publications such as the Is-Is-lamic Perlamic Periiodicalodical had the greatest impact on galvanizing Muslims to go had the greatest impact on galvanizing Muslims to go into businto busiiness. The main motive behind encouraging the Muness. The main motive behind encouraging the Muslim com-slim com-munity munity to open to open Muslim stores and companies had to do with the con-Muslim stores and companies had to do with the con-cept of “ncept of “naational patronage.” However, the main problem for Muslim tional patronage.” However, the main problem for Muslim businessmen was the lack of capital, which meant that their efforts re-businessmen was the lack of capital, which meant that their efforts re-mained limited, and constitutional liberalism mained limited, and constitutional liberalism ended up makingended up making the ricthe rich h richer. This left the Empire facing difficulties in the political sphere. The richer. This left the Empire facing difficulties in the political sphere. The Unionists reaUnionists reallized that they were unable to find solutions to political ized that they were unable to find solutions to political problems witproblems withhout overcoming the accumulation problem. out overcoming the accumulation problem. Certain levels Certain levels of the state were needed to interveof the state were needed to intervene and direct the process of accumu-ne and direct the process of accumu-lation. National structuring required the separation of “national” and lation. National structuring required the separation of “national” and “the other.”“the other.”265 These developments, however, were beyond Cavid BeyThese developments, however, were beyond Cavid Bey’s ’s vvision that he wrision that he wrote about in the JSES during the first years of the Sec-ote about in the JSES during the first years of the Sec-ond Constitond Constituutional Era. tional Era.

In his articles, Cavid Bey

In his articles, Cavid Bey also discussed financial matters. He wrote also discussed financial matters. He wrote that the Second Constitutional Era had eliminated confiscation and that the Second Constitutional Era had eliminated confiscation and drudgery and regulated drudgery and regulated taxation, and thtaxation, and thus, people would be taxed based us, people would be taxed based on their own economic capacity. Amon their own economic capacity. Among the subjects he wrote about ong the subjects he wrote about were parliamentary approval of the budget. Cavid Beywere parliamentary approval of the budget. Cavid Bey also pualso pubblished lished the list of loan agreements that were made, starting from 1885. the list of loan agreements that were made, starting from 1885. Cavid Cavid BeyBey was the only person who cowas the only person who connducted ducted thorough, systematic research thorough, systematic research on economic historon economic history and puy and pubblished this in the Ottoman papers. He made lished this in the Ottoman papers. He made comparative analyses loocomparative analyses lookking at the economic evolution of the tribes ing at the economic evolution of the tribes that built Ancient Greecthat built Ancient Greece, the Roman Empie, the Roman Empire, India, China, and Europe-re, India, China, and Europe-an societies, among others. an societies, among others.

265 Toprak, Toprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908--19181918, 163., 163.

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In a series of articles that continue

In a series of articles that continued for seven issues titled “Ecd for seven issues titled “Ecoonom-nom-ic Incidents and Publications,” Cavid Beyic Incidents and Publications,” Cavid Bey investigates the economic investigates the economic agenda at that time. One of the most importaagenda at that time. One of the most important issues was thent issues was the necessity necessity to reduce the number of civil servants. By opposing the excessive nuto reduce the number of civil servants. By opposing the excessive num-m-ber of civil eber of civil employees, he claimed that it created “hidden unemplomployees, he claimed that it created “hidden unemploy-y-ment” and suggested that people should head for professions involving ment” and suggested that people should head for professions involving economics instead of teconomics instead of the civil service.he civil service. This stance resonated well with This stance resonated well with his liberal approach and the climate of the Second Constitutihis liberal approach and the climate of the Second Constitutional Era.onal Era.266

It may be useful to add one last point on the JSES and its writers,

It may be useful to add one last point on the JSES and its writers, which is underlined by Toprakwhich is underlined by Toprak, , Doğan and Alkan, who analyzed the Doğan and Alkan, who analyzed the jjournal. Most of tournal. Most of the writers of the journal belonged to the Young Turks he writers of the journal belonged to the Young Turks in the opposition who defended liberal ideas; however, they did not act in the opposition who defended liberal ideas; however, they did not act in unison with Prince Sabahaddin and his group, who constituted the in unison with Prince Sabahaddin and his group, who constituted the liberal wiliberal wing of the Young Turks. The focus of Cavid Beyng of the Young Turks. The focus of Cavid Bey’s liberalism was ’s liberalism was on economics, and Prince Sabahaddin’s focus was on sociology. Cavid on economics, and Prince Sabahaddin’s focus was on sociology. Cavid BeyBey’s view of economic individualism was more contemporary than ’s view of economic individualism was more contemporary than Prince Sabahaddin’s view. Although Prince Sabahaddin’s view. Although bothboth perspectivesperspectives refer torefer to different different disciplines, they both bring the idea of individualism in the liberal age disciplines, they both bring the idea of individualism in the liberal age into questiointo question. According to Hilmi Ziya Ülken, the JSES circle opposed n. According to Hilmi Ziya Ülken, the JSES circle opposed adjusting the social sciences to the field of politics. Hence, aadjusting the social sciences to the field of politics. Hence, acccording to cording to Toprak, in the lToprak, in the late ate ninetnineteentheenth century, it was practically impossible to century, it was practically impossible to reach liberalism via reach liberalism via sociology sincesociology since sociology itself was in search of a sociology itself was in search of a remedy for liberalism. For the writers of the JSES, the structures that fit remedy for liberalism. For the writers of the JSES, the structures that fit in best with their understanding of society were in best with their understanding of society were shaped by shaped by the the science science andand required a centralist political structuring.required a centralist political structuring.267

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey published the JSES while he was apublished the JSES while he was a deputydeputy and the miniand the minisster ter of finance. As these periods of his life overlap, of finance. As these periods of his life overlap, hehe utiutillized his articles to ized his articles to promote his work. Bepromote his work. Because of this, his words hadcause of this, his words had more impact than ev-more impact than ev-er. Furthermore, as mentioned throughout this dier. Furthermore, as mentioned throughout this disssertation, the press sertation, the press had a deep impact on Ottoman society. For example, one of the key rea-had a deep impact on Ottoman society. For example, one of the key rea-

266 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, DevrMM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre:I, e:I, Cilt: 2Cilt: 2, 14 Şubat 1324 (27 February 1909), 72, 14 Şubat 1324 (27 February 1909), 72--7.7.

267 Karaman, "UlûmKaraman, "Ulûm--ı İktisadiye ve İçtimaiye Mecmuası," 68, 72ı İktisadiye ve İçtimaiye Mecmuası," 68, 72--8.8. Toprak, Toprak, Türkiye'de Milli Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908İktisat, 1908--19181918, 91, 91--95.95.

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sons why Ahmed Midhat Efendi’s protectionist views were welcomed

sons why Ahmed Midhat Efendi’s protectionist views were welcomed was was that they were published in that they were published in the newspaper. As Othe newspaper. As Otttoman society had toman society had been under pressure from censorship for three debeen under pressure from censorship for three deccades, it was exciting ades, it was exciting to read news and articles on various issues such as the economy. There-to read news and articles on various issues such as the economy. There-fore, the JSES was very important for Cavid Beyfore, the JSES was very important for Cavid Bey aand promoting his nd promoting his views amongviews among the people. the people.

§ 2.5 The “31 March Incident” from Cavid Bey’s PerspectiveThe “31 March Incident” from Cavid Bey’s Perspective

The

The 31 March Incident 31 March Incident holds an important place in Cavid Beyholds an important place in Cavid Bey’s di’s dia-a-ries, although he does not deeply question the incident. In Hüseyin Cries, although he does not deeply question the incident. In Hüseyin Ca-a-hit’s memoirs, this eventhit’s memoirs, this event is elaborated upon in more is elaborated upon in more detail, including detail, including inner monologues and discussions. However, Cavid Beyinner monologues and discussions. However, Cavid Bey’s diaries were ’s diaries were written when his life was in full flow. Since his life was considerably iwritten when his life was in full flow. Since his life was considerably in-n-tense and tumultuous, it was not possible for his diaries to featuretense and tumultuous, it was not possible for his diaries to feature prpro-o-found and detailed argumfound and detailed arguments. But, of course, the question as to ents. But, of course, the question as to wheth-wheth-erer Cavid BeyCavid Bey would discuss such matters in his personal journal would discuss such matters in his personal journal remainsremains..

While domestic politics became an arena of war between the go

While domestic politics became an arena of war between the gov-v-ernment and their opponents just bernment and their opponents just before the 31 Marchefore the 31 March (13 April)(13 April) IncInci-i-ddent, Cent, Cavid Beyavid Bey’s diary, ’s diary, The Constitutional JournalThe Constitutional Journal, begins after the death , begins after the death of his first wife of his first wife Saniye Hanım on March 8, 1909. When Cavid BeySaniye Hanım on March 8, 1909. When Cavid Bey re-re-ceived a telegraph regarding his wife’s critical condition, he left Istaceived a telegraph regarding his wife’s critical condition, he left Istannbul bul for Selanik. Upon his arrival, he learnt that he had lost his wife. Rıza for Selanik. Upon his arrival, he learnt that he had lost his wife. Rıza Tevfik also went to Selanik for the funeral. Hüseyin CahitTevfik also went to Selanik for the funeral. Hüseyin Cahit offered to aoffered to ac-c-company him, but Cavid Beycompany him, but Cavid Bey——suspicious of the genuineness of the osuspicious of the genuineness of the of-f-ferfer——turned him down. In comparison with the pages filled with his turned him down. In comparison with the pages filled with his work life, these first pages of the journal are rather emotional. He did work life, these first pages of the journal are rather emotional. He did not hide the tears he shed for his winot hide the tears he shed for his wife and the pain he felt for not being fe and the pain he felt for not being with his wife during her last moments. After a couple of days dealing with his wife during her last moments. After a couple of days dealing with the funeral, Cavid Beywith the funeral, Cavid Bey returned to Istanbul on March 15, 1909.returned to Istanbul on March 15, 1909.268

268 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 20.20.

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He visited his friends Mutrans and Cassel and returned to his daily life.

He visited his friends Mutrans and Cassel and returned to his daily life. Upon Upon his return to Istanbul, he also met Adam Blochis return to Istanbul, he also met Adam Blockk, the President of , the President of the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, in his house, and they read the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, in his house, and they read and accepted the constitutional text for the foundation of the bank.and accepted the constitutional text for the foundation of the bank.

The 31 March Incident, like other social movements, di

The 31 March Incident, like other social movements, did not emerge d not emerge suddenly. As of February 1909, the opposition raises its voice more rsuddenly. As of February 1909, the opposition raises its voice more ro-o-bust than ever. The upheavals started to take part in political life.bust than ever. The upheavals started to take part in political life. FeFebbru-ru-ary 6, 1909 marks the establishment of ary 6, 1909 marks the establishment of İttihadİttihad--ı Muhammedi Cemı Muhammedi Cemiiyetiyeti, , which was supported by the which was supported by the Volkan Volkan paper run by Derviş Vahdeti.paper run by Derviş Vahdeti.269 As As mentioned above, after the proclamation of the constitution, the press mentioned above, after the proclamation of the constitution, the press flourished, especially after the censorship of the Hamidian rflourished, especially after the censorship of the Hamidian reegime, gime, which had lasted forwhich had lasted for 32 years. Dozens of papers and periodicals on var-32 years. Dozens of papers and periodicals on var-ious issues were spontaneously opened after July 24, 1908. The CUP ious issues were spontaneously opened after July 24, 1908. The CUP had two papers reflecting its stance: had two papers reflecting its stance: ŞuraŞura--yı Ummetyı Ummet and and TaninTanin, , a daily a daily published by Hüseyin Cahipublished by Hüseyin Cahitt. The CUP’s opponents had their own papers. The CUP’s opponents had their own papers, , including including İkdamİkdam,,whose editor was Ali Kemal, whose editor was Ali Kemal, Yeni GazeteYeni Gazete, , SeSerrbestîbestî, , Os-Os-manlımanlı, and , and Volkan. Volkan. International papers such as International papers such as The Levant HeThe Levant Herraldald, , East-East-ern Expressern Express,, and and L’Indépendance BelgeL’Indépendance Belge also reflected the voice of the op-also reflected the voice of the op-position, which consisted of the members oposition, which consisted of the members of the f the Ottoman LiOttoman Libberaleral Party Party led by Kamil Pasha and Prince Sabahaddin. In general, the opposition led by Kamil Pasha and Prince Sabahaddin. In general, the opposition favored a return to the monarchist regime, or at least did not want to favored a return to the monarchist regime, or at least did not want to maintain the representative, centralist, parliamentary system of the Un-maintain the representative, centralist, parliamentary system of the Un-ionist regime. Whionist regime. While tensions heightened between the two groups, more ile tensions heightened between the two groups, more actors got involved, including Dr. actors got involved, including Dr. Rıza Nur, who published in Rıza Nur, who published in İkdamİkdam,, or or Şerif Pasha, former Stockholm ambassador, who both joined the side of Şerif Pasha, former Stockholm ambassador, who both joined the side of the opposition. These publications began levy direct attacks against the the opposition. These publications began levy direct attacks against the government, against Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, and Agovernment, against Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, and Ahhmed Rıza, the presi-med Rıza, the presi-dent of thdent of the parliament. They accused the CUP of ie parliament. They accused the CUP of inntervening in govern-tervening in govern-ment policies. It was clear that tensions in domestic politics were rapid-ment policies. It was clear that tensions in domestic politics were rapid-ly rising. ly rising.

269 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmesMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesii, I, I, 115., 115.

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On March 29, a troop of palace guardsmen

On March 29, a troop of palace guardsmen——primarily Arabs and Al-primarily Arabs and Al-baniansbanians——were moved and replaced to Taşkışla. On Awere moved and replaced to Taşkışla. On April 5, the gopril 5, the govvern-ern-ment issued the ment issued the decree decree that reassigned these troops outside of Ithat reassigned these troops outside of Isstanbul. tanbul. However, the final straw before the 31 March Incident was the murder However, the final straw before the 31 March Incident was the murder of Hasan Fehmi, editor in chief ofof Hasan Fehmi, editor in chief of SerbestîSerbestî daily, on April 6. Adaily, on April 6. Allthough the though the CUP immediately declCUP immediately declared that it was a political assassinared that it was a political assassinaation, the op-tion, the op-position pointed to the CUP as the guilty party.position pointed to the CUP as the guilty party.270 However, Cavid BeyHowever, Cavid Bey did not accept that the CUP was responsible for the assassdid not accept that the CUP was responsible for the assassiination and nation and claimed that it was a smear campaign. Cavid Beyclaimed that it was a smear campaign. Cavid Bey mentioned the eventmentioned the events s following the assassination of Hasan Fehmi on Galata Bridge before the following the assassination of Hasan Fehmi on Galata Bridge before the 31 March Incident in his diary31 March Incident in his diary. According to Cavid Bey. According to Cavid Bey, O, Otttoman Liberal toman Liberal PartyParty--supportedsupported newspapers placed the blame on the CUP and newspapers placed the blame on the CUP and mourned Hasan Fehmi. Cavid Beymourned Hasan Fehmi. Cavid Bey writes in his diary, writes in his diary, ““They are in They are in mourning, but for whom?” Another problem arose after Ali Kemal, who mourning, but for whom?” Another problem arose after Ali Kemal, who taught at taught at MülkiyeMülkiye, , went to the university following this incident and, in went to the university following this incident and, in a panic, told his students that the Unionists were going to kill every op-a panic, told his students that the Unionists were going to kill every op-ponent, himself included. Heponent, himself included. He and his students went to protest in front of and his students went to protest in front of the Sublime Porte and the Ottoman Parliament building. Cavid Beythe Sublime Porte and the Ottoman Parliament building. Cavid Bey, who , who became angry upon hearing about this protest, then resigned became angry upon hearing about this protest, then resigned from from Mül-Mül-kiyekiye..271 This was one among many events that revealed Cavid BeyThis was one among many events that revealed Cavid Bey’s ’s stubbornstubborn character and the cocharacter and the connsistency in his stance. He continued his sistency in his stance. He continued his lessons only after Ali Kemal rlessons only after Ali Kemal reesigned, and only with the thirdsigned, and only with the third--year stu-year stu-dents that had not participated in the protests.dents that had not participated in the protests.272

The 31 March Inciden

The 31 March Incident was ignited by the articles published in t was ignited by the articles published in VoVollkan dkan daaiily ly (by Derviş Vahdeti) and the activities of the (by Derviş Vahdeti) and the activities of the IttihadIttihad--ı Mu-ı Mu-hammedî Fırkasıhammedî Fırkası. On the night of April 12/13, 1909, low. On the night of April 12/13, 1909, low--ranking soranking sol-l-diers of the Fourth Hunter Battalion in Taşkışla began the insurgency by diers of the Fourth Hunter Battalion in Taşkışla began the insurgency by holding their officers at gunpoint and then moving toholding their officers at gunpoint and then moving to SSultanahmet and ultanahmet and the parliament building. According to Sina Akşin, there were athe parliament building. According to Sina Akşin, there were appproxi-proxi-

270 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 47, 47--73.73.

271 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 24 24 -- 30.30.

272 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 30, 30--44.44.

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mately 3,000 rioters in the morning

mately 3,000 rioters in the morning273 who were shouting “We want who were shouting “We want Sharia!” The rioters’ demands, transmitted by the soldiers to the MPs in Sharia!” The rioters’ demands, transmitted by the soldiers to the MPs in the parliament, were as follows; ithe parliament, were as follows; immpplementation of Sharia law; dismis-lementation of Sharia law; dismis-sal of some members of the cabinet, including Muhtar Pasha, command-sal of some members of the cabinet, including Muhtar Pasha, command-er of the Hassa Army; Cevat Pasha, commander of the 2er of the Hassa Army; Cevat Pasha, commander of the 2ndnd Army; Esat Army; Esat Bey, commander of the Taşkışla; and Ahmet Rıza, president of the Bey, commander of the Taşkışla; and Ahmet Rıza, president of the Chamber of Deputies; fChamber of Deputies; fuulll immunity for the rioters. These dl immunity for the rioters. These deemands mands were to be met as of 1:45 pm that day. The events unfolded into turmoil were to be met as of 1:45 pm that day. The events unfolded into turmoil and violence on the streets of Istanbul. Nazım Pasha, the Miniand violence on the streets of Istanbul. Nazım Pasha, the Minisster of Jus-ter of Jus-tice, and Mehmed Arslan Bey, MP for Lazkiye, were murdered in fronttice, and Mehmed Arslan Bey, MP for Lazkiye, were murdered in front oof f the parliament. Arslan Bey was killed because the soldiers thought that the parliament. Arslan Bey was killed because the soldiers thought that he was Hüseyin Cahit Bey, whom the rioters targeted bhe was Hüseyin Cahit Bey, whom the rioters targeted beecause he fa-cause he fa-vored the Unionists and secular way of thinking.vored the Unionists and secular way of thinking.274 The cabThe cabiinet of net of Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha resigned, and, as a temporary Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha resigned, and, as a temporary ccoouncil, Tevfik Pasha uncil, Tevfik Pasha became the new grand vizier and formed a cabinet on April 14, 1909. In became the new grand vizier and formed a cabinet on April 14, 1909. In an imperial decree, Abdülhamid II warned that the Sharia authority an imperial decree, Abdülhamid II warned that the Sharia authority should be taken more seriously.should be taken more seriously.275

After the outbreak of the

After the outbreak of the 31 March Incident,31 March Incident, Cavid BeyCavid Bey hid in thid in thhee ar-ar-ea around Istiklal Street at the houses of his friends Mutrans and Mr. ea around Istiklal Street at the houses of his friends Mutrans and Mr. Buton. Buton. He communicated with his close friend Hüseyin Cahit Bey, who He communicated with his close friend Hüseyin Cahit Bey, who was the target of the opponents who was the target of the opponents who constituted an extended front with constituted an extended front with various interest groups.various interest groups. As stated above, As stated above, the 31 March Incident was not the 31 March Incident was not mmeenntioned in detail in Cavid Beytioned in detail in Cavid Bey's journals. Although the incident was 's journals. Although the incident was chronicled in his dichronicled in his diaaries, Cavid Beyries, Cavid Bey did not examine the reasons behind did not examine the reasons behind it. Therefore, in ait. Therefore, in adddition to Cavid Beydition to Cavid Bey's journals, it becomes necessary 's journals, it becomes necessary to includeto include details from the memoirs of Hüdetails from the memoirs of Hüsseeyin Cahit, with whom Cavid yin Cahit, with whom Cavid BeyBey left Istanbul following the uproar. Hüseyin Cahit found out about left Istanbul following the uproar. Hüseyin Cahit found out about 273 Sina Akşin Sina Akşin 31 Mart Olayı 31 Mart Olayı (Istanbul: Sinan, 1972)(Istanbul: Sinan, 1972); ; 5353––54; and Erik Jan Zürcher, "1909 54; and Erik Jan Zürcher, "1909 Istanbul’unda Köktenci bir Ayaklanma mı? Hollanda Büyükelçilik Raporlarında 31 Istanbul’unda Köktenci bir Ayaklanma mı? Hollanda Büyükelçilik Raporlarında 31 Mart," in SMart," in Savaş, Devrim Ve Uluslaşma: Türkiye Tarihinde Geçiş Dönemi (1908avaş, Devrim Ve Uluslaşma: Türkiye Tarihinde Geçiş Dönemi (1908--11928),928), ed. ed. Erik Jan Zürcher (Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2005), 103Erik Jan Zürcher (Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2005), 103--20.20.

274 Akşin, Akşin, 31 Mart Olayı,31 Mart Olayı, 71, 72, 75, and 83.71, 72, 75, and 83.

275 Tunaya, İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi, 3, Tunaya, İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi, 3, 492.492.

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the incident when he came across his friends Süleyman Fehmi and

the incident when he came across his friends Süleyman Fehmi and Hakkı Behiç on his way to Hakkı Behiç on his way to TaninTanin. In search of a vehicle, a man. In search of a vehicle, a man on the on the street told him, “Go hostreet told him, “Go hommee! You should be lucky that no one knows you ! You should be lucky that no one knows you around here.” Cahit Bey foaround here.” Cahit Bey folllowed this man’s warning. Sultanahmet and lowed this man’s warning. Sultanahmet and the area around Ayasofya were quite crowded. As fanatics and soldiers the area around Ayasofya were quite crowded. As fanatics and soldiers shouted,shouted, “We want Sharia,” it was becomi“We want Sharia,” it was becominng obvious that this was an g obvious that this was an upriuprissiing against the governg against the governnment and the CUP. It was an insurgency ment and the CUP. It was an insurgency against the constitutional ragainst the constitutional reegime. In retrospect, Hüseyin Cahit Bey gime. In retrospect, Hüseyin Cahit Bey thought about how they had laughed at the superstition in the provinc-thought about how they had laughed at the superstition in the provinc-es that freedom is “the ies that freedom is “the innffiidel's invention” and about thdel's invention” and about thee tension that tension that had been growing in Istahad been growing in Istannbul, which had finally exploded in an uproar. bul, which had finally exploded in an uproar. Cavid BeyCavid Bey arrived at Hüseyin Cahit Bey’s house when he was taking arrived at Hüseyin Cahit Bey’s house when he was taking stock of the incidents with Süleyman Fehmi and Hakkı Behiç. Cavid Beystock of the incidents with Süleyman Fehmi and Hakkı Behiç. Cavid Bey rereccounted that Celal Bey had come ounted that Celal Bey had come ttoo him early in the morning and told him early in the morning and told him what was hahim what was happpening. Cavid Beypening. Cavid Bey also confirmed the presence of Ot-also confirmed the presence of Ot-toman troops who had become involved in the upheaval. After a while, toman troops who had become involved in the upheaval. After a while, Cavid BeyCavid Bey told them, “Let's go to the parliament, ttold them, “Let's go to the parliament, thhis is where our duty is is where our duty lies.” lies.” HüsHüseeyyinin Cahit disagreed, since he knew he would be the first one Cahit disagreed, since he knew he would be the first one who would be in trouble in case things slid further into chaos. The par-who would be in trouble in case things slid further into chaos. The par-liament was to convene in the afternoon, and Cavid Beyliament was to convene in the afternoon, and Cavid Bey told them that told them that he would meet them thhe would meet them theere. re.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey and Hüseyin Cahiand Hüseyin Cahitt Bey then went to the house of their Bey then went to the house of their friends, the Matran family, who were living in the Saint Antoine Aparfriends, the Matran family, who were living in the Saint Antoine Apart-t-ment in Beyoğlu. Their house was a popular place amongst politicians ment in Beyoğlu. Their house was a popular place amongst politicians and journalists from different countries. When and journalists from different countries. When tthey arrived there, Vihey arrived there, Viccto-to-ria Matria Matrraan, who was the central figure among the political activities of n, who was the central figure among the political activities of the Matran family, welcomed them. They stathe Matran family, welcomed them. They stayed in a room at the back of yed in a room at the back of the apartment while they heard people on the street talking about muthe apartment while they heard people on the street talking about mur-r-dering Hüseyin Cahdering Hüseyin Cahiit Bey. However, because it was t Bey. However, because it was ssttill early in the day, ill early in the day, they were not able to get any concrete information at that time. Cavid they were not able to get any concrete information at that time. Cavid BeyBey and Hüseyand Hüseyin Cahit then went to the in Cahit then went to the La TurquieLa Turquie newspaper. The newspaper. The newspaper columnist Léon read them the news that they had receivnewspaper columnist Léon read them the news that they had receiveed: d: soldiers and hodjas had unitsoldiers and hodjas had uniteedd under the slogan “We want Sharia!” and under the slogan “We want Sharia!” and were calling for the people to join them. They gathered in the parwere calling for the people to join them. They gathered in the parlilia-a-

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ment square, occupied every corner, and unfurled their flags. Among

ment square, occupied every corner, and unfurled their flags. Among these developments, they heard that these developments, they heard that TaninTanin hadhad been attacked and loot-been attacked and loot-ed. Hüseyed. Hüseyiinn Cahit was shocked by the immediate disappearance of the Cahit was shocked by the immediate disappearance of the government forces and still believed that these igovernment forces and still believed that these incidents would be ncidents would be brought under control through precautionary measures.brought under control through precautionary measures.

Léon, Cavid Bey

Léon, Cavid Bey, and Hüseyin Cahit left the , and Hüseyin Cahit left the nnewspaper offices, as no ewspaper offices, as no updatesupdates sseemed to be arriving. In front of the Matran family’s house, eemed to be arriving. In front of the Matran family’s house, Cavid BeyCavid Bey left Hüseyin Cahit, because he ran left Hüseyin Cahit, because he ran into an acquaintance. At into an acquaintance. At the Matran residence, Hüseyin Cahit met with Mehmed Arslan, who was the Matran residence, Hüseyin Cahit met with Mehmed Arslan, who was feeling anxious and wanfeeling anxious and wantted to go to the parliament builed to go to the parliament builddiing. Although ng. Although they attempted to convince him not to go, he went and was killed that they attempted to convince him not to go, he went and was killed that day after having been mday after having been mistaken for Hüseyin Cahit. At the Matran resistaken for Hüseyin Cahit. At the Matran resi-i-dence, Hüseyin Cahit heard that Mehmed Arslan had died. That evening, dence, Hüseyin Cahit heard that Mehmed Arslan had died. That evening, CCaavid Beyvid Bey met him there to try tomet him there to try to ffigure out what to do. It became aigure out what to do. It became ap-p-parent that neither the government nor the army in Istanbul were parent that neither the government nor the army in Istanbul were strong strong or decisive enough to suppress the insurgency. Tensions regaror decisive enough to suppress the insurgency. Tensions regard-d-ing the incident were escalating and spreading throughing the incident were escalating and spreading throughoout the city. ut the city. Cavid BeyCavid Bey offered offered ttoo go to the Austrian Embassy with the help of Mr. De go to the Austrian Embassy with the help of Mr. De Witt, a journalist from Witt, a journalist from Frankfurter ZeitungFrankfurter Zeitung. Mr. Weitz. Mr. Weitz came to the came to the MMaatran residence to ask the Austriatran residence to ask the Austria--Hungarian ambassador to help Hungarian ambassador to help Cavid BeyCavid Bey and Hüseyin Cahit Bey escapeand Hüseyin Cahit Bey escape from Istanbul. However, the from Istanbul. However, the ambambaasssador refused. After that, Hüseyin Cahit Bey wanted to try his sador refused. After that, Hüseyin Cahit Bey wanted to try his hand at the Russian Embassy. hand at the Russian Embassy. Tanin Tanin had recehad recently defended the Turkishntly defended the Turkish--Russian relationship, including the question of the Straits, which will be Russian relationship, including the question of the Straits, which will be aadddressed laterdressed later in this dissertation. His plan in this dissertation. His plan wwaas to go there immediate-s to go there immediate-ly and ask for asylum; however, Cavid Beyly and ask for asylum; however, Cavid Bey was opposed to going to the was opposed to going to the Russian EmbasRussian Embassy. Cavid Beysy. Cavid Bey then decided to go to the house of a frethen decided to go to the house of a free-e-mason friend.mason friend.

While Hüseyin Cahit Bey went to the Russian Emb

While Hüseyin Cahit Bey went to the Russian Embaassy and was wessy and was wel-l-comed by Mr. Mancomed by Mr. Manddeelstam, the dragoman of the embassy,lstam, the dragoman of the embassy,276 Cavid BeyCavid Bey stayed at the house of Mr. Buton, a masonic friend from Selstayed at the house of Mr. Buton, a masonic friend from Selanik. anik.

276 Yalçın, Yalçın, Siyasal AnılarSiyasal Anılar, 71, 71--118.118.

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Throughout the night, he

Throughout the night, he heardheard gunshots from the streets and thought gunshots from the streets and thought that the army from Edirne hadthat the army from Edirne had entered theentered the city and that thercity and that theree had been had been an armed conflict. In the morning, when he read the newspapers, he re-an armed conflict. In the morning, when he read the newspapers, he re-alized he had been wrong. Rualized he had been wrong. Rumors had beenmors had been circulacirculatting that Cavid Beying that Cavid Bey and Hüseyin Cahit Bey had been seen in Şişli and that they had then dis-and Hüseyin Cahit Bey had been seen in Şişli and that they had then dis-appeaappeared. He was able to get word frred. He was able to get word froomm his friends Talat Bey and Rahmi his friends Talat Bey and Rahmi Bey. He received a letter from Hüseyin Cahit meBey. He received a letter from Hüseyin Cahit menntioning his wish to tioning his wish to leave Istanbul as soon as pleave Istanbul as soon as possible; however, ossible; however, Cavid BeyCavid Bey wanted to stay in wanted to stay in the city a bit longer. On April 15, he received a second letter saying that the city a bit longer. On April 15, he received a second letter saying that a ship would set sail two days later and that Cavid Beya ship would set sail two days later and that Cavid Bey should join him. should join him. Though he was not willing to leave, he could not turn down hiThough he was not willing to leave, he could not turn down his friend’s s friend’s offer aoffer and decided to flee Istanbul with Hüseyin Cahit. The same evening, nd decided to flee Istanbul with Hüseyin Cahit. The same evening, he left for the Russian embassy in disguise. They heard from Mr. Man-he left for the Russian embassy in disguise. They heard from Mr. Man-delstam that the army in Selanik was ready to move toward Istanbul. delstam that the army in Selanik was ready to move toward Istanbul. This brought them some relief, and tThis brought them some relief, and they decided to go hey decided to go to Selanik. On to Selanik. On April 17, 1909, they embarked on a ship called April 17, 1909, they embarked on a ship called The Queen OlgaThe Queen Olga to Odes-to Odes-sa. They met and spoke to people on the ship, who Cavid Beysa. They met and spoke to people on the ship, who Cavid Bey depicted depicted as “supporters of the Committee and against the Liberal Party.” Accord-as “supporters of the Committee and against the Liberal Party.” Accord-ing to him, eveing to him, even this small obsern this small observation indicated that the Liberal Party vation indicated that the Liberal Party was involved in the incident.was involved in the incident.277

Hüseyin Cahit's observations about Cavid Bey

Hüseyin Cahit's observations about Cavid Bey are compatible with are compatible with the impressions obtained from his journals, although Cavid Beythe impressions obtained from his journals, although Cavid Bey seemed seemed to be much more hopeful. Hüseyinto be much more hopeful. Hüseyin Cahit narrates hiCahit narrates his memory of the s memory of the morning when they made their move. morning when they made their move.

He notes notes tto his memoir thato his memoir that, “Cavid was innately an optimist. He , “Cavid was innately an optimist. He seemed upset in the morning as he was getting prepared. I seemed upset in the morning as he was getting prepared. I asked:asked:

What is it?

I don't have my comb with me.

Oh, where is the hair you're going to comb with that?”

277 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 3737--39.39.

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They arrived in Odessa at midday on April 18, 1909. Although there was

They arrived in Odessa at midday on April 18, 1909. Although there was no news in Odessa, the city impressed them with its architecture and no news in Odessa, the city impressed them with its architecture and the wide layout of the city. After touring the city, they were off to Lethe wide layout of the city. After touring the city, they were off to Lem-m-beberrg in the evening.g in the evening. Cavid BeyCavid Bey explained that Lemberg was a typical explained that Lemberg was a typical Austrian city but that it was much neater and cleaner than even the best Austrian city but that it was much neater and cleaner than even the best Ottoman cities. Then, they proceeded to Budapest. However, they were Ottoman cities. Then, they proceeded to Budapest. However, they were still not able to get word from Istanbul. On Aprstill not able to get word from Istanbul. On Apriil 21, 1909 they al 21, 1909 they arrived rrived in a place called as Zıpçaka, where the local officers and bureaucrats in a place called as Zıpçaka, where the local officers and bureaucrats recognized and welcomed them. Cavid Beyrecognized and welcomed them. Cavid Bey then gave a speech to the then gave a speech to the people. They had heard that the Action Army had moved on and that people. They had heard that the Action Army had moved on and that Istanbul was immersed in chaIstanbul was immersed in chaoos. They then tooks. They then took the train to Üsküp and the train to Üsküp and went on directly to Selanik. went on directly to Selanik.

During this period, the Action Army

During this period, the Action Army——named by Mustafa Kemal Ata-named by Mustafa Kemal Ata-türk, who was chief of staff for Hüseyin Hüsnü Pashatürk, who was chief of staff for Hüseyin Hüsnü Pasha——moved tmoved tooward ward Istanbul and entered the city. Meanwhile, the Istanbul and entered the city. Meanwhile, the deputiesdeputies ofof the CUP, in-the CUP, in-cludicluding Talat Pasha, Rahmi Bey, Ahmet Rıza, and the members of the ng Talat Pasha, Rahmi Bey, Ahmet Rıza, and the members of the Senate such as Sait Pasha, met in Ayastefanos (Yeşilköy) and held a Senate such as Sait Pasha, met in Ayastefanos (Yeşilköy) and held a “General Assembly” on April 22, 1909.“General Assembly” on April 22, 1909.278

When Cavid Bey

When Cavid Bey and Hüseyin Cahit arrived in Selanik, they went to and Hüseyin Cahit arrived in Selanik, they went to meetmeet friends at the Cfriends at the CUP Club, where Cavid BeyUP Club, where Cavid Bey gave a speech. According gave a speech. According to his diaries, he liked to give speeches and felt honored when he was to his diaries, he liked to give speeches and felt honored when he was asked to do so.asked to do so.279 According to Hüseyin Cahit Bey, Cavid BeyAccording to Hüseyin Cahit Bey, Cavid Bey was quite was quite busy delivering speeches; he added that Cavid Beybusy delivering speeches; he added that Cavid Bey was never like twas never like that hat before.before.280 Selanik was Cavid BeySelanik was Cavid Bey’s hometown, which meant that both ’s hometown, which meant that both companions felt relaxed, and Cavid Beycompanions felt relaxed, and Cavid Bey in particular was pleased to be in particular was pleased to be at home. Part of this can be explained by the fact that the political and at home. Part of this can be explained by the fact that the political and social climate differed dsocial climate differed drastically from trastically from that of Istanbul, even after the hat of Istanbul, even after the 1908 Reform.1908 Reform.281 That night, Cavid BeyThat night, Cavid Bey and Hüseyin Cahit stayed in Sand Hüseyin Cahit stayed in Se-e-

278 Akşin, 3Akşin, 31 Mart Olayı,1 Mart Olayı, 253; Erik253; Erik Jan Zürcher, Jan Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History Turkey: A Modern History (London; New (London; New York: Tauris, 2004), 95York: Tauris, 2004), 95--99.99.

279 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 39, 39--41.41.

280 Yalçın, Yalçın, Siyasal AnılarSiyasal Anılar, 111, 111--12.12.

281 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuMeşrutiyet Ruzznâmesi Inâmesi I, 71, 71--118. 118.

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lanik. Hüseyin Cahit suggested that they follow the Action Army. But one

lanik. Hüseyin Cahit suggested that they follow the Action Army. But one of Cavid Beyof Cavid Bey’s friends in Selanik told him that the army did not wan’s friends in Selanik told him that the army did not want ci-t ci-vilians to bevilians to be mixed in their ranks.mixed in their ranks.282

On April 24, 1909, following a telegraph from Talat Pasha after the

On April 24, 1909, following a telegraph from Talat Pasha after the Action Army entered the city, they departed for Istanbul. On April 27, Action Army entered the city, they departed for Istanbul. On April 27, 1909, Hüseyin Cahit Bey and Cavid Bey1909, Hüseyin Cahit Bey and Cavid Bey entered the parliament as soon entered the parliament as soon as theyas they reached the cityreached the city, and they voted to depose Abdülhamid II., and they voted to depose Abdülhamid II.283 They first went to the parliament, where the Assembly was gathered, They first went to the parliament, where the Assembly was gathered, before moving on to the Ministry of War. Along the way, they were before moving on to the Ministry of War. Along the way, they were cheered on by the people.cheered on by the people.284 Sultan Mehmed V swore an oath to beSultan Mehmed V swore an oath to become come sultan at thsultan at the age of 65 and remained on the throne for nine years. With e age of 65 and remained on the throne for nine years. With the exception of the opposition period of the Committee between Au-the exception of the opposition period of the Committee between Au-gust 1912 and January 1913, the new sultan maintained good relgust 1912 and January 1913, the new sultan maintained good relaations tions with the Unionists. According to Tunaya, thewith the Unionists. According to Tunaya, the Unionists had quUnionists had quickly ickly formed an understanding with him. The new sultan’s main fear was the formed an understanding with him. The new sultan’s main fear was the declaration of a Republic. He lacked talent in politics and governance declaration of a Republic. He lacked talent in politics and governance due to his closeddue to his closed--off palace life during the Hamidian Era.off palace life during the Hamidian Era.285 We should We should notnotee that during his tethat during his tennure in politics,ure in politics, Cavid BeyCavid Bey never abused his posnever abused his posi-i-tion or disobeyed the code of conduct and always paid a visit to the sution or disobeyed the code of conduct and always paid a visit to the sul-l-tan. As stated by tan. As stated by Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil, who the CUP had appointed as Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil, who the CUP had appointed as Chief Secretary to the palace after the 31 March Incident to monitChief Secretary to the palace after the 31 March Incident to monitoor the r the sultan’s routine, Cavid Beysultan’s routine, Cavid Bey always visited when necessary, or by invitalways visited when necessary, or by invita-a-tion.tion.286

282 “So the two friends found themselves in Masonic lodges, since they could not go to “So the two friends found themselves in Masonic lodges, since they could not go to Istanbul. The idea comes from Cavid Bey: "As we are here, will you become a Mason?" Istanbul. The idea comes from Cavid Bey: "As we are here, will you become a Mason?" When Hüseyin Cahit replied that he did not like secret societies,When Hüseyin Cahit replied that he did not like secret societies, Cavid Bey talked Cavid Bey talked about the free and humanist ideals of the Masonry. Hüseyin Cahit agreed as well that about the free and humanist ideals of the Masonry. Hüseyin Cahit agreed as well that the ones who paved the way to the constitutional era had been involved in Masonry.”the ones who paved the way to the constitutional era had been involved in Masonry.”

Yalçın, Yalçın, Siyasal AnılarSiyasal Anılar, 115., 115.

283 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 3535--43.43.

284 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 43.43.

285 Tunaya, Tunaya, İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi, 3İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi, 3, 195, 195--96.96.

286 Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil Saray ve Ötesi: Anılar, Saray ve Ötesi: Anılar, (Istanbul: Özgür, 2003), 282.(Istanbul: Özgür, 2003), 282.

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The 31 March Incident was a critical turning point inThe 31 March Incident was a critical turning point in the Second the Second Constitutional Era for both the members of the CUP and the founders of Constitutional Era for both the members of the CUP and the founders of the Republic.the Republic. Two very close friends, Cavid BeyTwo very close friends, Cavid Bey and Hüseyin Cahit, were and Hüseyin Cahit, were forced to flee Istanbul in fear of their lives. Istanbul was rocked by forced to flee Istanbul in fear of their lives. Istanbul was rocked by clashes and armed conflict foclashes and armed conflict forr ten days. The opponents of the CUP ten days. The opponents of the CUP thought that they could overcome the Committee and divide it due to thought that they could overcome the Committee and divide it due to their loose party discipline. Opponents of the government from various their loose party discipline. Opponents of the government from various groupsgroups——e.g., lowe.g., low--ranking soldiers, the ranking soldiers, the ulemaulema, and students of religious , and students of religious schools,schools, along with the Ottoman Liberal Partyalong with the Ottoman Liberal Party——had united under the had united under the same cause: to weaken the domination and power of the CUP in politics. same cause: to weaken the domination and power of the CUP in politics. The insurgents had a fundamentalist motive and were also committed The insurgents had a fundamentalist motive and were also committed to the constitution. They also opposed the supremacy of eduto the constitution. They also opposed the supremacy of educcation (paation (par-r-ticularly those in the army), cosmopolitanism, and masonry, in addition ticularly those in the army), cosmopolitanism, and masonry, in addition to the idea of freedom, as well as the liberalization of women’s daily to the idea of freedom, as well as the liberalization of women’s daily lives. The Unionists had seen the power of the opposition with their lives. The Unionists had seen the power of the opposition with their own eyes, in addition to the leanown eyes, in addition to the leaniings of the political actors, army, and ngs of the political actors, army, and society. Though the Liberal Party was abolished after the events of the society. Though the Liberal Party was abolished after the events of the 31 March Incident, its supporters remained in Istanbul.31 March Incident, its supporters remained in Istanbul.287

The 31 March Incident was overcome through the intervention of

The 31 March Incident was overcome through the intervention of the army, namely the Actthe army, namely the Actiion Army headed by on Army headed by Mahmut Şevket Pasha Mahmut Şevket Pasha himself. However, this also impacted politics in the following period, as himself. However, this also impacted politics in the following period, as Mahmut Şevket Pasha maintained a strong influence in politics, incluMahmut Şevket Pasha maintained a strong influence in politics, includ-d-ing announcing a state of emergency that would last until March 1911 ing announcing a state of emergency that would last until March 1911 and interfering in civiland interfering in civilian politics. The leading members of the CUP ian politics. The leading members of the CUP quickly became anxious about his actions and his attempts to manipquickly became anxious about his actions and his attempts to manipu-u-late the power of the Committee.late the power of the Committee.288 Cavid BeyCavid Bey would also would also get into get into con-con-flict with Mahmut Şevket Pasha over the issues of the budget, in particu-flict with Mahmut Şevket Pasha over the issues of the budget, in particu-lar wlar with regarith regard to the issue of checks and balances. d to the issue of checks and balances.

When Cavid Bey

When Cavid Bey returned to Istanbul following these incidents, Tevf-returned to Istanbul following these incidents, Tevf-ik Pasha had established a new cabinet. He offered the Ministry of Jus-ik Pasha had established a new cabinet. He offered the Ministry of Jus-tice to Sabri Bey and Ministry of Finance to Cavid Beytice to Sabri Bey and Ministry of Finance to Cavid Bey; however, ; however, bothboth

287 Ahmad, Ahmad, Ittihat ve Terakki,1908Ittihat ve Terakki,1908--1914 (Jön Türkler)1914 (Jön Türkler), 82., 82.

288 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 48.48.

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refused these assignments. As Akşin states, they must have known that efused these assignments. As Akşin states, they must have known that the cabinet would be shortthe cabinet would be short--lived.lived.289

Tevfik Pasha’s stint as grand vizier lasted only 21 days. He was r

Tevfik Pasha’s stint as grand vizier lasted only 21 days. He was re-e-placed by Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, who replaced by Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, who re--established his government on established his government on May 5, 1May 5, 1909. Afte909. After the 31 March Incident, the Committee firmly br the 31 March Incident, the Committee firmly beelieved lieved that they needed to strengthen their executive power. Their gethat they needed to strengthen their executive power. Their genneral feel-eral feel-ing was that if they were not directly involved, things would not im-ing was that if they were not directly involved, things would not im-prove. Their intention was to place Unionist MPs as prove. Their intention was to place Unionist MPs as undersecrundersecretaries etaries within the ministries. They thought that they would be able to gain ewithin the ministries. They thought that they would be able to gain ex-x-perience in state affairs without running counter to traditions. This perience in state affairs without running counter to traditions. This strategy had not been implemented before, and for that reason, most strategy had not been implemented before, and for that reason, most cabinet members, including cabinet members, including MahmMahmut Şevketut Şevket Pasha,Pasha,290 opposed the idea. opposed the idea. Cavid BeyCavid Bey supported the idea that older statesmen, such as Talat, Nazım, supported the idea that older statesmen, such as Talat, Nazım, and Rahmi, should become undersecretaries. During these days, Cavid and Rahmi, should become undersecretaries. During these days, Cavid BeyBey returned to his routine and met with Mr. Karl Helfferich from returned to his routine and met with Mr. Karl Helfferich from Deutsche Deutsche BankBank who was previously an economics professor at the Unwho was previously an economics professor at the Uni-i-versity of Berlin. Helfferich congratulated him on his article published versity of Berlin. Helfferich congratulated him on his article published in in Frankfurter ZeitungFrankfurter Zeitung..291 ReturninReturning tg to the subject of the undersecretao the subject of the undersecretar-r-ies, Cavid Beyies, Cavid Bey later writes in his diary that Hüseyin Hilmi later writes in his diary that Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha also op-Pasha also op-posed this, arguing that the role of undersecretary was not seen in Eu-posed this, arguing that the role of undersecretary was not seen in Eu-rope. However, Cavid Beyrope. However, Cavid Bey and Talat Bey countered this, citing the case of and Talat Bey countered this, citing the case of GrGreateat Britain. During this period Cavid BeyBritain. During this period Cavid Bey worked on the budget, but worked on the budget, but due to the slow pace of the wdue to the slow pace of the work, he was a bit pessimistic, which was a ork, he was a bit pessimistic, which was a rare mood for Cavid Beyrare mood for Cavid Bey..292

289 Akşin, Akşin, 31 Mart Olayı,31 Mart Olayı, 301.301.

290 During a meeting he directly told Cavid Bey and Talat Bey that they were too young to During a meeting he directly told Cavid Bey and Talat Bey that they were too young to be undersebe undersecretaries and advised them that they could be ministers when they got cretaries and advised them that they could be ministers when they got enough experience. Mehmed Cavid Bey, enough experience. Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 47.47.

291 FFrom the first day, Cavid Bey made sure to keep closrom the first day, Cavid Bey made sure to keep closely connected to the press in order ely connected to the press in order to voice the to voice the thouthoughts and coghts and conncerns of the Committee, the Ottoman Empire, and his cerns of the Committee, the Ottoman Empire, and his own. His inteown. His interrviews and articles were published in various papers and magazines in views and articles were published in various papers and magazines in different European countries. However, until today, thesdifferent European countries. However, until today, these have not been collected in e have not been collected in one volume.one volume.

292 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 48. 48.

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The

The 31 March Incident31 March Incident had revealed the fragility of the constithad revealed the fragility of the constituution-tion-al regime and the Comal regime and the Commitmittee’s modernizing policies. Therefore, it was tee’s modernizing policies. Therefore, it was also a lesson that would not be forgotten,also a lesson that would not be forgotten,293 and sand several measures were everal measures were taken to prevent a second one. Before his assignment as the Minitaken to prevent a second one. Before his assignment as the Minisster of ter of Finance, Cavid BeyFinance, Cavid Bey faced faced severalseveral serious issues. These issuesserious issues. These issues ovoverlapped erlapped with each other, as he was shaping Ottoman finances and its executive with each other, as he was shaping Ottoman finances and its executive body from top to botbody from top to bottom. Cavid Beytom. Cavid Bey needed to revise legislneeded to revise legislaative proce-tive proce-dures to initiate and carry out these endeavors. The budget of the Otto-dures to initiate and carry out these endeavors. The budget of the Otto-man Empire in 1909 was bounded witman Empire in 1909 was bounded with th the Ottoman Strike Law related he Ottoman Strike Law related to a public law or the Law for Severance, which had reorganized both to a public law or the Law for Severance, which had reorganized both the whole state apparatus and the Ministry of Finance. These ithe whole state apparatus and the Ministry of Finance. These isssues sues new legislations were all related directly to Cavid Beynew legislations were all related directly to Cavid Bey and indeed, af-and indeed, af-fected all citizfected all citizensens’ lives in the Ottoman Empire. First and foremost was ’ lives in the Ottoman Empire. First and foremost was the parliament’s right to form a budget, whicthe parliament’s right to form a budget, which was enshrined in the h was enshrined in the constitution. The Budget Law was accompanied by the General Aconstitution. The Budget Law was accompanied by the General Acccount-count-ing Law, which allowed for the implementation of the former. Lawing Law, which allowed for the implementation of the former. Law ofof Severance affected many people’s lives working in the state and initSeverance affected many people’s lives working in the state and initiiat-at-ed a wave of ed a wave of layoffslayoffs. The m. The main aim is to relieve the state’s burden and ain aim is to relieve the state’s burden and fulfill the state’s position with the private sector in daily life.fulfill the state’s position with the private sector in daily life.

In terms of politics, the period after t

In terms of politics, the period after the he 31 March Incident also 31 March Incident also marked a new era in that the Ottoman army appeared as a strong force marked a new era in that the Ottoman army appeared as a strong force in the pin the political life of both the Ottoman Empire and Turkey. As meolitical life of both the Ottoman Empire and Turkey. As men-n-tioned above, Mahmtioned above, Mahmut Şevket Pasha, who became commander of the ut Şevket Pasha, who became commander of the Third Army during the RevolutioThird Army during the Revolution, was the hero of the 31 March Incn, was the hero of the 31 March Inci-i-dent. However, the Committee was soon preoccupied with two pivotal dent. However, the Committee was soon preoccupied with two pivotal moves by Şevket Pasha: declaring a state of emergency from April 25, moves by Şevket Pasha: declaring a state of emergency from April 25, 1909,1909, to to March 1911 (which March 1911 (which lastedlasted until July 15, 1912) and auntil July 15, 1912) and asssigning signing himself as the General Inspector of the first three armies, which allowed himself as the General Inspector of the first three armies, which allowed him to act without checks from the him to act without checks from the governmengovernment. It should be noted that t. It should be noted that the Committee’s military wing was quite cothe Committee’s military wing was quite content with ntent with Şevket Pasha’s Şevket Pasha’s strong position and keeping close ties with the army for two reasons. strong position and keeping close ties with the army for two reasons.

293 Zürcher, Turkey: Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern HistoryA Modern History, 99., 99.

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First, this was beneficial in maintaining close ties with the young offic-

First, this was beneficial in maintaining close ties with the young offic-ers who sers who supported upported the CUP. Second, this was also beneficial in order to the CUP. Second, this was also beneficial in order to control the sencontrol the senior officerior officers who did not directly support the Committee. s who did not directly support the Committee. However, the Committee was not pleased with Mahmut Şevket Pasha’s However, the Committee was not pleased with Mahmut Şevket Pasha’s move to forbid military officers from getting involved move to forbid military officers from getting involved in politiin politics. Despite cs. Despite the ban on young officers, he himself was in the midst of politics athe ban on young officers, he himself was in the midst of politics as s commander of the army.commander of the army.294 Moreover, as we will see bMoreover, as we will see beelow, from the low, from the first day he took the chair at the Ministry of War, he would clash with first day he took the chair at the Ministry of War, he would clash with Cavid BeyCavid Bey (three times over (three times over the budgethe budget and auditing issues in 1910) t and auditing issues in 1910) about auditing and the extra expenses he demandedabout auditing and the extra expenses he demanded for the army. As a for the army. As a result, neither he nor his position could be challenged by result, neither he nor his position could be challenged by Hüseyin Hilmi Hüseyin Hilmi Hakkı or his successor, Hakkı Pasha.Hakkı or his successor, Hakkı Pasha.295

As Feroz Ahmad quotes from Halide E

As Feroz Ahmad quotes from Halide Edipdip, “both Mahmut Şevket , “both Mahmut Şevket Pasha and the Committee were ‘men of the Empire’ who were Pasha and the Committee were ‘men of the Empire’ who were uniting to preserve the Empire’s territorial integrity.”uniting to preserve the Empire’s territorial integrity.”296

As far as I understand, t

As far as I understand, this was also Cavid Beyhis was also Cavid Bey’s priority; as a civil Un-’s priority; as a civil Un-ionist, he wanted to allocate funds to tionist, he wanted to allocate funds to the fields of education, public utili-he fields of education, public utili-ties, agriculture, et cetera. ties, agriculture, et cetera. As mentioned above, after the 31 March Inci-As mentioned above, after the 31 March Inci-dent, the Committee soudent, the Committee sougghht to strengthen its position in bot to strengthen its position in both the th the parliament and the palace. For this reason, the CUP created two new parliament and the palace. For this reason, the CUP created two new positions in positions in the palace to secure their position. Halit Zthe palace to secure their position. Halit Ziya (Uşaklıgil) was iya (Uşaklıgil) was assigned as Chief Secretary to the Sultanassigned as Chief Secretary to the Sultan297 and Lütfi Simavi as the and Lütfi Simavi as the Chamberlain.Chamberlain.298 However, when Tevfik Pasha had prepared his own list However, when Tevfik Pasha had prepared his own list and included Cavid Beyand included Cavid Bey as the Minister of Finance and Hayri Bey as the as the Minister of Finance and Hayri Bey as the Minister of JusticeMinister of Justice, the Commi, the Committtee did not give its consent to this cabi-tee did not give its consent to this cabi-net, which had been formed without its approval. net, which had been formed without its approval. The cabinet was then The cabinet was then

294 Akşin,Akşin, 31 Mart Olayı31 Mart Olayı, 274, 274--78.78.

295 Zürcher, Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern HistoryTurkey: A Modern History, 100., 100.

296 Ahmad, Ahmad, Ittihat ve Terakki, 1908Ittihat ve Terakki, 1908--1914 1914 (Jön Türkler)(Jön Türkler), 83, 83--84.84.

297 Ali Fuat Türkgeldi Ali Fuat Türkgeldi Görüp İşitGörüp İşittiklerim, tiklerim, (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1987), 34.(Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1987), 34.

298 Kansu,Kansu, İttihadçılarınİttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 143., 143.

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established without any Unionists but with the approval of the Commit-

established without any Unionists but with the approval of the Commit-teetee.. In short, the cabinet was stilIn short, the cabinet was stilllborn and did not live very long. Three born and did not live very long. Three ddays later, due to the insurgency in the provinces, Ahmet ays later, due to the insurgency in the provinces, Ahmet Rıza Bey and Rıza Bey and Talat Bey convinced Tevfik Pasha to resign, and Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha en-Talat Bey convinced Tevfik Pasha to resign, and Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha en-tered the Sublime Porte as the Grand Viziertered the Sublime Porte as the Grand Vizier for the second time on May for the second time on May 5, 1909.5, 1909.299

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey was tirelessly at work on financial and political matters was tirelessly at work on financial and political matters bafter the storm of the bafter the storm of the 31 Incident. The Unionists were willing to 31 Incident. The Unionists were willing to enterenter the cabinet as undersecretaries. the cabinet as undersecretaries. Their main aim was to enter the cabinet Their main aim was to enter the cabinet to control procedures and decisions while gaito control procedures and decisions while gainning experience. On May 6, ing experience. On May 6, 1909, Talat Bey 1909, Talat Bey aand Cavid Beynd Cavid Bey first visited Mahmut Şevket Pashfirst visited Mahmut Şevket Pasha to dis-a to dis-cuss this issue; however, the meeting was not fruitful, and Mahmut Şev-cuss this issue; however, the meeting was not fruitful, and Mahmut Şev-ket Pasha regarded them as too inexperket Pasha regarded them as too inexperiienced in the field of politics. enced in the field of politics. They then visited the Grand Vizier who They then visited the Grand Vizier who SaitSait that having underthat having underssecretar-ecretar-ies in the cabinet was not a regular iies in the cabinet was not a regular implmpleementation in the political sys-mentation in the political sys-tem. Though they were disappointed, they refused to give up and at-tem. Though they were disappointed, they refused to give up and at-tempted to carry out a constitutional amentempted to carry out a constitutional amenddment (Article 67) in the ment (Article 67) in the parliament. According to Article 67, parliament. According to Article 67, a depa depuutyty who did not hold ministe-who did not hold ministe-rial power could nrial power could not take official charge in state affairs. The issue first ot take official charge in state affairs. The issue first came to the agenda of the parliament on June 12, 1909. Though the CUP came to the agenda of the parliament on June 12, 1909. Though the CUP held a majority in the parliament, the Committee was split into two held a majority in the parliament, the Committee was split into two parts on the pparts on the poosition of undersecretary. A heated debate toosition of undersecretary. A heated debate took place, and k place, and they could not meet the twothey could not meet the two--thirds rule during the vote. Due to the re-thirds rule during the vote. Due to the re-sistance of the opposition in the parlisistance of the opposition in the parliaament, Talat Bey had to withdraw ment, Talat Bey had to withdraw the motion. After this defeat, the Uthe motion. After this defeat, the Unnionists changed thionists changed theeir position and ir position and decided to fight for their frdecided to fight for their friends to enter the cabinet. The first Unionist iends to enter the cabinet. The first Unionist to get appointed to the cabinetto get appointed to the cabinet300 would be Mehmed Cavid Beywould be Mehmed Cavid Bey in June in June 1909.1909.301

299 Türkgeldi, Türkgeldi, Görüp İşittiklerim,Görüp İşittiklerim, 3838--41.41.

300 Indeed, the first Unionist in the Cabinet was Manyasizade Refik Bey as the MiIndeed, the first Unionist in the Cabinet was Manyasizade Refik Bey as the Minister of nister of Justice. But due to his early death, he could neither work for long nor was he able to Justice. But due to his early death, he could neither work for long nor was he able to leave a mark on politics. leave a mark on politics.

301 Ahmad, Ahmad, IIttihat ve Terakki,1908ttihat ve Terakki,1908--1914 (Jön Türkler)1914 (Jön Türkler), 86, 86--88.88.

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On May 16, Cavid Bey

On May 16, Cavid Bey delivered a long speech in the parliament on delivered a long speech in the parliament on the provisional budget the provisional budget ffor April and May. He tells the parliament thaor April and May. He tells the parliament that t although this budget was prepared before the 31 March Incident, it was although this budget was prepared before the 31 March Incident, it was revised by the Ministry of Finance after the cabinet rejected it. The main revised by the Ministry of Finance after the cabinet rejected it. The main discussion on the budget in the parliament was cutting the saldiscussion on the budget in the parliament was cutting the salaaries of ries of bureaucrats. The state’s costbureaucrats. The state’s cost--cuttingcutting policy after the revolution became policy after the revolution became a central part of the new regime. The idea of the revolution was also to a central part of the new regime. The idea of the revolution was also to challenge the structure of the state and transform it into a transparent, challenge the structure of the state and transform it into a transparent, modern state with checks anmodern state with checks andd balances.balances.302

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey addressed the parliamenaddressed the parliament on the decision to delay pat on the decision to delay pay-y-ments to merchants whose businesses were damaged during the insuments to merchants whose businesses were damaged during the insur-r-gency in Adana and Aleppo. On April 14gency in Adana and Aleppo. On April 14––16, there was an appalling 16, there was an appalling massacre of Armenians in Adanamassacre of Armenians in Adana, which spread to , which spread to KoKozan and Maraş. zan and Maraş. ApproximatelyApproximately 17,000 Armenians17,000 Armenians lost their lives, and 1,900 attackers lost their lives, and 1,900 attackers were killed by Armenians while they were trying to prevent the masswere killed by Armenians while they were trying to prevent the massa-a-cre.cre.303 Parliament discussed the economic recovery from this sad and Parliament discussed the economic recovery from this sad and brutal incident. Cavid Beybrutal incident. Cavid Bey, speaking , speaking on behalf of the Budget Commion behalf of the Budget Commis-s-sion, announcedsion, announced that the costs in relation to insurance and exchange, that the costs in relation to insurance and exchange, apart from personal debts, would be delayed in Adana. The administrapart from personal debts, would be delayed in Adana. The administra-a-tor of the Ottoman Bank had notified the government that it was tor of the Ottoman Bank had notified the government that it was an an emergencyemergency in terms of both the conflict and the loss of the regionin terms of both the conflict and the loss of the region due to due to the incidents. The situation in Aleppo would be concluded following an the incidents. The situation in Aleppo would be concluded following an investigation about the consequences of the conflict.investigation about the consequences of the conflict.

Although Cavid Bey

Although Cavid Bey was new to state affairs, he understood quite was new to state affairs, he understood quite wewell how the state operated and how regular procedures werll how the state operated and how regular procedures were carried e carried out. Cavid Beyout. Cavid Bey’s attitude toward minor problems was quite pragmatic ’s attitude toward minor problems was quite pragmatic and practical. Cavid Beyand practical. Cavid Bey also dealt with the Budget Commission’s maalso dealt with the Budget Commission’s man-n-date of distributing seeds to immigrants. He was againdate of distributing seeds to immigrants. He was against allocating st allocating money for seeds in the provisional budget money for seeds in the provisional budget but not in the annual budg-but not in the annual budg-

302 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre:1, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre:1, Cilt:Cilt: 3, 3 May 13, 3 May 1325, (16 May 1909), 543325, (16 May 1909), 543--5.5.

303 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelİttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908esi, 1908--19131913, 121, 121--22.22.

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et.

et.304 Though Cavid BeyThough Cavid Bey dealt with even more issues than what has been dealt with even more issues than what has been listed above, the most important was the Law of Severance, which reor-listed above, the most important was the Law of Severance, which reor-ganized the bureaucracy from the topganized the bureaucracy from the top down. The Budget Law hinged down. The Budget Law hinged upon this law’s ratificatioupon this law’s ratification; therefore, he wanted this process to be ac-n; therefore, he wanted this process to be ac-celerated. celerated.

§ 2.6 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, tthe Minister of Finance he Minister of Finance

During those days, R

During those days, Riifat Pasha, who was then Minister of Finance, rfat Pasha, who was then Minister of Finance, re-e-signed due to the clash with Masigned due to the clash with Mahhmut Şevket Pasha. The origins of the mut Şevket Pasha. The origins of the conflict lay in theconflict lay in the amount of money that remained in Yıldız Palace. Rifat amount of money that remained in Yıldız Palace. Rifat Pasha wanted to give the money to the Ministry of War after legal prPasha wanted to give the money to the Ministry of War after legal pro-o-ceedings; however, Mahmut Şevket Pasha insisted on taking the money ceedings; however, Mahmut Şevket Pasha insisted on taking the money without without these proceedings. At last, Rifat Pasthese proceedings. At last, Rifat Pasha resigned from the office ha resigned from the office ministry of finance.ministry of finance.305, ,

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey became the Minister of Finance of the Ottoman Empire on became the Minister of Finance of the Ottoman Empire on June 26, 1909.June 26, 1909.306 He had been the first Unionist to enter the cabinet on He had been the first Unionist to enter the cabinet on July 23, 1908.July 23, 1908.307 While the UniWhile the Unioonists forced both Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha nists forced both Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha and Mahmut Şevket Pasha to enter the cabinet as undersecretaries, the and Mahmut Şevket Pasha to enter the cabinet as undersecretaries, the path to the ministry was instantly paved for Cavid Beypath to the ministry was instantly paved for Cavid Bey after Rıfat Pasha after Rıfat Pasha resigned. As the Unionists slowly began to assert their political power, resigned. As the Unionists slowly began to assert their political power, TTaalat Bey joined the cabinet in July 1909 as Minister of the Interior. Alat Bey joined the cabinet in July 1909 as Minister of the Interior. Af-f-ter the 31 March Incident, the CUP had strengthened its position, and as ter the 31 March Incident, the CUP had strengthened its position, and as Tanör describes, it became a “Tanör describes, it became a “party in powerparty in power,” although it was still not ,” although it was still not ruling but keeping the government underruling but keeping the government under its thumb while climbing to its thumb while climbing to

304 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 1, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 1, Cilt:Cilt: 4, İnikad: 81,16 May 1325 (29 May 4, İnikad: 81,16 May 1325 (29 May 1325), 101325), 10--12.12.

305 Türkgeldi, Türkgeldi, Görüp İşittiklerimGörüp İşittiklerim, 45., 45.

306 İ__DUİ__DUİT____00008_0000010_001_001İT____00008_0000010_001_001

“.. due to the regination of Rifat Bey, Cavid Bey was assigned as the finance “.. due to the regination of Rifat Bey, Cavid Bey was assigned as the finance minister …minister …”” JuneJune 27 1909.27 1909.

His oathHis oath--taking ceremony was held on July 17, 1909.taking ceremony was held on July 17, 1909.

307 Indeed, Manyasizade Refik Bey became Minister of Justice before tIndeed, Manyasizade Refik Bey became Minister of Justice before thhe 31 March e 31 March Incident but unfortunately, he passed away. Incident but unfortunately, he passed away.

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the top.

the top.308 Though the CUP would fall to the opposition in the summer Though the CUP would fall to the opposition in the summer of 1912, this period would bear witness to exceptional legal reforms of 1912, this period would bear witness to exceptional legal reforms that strengthened the legislative organ along with key institutional rthat strengthened the legislative organ along with key institutional re-e-forms inside the stforms inside the state apparatus, which were also led by Cavid Beyate apparatus, which were also led by Cavid Bey. The . The key issues that Cavid Beykey issues that Cavid Bey dealt with and played a major role in while in dealt with and played a major role in while in the Ministry of Finance include the situation of the ministry, legal and the Ministry of Finance include the situation of the ministry, legal and institutional reforms, and the 1910 loan negotiations. institutional reforms, and the 1910 loan negotiations.

How was Cavid Beyow was Cavid Bey received within both local and foreign political received within both local and foreign political and financial circles as the Minister of Finance? After the revolution, and financial circles as the Minister of Finance? After the revolution, Cavid BeyCavid Bey was very well received in foreign circles, particularly for his was very well received in foreign circles, particularly for his liberal, positive approach. His modern and sliberal, positive approach. His modern and scientific background fit with cientific background fit with the European way of doing business. He was raised in a very mothe European way of doing business. He was raised in a very moddern ern city, fluent in French, and was a selfcity, fluent in French, and was a self--made man. Cavid Beymade man. Cavid Bey believed in believed in the importance of statistics and the economy in addressing the prothe importance of statistics and the economy in addressing the prob-b-lems of the Empire. Hlems of the Empire. His liberal outlook, perfect command of French, and is liberal outlook, perfect command of French, and links with the French financial circle would allow him to easily coopelinks with the French financial circle would allow him to easily cooper-r-ate with all of the consultants and officers of European embassies and ate with all of the consultants and officers of European embassies and companies. According to Mehmet Zeki Pakalın, although local andcompanies. According to Mehmet Zeki Pakalın, although local and fofor-r-eign observers and actors sometimes criticized Cavid Beyeign observers and actors sometimes criticized Cavid Bey for his supefor his super-r-ficial knowledge of the economy, they always resficial knowledge of the economy, they always respected his intelligence pected his intelligence and honor. His high level of intelligence and prompt reasoning and and honor. His high level of intelligence and prompt reasoning and judgment evoked admiration.judgment evoked admiration.309 Everyone that knew him criticized Everyone that knew him criticized Cavid BeyCavid Bey for his grandness and arrogance. But, perhaps a selffor his grandness and arrogance. But, perhaps a self--made made man such as Cavid Beyman such as Cavid Bey, who had cli, who had climbed to the top and was able to take mbed to the top and was able to take on the role of Minister of Finance at only 33 years of age through his on the role of Minister of Finance at only 33 years of age through his own efforts.own efforts.310

308 Bülent Tanör Bülent Tanör OOssmanlı Türk Anayasal Gelişmeleri,manlı Türk Anayasal Gelişmeleri, (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2011), (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2011), 198.198.

309 Pakalın, Pakalın, Maliye Teşkilatı TarMaliye Teşkilatı Tariihi(1442hi(1442--1930) Vol IV1930) Vol IV,, 242.242.

310 Erdoğan, Erdoğan, II. Mesrutiyet'iII. Mesrutiyet'inn ilk Yılı: 23 Temmuz 1908 ilk Yılı: 23 Temmuz 1908 -- 23 Temmuz 1909,23 Temmuz 1909, 464.464.

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2.6.1 The The FirstFirst Modern Budget of the Ottoman EmpireModern Budget of the Ottoman Empire

The budget issue was the most significant issue for both the state and

The budget issue was the most significant issue for both the state and for Cavid Beyfor Cavid Bey. T. Though the budget was a collaborative effort, it was Cavid hough the budget was a collaborative effort, it was Cavid BeyBey’s magnum opus. Since 1909, Cavid Bey’s magnum opus. Since 1909, Cavid Bey was referred to as “the per-was referred to as “the per-son who prepared the first modern budget of the Ottoman Eson who prepared the first modern budget of the Ottoman Emmpire.” pire.”

This was the first time in the whole lifetime of the Ottoman Emp

This was the first time in the whole lifetime of the Ottoman Empire ire that a general budget had been transparently prepared and put to a vote that a general budget had been transparently prepared and put to a vote in the parliament, which legitimized the parliament’s authority over in the parliament, which legitimized the parliament’s authority over state finances. The right of the parliament to approve the budget was state finances. The right of the parliament to approve the budget was enshrined in the constitution. However, tenshrined in the constitution. However, the parliament was unable to he parliament was unable to enact this right between 1876 and 1878 under the influence of enact this right between 1876 and 1878 under the influence of AAbbdülhamid II. But now, under different circumstances, the parliament dülhamid II. But now, under different circumstances, the parliament had the authority to carry out checks and balances and audit the state’s had the authority to carry out checks and balances and audit the state’s income and expenditure income and expenditure for the whole year. The Ministry of Finance had for the whole year. The Ministry of Finance had a duty to prepare the budget as well as receive authorization to control a duty to prepare the budget as well as receive authorization to control the budgets of other ministries. The Ministry of Finance received addthe budgets of other ministries. The Ministry of Finance received addi-i-tional permissions throughout the years, such as permission to mational permissions throughout the years, such as permission to make ke loan agreements for at most five years in 1912 and the power to autholoan agreements for at most five years in 1912 and the power to author-r-ize money for building roads. During the Second Constitutional Era, bize money for building roads. During the Second Constitutional Era, be-e-tween 1909 and 1919, ten general budgets were prepared; however, on-tween 1909 and 1919, ten general budgets were prepared; however, on-ly three of these (1910, 1911, and 1912) were ly three of these (1910, 1911, and 1912) were calculated based on more calculated based on more concrete financial data. Later on, due to the Balkan Wars and the Great concrete financial data. Later on, due to the Balkan Wars and the Great War, it became impossible to obtain concrete financial data, due to the War, it became impossible to obtain concrete financial data, due to the conscription of officers and a lack of communication between the center conscription of officers and a lack of communication between the center and the peripheand the periphery.ry.311

Preparations for the Draft Law of the Budget of 1909 began long b

Preparations for the Draft Law of the Budget of 1909 began long be-e-fore it made its way through parliament. Ziya Pasha, the Minister of Ffore it made its way through parliament. Ziya Pasha, the Minister of Fi-i-nance during the Kamil Pasha government, was the first to start wornance during the Kamil Pasha government, was the first to start work-k-ing on it. It was then presented to the parliaing on it. It was then presented to the parliament under Rifat Pasha’s ment under Rifat Pasha’s Ministry. Cavid BeyMinistry. Cavid Bey dealt with it as a member of the Budget Commidealt with it as a member of the Budget Commis-s-sion. During this period,sion. During this period, Cavid BeyCavid Bey made some adjustments to the made some adjustments to the

311 Öztel, Öztel, II. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı MaliyesiII. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı Maliyesi, 27, 27--31.31.

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budget due to the high budget deficit in the draft budget dated March

budget due to the high budget deficit in the draft budget dated March 15, 1909. Prior to this, M15, 1909. Prior to this, Mrr. L. Laurent had recalculated the budget. To fiaurent had recalculated the budget. To fig-g-ure out the estimated incomeure out the estimated income——because they were not sure about the because they were not sure about the exact data of either the state’s income or expendituresexact data of either the state’s income or expenditures——he estimated he estimated an amount based on the budgets over the past five years, rather than an an amount based on the budgets over the past five years, rather than an averageaverage of the preceding three years. Moreover, having prepared emeof the preceding three years. Moreover, having prepared emer-r-gency and provisional budgetsgency and provisional budgets——in other words, redistributing the defin other words, redistributing the defi-i-citcit——the new draft law was sent to Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, the Grand Vthe new draft law was sent to Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, the Grand Vi-i-zier, on March 4, 1909.zier, on March 4, 1909.312 As Öztel states, during the SecondAs Öztel states, during the Second Constitutional Era, the government Constitutional Era, the government had tried to had tried to avoid any criticism from avoid any criticism from European circles regarding the budget issue. This is why the goEuropean circles regarding the budget issue. This is why the govvern-ern-ment calculated the budget once again: to increase income and to de-ment calculated the budget once again: to increase income and to de-crease both expenditure and the budget deficit.crease both expenditure and the budget deficit.313 Those measures, the Those measures, the emergency budget, provisional budget, and utilizing the compensemergency budget, provisional budget, and utilizing the compensaation tion of Austriaof Austria--Hungary were all a part of this effort. Hungary were all a part of this effort.

Talks on the Budget for 1909 began in the parliament on June 22,

Talks on the Budget for 1909 began in the parliament on June 22, 1909.1909.314 According to law and precedent, the budgetAccording to law and precedent, the budget negotiations conegotiations con-n-sisted of two parts. The first part included income and the conditions sisted of two parts. The first part included income and the conditions for expenses, and each article of the law was to be put to a vote. The for expenses, and each article of the law was to be put to a vote. The second part contained the facts second part contained the facts andand figures of the budget, and each sefigures of the budget, and each sec-c-tion was put to a vote.tion was put to a vote.315

On June 22, n June 22, 1909,1909, Cavid BeyCavid Bey presented the budget to the MPs as the presented the budget to the MPs as the representative of the Budget Commission. He started his presentation representative of the Budget Commission. He started his presentation by underlining that this was the first time in 600 years that the MPs had by underlining that this was the first time in 600 years that the MPs had the power to allow for taxes to be collected frthe power to allow for taxes to be collected froom the nation to be spent m the nation to be spent for the state’s general expenditure. The key concept behind the budget for the state’s general expenditure. The key concept behind the budget was “financial sovereignty,” which was “financial sovereignty,” which waswas the widest exercise of “national the widest exercise of “national sovereignty.” According to him, financial sovereignty meant a sovereign sovereignty.” According to him, financial sovereignty meant a sovereign

312 MM ZaMM Zabbıt Ceridesi, ıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, , Cilt:Cilt: 2, 4 March 1325 (17 March 1909), 320. 2, 4 March 1325 (17 March 1909), 320.

313 Öztel, Öztel, II. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı MaliyesiII. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı Maliyesi, 31., 31.

314 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, , Cilt:Cilt: 4, 9 June 1325 (22 June 1909), 548. 4, 9 June 1325 (22 June 1909), 548.

315 Öztel,Öztel, IIII. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı Maliye. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı Maliyessii, 28., 28.

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treasury, which

treasury, which had been lacking in the Ottoman Empire until the Sehad been lacking in the Ottoman Empire until the Sec-c-ond Constitutional Era. ond Constitutional Era.

During his speech Cavid Bey

During his speech Cavid Bey championed the cause of the Empire’s championed the cause of the Empire’s peasant class. He pointpeasant class. He pointeded out that the peasantout that the peasant——who was the primary who was the primary citizen in the economic and social structure wcitizen in the economic and social structure whhoo paid taxespaid taxes——was weary was weary and miserable. It was because of the conditions of the peasant that the and miserable. It was because of the conditions of the peasant that the revolution had occurred so swiftly and easily. As always, Cavid Beyrevolution had occurred so swiftly and easily. As always, Cavid Bey rre-e-mained quite realistic. He states that the peasants did not care about mained quite realistic. He states that the peasants did not care about discussions on the discussions on the ccoonstitutionality of the Law of the Press, etc. Accornstitutionality of the Law of the Press, etc. Accord-d-ing to him, the only thing that the peasant is concerned with is their ing to him, the only thing that the peasant is concerned with is their own economic interest, which had long been neglected. Cavid Beyown economic interest, which had long been neglected. Cavid Bey then then went on to state that the budget was prepared by the governmenwent on to state that the budget was prepared by the governmentt and and that he and the Commission had checked the budget from the top down that he and the Commission had checked the budget from the top down and prioritized the situation of the peasants, many of whom had been and prioritized the situation of the peasants, many of whom had been on the front lines as soldiers, perished in battlefields, and sacrificed on the front lines as soldiers, perished in battlefields, and sacrificed themselves for the peace of the Empire fthemselves for the peace of the Empire foorr hundreds of years. On top of hundreds of years. On top of this, he arguethis, he arguedd, the peasant , the peasant waswas oppressed during each harvest. In his oppressed during each harvest. In his speech, Cavid Beyspeech, Cavid Bey proclaimproclaimeded, “, “Survival is not better than happinessSurvival is not better than happiness.” .” He He claimsclaims that the parliament will aim to diagnose societal ills and begin that the parliament will aim to diagnose societal ills and begin toto treatreatt ththem rather than carry out drastic reforms. He em rather than carry out drastic reforms. He recommendsrecommends slow but efficient treatment to modify taxes in a very moderate and cau-slow but efficient treatment to modify taxes in a very moderate and cau-tious way. At the end of the year, as the expenditures and deficit in-tious way. At the end of the year, as the expenditures and deficit in-crease, Cavid Beycrease, Cavid Bey predictspredicts that they will need to tthat they will need to take oake ouut at another loan in nother loan in order to cover them. order to cover them.

Under the conditions at the time, the Ministry of Finance was unable

Under the conditions at the time, the Ministry of Finance was unable to make reforms and adjustments in terms of finances and budget. Ito make reforms and adjustments in terms of finances and budget. In-n-stead, they were obliged to present the budget showing that the state stead, they were obliged to present the budget showing that the state had had 25 mi25 millliolion liras in income and 2.5 million liras in deficit. This did n liras in income and 2.5 million liras in deficit. This did not differ from previous periods, including during the Hamidian Era. not differ from previous periods, including during the Hamidian Era. What did differ, however, was cutting the expenditures, such as the eWhat did differ, however, was cutting the expenditures, such as the ex-x-travagant costs of the ancien regime, of both ttravagant costs of the ancien regime, of both the sthe staate te and the palace. and the palace.

In terms of income, Cavid Bey

In terms of income, Cavid Bey toldtold the parliament that the state had the parliament that the state had collected 30 million lira per year from among the Empire’s population collected 30 million lira per year from among the Empire’s population of 30 million. According to Cavid Beyof 30 million. According to Cavid Bey, there were three ways of raising , there were three ways of raising

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the state’s i

the state’s incomencome; firs; firsttlyly, , new taxes, new taxes, secondly,secondly, raising tax rates, raising tax rates, and at and at last,last, improving the methods of collecting taxes. Cavid Beyimproving the methods of collecting taxes. Cavid Bey states states that, that, they would instead raise tax rates and improve tax collection methods. they would instead raise tax rates and improve tax collection methods. ThThis would be theis would be the main tax policy of the Second Constitutionamain tax policy of the Second Constitutionall Era. In Era. In terms of tax rates, the government would aim to raise the rates of cus-terms of tax rates, the government would aim to raise the rates of cus-toms duties, which hinged upon the approval of the Great Powers. En-toms duties, which hinged upon the approval of the Great Powers. En-hancing methods of tax collection necessitated prohancing methods of tax collection necessitated providing securityviding security, , which was a massive challenge in Ottoman twhich was a massive challenge in Ottoman teerritory.rritory.

In his speech, Cavid Bey

In his speech, Cavid Bey also depicted the role of the Minister of Falso depicted the role of the Minister of Fi-i-nance. According to him, a Minister of Finance has successfully conance. According to him, a Minister of Finance has successfully com-m-pleted part of his role after preparing a transparepleted part of his role after preparing a transparent budgetnt budget——with with or or without a deficit. He underlines the impowithout a deficit. He underlines the imporrtance of transparency and atance of transparency and ac-c-countability in terms of financial and state affairs. He reemphasizes that countability in terms of financial and state affairs. He reemphasizes that this is a new approach that had become part of the literature of state this is a new approach that had become part of the literature of state affairs in the Second affairs in the Second Constitutional Constitutional Era. Era.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey went into detail about how hwent into detail about how hee and his colleagues had prand his colleagues had pre-e-pared the budget, which I previously outlined above. During his speech, pared the budget, which I previously outlined above. During his speech, Cavid BeyCavid Bey paused and allowed the paused and allowed the deputiesdeputies to applaud Mto applaud Mrr. Laurent. . Laurent. Cavid BeyCavid Bey, as an MP, states tha, as an MP, states that he had also at he had also asked the Minister of Fsked the Minister of Fi-i-nance, Rıfat Bey, to nance, Rıfat Bey, to aarrange the figures in the budget in a clearer and rrange the figures in the budget in a clearer and more explicit way so that he could understand the amount of taxes and more explicit way so that he could understand the amount of taxes and leftovers from previous years. According to him, this was the worst part leftovers from previous years. According to him, this was the worst part of of putting the budputting the budget together, as it wasget together, as it was not possible to learnot possible to learnn the exact the exact facts concerning the Empire’s income, expenditure, and loans. Cavid Beyfacts concerning the Empire’s income, expenditure, and loans. Cavid Bey continued to criticize the situation, as they were still not certain about continued to criticize the situation, as they were still not certain about the loans taken out by the state, and because the debt balance had been the loans taken out by the state, and because the debt balance had been inheinherited from previous prited from previous peeriods. While the debt had been rolled over riods. While the debt had been rolled over into the following years, there were new expenditures that were also into the following years, there were new expenditures that were also added to this amount. Then, of course, it was inevitable that there added to this amount. Then, of course, it was inevitable that there would be an increase in the deficit. According to Caviwould be an increase in the deficit. According to Cavid Beyd Bey, one of the , one of the mosmostt urgent and necessary implementations should be abolishing out-urgent and necessary implementations should be abolishing out-standing taxes as tithe. standing taxes as tithe.

Another regulation that was put into force during the Second Const

Another regulation that was put into force during the Second Consti-i-tutional Era was the aboliition of the authority of state offices to collect tutional Era was the aboliition of the authority of state offices to collect

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their own income and sheir own income and sppend this money; in other words, this meant end this money; in other words, this meant abolishing treasuries in each state office. These treasuries were rabolishing treasuries in each state office. These treasuries were reegard-gard-ed as the ministers’ personal treasuries, and they did not accept the ed as the ministers’ personal treasuries, and they did not accept the power of the Minister of Finance over them. Thus,power of the Minister of Finance over them. Thus, this old practice hathis old practice hadd to be abolished, as they had led to corruption and abuse of power. With-to be abolished, as they had led to corruption and abuse of power. With-out providing names, Cavid Beyout providing names, Cavid Bey openly criticized ministers for not ac-openly criticized ministers for not ac-cepting the Ministry of Finance’s authority to control the state’s budget. cepting the Ministry of Finance’s authority to control the state’s budget. According to him, According to him, even the amount used even the amount used tto purchase a chair that cost o purchase a chair that cost five piastre should be taken from the general budget. All of the minis-five piastre should be taken from the general budget. All of the minis-tries from the Ministry of War to Education or Public Works were to be tries from the Ministry of War to Education or Public Works were to be subjected to this new rule of the constitutional regime. This nesubjected to this new rule of the constitutional regime. This new regula-w regula-tion would betion would be implemented through the Budget Law, which would soon implemented through the Budget Law, which would soon be put to a vote among the MPs. In terms of income, though the state be put to a vote among the MPs. In terms of income, though the state had not been able to increase its tax revenue during the prevhad not been able to increase its tax revenue during the previious 30 ous 30 years, the OPDA had increased its income fryears, the OPDA had increased its income from taxes in the last om taxes in the last 220 0 years. For example, stamp duties increased by 200%, tax on alcyears. For example, stamp duties increased by 200%, tax on alcooholic holic beverages increased 90%, tax on silk increased 600%, et cetera. Accord-beverages increased 90%, tax on silk increased 600%, et cetera. Accord-ing to Cavid Beying to Cavid Bey, the problems related to the collection of taxes were , the problems related to the collection of taxes were due to, first, the misdue to, first, the misbehavior, abuse, and behavior, abuse, and vviolence of government execu-iolence of government execu-tives in the provinces; second, a lack of public security; and third, a lack tives in the provinces; second, a lack of public security; and third, a lack of public works such as railways and ports. One of the main reof public works such as railways and ports. One of the main reaasons for sons for the deficit was due to the Empire’s inability to recover fthe deficit was due to the Empire’s inability to recover from its debts. rom its debts. As meAs menntioned above, the lack of an efficient auditing system and a cen-tioned above, the lack of an efficient auditing system and a cen-tral budget were the key obstacles to establishing modern ftral budget were the key obstacles to establishing modern fiinances. The nances. The equality equality inin tax collection was another challenge. According to Cavid Beytax collection was another challenge. According to Cavid Bey, , taxes should be compataxes should be compatibtible with the wealth ofle with the wealth of the people; however, tax-the people; however, tax-es, particularly the tithe, was a heavy burden on peasants. The tithe was es, particularly the tithe, was a heavy burden on peasants. The tithe was officially 10% of the peasants’ income. The tithe then iofficially 10% of the peasants’ income. The tithe then inncreased to creased to 15.5% after the budget commission had included additional provisi15.5% after the budget commission had included additional provisionsons for various expenditfor various expendituures such as military equipment, official costs, etc. res such as military equipment, official costs, etc. According to Cavid BeyAccording to Cavid Bey, if illegal additions were taken into considera-, if illegal additions were taken into considera-tion, then the tithe would be much more than 15.5%. The first step to be tion, then the tithe would be much more than 15.5%. The first step to be taken regarding the tithe was to detaken regarding the tithe was to decrecrease taxes by 2.5%. Hoase taxes by 2.5%. Howwever, he ever, he pointed out that the constitutional regime could not afford to do this pointed out that the constitutional regime could not afford to do this

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that year. As it was one of the biggest sources of income, the tithe was

that year. As it was one of the biggest sources of income, the tithe was extremely critical for the Empire’s finances. Although Cavid Beyextremely critical for the Empire’s finances. Although Cavid Bey was was quite awaquite aware re of the of the unfairnessunfairness of of tthe tithe, the general budget was not he tithe, the general budget was not strong enough for him to make any changes.strong enough for him to make any changes.

In further effort to reform the Empire’s tax system, Cavid Bey

In further effort to reform the Empire’s tax system, Cavid Bey aimed aimed to change the laws exempting foreigners from taxes, particularly from to change the laws exempting foreigners from taxes, particularly from ththe dividend tae dividend tax. Cavid Beyx. Cavid Bey also aimalso aimeed to change the fact that residents d to change the fact that residents and businesses in Istanbul were exempt from paying taxes. One of the and businesses in Istanbul were exempt from paying taxes. One of the new taxes that he thought should be implemented was the forest tax, new taxes that he thought should be implemented was the forest tax, which was common in Western countries such as Frwhich was common in Western countries such as France. He arguance. He argued that ed that the customsthe customs316 ttax needed to be increased from 11% to 15%ax needed to be increased from 11% to 15%——which which would later become an issue that would be subjected to long diwould later become an issue that would be subjected to long disscus-cus-sions and negotiations between the CUP governments and the Great sions and negotiations between the CUP governments and the Great Powers. An increase in customs duties by 4Powers. An increase in customs duties by 4% % would increwould increase the state’s ase the state’s revenrevenuue by 1.5 million lirae by 1.5 million lirass annually, which was almost half of the year-annually, which was almost half of the year-ly budget deficit. Cavid Beyly budget deficit. Cavid Bey argued that the export tax needed to be argued that the export tax needed to be aboabollished to in order support local producers.ished to in order support local producers. His argument could also His argument could also be evaluated as protectionism.be evaluated as protectionism. Monopolies such asMonopolies such as Régie TRégie Toobacco also bacco also nneeded to be abeeded to be abolished as their income was equal to 25% of the Em-olished as their income was equal to 25% of the Em-pire’s total income. Thus, Cavid Beypire’s total income. Thus, Cavid Bey would seek to abolish the Régie af-would seek to abolish the Régie af-ter its expiration date in 1912, which will be discussed in the following ter its expiration date in 1912, which will be discussed in the following chapter. And the continuatchapter. And the continuatiion of the heavy expoon of the heavy export duties coulrt duties could poten-d poten-tially harm or discourage the endeavors of people to btially harm or discourage the endeavors of people to beecome entrepre-come entrepre-neurs. Entrepreneurship was an idea that the MPs aneurs. Entrepreneurship was an idea that the MPs atttempted to infuse tempted to infuse into the people when they visited their homelands. into the people when they visited their homelands.

316 At last, by 1906, the Ottoman government, with German support, had proposed to At last, by 1906, the Ottoman government, with German support, had proposed to meet the bulk of its monetary needs through a threemeet the bulk of its monetary needs through a three--percent customs surcharge. This percent customs surcharge. This was made in light of the Macedonian reforms and to erase the sultan’s Macedonian was made in light of the Macedonian reforms and to erase the sultan’s Macedonian ddeeficit, although this was not enough to pay for it. ficit, although this was not enough to pay for it. Fulton, "France And The End Of TFulton, "France And The End Of Thhe e Ottoman Empire," 147.Ottoman Empire," 147. On the other hand, the control of the surtax was in the hands of On the other hand, the control of the surtax was in the hands of the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, which marked the entrance of the Council as the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, which marked the entrance of the Council as an official body into the political arena. an official body into the political arena. Donald Christy Blaisdell European Financial Donald Christy Blaisdell European Financial Control in the Ottoman Empire (Columbia University Press, 1929), 180.Control in the Ottoman Empire (Columbia University Press, 1929), 180.

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In terms of the educatio

In terms of the educationn budget, Cavid Beybudget, Cavid Bey ddrew a road maprew a road map based based on the country’s current economic and social situation at that time. He on the country’s current economic and social situation at that time. He advocated that primary schools should be opened in every village of the advocated that primary schools should be opened in every village of the Empire and should be free and widespread. He also argued that high Empire and should be free and widespread. He also argued that high schschoools in the urban areols in the urban areas should be pas should be paid. Peasants’ children should aid. Peasants’ children should remain engaged in agriculture. However, he also wanted the state to eremain engaged in agriculture. However, he also wanted the state to ex-x-tend the scope of its scholarships to provide opportunities for poor tend the scope of its scholarships to provide opportunities for poor children.children.317

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey continued to provide informaticontinued to provide informatioon on the budget’s gen on the budget’s general neral frameworframework on the first day of the talks. While parliament was in sek on the first day of the talks. While parliament was in sesssion, sion, the budget needed to be discussed and voted on section by section. The the budget needed to be discussed and voted on section by section. The parliament ended the meeting and would begin their next meeting dis-parliament ended the meeting and would begin their next meeting dis-cussing negotiaticussing negotiatioons on the budget.ns on the budget.318

On July 3, 1909n July 3, 1909, the parliament began debating the budget’s ex-, the parliament began debating the budget’s ex-pepennditure items. During this session, the discussions differed greatly diture items. During this session, the discussions differed greatly from the first, because expenditure was more controversial than income from the first, because expenditure was more controversial than income and covered a wide swath of peopand covered a wide swath of peoplle, including those ie, including those in the bureaucrn the bureaucracy. acy. The expenditures were related to the expenses of the state: salaries, re-The expenditures were related to the expenses of the state: salaries, re-tirtireement funds, grants, and debts. During these days, the Law of Sever-ment funds, grants, and debts. During these days, the Law of Sever-ance was also on the agenda. Thus, Cavid Beyance was also on the agenda. Thus, Cavid Bey was quite impatient about was quite impatient about thethe budget process: if tbudget process: if the budget was he budget was not ratified by the parliament, not ratified by the parliament, then the budget could not be implemented.then the budget could not be implemented.319

In terms of expenditures, there was also the issue of the Empire’s

In terms of expenditures, there was also the issue of the Empire’s Floating Debts (Floating Debts (DüyunDüyun--ı Gayri Muntazamı Gayri Muntazam),),320 which consisted of the which consisted of the

317 MM Zabıt CeriMM Zabıt Ceriddesi, Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 1, esi, Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 1, Cilt:Cilt: 4, İnikad: 98, 9 4, İnikad: 98, 9 HaziranHaziran 1325 (22 1325 (22 June 1910), 548June 1910), 548--562.562.

318 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 1, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 1, Cilt:Cilt: 4, İnikad: 98, 9 4, İnikad: 98, 9 HaziranHaziran 1325 (22 1325 (22 June 1910June 1910), 578), 578..

319 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 1, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 1, Cilt:Cilt: 44, 11, 11 HaziranHaziran 1325 (24 june 1910), 1325 (24 june 1910), 627.627.

320 Apart from borrowing and advances, the Floating Debts consisted of outstanding Apart from borrowing and advances, the Floating Debts consisted of outstanding irregular debts from the former period (but which also grew during the Second Coirregular debts from the former period (but which also grew during the Second Con-n-stitutional Period) to contractors and civil servantsstitutional Period) to contractors and civil servants iin the domestic market. The Young n the domestic market. The Young

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debts the stat

debts the statee owed to individualsowed to individuals such as contrsuch as contractors or institutions. actors or institutions. However, Cavid BeyHowever, Cavid Bey was unsure as to how much the state owed the was unsure as to how much the state owed the people.people.321 Another problematic issue was the accumulated debts of rAnother problematic issue was the accumulated debts of re-e-tiretirement fundsment funds——in particular the military’s retirement fundsin particular the military’s retirement funds——which which wwere very high, even ere very high, even though they wethough they were paid annually. According to re paid annually. According to Cavid BeyCavid Bey, this amount was approximately 25 million Liras. The expe, this amount was approximately 25 million Liras. The expennd-d-itures of the OPDA were another hotly debated topic duringitures of the OPDA were another hotly debated topic during the pathe parrlia-lia-mentary talks. Due to its abnormal but robust existementary talks. Due to its abnormal but robust existennce as an entity in ce as an entity in tthe state apparhe state apparatus, the MPs wanted to restrict the autonomy of the atus, the MPs wanted to restrict the autonomy of the OPDA.OPDA.322

One of Cavid Bey

One of Cavid Bey’s major successes was paying the salaries d’s major successes was paying the salaries deemand-mand-ed for the Financial Inspectors, ed for the Financial Inspectors, which were very high comparwhich were very high comparaatively as tively as Inspectors of the SadaretInspectors of the Sadaret.. In fact, the inspecIn fact, the inspectors of the Sators of the Sadaret were one daret were one

Turk government worked hard to prevent such debts from being collected. It was one

Turk government worked hard to prevent such debts from being collected. It was one of Cavid Bey’s targets to revive the domestic market. of Cavid Bey’s targets to revive the domestic market.

321 Öztel, Öztel, II. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı MaliyesiII. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı Maliyesi, 31., 31.

322 According to Tunaya, Cavid Bey found the existence and facility of the Ottoman Bank According to Tunaya, Cavid Bey found the existence and facility of the Ottoman Bank more easily digestible than that of the OPDA. He acknowledged thismore easily digestible than that of the OPDA. He acknowledged this institution as “a institution as “a member of the family.” However, he alwaymember of the family.” However, he always questioned whether or not the OPDA was a s questioned whether or not the OPDA was a state institution. He was aware that the OPDA was like a state within a state estastate institution. He was aware that the OPDA was like a state within a state estab-b-lished by foreigners and that it held the keys to obtaining loans by enlished by foreigners and that it held the keys to obtaining loans by enabling guaraabling guaranntees tees for the Ottoman Empire in global markets.for the Ottoman Empire in global markets. As we will see below, he tried to bAs we will see below, he tried to byypass the pass the patronage of the OPDA at the earliest opportunity. patronage of the OPDA at the earliest opportunity. ButBut we should also mention that we should also mention that Cavid Bey was not alone in his opinion about the OPDA. Parvus EfendiCavid Bey was not alone in his opinion about the OPDA. Parvus Efendi. who was also a . who was also a very interesting figure who contributed tvery interesting figure who contributed too the economic debates of the Ottoman Em-the economic debates of the Ottoman Em-pire during the Second Constitutional Era, considered the financial situpire during the Second Constitutional Era, considered the financial situaation of the tion of the Ottoman State before and after 1908 as “financial slavery.” In his articlOttoman State before and after 1908 as “financial slavery.” In his articles from es from 1911/1912, he writes that the origin of this finan1911/1912, he writes that the origin of this financcial slavery was the Empire’s alle-ial slavery was the Empire’s alle-giance to the OPDA.giance to the OPDA. TuTunaya, naya, Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarih, Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarih, 405405; ; M. Asım KaraömerlioğluM. Asım Karaömerlioğlu, "Helphand, "Helphand--PParvus arvus and His Impact on Turkish Intellectual Life," and His Impact on Turkish Intellectual Life," Middle Eastern StudiesMiddle Eastern Studies 40, no. 6 (2004): 40, no. 6 (2004): 145145--6565;;[Alexander Lvovich] Parvus Efendi, Cihan Harbine doğru Türkiye (Istanbul: [Alexander Lvovich] Parvus Efendi, Cihan Harbine doğru Türkiye (Istanbul: Ayrıntı, 2013), 80Ayrıntı, 2013), 80--81.81. According to Parvus Efendi, in 1911/1912, the OPDA received According to Parvus Efendi, in 1911/1912, the OPDA received oneone--third of the mathird of the main sources of the state’s income. Tin sources of the state’s income. These revenues include 23% of hese revenues include 23% of direct taxes, not only indirect taxes. The OPDA had become a parallel structure to the direct taxes, not only indirect taxes. The OPDA had become a parallel structure to the state’s supervision of finance and was almost a state within the state.state’s supervision of finance and was almost a state within the state.

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of the highest ranks in the bureaucracy in terms of respons

of the highest ranks in the bureaucracy in terms of responsiibility and bility and amount of salary. Especially during these days of cutting costs and amount of salary. Especially during these days of cutting costs and layolayoffs, the acceptance of this demand also indicated the trust bffs, the acceptance of this demand also indicated the trust beessttowed owed upon Cavid Beyupon Cavid Bey as a financieras a financier and statesman. I might assert that, though and statesman. I might assert that, though there were not very qualified human resources in the circles of the CUP there were not very qualified human resources in the circles of the CUP or the state, the fervent and harsh negotior the state, the fervent and harsh negotiations indicated that the par-ations indicated that the par-liament was against very critical liament was against very critical tto Cavid Beyo Cavid Bey. Therefo. Therefore, under thesre, under these e circumstances, it is possible to consider that Cavid Beycircumstances, it is possible to consider that Cavid Bey, a man of just 33, , a man of just 33, garnered respect and inspired confidence among the MPs on the eve of garnered respect and inspired confidence among the MPs on the eve of this new pethis new period. riod.

Lastly, during his speech Cavid Bey

Lastly, during his speech Cavid Bey warned the parliamenwarned the parliamentt that they that they needed toneeded to speed up theispeed up their work, particularly when it came to ministers r work, particularly when it came to ministers conveying information about their budgets. Failure to do so would mean conveying information about their budgets. Failure to do so would mean that the 1910 budget would not be ready that the 1910 budget would not be ready in time in November. While in time in November. While the parliament was in negotiations othe parliament was in negotiations ovver the 1909 budget, er the 1909 budget, the ministry the ministry hhad already begun work on next year’s budget. According to the pro-ad already begun work on next year’s budget. According to the pro-posal from the MPs, Cavid Beyposal from the MPs, Cavid Bey’s speech was to be printed and distribut-’s speech was to be printed and distribut-ed to governors throughed to governors throughout the Ottoman Empire.out the Ottoman Empire.323 DistribuDistributting his ing his speeches would becomespeeches would become a parliamentary trada parliamentary tradition during tition during the Second he Second Constitutional Era. Constitutional Era.

In sum, the 1909 budget was the first modern budget prepared

In sum, the 1909 budget was the first modern budget prepared based on the principles of generalization and unity. From then on,based on the principles of generalization and unity. From then on, ra-ra-ther than having multiple budgets prepared by various departther than having multiple budgets prepared by various departmments, ents, the state woulthe state would have a singld have a single budget listing all of the state’s income and e budget listing all of the state’s income and expense items, including debts. Contemporary fiscal methods were also expense items, including debts. Contemporary fiscal methods were also reflected in the budget for the first tireflected in the budget for the first time. According to the general data, me. According to the general data, the state’s expenditures in the state’s expenditures in tthe 1909 budget amounhe 1909 budget amounted to 3,059,9ted to 3,059,954,572 54,572 piastre: the state’s income in the 1909 budget amounted to piastre: the state’s income in the 1909 budget amounted to 2,507,896,200 piastre, and the deficit was 552,058,372 piastre.2,507,896,200 piastre, and the deficit was 552,058,372 piastre.324 AAllt-t-

323 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, , CiCilt:lt: 4, 9 4, 9 HaziranHaziran 1325 (22 June 19091325 (22 June 1909), 547), 547--62. 62.

324 T.C. Maliye Bakanlığı T.C. Maliye Bakanlığı Araştırma Planlama ve Koordinasyon Kurulu Başkanlığı Araştırma Planlama ve Koordinasyon Kurulu Başkanlığı Osmanlı Osmanlı Bütçeleri, 1909Bütçeleri, 1909--19181918 (Ankara: T.C. Maliye Bakanlığı Araştırma, Planlama ve Koordi-(Ankara: T.C. Maliye Bakanlığı Araştırma, Planlama ve Koordi-nasyon Kurulu Başkanlığı Yayını, 2000), 3.nasyon Kurulu Başkanlığı Yayını, 2000), 3.

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hough many new financial

hough many new financial measures were implemented, the deficit imeasures were implemented, the deficit in-n-creased during the upcreased during the upccoming years rather oming years rather the other way aroundthe other way around..325 Un-Un-fortunately, during the Second Constitutional Era, due to the military fortunately, during the Second Constitutional Era, due to the military crisis and wars, the deficit remained and widened with the loans pro-crisis and wars, the deficit remained and widened with the loans pro-vided by vided by the Great Powers. the Great Powers.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey combined the budgets of various incombined the budgets of various insstitutions titutions and estaand estab-b-lished a supervisory powelished a supervisory power over the departments of the state. This fr over the departments of the state. This fi-i-nancial supervision was particularly important for two institutions: the nancial supervision was particularly important for two institutions: the palace and the army. Although tpalace and the army. Although the army was particularly difficult to deal he army was particularly difficult to deal with and Cavid Beywith and Cavid Bey wwoould clash uld clash with them on this issue, he stood with them on this issue, he stood out as out as a figure who tried to restrict the authority of the army in the name of a a figure who tried to restrict the authority of the army in the name of a democratic and modern state. He conveyed democratic and modern state. He conveyed hishis own particown particuular messagelar message to foreigners operating in the financial sector of the Eto foreigners operating in the financial sector of the Emmpire:pire: first and first and foremost, that a new, modern, and foremost, that a new, modern, and accountable adminaccountable adminiistration was now stration was now governing the Ottoman Empire. Second, he had given the message that governing the Ottoman Empire. Second, he had given the message that the Empire would raise customs duties to mainthe Empire would raise customs duties to maintain this new regime as tain this new regime as they saw fit. His speeches included prothey saw fit. His speeches included prommises to Euises to European markets that ropean markets that the Ottoman ecthe Ottoman economy would improve. onomy would improve.

2.6.2 Legal Reforms and Cavid BeyLegal Reforms and Cavid Bey

The 31 M

The 31 March Incident demonstrated the factarch Incident demonstrated the fact that, despite the long road that, despite the long road to the revolution, the parto the revolution, the parliament was very fragile. The raid on the paliament was very fragile. The raid on the par-r-liament, which renliament, which renddered it dysfunctional, with MPs fleeing Istanbul, was ered it dysfunctional, with MPs fleeing Istanbul, was a pivotal moment for the Unionists. They decideda pivotal moment for the Unionists. They decided to reinforce the legito reinforce the legis-s-lative branclative branch after the 31 March Incident and focused on this durinh after the 31 March Incident and focused on this during the g the summer of 1909. Bsummer of 1909. Büülent Tanor describes this processlent Tanor describes this process that that ““the the ConstConstiitu-tu-tional amendment tional amendment of 1909of 1909 limited the monarchy, modernized the elimited the monarchy, modernized the exxec-ec-utive power, and liberalutive power, and liberalized fundamental rights.”ized fundamental rights.” In short,In short, the amend-the amend-ments to the constitution in 1909 enabled thements to the constitution in 1909 enabled the Second ConstitSecond Constituutional tional regime to regulate the state apparatus aregime to regulate the state apparatus annd enforce the rights of the in-d enforce the rights of the in-

325 Özdemir, OsÖzdemir, Osmanlı Devleti Dış Borçları: 1854manlı Devleti Dış Borçları: 1854--1954 Döneminde Yüzyıl Süren Cen1954 Döneminde Yüzyıl Süren Cendere,dere, 132132--35.35.

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dividual. This story is indicative of

dividual. This story is indicative of the the inherent inherent dynamics dynamics inin Turkish Turkish ppolitics: the struggle betolitics: the struggle between legislative and executive poweween legislative and executive power would be r would be one of the main fieone of the main fields of power politics in which the army or fundamen-lds of power politics in which the army or fundamen-talists trietalists triedd to disrupt. Cavid Beyto disrupt. Cavid Bey supported these legal supported these legal reforms,reforms, and, in and, in the field of fthe field of fiinance, he contributed to tnance, he contributed to the democratization of bothe democratization of both the h the political rpolitical reegime and society.gime and society.

After the revolution, the p

After the revolution, the paarliament was not very active or succesrliament was not very active or successsful ful in terms of legal rin terms of legal refeforms due to the lack of experience among its MPs. orms due to the lack of experience among its MPs. However, after the 31 March Incident, the parliamentHowever, after the 31 March Incident, the parliament began to make began to make significansignificant reforms in reaction to the countet reforms in reaction to the counterr--revolution. These legal revolution. These legal refrefoorms aimed to solidify the constitutional regime and to strengtrms aimed to solidify the constitutional regime and to strengthehen n the state apparatus by allowing it to be free from the capitthe state apparatus by allowing it to be free from the capituulations in lations in both the economic and judiciboth the economic and judicial systems. These legal ral systems. These legal reforms lasted from eforms lasted from the beginning ofthe beginning of May to the end of August 190May to the end of August 19099. A total of 21 articles . A total of 21 articles from the 1876 Constitution were changfrom the 1876 Constitution were changeded; one article was abolished, ; one article was abolished, and three articles were added. Though the aim of this work was not to and three articles were added. Though the aim of this work was not to wriwrite a new constitution, itte a new constitution, it was almost like the new constitwas almost like the new constituutition of the on of the new political regimnew political regimee..326 Cavid BeyCavid Bey played an important role in the prep-played an important role in the prep-

326 Tanör, Tanör, Osmanlı Türk Anayasal GelişmOsmanlı Türk Anayasal Gelişmelerieleri, 192, 192--97.97.

The most important constitutional amendment was ratified on August 21, 1909. It

The most important constitutional amendment was ratified on August 21, 1909. It transformed the system into a real constitutional regime by defining the authority and transformed the system into a real constitutional regime by defining the authority and responsibilresponsibilites of the sultan, grand vizier, parliament, and MPs along wites of the sultan, grand vizier, parliament, and MPs along with senators ith senators very clearly. Though it seemed that the list of items on the authority of the sultan in very clearly. Though it seemed that the list of items on the authority of the sultan in article 7 was longer than the previous one, strict restrictions were imposed. This iarticle 7 was longer than the previous one, strict restrictions were imposed. This in-n-cluded thcluded three important restrictions related to the appointment and disree important restrictions related to the appointment and dismissal of minimissal of minis-s-ters, the dissolution of parliament, and approval of treaties concerning peace, trade, ters, the dissolution of parliament, and approval of treaties concerning peace, trade, concession of territory, annexation, essential and ad hominem rights of the Ottoman concession of territory, annexation, essential and ad hominem rights of the Ottoman subjects,subjects, and agreements needed for state spending by the parliament. and agreements needed for state spending by the parliament. According to According to Tanör, this amendment indicates the understanding of “national sovereignty” and also Tanör, this amendment indicates the understanding of “national sovereignty” and also demonstrates sensibility toward the authority of the sultan to make agreements such demonstrates sensibility toward the authority of the sultan to make agreements such as capitulatias capitulations. The amendment of articles of 30ons. The amendment of articles of 30––35, 36, and 38 subordina35, 36, and 38 subordinated the ted the government to the parliament. This legal reform process continued and was egovernment to the parliament. This legal reform process continued and was en-n-trenched in new laws on various areas of state affairs. These laws included the princtrenched in new laws on various areas of state affairs. These laws included the princi-i-ples of the new politicalples of the new political regime, which should be carried out for the regulation of itregime, which should be carried out for the regulation of it. . Akşin, Akşin, Jön Türkler ve Ittihat Terakki,Jön Türkler ve Ittihat Terakki, 229; and Erkan Tural, 229; and Erkan Tural, Son Dönem Osmanlı Bür-Son Dönem Osmanlı Bür-

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aration and i

aration and impmplementation of many of the new laws, such as the Law of lementation of many of the new laws, such as the Law of Severance and the budget, which strengthened tSeverance and the budget, which strengthened the structure of the he structure of the ‘‘new new state.state.’’ Although it was a new regimAlthough it was a new regime, it was not a democratic one, it was not a democratic onee, even , even though elections were though elections were held,held, and the parliament was openand the parliament was openeded. However, . However, these amendments did point to a more democratic regime and these amendments did point to a more democratic regime and strengthened the legislative bodystrengthened the legislative body. Part of these legal ref. Part of these legal reforms coorms connsisted sisted of amending the consof amending the constitution, and the other parttitution, and the other part was a range of laws was a range of laws that were ratified in the parliament, whicthat were ratified in the parliament, which h mostly concerned Cavid Beymostly concerned Cavid Bey. .

The institutional reforms in the Ministry of Finance began and were

The institutional reforms in the Ministry of Finance began and were extendextended in terms of scope duried in terms of scope during the period of Ziya Pasha. Ziya Png the period of Ziya Pasha. Ziya Pasha asha divided the ministry individed the ministry intto five subo five sub--units; however, Cavid Beyunits; however, Cavid Bey reorgareorgannized ized it into 10 suit into 10 subb--units.units.327 Every directorate was also divided into subEvery directorate was also divided into sub--units. units. Taxes and title deed transactions were transTaxes and title deed transactions were transferred to other dferred to other deepart-part-menments.ts.328 Cavid BeyCavid Bey also sent young inspalso sent young inspector candidates to France fector candidates to France foor r occupational education and for internships. These candidatesoccupational education and for internships. These candidates rreeturned turned to Istanbul at the end of 1909. Their performance was apprecto Istanbul at the end of 1909. Their performance was appreciiated by M. ated by M. Cochery, France’s MinisCochery, France’s Minister of Finance.ter of Finance.329 He also He also strengtstrengthhened the In-ened the In-spectors Committspectors Committee, and this structural baseee, and this structural base of the Ministry of Finance of the Ministry of Finance was passed on to the Republican Erawas passed on to the Republican Era. . 330

okrasisi: II. Mesrutiyet Dönemi'nde Bürokratlar, İttihatçılar

okrasisi: II. Mesrutiyet Dönemi'nde Bürokratlar, İttihatçılar ve Parlamenterlerve Parlamenterler (A(Annkara: kara: İmge Kitabevi, 2016), 51.İmge Kitabevi, 2016), 51.

327 Office of the Private Secretary (KalemOffice of the Private Secretary (Kalem--i Mahsus Müdüriyeti), Office of Officers and i Mahsus Müdüriyeti), Office of Officers and Supply (Memurin ve Levazım Müdüriyeti), Office of AccSupply (Memurin ve Levazım Müdüriyeti), Office of Accounting and Finance (Mu-ounting and Finance (Mu-hashaseeBeyi Maliye Müdüriyeti), The OfficBeyi Maliye Müdüriyeti), The Office of General Accounting (MuhaseBeyi Umumiye e of General Accounting (MuhaseBeyi Umumiye Müdüriyeti Umumiyesi), Ottoman Public Debt Administration and the Office of FinaMüdüriyeti Umumiyesi), Ottoman Public Debt Administration and the Office of Finan-n-cial Transactions (Duyuncial Transactions (Duyun--ı Umumiye ve Muamelatı Nakdiyye Müdüriyeti), ı Umumiye ve Muamelatı Nakdiyye Müdüriyeti), The Office of The Office of Incomes (Varidat), The General Office (Umum MüdIncomes (Varidat), The General Office (Umum Müdüriyeti), The Office of Property of üriyeti), The Office of Property of the Emir (Emlakthe Emir (Emlak--ı Emiriyye Kalemi), The Office of the General Treasury (Vezneı Emiriyye Kalemi), The Office of the General Treasury (Vezne--i i Umumi Müdüriyeti) , The Inspectorship of the General Financial Transactions Umumi Müdüriyeti) , The Inspectorship of the General Financial Transactions

(Muamelat(Muamelat--ı Umumiyyeı Umumiyye--i Maliyye Müfettişliği), Fiscal Refom Coi Maliyye Müfettişliği), Fiscal Refom Committee (Islahatmmittee (Islahat--ı ı Maliyye Komisyonu). Maliyye Komisyonu).

328 Toprak, Toprak, Türkiye'de Türkiye'de MilliMilli İktisat, 1908İktisat, 1908--19181918, 397., 397.

329 TuraTural, "l, "II. Meşrutiyet Döneminde Devletin Restorasyon Bağlamında II. Meşrutiyet Döneminde Devletin Restorasyon Bağlamında 1909 Teşkilat ve 1909 Teşkilat ve Tensikat KanunuTensikat Kanunu," (PhD diss., Dokuz Eylül University, 2006), 64," (PhD diss., Dokuz Eylül University, 2006), 64––68.68.

330 Toprak, Toprak, Türkiye'de MillTürkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908i İktisat, 1908--19181918, 397., 397.

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One of the most controversial laws incorporated into the framework

One of the most controversial laws incorporated into the framework mentioned above was the Ottoman Stmentioned above was the Ottoman Strike Law, which was discurike Law, which was discussed in ssed in the parliament on May 26, 1the parliament on May 26, 1909. According to Cavid Bey909. According to Cavid Bey,, this was the this was the first time the parliament had discussed such a crfirst time the parliament had discussed such a crucucial issue.ial issue.331 As meAs men-n-tioned above, the strikes were among the immediate consequences of tioned above, the strikes were among the immediate consequences of the revolution. the revolution. SinceSince the drthe draft law needed to be approved by paaft law needed to be approved by parliament rliament before becoming law, this issue wabefore becoming law, this issue wass revisited at the brevisited at the beeginning of 1909 ginning of 1909 and covered by Cavid Beyand covered by Cavid Bey iin n JSES. He supported the idea of establishing JSES. He supported the idea of establishing unions and going on strike, which would leadunions and going on strike, which would lead to an improvement in to an improvement in worworking conditions for laborers. Becauking conditions for laborers. Because of his ideas, he was accused of se of his ideas, he was accused of being a being a ssocialist in the liberal press in Pera. ocialist in the liberal press in Pera.

When the Ottoman Strik

When the Ottoman Strike e Law made it onto the agenda of the ChaLaw made it onto the agenda of the Cham-m-ber of Deputies in May 1909, it caused a stir. Thber of Deputies in May 1909, it caused a stir. The liberal and socialist e liberal and socialist MMPs who supported the right to strikPs who supported the right to strike were against the government, e were against the government, who wanted twho wanted too implement a strict ban on the labor movement. As Timplement a strict ban on the labor movement. As To-o-prak stateprak states,s, between 1908 and 1913, the parliament had strongbetween 1908 and 1913, the parliament had strong factions factions such as socialists and liberalssuch as socialists and liberals who were effective in infwho were effective in influencing parliluencing parlia-a-mentary commissions.mentary commissions. In terms of the Ottoman Strike Law, theIn terms of the Ottoman Strike Law, the impact impact of the commission was obvious in the related articles (of the commission was obvious in the related articles (i.i.e., Articles 8 and e., Articles 8 and 11) as institutionalized unions were seen as legitimate bodies. Ho11) as institutionalized unions were seen as legitimate bodies. Howweverever, , the government’s policy the government’s policy ran counter to this regulation.ran counter to this regulation.332 ThThis was is was be-be-causecause the strikes othe strikes of workers frf workers from the railways, harbors, ports, electrici-om the railways, harbors, ports, electrici-ty, lightity, lighting, and irrng, and irrigation sectors disrupted the flow of daily life. The igation sectors disrupted the flow of daily life. The strikes also strained relstrikes also strained relations between the Ottomanations between the Ottoman gogovvernment and ernment and foreign companies, foreign companies, such as the Anatolian Railways or Rsuch as the Anatolian Railways or Ruumeliamelia Railways. Railways.

As mentioned above, Cavid Bey

As mentioned above, Cavid Bey delivered his opinion delivered his opinion on the issuon the issue e via two platforms: via two platforms: in his articles in his articles published in JSES and throupublished in JSES and through the par-gh the par-liamentary speeches he deliamentary speeches he delivered. While discussing labor alivered. While discussing labor acctions, he tions, he delivered a long speech on May 26, delivered a long speech on May 26, 1901909,9, and submiand submitted a prtted a prooposal on posal on the subject. He began his speech the subject. He began his speech by saying tby saying that this had been the most hat this had been the most

331 MM Zabıt MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, Cilt: 3, 13 MayCeridesi, Devre: 1, Cilt: 3, 13 Mayısıs 1325 (26 May 1909), 678.1325 (26 May 1909), 678.

332 ZZafer Toprak, "1909 Tatilafer Toprak, "1909 Tatil--i Eşgal Kanunu Üzerine," i Eşgal Kanunu Üzerine," Toplum ve BilimToplum ve Bilim 113, no. Spring 113, no. Spring (1981): 141(1981): 141--56.56.

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important m

important matter of discussion since tatter of discussion since the parliament first cohe parliament first connvened. The vened. The rright to strike, for him, was legitimate both in the public and private sec-ight to strike, for him, was legitimate both in the public and private sec-tors, ators, and the rightnd the right to unionize could not be separated from it. Howeverto unionize could not be separated from it. However, , the goverthe government skipped over this issue, as thernment skipped over this issue, as there were no sie were no siggnificant nificant strikstrikes in the private sector. But, in hes in the private sector. But, in his opinion, the government should is opinion, the government should have made a legal arrangement on the right to shave made a legal arrangement on the right to strike, whichtrike, which would then would then serve the interests of the workers and tserve the interests of the workers and the public ghe public good iood innstead of inves-stead of inves-tors. For Cavid Betors. For Cavid Beyy, regardless of their sect, regardless of their sectoral engagoral engageements, workers ments, workers should beshould be free to unionize, as this was the only way to gather together free to unionize, as this was the only way to gather together workers’ interestsworkers’ interests and demandsand demands and to engage in negand to engage in negootiations with tiations with qualified peoplequalified people from compafrom companies in order to produce rnies in order to produce reesults. In tsults. In this his process, according to hprocess, according to him, the state needed both to look aim, the state needed both to look after foreign fter foreign capital and protect the labor laws. According to Cavid Beycapital and protect the labor laws. According to Cavid Bey, unions n, unions need-eed-ed to be ed to be functional not only during strikes but also in gefunctional not only during strikes but also in gennereral; this al; this wowould have a positive effect on the morauld have a positive effect on the morale of the workers, the advale of the workers, the advance-nce-ment of labor, the intellectual ment of labor, the intellectual development of the workers, and the pub-development of the workers, and the pub-lic perception of strikes. In other words,lic perception of strikes. In other words, the encourathe encouragement of unioni-gement of unioni-zation would be tremendously beneficzation would be tremendously beneficial by way ial by way of elevating the status of elevating the status of the laborerof the laborer, even though the position , even though the position of the workers was not a top of the workers was not a top prioripriority in the country at that time. Moreover, as Cavid Beyty in the country at that time. Moreover, as Cavid Bey stated, these stated, these unions were unions were not revolutinot revolutionary ones as they simply aimed at eonary ones as they simply aimed at esstablish-tablish-ing susting sustainable relainable relationships between the two parties. Ifationships between the two parties. If a union abused a union abused its positioits position and its economic function, then tn and its economic function, then the government would pun-he government would pun-ish it. Finally, Cavid Beyish it. Finally, Cavid Bey explained that if they could noexplained that if they could not agree upont agree upon a a general law regarding strikes, then economic and general law regarding strikes, then economic and social lifesocial life would never would never be able to function propebe able to function properly.rly.333

In his articles publi

In his articles published in the JSES, Cavid Beyshed in the JSES, Cavid Bey respondresponded to the aed to the ac-c-cusations of the “opposing press,” which was active on the other sidecusations of the “opposing press,” which was active on the other side of of the Galathe Galata Bridge in Pera. They represented the interests ofta Bridge in Pera. They represented the interests of foreign foreign cocompanies and the Ottoman bourgeoisie, mmpanies and the Ottoman bourgeoisie, mostly nonostly non--Muslims. Cavid Muslims. Cavid BeBeyy’s articles were very clear: accor’s articles were very clear: according to him, believing in the neceding to him, believing in the necesssi-si-

333 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, , Cilt:Cilt: 3, 13 Mayıs 1325 (26 May 1909), 6773, 13 Mayıs 1325 (26 May 1909), 677--717.717.

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ty of labor unions does not arise from the b

ty of labor unions does not arise from the belief in socelief in socialism but from ialism but from human rights. He added that liberal human rights. He added that liberal economists economists agreed with him as well agreed with him as well and that the rand that the right “not to work” was as might “not to work” was as much a right as “to work.” He uch a right as “to work.” He claimeclaimed that the unions had been perceived as a reason for the outbreak d that the unions had been perceived as a reason for the outbreak of mayhem in thof mayhem in the Empire, whe Empire, when in reality they were beneficial in een in reality they were beneficial in en-n-couraging wocouraging workers to acrkers to act with common sense. For him, the conft with common sense. For him, the conflicts licts were rooted in miscomwere rooted in miscommunication about mutual responsibilmunication about mutual responsibilities, the ities, the abandonment of duties, and human rights.abandonment of duties, and human rights.334 Despite his reservations, Despite his reservations, whwhen it was tien it was time to vote, Cavid Beyme to vote, Cavid Bey voted for the Strike Law. As fvoted for the Strike Law. As from the rom the begbeginning of the Second Constitutional Erinning of the Second Constitutional Era, when his opinion coa, when his opinion connflicflicted ted with the CUP on major policies,with the CUP on major policies, though he spoke up against them, he though he spoke up against them, he voted in line with the CUPvoted in line with the CUP——with the exceptiowith the exception of the Empn of the Empire’s eire’s enntrance trance into the Great War in 1914. In this cinto the Great War in 1914. In this context, it ontext, it is observed that ais observed that allthough though Cavid BeyCavid Bey hahad always defended his ideasd always defended his ideas, he would always fall in line , he would always fall in line withwith his fellow Unionists. Sometimes, this meant remaining silent when his fellow Unionists. Sometimes, this meant remaining silent when it came to theit came to the CUP’s econoCUP’s economic policies, voting in favor of the CUP, or car-mic policies, voting in favor of the CUP, or car-ryinrying out his dg out his duties in the background instead of comuties in the background instead of coming to the fore-ing to the fore-front. front.

In terms of Cavid Bey

In terms of Cavid Bey’s stance toward socialism, as Zafer Toprak a’s stance toward socialism, as Zafer Toprak ar-r-gues, he was never in favor of it, although he was prgues, he was never in favor of it, although he was proo--union. Cavunion. Cavid Beyid Bey advocated foradvocated for nineteenthnineteenth century liberalicentury liberalism asm and for thisnd for this reason, he gave reason, he gave priprioorrity to liberal economic principles when considering production ity to liberal economic principles when considering production and sand soocial relations. According to him, social welfare was improved on cial relations. According to him, social welfare was improved on the shoulders of individthe shoulders of individuals who priuals who prioritized personal inoritized personal interests. As Cavid terests. As Cavid BeyBey viewedviewed it,it, while libewhile liberalism embraced freeralism embraced freedom and its various adom and its various as-s-pects such as free trade and free speech, socialism was used to copects such as free trade and free speech, socialism was used to con-n-strain the individual and control them in all spheres of life: politicalstrain the individual and control them in all spheres of life: political, s, so-o-cial, ancial, and economic. On the od economic. On the other hand, the only limit tother hand, the only limit to frefreedom in edom in libliberalism is the othereralism is the other person’s own freedom.person’s own freedom.335 Therefore, Cavid BeyTherefore, Cavid Bey

334 Zafer Toprak,Zafer Toprak, Türkiye’de İşçi Sınıfı 1908Türkiye’de İşçi Sınıfı 1908--1946 1946 (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Y(Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yuurt Yayınları, rt Yayınları, 2016), 1532016), 153--65.65.

335 Toprak, Toprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908--1918,1918, 92, 94, and 95.92, 94, and 95.

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had not warmed up to the idea of socialism when it came to universal

had not warmed up to the idea of socialism when it came to universal values and the private sphere. values and the private sphere.

Following the

Following the budget, the budget, the next major subject fnext major subject for the young minister or the young minister of finof financeance to tackle to tackle was the General Accowas the General Accounting Law. This law was counting Law. This law was com-m-plementary to the budget, which would allow it to be enforced in an oplementary to the budget, which would allow it to be enforced in an or-r-derly manner in the following years. It was adopted from the Frderly manner in the following years. It was adopted from the French ju-ench ju-diciadiciary. As Toprak statesry. As Toprak states, the law enforced the budge, the law enforced the budget int in practice. practice. It also It also allowed all allowed all incomes to be transferred directly to the treasury and con-incomes to be transferred directly to the treasury and con-trol of the treasury over every item of the income of state departrol of the treasury over every item of the income of state departtments. ments. The treasury had gained authorThe treasury had gained authority to auditity to audit the income and ethe income and exxpependitures nditures of the state departof the state departmentments includings including the ministries. Cavthe ministries. Cavid Beyid Bey also made also made reforms to the General Directorate of Accounting (reforms to the General Directorate of Accounting (DivanDivan--i Muhasebati Muhasebat) ) and started to control the expenses of all of the state deartments. In and started to control the expenses of all of the state deartments. In sum,sum, as Toprak eas Toprak emphasizes, during thmphasizes, during the Second Constite Second Constituutional Era,tional Era, thethe Ministry oMinistry of Finance was transff Finance was transformed into a respectful and orderly insti-ormed into a respectful and orderly insti-tution rather than a “cash desk” as it has been used for decades.tution rather than a “cash desk” as it has been used for decades.336 The The General Accounting Law was the first step toward General Accounting Law was the first step toward momoddern accouern accounting in nting in the Ottomanthe Ottoman Empire and remained in forcEmpire and remained in force une until 1927.til 1927.337

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey also concealso concentrated on the modernization of the ministry by ntrated on the modernization of the ministry by collaborating with M. Jolly, another French consultant to the Ministry of collaborating with M. Jolly, another French consultant to the Ministry of Finance. Cavid BeyFinance. Cavid Bey initiated a reform pinitiated a reform package for tackage for the organization of the organization of the he ministry. As Toprak stateministry. As Toprak states, ts, the principlhe principles of the Board of Aes of the Board of Auditing were uditing were established for the first time during this period.established for the first time during this period.338 During his time in During his time in the ministry, there were some steps taken that greatly improved the the ministry, there were some steps taken that greatly improved the ministry’ministry’s workflow, s workflow, such as the removal such as the removal of red tape and the simplifiof red tape and the simplificca-a-tition of regison of registration for citizenstration for citizens. Newspapers and foreign observers alike . Newspapers and foreign observers alike took note of his improvements and success. The bureaucrats of the Mitook note of his improvements and success. The bureaucrats of the Min-n-istry of Finance also updated the criteria for recristry of Finance also updated the criteria for recruiting workeuiting workers in the rs in the ministry, ministry, and they even sent some younand they even sent some young ofg officers to Fficers to France for interrance for intern-n-shipships. In the context of the unification of finances as seen in European s. In the context of the unification of finances as seen in European

336 Toprak, Toprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908--19181918, 341., 341.

337 Öztel, Öztel, II. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı MaliyesiII. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı Maliyesi, 8, 8--111.1.

338 Toprak, TToprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908ürkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908--19181918,, 341.341.

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countries, some departments from other offices such as the customs o

countries, some departments from other offices such as the customs of-f-fice, the whole body office, the whole body of the Ministrthe Ministry of Post and Telegry of Post and Telegram, and the finaam, and the finan-n-cial part ocial part of thf the Royal Tree Royal Treasury were transferrasury were transferred to the Ministry of Fed to the Ministry of Fi-i-nance.nance.339

Another key law that affected Cavid Bey

Another key law that affected Cavid Bey’s workflow was the Law of ’s workflow was the Law of Severance. The Law of Severance Severance. The Law of Severance (Tensikat Ka(Tensikat Kanunu) nunu) was ratified was ratified by the by the palacpalace on July 26, 1909 before entering ine on July 26, 1909 before entering into force.to force. LayofLayoffs would stfs would staart as rt as of August 30, and commissionsof August 30, and commissions were established in every state depart-were established in every state depart-ment in both the capital and the provinces to begin implementing the ment in both the capital and the provinces to begin implementing the law.law.340 This law aimed to shrink the nuThis law aimed to shrink the number of statmber of state officials in order to e officials in order to help bahelp ballanance the state’s budce the state’s budget. This wget. This worked in favor of the Unionists, orked in favor of the Unionists, inincluding Cavid Beycluding Cavid Bey, whose goal was to motivate people to begin engag-, whose goal was to motivate people to begin engag-ing in eing in enntrepreneurship instead of working for the state. In other words, trepreneurship instead of working for the state. In other words, this this law was the law was the outcome of the Unionists’ new way outcome of the Unionists’ new way of thinking and thof thinking and the e extreme mextreme measures of the state’s financiers. easures of the state’s financiers. Cavid BeyCavid Bey wholeheartedly wholeheartedly supported and contributed to this law. In terms ofsupported and contributed to this law. In terms of entrepreneurship, entrepreneurship, Cavid BeyCavid Bey ddeepicted commerce as the most important ecpicted commerce as the most important economic activonomic activity. ity. In the In the nineteenth nineteenth century, secentury, several companies heveral companies helped to devlped to deveelop industry lop industry and commerce within thand commerce within the Empire; however, the main problem in the Ot-e Empire; however, the main problem in the Ot-toman Empire was the lack of companies and the people who were able toman Empire was the lack of companies and the people who were able to establish them. Cavid Beyto establish them. Cavid Bey andand his colleaghis colleagues believed that companies ues believed that companies with Mwith Muusslim partners sholim partners should be founuld be foundded during this perioded during this period——which which was alrwas already quite late compared to developed countries.eady quite late compared to developed countries.341 For this rea-For this rea-son, the Law of Severance was crucial in conveying the message to the son, the Law of Severance was crucial in conveying the message to the people that tpeople that the state washe state was no longer their employer. In pracno longer their employer. In practice, the im-tice, the im-plemenplementation of ttation of thhis law began right after the revoluis law began right after the revolution. In terms of the tion. In terms of the Ministry of Finance, Ziya Pasha had started the severance process in the Ministry of Finance, Ziya Pasha had started the severance process in the

339 Erkan Tural, "II. MeşrutErkan Tural, "II. Meşrutiyet Döneminde Devletin Restorasyon Bağlamında 1909 iyet Döneminde Devletin Restorasyon Bağlamında 1909 Teşkilat Teşkilat ve Tensikat Kanunu" (Dokuz Eylül Üniveristesi, ve Tensikat Kanunu" (Dokuz Eylül Üniveristesi, İzmirİzmir, 2006)., 2006).

340 Tural, Tural, Son Dönem Osmanlı Bürokrasisi: II. MesSon Dönem Osmanlı Bürokrasisi: II. Mesrutiyet Dönemi'nde Bürokratlar, rutiyet Dönemi'nde Bürokratlar, İttihatçılar ve Parlamenterler,İttihatçılar ve Parlamenterler, 105.105.

341 Toprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisatToprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1, 1908908--19181918, 119., 119.

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very early days of the Second Constitutional Era.

very early days of the Second Constitutional Era.342 Talks in thTalks in the parlia-e parlia-ment began after the 31 Mament began after the 31 March Incident. Cavirch Incident. Cavid Beyd Bey was iwas inn a hurry to rat-a hurry to rat-ify the law, becauseify the law, because it would act as a legal basis for layoffs and cost cut-it would act as a legal basis for layoffs and cost cut-ting, which would lift some of the burden off the budget in terms of ting, which would lift some of the burden off the budget in terms of expenditures and the expenditures and the budget deficbudget deficit. During the talks, the it. During the talks, the atmospheatmosphere in re in the parlithe parliaamement fell in nt fell in ffavor of the bureaucrats.avor of the bureaucrats.343 The ChambThe Chamber of Depu-er of Depu-ties began discussing the Law of Severance on May 29, 1909. Cavid Beyties began discussing the Law of Severance on May 29, 1909. Cavid Bey had taken to the floor as chairman of the commissionhad taken to the floor as chairman of the commission344 that preparthat prepared ed the draftthe draft law. According to Cavid Beylaw. According to Cavid Bey, the , the parliament, the coparliament, the commission, mmission, aannd the government agreed on the law d the government agreed on the law and underlined that though its and underlined that though its implimpleementation would be difficult,mentation would be difficult,345 it was extremely vital for the it was extremely vital for the budget in terms of detecting the budget in terms of detecting the numbernumber of expeof expenditures. Unnditures. Under the law, der the law, the number of employethe number of employees in all ministries in all ministries would bees would be determined so that determined so that the ministry couthe ministry could more easily calculate expenditures. Cavid Beyld more easily calculate expenditures. Cavid Bey asked asked the the deputies deputies if they could rush to iron out the final details and finalize if they could rush to iron out the final details and finalize the lawthe law. The la. The law would be iw would be implemented in Istanbul first and tmplemented in Istanbul first and then in the hen in the provincprovinces. During es. During tthe talks, the main conflict was abohe talks, the main conflict was about determining the ut determining the members of the severance commissions in the provinces. As always, members of the severance commissions in the provinces. As always, Cavid BeyCavid Bey remained steadfast in his demeanor and was realistremained steadfast in his demeanor and was realistic, ceic, cen-n-tralitralist, and practical. According to hist, and practical. According to him, only the mayorsm, only the mayors should be should be aable ble to join the commission in the pto join the commission in the provinces, not the people or the muftis rovinces, not the people or the muftis ecause they are representing the people through legitmate elections.ecause they are representing the people through legitmate elections.346 After long discussions, the Law of SAfter long discussions, the Law of Severance waseverance was ratified by the Charatified by the Cham-m-ber of Deputiber of Deputies. When the Law oes. When the Law of Severancef Severance was put into force, the was put into force, the schedule ofschedule of the ministry intensified. Severance payments would be exthe ministry intensified. Severance payments would be exe-e-cuted by the councils elected from the Chamber of Deputies and the cuted by the councils elected from the Chamber of Deputies and the

342 Tural, "II. Meşrutiyet Döneminde Devletin Restorasyon Bağlamında 1909 Teşkilat ve Tural, "II. Meşrutiyet Döneminde Devletin Restorasyon Bağlamında 1909 Teşkilat ve Tensikat Kanunu," 59.Tensikat Kanunu," 59.

343 MM Zabıt CeriMM Zabıt Ceridedesi, si, Devre: 1Devre: 1, , Cilt:Cilt: 4, 11 4, 11 HaziranHaziran 1325 (1325 (24 24 JuneJune 1909), 627. 1909), 627.

344 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, , Cilt:Cilt: 4, 16 May4, 16 Mayısıs 1325 (29 ay 1909), 221325 (29 ay 1909), 22-- 80.80.

345 According to Tural, the severance issue was implemented with a very wide scope and According to Tural, the severance issue was implemented with a very wide scope and therefore met with severe publtherefore met with severe publicic ccriticism. riticism. Tural, Tural, Son Dönem Osmanlı Bürokrasisi: Son Dönem Osmanlı Bürokrasisi: II. II. Mesrutiyet Dönemi'nde Bürokratlar, İttihatçılar ve Parlamenterler,Mesrutiyet Dönemi'nde Bürokratlar, İttihatçılar ve Parlamenterler, 23.23.

346 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, , Cilt:Cilt: 4, 16 May4, 16 Mayısıs 1325 (29 1325 (29 MMay 1909), 22ay 1909), 22-- 80.80.

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Chamber of Notables.

Chamber of Notables. In the MiniIn the Ministry of Finance, a controversial pstry of Finance, a controversial procroce-e-dure was beingdure was being carried oucarried outt by Cavid Beyby Cavid Bey: while the layoffs we: while the layoffs were ongre ongo-o-ing, new personnel such as inspectors were being hired for new posing, new personnel such as inspectors were being hired for new posi-i-tions. According to reports from the Ministry to the Sublime Porte, thetions. According to reports from the Ministry to the Sublime Porte, the number of snumber of staff members in the Ministry of Fitaff members in the Ministry of Finance decreased frnance decreased from 957 om 957 to 4to 4667. The number of staffs who were re7. The number of staffs who were retired was 133. The main ditired was 133. The main dis-s-pute had to do with nonpute had to do with non--permanent staff, whom Cavid Beypermanent staff, whom Cavid Bey promised promised would be paid.would be paid.347 After the Law of Severance was enacteAfter the Law of Severance was enacted, the Minisd, the Ministry try of Finance began executing it.of Finance began executing it.

Last but not lea

Last but not least, one of st, one of CCavid Beyavid Bey’s most important projects ’s most important projects was was establishing the Financial Officers School (establishing the Financial Officers School (Maliye MektebiMaliye Mektebi) in May 1909) in May 1909 to train students to work in the Ministry of Finance.to train students to work in the Ministry of Finance.348 The courses The courses in-in-cludedcluded geomegeometry, literary composition, ttry, literary composition, the methohe method of recording, d of recording, rules of rules of susubmibmission, French, mathematics, calculassion, French, mathematics, calculation of financial transactions, tion of financial transactions, economy and statistics, common and administrative law, the history of economy and statistics, common and administrative law, the history of the Ottoman Empire, and geography. The nuthe Ottoman Empire, and geography. The number of studmber of students admitted ents admitted was 150. The awas 150. The aim of thim of the school was to e school was to provide youprovide young ng students with a students with a modern financial edmodern financial education, as part of a broader effort to modernize the ucation, as part of a broader effort to modernize the Ottoman Empire’s finances, so that they could catch up with their coOttoman Empire’s finances, so that they could catch up with their con-n-temporaries in develtemporaries in developed countrioped countries.es.349

The legislative period,

The legislative period, especiaespecially the amendmenlly the amendment of the cot of the constnstitution, itution, changed the character of tchanged the character of the regime and transformed it into a modern he regime and transformed it into a modern constitutional regime through a series of legal reforms. Part of these rconstitutional regime through a series of legal reforms. Part of these re-e-forms was related to the fiforms was related to the fiscal issues scal issues that Cavid Beythat Cavid Bey worked on. Asworked on. As Tanör hTanör has discussed, wias discussed, with the Senath the Senate’te’s decision, the principle of “ns decision, the principle of “na-a-tiotional sovereignty” became part of the constitutional discourse and hinal sovereignty” became part of the constitutional discourse and his-s-

347 Tural, "II. Meşrutiyet Döneminde Devletin Restorasyon Bağlamında 1909 Teşkilat ve Tural, "II. Meşrutiyet Döneminde Devletin Restorasyon Bağlamında 1909 Teşkilat ve TensiTensikkat Kaat Kanunu," 264nunu," 264--66.66.

348 Muzaffer Albayrak and Kevser Şeker, edsMuzaffer Albayrak and Kevser Şeker, eds. . ArArşiv Beşiv Bellgelergelerine göre Osmanlı Eğitiminde ine göre Osmanlı Eğitiminde ModernleşmeModernleşme,, (Istanbul: T.C. (Istanbul: T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet Arşivleri Genel Müdürlüğü Osmanlı Başbakanlık Devlet Arşivleri Genel Müdürlüğü Osmanlı Arşivi Daire Başkanlığı, 2014), 4.Arşivi Daire Başkanlığı, 2014), 4.

349 Tural, "II. Meşrutiyet Döneminde Devletin Restorasyon Bağlamında 1909 Teşkilat ve Tural, "II. Meşrutiyet Döneminde Devletin Restorasyon Bağlamında 1909 Teşkilat ve Tensikat Kanunu," 270Tensikat Kanunu," 270--73.73.

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tory, and the 1909 legal reforms established a real parliamentarian and

tory, and the 1909 legal reforms established a real parliamentarian and conconstitutional stitutional regime in terms of the regulregime in terms of the regulation ofation of the state apparthe state apparatus atus and imand immatmaterial rights.erial rights.350 As a young minister As a young minister who was only 33 years who was only 33 years old, Cavid Beyold, Cavid Bey was full of passion and had intricate plans to improve the was full of passion and had intricate plans to improve the country. As many academics have claimed, the CUcountry. As many academics have claimed, the CUP had no conP had no concrete crete plans to govern the Otplans to govern the Ottoman Emtoman Empire; however, ipire; however, it seems that seems that Ct Cavid Beyavid Bey had his own plans related had his own plans related to the economy and fiscal affairs. He adapted to the economy and fiscal affairs. He adapted very quickly and implemented his agenda. In those early days, he did very quickly and implemented his agenda. In those early days, he did not try to initiate his own not try to initiate his own plans, especplans, especially in the ministry but alially in the ministry but also in so in otother areas, as heher areas, as he moved in cmoved in conconcert with the CUP (as can be seen inert with the CUP (as can be seen in the the case of the Ottoman Strike Law). This was true even though he openly case of the Ottoman Strike Law). This was true even though he openly discussed his own arguments but followed suit and aligned himself witdiscussed his own arguments but followed suit and aligned himself with h the CUP whthe CUP when it came to voting on the en it came to voting on the law. law.

§ 2.7 A A Game Changer? Game Changer? 191909 Loan and09 Loan and ItIts Consequencess Consequences

As discussed in the

As discussed in the previous chapter, Cavid Beyprevious chapter, Cavid Bey played a significant role played a significant role as the “game changer” in Ottoman financesas the “game changer” in Ottoman finances——perhaps the first to play perhaps the first to play such a role in a verysuch a role in a very long time. long time. His intelligence, courage, His intelligence, courage, strong istrong intuntui-i-tion, and ention, and energy alloweergy allowed hd him to play his cards carefully. im to play his cards carefully.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey informed the IOB that he would begin a loaninformed the IOB that he would begin a loan operationoperation in in September 19September 1909.09. Besides,Besides, hhe e pointed out that he did not want pointed out that he did not want thethe OPDA OPDA to be thto be thee guarantor guarantor of this loan, of this loan, as used to beas used to be. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey might havemight have ththree differee differreent aimsnt aims in his mindin his mind. Firstly, he aimed to divide the Europe-. Firstly, he aimed to divide the Europe-an market; secondly, he favorean market; secondly, he favored the Natid the National Bank of Turkey contraty to onal Bank of Turkey contraty to the IOB; thirdly, he aimed to disthe IOB; thirdly, he aimed to distance the Empire tance the Empire from financifrom financial control. al control.

As a matter of fact, in early September

As a matter of fact, in early September, Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey initiated the new initiated the new loan process. He loan process. He also also invited wellinvited well--known international banks like known international banks like DeutDeutsche Bank,sche Bank, London Bank, and Crédit Lyonnais. However, the NBT London Bank, and Crédit Lyonnais. However, the NBT has not been has not been invited to thinvited to the tre transaction ofansaction of thisthis new loannew loan.. While Cavid BeyWhile Cavid Bey refused the IOBrefused the IOB’s co’s conditionsnditions, t, the NBT offered to consider the condhe NBT offered to consider the condiitions tions

350 Tanör, Tanör, Osmanlı Türk Anayasal GelişmeleriOsmanlı Türk Anayasal Gelişmeleri, 196, 196--97.97.

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of Cavid Bey

of Cavid Bey. However, the London market’s situ. However, the London market’s situation was ation was not not in its in its good days good days during those days. However, still, the NBT hduring those days. However, still, the NBT heated the baeated the barrgain-gain-ing. In the ing. In the end, 1909 Loan agreement was signed with the IOB witend, 1909 Loan agreement was signed with the IOB with bet-h bet-ter coter conditions than the 1908 Loan.nditions than the 1908 Loan.351 1909 Loan was approved by the 1909 Loan was approved by the decree on August 14, 1909 anddecree on August 14, 1909 and the agreethe agreement was sign by the pament was sign by the parrties ties on October 13, 1909. The loan was alon October 13, 1909. The loan was allocated to the bulocated to the budget deficitdget deficit, lay, lay--offs in the army, and the payments to the Orieoffs in the army, and the payments to the Orient railwaysnt railways. The cap. The capiital of tal of the loan was 7,000,004 Liras. Its interest rate was 4% and its athe loan was 7,000,004 Liras. Its interest rate was 4% and its ammortiza-ortiza-ttion was 1%ion was 1%..352 The net amount of the loan was 5,845,000 LThe net amount of the loan was 5,845,000 Liiras.ras.353 In In the meantithe meantime, the NBT faileme, the NBT failed to meet thd to meet the conditions of the loan becausee conditions of the loan because neither the City ofneither the City of London norLondon nor the Foreign Office suthe Foreign Office suppportedported the the NBT.NBT. However, However, at the end,at the end, thisthis loanloan operation was a sucoperation was a success for Ccess for Cavid Beyavid Bey to to increase the leverage of the Ottoman finances by iincrease the leverage of the Ottoman finances by inncrcreasing the numbereasing the number of the playof the players in the market.ers in the market.354

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey achieved this operatioachieved this operation without tn without the help of Mhe help of Mrr. Laurent. . Laurent. Moreover, Cavid BeyMoreover, Cavid Bey evaluated that Mevaluated that Mrr. Laurent’s authority should. Laurent’s authority should be be reducereduced step by step. d step by step. Cavid BeyCavid Bey was also under attack from members of was also under attack from members of tthe cabinet, mahe cabinet, mainlinly Mahmut Şevy Mahmut Şevket Pasha, who had postulated that ket Pasha, who had postulated that Cavid BeyCavid Bey would awould accept the French treasury or French demands at any ccept the French treasury or French demands at any time. In the meantime, a Financial Reform Committtime. In the meantime, a Financial Reform Committee was aboee was about to be ut to be establishedestablished,, and and who would become who would become its president and members became its president and members became a ca confonflictual issulictual issue between Cavid Beye between Cavid Bey and Mand Mrr. Laurent. The committee . Laurent. The committee was formed to pioneer the was formed to pioneer the ministry’s ministry’s institutional reforms, which institutional reforms, which aimed aimed toto momodderniernizeze budget work and the employment system. budget work and the employment system.

In terms of the emergence of the Committee, Cavid Bey

In terms of the emergence of the Committee, Cavid Bey did not alldid not allow ow MMr. Laurent r. Laurent to be the president, and instead, the finance minister would to be the president, and instead, the finance minister would

351 Özavcı, "A Little Light in The Darkness’: The Mission of Charles Laurent and the YoungÖzavcı, "A Little Light in The Darkness’: The Mission of Charles Laurent and the Young TurksTurks, 1908, 1908--1911," 2161911," 216--17.17.

352 Yeniay, Yeniay, Yeni Osmanlı Borçları TaYeni Osmanlı Borçları Tarihirihi, 103, 103--4.4.

353 Özdemir, Osmanlı DevlÖzdemir, Osmanlı Devleti Dış Borçları: 1854eti Dış Borçları: 1854--1954 Döneminde Yüzyıl Süren Cendere1954 Döneminde Yüzyıl Süren Cendere, 121, 121--22.22.

354 Özavcı, "A Little Light in TheÖzavcı, "A Little Light in The Darkness’: The Mission of Charles Laurent and the Young Darkness’: The Mission of Charles Laurent and the Young Turks, 1908Turks, 1908--1911," 2161911," 216--7.7.

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be the president. Secondly, he preferred

be the president. Secondly, he preferred that thethat the Committee Committee be be constconsti-i-tutetutedd of half foreign delegateof half foreign delegatess, half Ottoman delegate, half Ottoman delegatess..355 As we will see As we will see below, during the 1910 loan period, Mbelow, during the 1910 loan period, Mrr. L. Laurent contiaurent continued his tactics of nued his tactics of dividing the European market and preventing French control over the dividing the European market and preventing French control over the Ottoman treasury. Ottoman treasury. Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s attempt was part of his plan of liberating ’s attempt was part of his plan of liberating Ottoman financial institutions from the penetration of the Great PoOttoman financial institutions from the penetration of the Great Pow-w-ers.ers.356 Cavid Cavid BeyBey susuppported tported the idea of financial sovereignty from the he idea of financial sovereignty from the first day of the Second Constitutional Era and emphasized that this cofirst day of the Second Constitutional Era and emphasized that this con-n-cept was just as important as national sovereignty. However, he was also cept was just as important as national sovereignty. However, he was also aware that the Ottoman Empire needed to continue to askaware that the Ottoman Empire needed to continue to ask fofor for forreign eign cacapital for a while longer in order to accelerate the infrastructure re-pital for a while longer in order to accelerate the infrastructure re-forms it so despeforms it so desperrately required, something that could not only be ac-ately required, something that could not only be ac-complished with domestic resources. While carrying out the legislcomplished with domestic resources. While carrying out the legislaative tive and administrative reforms to eand administrative reforms to enabnable an improvle an improvement in the finaement in the finanncial, cial, economic, and administrative systems, he was also trying to place the economic, and administrative systems, he was also trying to place the Ottoman goOttoman govvernment in a more independent position in terms of loans, ernment in a more independent position in terms of loans, which was something that had never been done before. As had been which was something that had never been done before. As had been seen duseen durring ing thethe establishmeestablishment of the NBT and the 1909 loan, Cavid Beynt of the NBT and the 1909 loan, Cavid Bey wanted to be a game changer and enhance the opportunities of the Ot-wanted to be a game changer and enhance the opportunities of the Ot-toman Empire by increasing the range of financial dealers and trying to toman Empire by increasing the range of financial dealers and trying to eliminate cueliminate currrent actors such as the IOB or, particularly, rent actors such as the IOB or, particularly, thethe OPDAOPDA——the the lalargest guargest guarrantor of Ottoman debts since 1881.antor of Ottoman debts since 1881.357

355 TThe members were Abdurrahman Ara Bey, Bitalis Efendi, Mr. Maisshe members were Abdurrahman Ara Bey, Bitalis Efendi, Mr. Maissa, Mr. Steeg, Mr. a, Mr. Steeg, Mr. Garves and M. Jolly. The chairman of the Committee was MehmGarves and M. Jolly. The chairman of the Committee was Mehmed Cavid Bey, the Mied Cavid Bey, the Minnis-is-ter of ter of Finance. Finance. Toprak, Toprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 1908--19181918, , 397397..

356 Feroz Feroz Ahmad, "Vanguard of a Nascent Ahmad, "Vanguard of a Nascent Bourgeoisie: Bourgeoisie: TheThe Social and Economic Policy of Social and Economic Policy of the Young Turks 1908the Young Turks 1908--1918," in 1918," in From EmpFrom Empiire To Republic: Essays On The Late Ottoman re To Republic: Essays On The Late Ottoman Empire And Modern TEmpire And Modern Turkeyurkey, (Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları:2015), 29., (Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları:2015), 29.

357 According to Blaisdell who wrote on tAccording to Blaisdell who wrote on the Ottoman Public Debt Administration in 1929, he Ottoman Public Debt Administration in 1929,

the role of the debt in the later pethe role of the debt in the later perriod was that of the link between European financial iod was that of the link between European financial resources resources and Tand Turkish economic potential. However, an factor, imperialism, caused urkish economic potential. However, an factor, imperialism, caused acute international rivalry and theacute international rivalry and the final dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire. final dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire. Blaisdell, Blaisdell, European Financial Control in the Ottoman EmpireEuropean Financial Control in the Ottoman Empire, 208., 208.

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§ 2.8 Toward the End of 1909: Knifepoint LawsToward the End of 1909: Knifepoint Laws

Following turbulent months

Following turbulent months, on August 21, 1909, the , on August 21, 1909, the Ottoman Ottoman parlia-parlia-ment adjourned for a summer break until November 14, 1909. However,ment adjourned for a summer break until November 14, 1909. However, the polthe political scene witical scene was as about to reaabout to reach its boiling point. Toward the ch its boiling point. Toward the opening of the second parliamentary term, the opposition began raising opening of the second parliamentary term, the opposition began raising its voice. It was rumored that a new political party called the Moderate its voice. It was rumored that a new political party called the Moderate Liberal Party (Liberal Party (Mutedil Hürriyetperveran PaMutedil Hürriyetperveran Partyrty) wou) would soon be estld soon be estab-ab-llished. The Cished. The CUP’s response was quite clear: once the coUP’s response was quite clear: once the connstitutional or-stitutional or-der was established, they would be pleased with the exider was established, they would be pleased with the exisstence of an op-tence of an op-position party. One of the reasons they welcomed an oposition party. One of the reasons they welcomed an oppposition party is position party is because they were upbecause they were upset by tset by the influence ohe influence of tf the army and he army and Mahmut Şev-Mahmut Şev-ket Pasha in the political arena.ket Pasha in the political arena.358

On October 22, 1909, the Congress of the CUP was held in Selanik.

On October 22, 1909, the Congress of the CUP was held in Selanik. The CUP continued to keep its headquarters in Selanik due to the turbThe CUP continued to keep its headquarters in Selanik due to the turbu-u-lence of politics in Istanbul. They relence of politics in Istanbul. They remained dmained distant from boistant from both th Istanbul Istanbul andand power politics and kept themselves as a holy, sacred, and secretive power politics and kept themselves as a holy, sacred, and secretive organization. The Committee had two main priorities regarding politorganization. The Committee had two main priorities regarding politiical cal life: first was the role of the army in Ottoman politics. According to Mus-life: first was the role of the army in Ottoman politics. According to Mus-tafatafa Kemal PKemal Pasha, who partasha, who particiicipated in thepated in the Congress as a delegate of the Congress as a delegate of the CUP branch in CUP branch in TrablusgarpTrablusgarp, the , the ongoingongoing involvement of officers in the involvement of officers in the CUP had a negative impact on the army and on the public sphere. He CUP had a negative impact on the army and on the public sphere. He proposed that officers whose services were needed bproposed that officers whose services were needed by society society or who y or who wishewished td to remain in o remain in the CUP should resign from the armed forces, and the CUP should resign from the armed forces, and that a law should be passed banning the military from membership in that a law should be passed banning the military from membership in any political organization. This idea was opposed by the delegates, who any political organization. This idea was opposed by the delegates, who argued that the 31 March Incidargued that the 31 March Incident had ent had revealed the nrevealed the needeed for close lfor close links inks between the army and between the army and secretsecret? ? society.society.359 This might be described as the This might be described as the first clash between Mustafa Kemal and the Unionists. First, the CUP first clash between Mustafa Kemal and the Unionists. First, the CUP aimed to leave the highaimed to leave the high--ranking soldiers out of politics while including ranking soldiers out of politics while including thethe lowerlower--ranking sranking soldieroldiers is in the field n the field and keeping them close to the and keeping them close to the

358 KKansu, ansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 149, 149--50.50.

359 Mango, Mango, Atatürk,Atatürk, 240.240.

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Committee. Second, they aimed to restrict the sultan’s authority to with-

Committee. Second, they aimed to restrict the sultan’s authority to with-in the framework of the constitutional regime. Furthermore, the Con-in the framework of the constitutional regime. Furthermore, the Con-gress dgress deecided to unveil its secret structure as mecided to unveil its secret structure as mentioned above. Fntioned above. For theor the fifirst time, thrst time, the CUP announced the members of the Central Committee e CUP announced the members of the Central Committee and removed the principle of secret membership.and removed the principle of secret membership.360

Despite opposition from the CUP, the Moderate Liberal Party was es-

Despite opposition from the CUP, the Moderate Liberal Party was es-tablished on November 22, tablished on November 22, 1909,1909, and became the firstand became the first opposition partopposition party y estaestablbliished withinshed within the parliament during the Second Constitthe parliament during the Second Constituutional Era. tional Era. Mostly Albanian, Greek, and Arab MPs had joined the new party, and Mostly Albanian, Greek, and Arab MPs had joined the new party, and İsmail Kemal Bey was the leader of the partyİsmail Kemal Bey was the leader of the party361 until it duntil it deecided to merge cided to merge with the Freedom and Accordwith the Freedom and Accord Party in 1911. Party in 1911. The paThe partrtyy’s leading ’s leading figures figures included many and speakers who used to criticize and attack Cavid Beyincluded many and speakers who used to criticize and attack Cavid Bey including Lütfi Fikri, Boşo Bey, and Şefil Elincluding Lütfi Fikri, Boşo Bey, and Şefil El--Müeyyid. The party was ac-Müeyyid. The party was ac-tive mainly during the Hakkı Pasha and Sait Pasha cabinets, which were tive mainly during the Hakkı Pasha and Sait Pasha cabinets, which were some of the livesome of the liveliest liest peperriods of theiods of the day. The Moday. The Modderate Liberal Party car-erate Liberal Party car-ried corrosive opposition into the parliament, particularly during the ried corrosive opposition into the parliament, particularly during the time of Mahmut Şevket Pasha.time of Mahmut Şevket Pasha.362 Adapting to the liberal atmosphere Adapting to the liberal atmosphere that had been established in the political arenathat had been established in the political arena, the CUP also m, the CUP also modifieodified d iitself and btself and became a more liberal organization. ecame a more liberal organization.

Before the new year, Cavid Bey

Before the new year, Cavid Bey was involved in two issues that were was involved in two issues that were also related to the survival of the government. The first one was the also related to the survival of the government. The first one was the Lynch issue, which paved the way for the crumbLynch issue, which paved the way for the crumbling of the cabiling of the cabinet. Tnet. Thehe second was second was the withdrawal of the Alcoholic Beverage Law. The Lynch the withdrawal of the Alcoholic Beverage Law. The Lynch Project was a multiProject was a multi--dimensional subject that led to the fall of the cabdimensional subject that led to the fall of the cabiinet net and uncovered the cleavages within the CUP in the parliament. It had an and uncovered the cleavages within the CUP in the parliament. It had an international pointernational political dimensiolitical dimension thatn that wwaas bound to s bound to local pollocal poliitics. Alt-tics. Alt-hough the palace had held the navigation rights to the Euphrates and hough the palace had held the navigation rights to the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, the British firm LynchTigris rivers, the British firm Lynch——which was a Euphrates and Tigris which was a Euphrates and Tigris

360 Tunaya,Tunaya, İİttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi,uşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi, 286.286.

361 Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidarKansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 149, 149--53.53.

362 Tarık Zafer Tunaya,Tarık Zafer Tunaya, İkinci Meşrutiyet Dönemi, İkinci Meşrutiyet Dönemi, VVol. 1, Türkol. 1, Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler iye’de Siyasal Partiler (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2007), 241(Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2007), 241--45.45.

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Steam Navigation Company

Steam Navigation Company363——had dominated the shipping bushad dominated the shipping busiinessness since the midsince the mid--ninineteeneteentnthh century, icentury, including mail concessions. Before ncluding mail concessions. Before the 31 March incident, Lynch had made an agreement with the govern-the 31 March incident, Lynch had made an agreement with the govern-ment for the renewal of its concessions, which encompassed a 75ment for the renewal of its concessions, which encompassed a 75--year year shishippping concession on both rivers on the conditionping concession on both rivers on the condition that Lynch wouldthat Lynch would coconnttriribbute 50% to ute 50% to establishing the Hamidiye Company, an Ottoman establishing the Hamidiye Company, an Ottoman cocommpany. The Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha government approved the agree-pany. The Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha government approved the agree-ment without putting it to a vote in the Chamber. Thereupon, Babanza-ment without putting it to a vote in the Chamber. Thereupon, Babanza-de İsmail Hakkı Bey, MP for de İsmail Hakkı Bey, MP for BaghdadBaghdad who was who was also a lawyer spealso a lawyer specialicializizinng g in constiin constitutional law, interpellated the government about the approval tutional law, interpellated the government about the approval of the concession agreement without first asking the parliament.of the concession agreement without first asking the parliament.364 While the government supported the agreement, it was severely criti-While the government supported the agreement, it was severely criti-cized by the Iraqi peoplecized by the Iraqi people, MPs for provinc, MPs for province of e of IIrraaq, and Mahmq, and Mahmut Şevket ut Şevket Pasha, as well as by some other Unionists. The opposing MPs claimed Pasha, as well as by some other Unionists. The opposing MPs claimed that there were local companies that could do the same work as the that there were local companies that could do the same work as the Lynch CoLynch Commpany. Meanwhile, some MPs such as Zubeyrzade Ahmet Pasa pany. Meanwhile, some MPs such as Zubeyrzade Ahmet Pasa (Basra) held shares in the projec(Basra) held shares in the project.t.365

Apart fro

Apart from the concession itself, governmental approval of such an m the concession itself, governmental approval of such an important agreement without asking the parliament was a massive con-important agreement without asking the parliament was a massive con-cern for both MPs and the Senate. However, the Senate had decided that cern for both MPs and the Senate. However, the Senate had decided that until a new law was prepared on the issue, until a new law was prepared on the issue, allall ththe agreemente agreements regarding s regarding the cothe concessions were bound to approval by the Parliament. In terms of ncessions were bound to approval by the Parliament. In terms of international politics, the Unionistsinternational politics, the Unionists——who clashed with both Mahmut who clashed with both Mahmut Şavket Pasha and Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, but especially with Mahmut Şavket Pasha and Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, but especially with Mahmut Şevket Pasha and his GermaŞevket Pasha and his Germanophile policiesnophile policies——preferred to leanpreferred to lean on Brit-on Brit-ish policies to balance the position of the Ottoman Empire. Akşin states ish policies to balance the position of the Ottoman Empire. Akşin states that while this policy might have been useful in the short term, in the that while this policy might have been useful in the short term, in the long term, it would be harmful for the Empire due to the Entente Cor-long term, it would be harmful for the Empire due to the Entente Cor-

363 Camille LyanCamille Lyans s Cole, Cole, ““Precarious Empires: A Precarious Empires: A Social and Environmental HistorSocial and Environmental History of Steam y of Steam Navigation on the Tigris,Navigation on the Tigris,”” Journal of Social HistoryJournal of Social History 50, no. 150, no. 1 (Fall, 2016), 74(Fall, 2016), 74--101101. .

364 MMM Zabıt CerM Zabıt Ceridesi, idesi, Devre:1Devre:1, , Cilt:Cilt: 1, 16 Teşrinisani 1325 (29 November 1909), 140. 1, 16 Teşrinisani 1325 (29 November 1909), 140.

365 Tunaya,Tunaya,Türkiye’de Siyasal PartiTürkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir ler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarih, Partinin Tarih, 432432--33.33.

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diale between Britain, France, and

diale between Britain, France, and Russia. Moreover, rumors related to Russia. Moreover, rumors related to Mahmut Şevket Pasha and German General Von der Goltz Pasha’s plans Mahmut Şevket Pasha and German General Von der Goltz Pasha’s plans to overthrow the CUP to set up a military dictatorship devoted to Ger-to overthrow the CUP to set up a military dictatorship devoted to Ger-man interests had begun to circulate.man interests had begun to circulate.366 As a result, As a result, Tanin Tanin was closed by was closed by court martiacourt martial on December 22, 1909, due to its reporting of news relat-l on December 22, 1909, due to its reporting of news relat-ed to the issue.ed to the issue.

As Kent claims, the Foreign Office pressed the Porte in June 1909 to

As Kent claims, the Foreign Office pressed the Porte in June 1909 to allow the Lynch firm to confirm the concession for its monopoly on the allow the Lynch firm to confirm the concession for its monopoly on the Tigris and Euphrates that was granted by Tigris and Euphrates that was granted by Abdülhamid II. However, so Abdülhamid II. However, so strong were local protests in response to the news of this schemestrong were local protests in response to the news of this scheme——which awhich apppeared to presage a resumption of the company’s former, peared to presage a resumption of the company’s former, crushing mcrushing moonopolistic freight ratesnopolistic freight rates——that the Ottoman cabinet had to that the Ottoman cabinet had to resign, at least partly, due toresign, at least partly, due to this issue.this issue.367 This incident was the one of This incident was the one of the outcomes of the rivalry between Britain and Germany. However, the outcomes of the rivalry between Britain and Germany. However, Britain declined to pressure the Ottoman government, at least in this Britain declined to pressure the Ottoman government, at least in this instance.instance.368 The deputies for Iraq pursued an influential lobby in the The deputies for Iraq pursued an influential lobby in the parliameparliament. However, the Unionists were stuck between Hilmi Pasha nt. However, the Unionists were stuck between Hilmi Pasha susuppporting the Lynch project and Arab public opinion. Soon, the porting the Lynch project and Arab public opinion. Soon, the Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha goHüseyin Hilmi Pasha govvernment would fall, and the Lynch project ernment would fall, and the Lynch project would be one of the rewould be one of the reaasons for this.sons for this.369

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey made a long speech amade a long speech addressing the parliament on the ddressing the parliament on the Lynch issue. However, his point was neither on concessions nor on Lynch issue. However, his point was neither on concessions nor on competition between the Great Powers in the Ottoman Empire. The competition between the Great Powers in the Ottoman Empire. The main point was that, as mentioned above, the CUP supported Hüseyin main point was that, as mentioned above, the CUP supported Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha and his stance Hilmi Pasha and his stance of backing the Lynch agreement. During his of backing the Lynch agreement. During his speech Cavid Beyspeech Cavid Bey statestatedd that there was no such legislation ordering that that there was no such legislation ordering that

366 Feroz Ahmad, "Great Britain's Relations with the Feroz Ahmad, "Great Britain's Relations with the Young Turks 1908Young Turks 1908––1914," 1914," Middle Middle Eastern StudiesEastern Studies 2, no. 4 (1966)2, no. 4 (1966): 161.: 161.

367 Marian Kent, "Great Britain and TMarian Kent, "Great Britain and The End of The Ottoman Empire 1900he End of The Ottoman Empire 1900--1923," in 1923," in The The Great Powers and the End of the OtGreat Powers and the End of the Ottoman Empiretoman Empire, ed. Marian Kent (London: Frank Cass, , ed. Marian Kent (London: Frank Cass, 2005), 172 2005), 172 and 75.and 75.

368 IbIbid? id? Kent, “Great BrKent, “Great Britain, Titain, The Great Powers and the End of the Ottoman Empirehe Great Powers and the End of the Ottoman Empire, p: 172, , p: 172, 175. 175.

369 Ahmad, "Great BritaiAhmad, "Great Britain's relations with the Young Turn's relations with the Young Turks 1908ks 1908––1914," 163.1914," 163.

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agreements on financial engagements should be voted on in parliament.

agreements on financial engagements should be voted on in parliament. Due to this fact, the government had acted according to current legisDue to this fact, the government had acted according to current legislla-a-tion. The opposition claimed that tion. The opposition claimed that allall the agreements should be voted on the agreements should be voted on in the parliament, and furthermore, some of the MPs argued that the in the parliament, and furthermore, some of the MPs argued that the Lynch project consisted of financial engagements. According to Cavid Lynch project consisted of financial engagements. According to Cavid BeyBey, the main issue was that the operation, the main issue was that the operationss neneeded to be urgently ieded to be urgently im-m-plemented. For the first time, Cavid Beyplemented. For the first time, Cavid Bey did not point out European edid not point out European ex-x-amples and argued amples and argued thatthat ““We have to reach the level of progress through We have to reach the level of progress through quick steps.”quick steps.” According to him, if the parliament were to engage in long According to him, if the parliament were to engage in long debates about edebates about evvery ery article of every agreement, it would both slow article of every agreement, it would both slow down the legislative process and decrease the government’s capacity to down the legislative process and decrease the government’s capacity to execute laws. Cavid Beyexecute laws. Cavid Bey spoke about the economic, financial, legal, and spoke about the economic, financial, legal, and political dimensions of the Lynch project. He argued that conpolitical dimensions of the Lynch project. He argued that conttraryrary to to Mahmut Şevket Pasha’s opinion, if the concessions were given, the Mahmut Şevket Pasha’s opinion, if the concessions were given, the number of ships would increase in accordance with the increase in number of ships would increase in accordance with the increase in commercial transactions on the rivers. Also, according to Cavid Beycommercial transactions on the rivers. Also, according to Cavid Bey, the , the key issue was not navigation but the irrigkey issue was not navigation but the irrigaationtion project that also lay project that also lay within the scope of the agreement with Lynch. Moreover, small buswithin the scope of the agreement with Lynch. Moreover, small busi-i-nesses would be able to continue transporting their own products in nesses would be able to continue transporting their own products in their own ships, which meant that the monopoly was not very strict. their own ships, which meant that the monopoly was not very strict. Fiscally, Cavid BeyFiscally, Cavid Bey pointedpointed outout that the agreement incorporated a tax that the agreement incorporated a tax allowance, something that was very common according to the princallowance, something that was very common according to the princiiples ples of a liberal economy. If they removed this, then it would be impoof a liberal economy. If they removed this, then it would be imposssible sible to discuss any kind of fiscal undertakings. Politically, the key issue to discuss any kind of fiscal undertakings. Politically, the key issue was was the navigation of foreignthe navigation of foreign——mainly Britishmainly British——ships in Ottoman wships in Ottoman waaters. ters. However, as Cavid BeyHowever, as Cavid Bey states, the government did not have any pstates, the government did not have any poolitical, litical, legal, economic, or financial conflicts legal, economic, or financial conflicts regardingregarding the Lynch agreement.the Lynch agreement.370 While supporting the government’s deWhile supporting the government’s decisiocision onn on the Lynch project, Cavid the Lynch project, Cavid BeyBey also pointed to the irrigation projects that the German already of-also pointed to the irrigation projects that the German already of-fered alongside with the fered alongside with the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway project. Cavid Beyproject. Cavid Bey underlined underlined that alongside the that alongside the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway and the irrand the irriigation project, the Brit-gation project, the Brit-

370 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre 2, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre 2, Cilt:Cilt: 1, 28 Teşrinisani 1325 1, 28 Teşrinisani 1325 (11 De(11 December 1909), 253cember 1909), 253--257.257.

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ish conce

ish concessionssion on on navigation rights was not overly problematic, as small navigation rights was not overly problematic, as small businesses could still use their own ships. He also underlined the fact businesses could still use their own ships. He also underlined the fact that if the parliament would negotiate every concession agreement, that if the parliament would negotiate every concession agreement, then perhaps they would only be able to finish negotithen perhaps they would only be able to finish negotiationations fos for four r four agreements in a sixagreements in a six--month time periodmonth time period——and this would be the case on-and this would be the case on-ly if they were to work day and night. ly if they were to work day and night.

Following the Lynch decision Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha threatened the

Following the Lynch decision Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha threatened the CUP by saying that he would resign if the parliament would not provCUP by saying that he would resign if the parliament would not provide ide aa votvote of confidence. Therefore, the Committee got involved, and Halil e of confidence. Therefore, the Committee got involved, and Halil Bey tabled a motion that it would not be a concession if the Lynch coBey tabled a motion that it would not be a concession if the Lynch com-m-pany accepted the government’s offer.pany accepted the government’s offer.371 He also proposed that until He also proposed that until there was new legislation concerning the newthere was new legislation concerning the new concconcessiession agreements, on agreements, the current ones should be ratified only by the government. He, among the current ones should be ratified only by the government. He, among others, chose Halil Bey’s motion, and the parliament provided a vote of others, chose Halil Bey’s motion, and the parliament provided a vote of confidence in him.confidence in him.372

The second big issue that Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha dealt with before his

The second big issue that Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha dealt with before his reresignasignationtion was the Spirits and Alcoholic Beverage Law. On December was the Spirits and Alcoholic Beverage Law. On December 18, 1909, this law, which had already been passed by the Chamber of 18, 1909, this law, which had already been passed by the Chamber of Deputies during the first term and mainly regulated the import of beDeputies during the first term and mainly regulated the import of bev-v-erages, made its way onto the parliament’s agenda. Haerages, made its way onto the parliament’s agenda. Haydar ydar Bey,Bey, MP for MP for Saruhan,Saruhan, had asked for a delay in the implementation of this law.had asked for a delay in the implementation of this law.373 This This issue had extremely important impacts and consequences. First of all, it issue had extremely important impacts and consequences. First of all, it revealed once again the negative impact of capitulations on Ottoman revealed once again the negative impact of capitulations on Ottoman legislation. In the face olegislation. In the face off loclocal ial interests, the capitulations forced the nterests, the capitulations forced the government to accept the terms of the Great Powers. Second, the prgovernment to accept the terms of the Great Powers. Second, the pro-o-posed law was contrary to Cavid’s Bey’s discourse on “financial soveposed law was contrary to Cavid’s Bey’s discourse on “financial sover-r-eignty.” According to the law, the import of alcohol, which was mostly eignty.” According to the law, the import of alcohol, which was mostly iimmportported fed for industrial consumption but was also used to make beveor industrial consumption but was also used to make bever-r-ages, would not be banned outright but rather limited; second, imports ages, would not be banned outright but rather limited; second, imports on beverages made from grapes and other fruits would be prohibited on beverages made from grapes and other fruits would be prohibited toto

371 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre 2MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre 2, Cilt:, Cilt: 1, 301, 30 TeşrinisaniTeşrinisani 1325 (13 December 1909), 289.1325 (13 December 1909), 289.

372 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre 2MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre 2, C, Cilt:ilt: 1, 301, 30 Teşrinisani 1325 (1Teşrinisani 1325 (13 December 1909, 2923 December 1909, 292--2293.93.

373 MM Zabıt Ceridesi Devre: MM Zabıt Ceridesi Devre: 22, , Cilt:Cilt: 1, 16 Teşrinisani 1, 16 Teşrinisani 1325 (1325 (29 November 1909), 14329 November 1909), 143

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support local production. The Hüseyin Hilmi

support local production. The Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha cabiPasha cabinet net brought this brought this law back to the parliament’s agenda, which created conflict between the law back to the parliament’s agenda, which created conflict between the Ottoman government and the Great Powers. And as one might expect, it Ottoman government and the Great Powers. And as one might expect, it stirred controversy. According to Tunaya, Rifat Pasha, the Minister of stirred controversy. According to Tunaya, Rifat Pasha, the Minister of Foreign Affairs,Foreign Affairs, had confeshad confessed sed that this law, which aimed to look after that this law, which aimed to look after local producers, had been met with protest from the Great Powers, and local producers, had been met with protest from the Great Powers, and it demonstrated how capitulations humiliated the honor of the govern-it demonstrated how capitulations humiliated the honor of the govern-ment.ment.374 Cavid BeyCavid Bey addressed the MPs upon the parliameaddressed the MPs upon the parliamenntary questary questition on of Hayof Haydar dar Bey.Bey. Although this act had protected local prAlthough this act had protected local prooducers around ducers around İzmirİzmir, according to the agreements signed in 1861 with the Great Pow-, according to the agreements signed in 1861 with the Great Pow-ersers——which were still enforced though their duration had expiredwhich were still enforced though their duration had expired—— items such as salt, tobacco, gunpowder, and miliitems such as salt, tobacco, gunpowder, and militartary equiy equippmment ent could could not be limited or banned. Therefore, it was not possible to prohibit the not be limited or banned. Therefore, it was not possible to prohibit the import of beverages made from grapes. According to Cavid Beyimport of beverages made from grapes. According to Cavid Bey, the new , the new act could cause an economic war between the Ottoman Empire and the act could cause an economic war between the Ottoman Empire and the Great Powers. He criticizGreat Powers. He criticized ed the MPs,the MPs, argarguing, “uing, “We had broken the politi-We had broken the politi-cal despotism but not the fiscal one.cal despotism but not the fiscal one.””375 The goverThe governnment was also ment was also warned by the embassies of the Great Powers about the consequences warned by the embassies of the Great Powers about the consequences of withdrawal from the agreement. of withdrawal from the agreement.

After these two incidents Hüseyin Hilmi Pash

After these two incidents Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha ra resigned,esigned, thothough he ugh he had just obtained a vote of confidence. He left office on December 28, had just obtained a vote of confidence. He left office on December 28, 1909. İbrahim Hakkı Pasha1909. İbrahim Hakkı Pasha——an intellectual, professor of law, and the an intellectual, professor of law, and the Empire’s ambassador in RomeEmpire’s ambassador in Rome——filled his shoes on January 10, 1909. filled his shoes on January 10, 1909. The next day, he obtained a The next day, he obtained a votvote of cone of confidefidence.nce.376 Cavid BeyCavid Bey and Talat and Talat Bey kept their offices as the Minister of Finance and Minister for InteBey kept their offices as the Minister of Finance and Minister for Inter-r-nal Affairs, respectivelynal Affairs, respectively, while t, while there here waswas a total of a total of eight Unioeight Unionnists in the ists in the cabinet.cabinet.377 In terms of the economy, the prIn terms of the economy, the program of the new cabogram of the new cabinet inet aimed to paimed to prepareparre a more solid budget and began a cost cutting process e a more solid budget and began a cost cutting process for public spending. As Tural quotes from the for public spending. As Tural quotes from the Journal of Journal of İhsaiyyatİhsaiyyat--ı Mali-ı Mali-

374 Tunaya, İttihat veTunaya, İttihat ve Terakki, Bir ÇağıTerakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin n, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi, Tarihi, 9191--93.93.

375 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 22, , Cilt:Cilt: 1, 16 Teşrinisani 1325 (29 November 1909)1, 16 Teşrinisani 1325 (29 November 1909), 143. , 143.

376 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 2Devre: 2 Cilt:Cilt: 1, 11 Kanunisani 11, 11 Kanunisani 1325, 325, (14(14 January 1910), 617January 1910), 617--643.643.

377 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadeleİttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908si, 1908--1913,1913, 168.168.

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ye,,378 which began publication in 1909, the economic situation had both which began publication in 1909, the economic situation had both positive and negative sides. According to the journal, despite the de-positive and negative sides. According to the journal, despite the de-crease in allowances, expenses in the public sector were increasing, crease in allowances, expenses in the public sector were increasing, which he claimed was worrisome. which he claimed was worrisome. Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s search for a foreign loan ’s search for a foreign loan to close the budget deficit in 1910 indicated only incrto close the budget deficit in 1910 indicated only increemental growth. mental growth.

§ 2.9 1910 Budget and the Audit Wars1910 Budget and the Audit Wars

During the first half of 1910, Cavid Bey

During the first half of 1910, Cavid Bey was mostly in Istanbul and prwas mostly in Istanbul and pre-e-occupied with the legislative proceedings fooccupied with the legislative proceedings for the provisional and ger the provisional and gen-n-eral budgets, loans, expenditures, taxes, etc. He would address the paeral budgets, loans, expenditures, taxes, etc. He would address the par-r-liament and sometimes found himself in tough ideological discussions, liament and sometimes found himself in tough ideological discussions, such as during the property tax discussion. Due to a break in Cavid such as during the property tax discussion. Due to a break in Cavid BeyBey’s journal, I will ’s journal, I will attempt to shed light on events in 1910 by referenattempt to shed light on events in 1910 by referenc-c-ing his minutes in the Assembly as well as using secondary resources. ing his minutes in the Assembly as well as using secondary resources.

The Cretan question, the dispute with the Austrian

The Cretan question, the dispute with the Austrian--Hungarian EHungarian Em-m-pire over Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Bulgaria’s declaration of indpire over Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Bulgaria’s declaration of inde-e-penpendence would put the CUP in an uncomfortable position toward the dence would put the CUP in an uncomfortable position toward the end of 1909. Against the new additions to the Greek Navy, the Ottoman end of 1909. Against the new additions to the Greek Navy, the Ottoman Ministry of the Navy immediately initiated the purchase of new battlMinistry of the Navy immediately initiated the purchase of new battle-e-ships. Meanwhile, ships. Meanwhile, Mahmut Şevket Pasha set out plans tMahmut Şevket Pasha set out plans to increase the o increase the Ottoman land forces up to 2.5 million soldiers. This political enviroOttoman land forces up to 2.5 million soldiers. This political environ-n-ment, which was inhospitable to financial progress, was partially why ment, which was inhospitable to financial progress, was partially why the budget for 1910the budget for 1910––1911 showed an estimated deficit of 4,421,914 1911 showed an estimated deficit of 4,421,914 li-li-ra. The deficit made it essential for a 4% increase in customs duties in ra. The deficit made it essential for a 4% increase in customs duties in order to achieve a balanced budget. order to achieve a balanced budget. However, Cavid BeyHowever, Cavid Bey’s attempts in ’s attempts in Berlin, Paris, and London were fruitless because they wanted recoBerlin, Paris, and London were fruitless because they wanted reconncilia-cilia-tion on the Baghdad Railway issue to helption on the Baghdad Railway issue to help the Ottoman Empire by a loan the Ottoman Empire by a loan

378 İhsahsaiyyatiyyat--i Maliye, Birinci Maliye, Birinci sene, 1325, i sene, 1325, İstanbul, 1327, s. 421. For a study and detstanbul, 1327, s. 421. For a study and detailed ailed statistics on Ottoman finances, see statistics on Ottoman finances, see Engin Deniz Akarlı, "1872Engin Deniz Akarlı, "1872--1916 Bütçeleri I1916 Bütçeleri Işıığında ında Osmanlı Maliyesinin SıOsmanlı Maliyesinin Sıkıntılkıntıları," arı," İstanbul Üniversitesi stanbul Üniversitesi İktisat Fakültesi Mecmuasıktisat Fakültesi Mecmuası 38, no. 38, no. 11--2: 2252: 225--53; an53; and Tural, "II. Meşrutiyet Döneminde Devletin Restorasyon Bağlamd Tural, "II. Meşrutiyet Döneminde Devletin Restorasyon Bağlamında ında 1909 Teşkilat ve Tensik1909 Teşkilat ve Tensikat Kanunu," 269.at Kanunu," 269.

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or increase customs duties

or increase customs duties..379 However, Cavid BeyHowever, Cavid Bey and and the Othe Otttoman toman government government had tohad to wait for this until the spwait for this until the sprring of 1914. ing of 1914.

On February 5, 1910, Cavid Bey

On February 5, 1910, Cavid Bey started the year by dealing with pastarted the year by dealing with pal-l-ace expenditures. He submitted aace expenditures. He submitted a leglegislative proposal to the parliament islative proposal to the parliament in February 1910 for 2.4 million piastre in additional subsidies for the in February 1910 for 2.4 million piastre in additional subsidies for the renovation of the imperial palace.renovation of the imperial palace.380 Though he had allocated money for Though he had allocated money for this item, it had already been spent to the needs of the state. This drafthis item, it had already been spent to the needs of the state. This draftt lalaw also contained some extra allocations for the Ministry of War and w also contained some extra allocations for the Ministry of War and Navy. According to Cavid BeyNavy. According to Cavid Bey, this was an urgent draft law that needed , this was an urgent draft law that needed to be approved immediately. He also submitted a proposal for an addto be approved immediately. He also submitted a proposal for an addi-i-tional subsidy for the tional subsidy for the SadaretSadaret and the Ministand the Ministrry oy of Internal Affairs. In the f Internal Affairs. In the Parliament, Cavid BeyParliament, Cavid Bey explained the need for these extra allocations: in explained the need for these extra allocations: in 1909, while they were preparing the budget, the ministry had been u1909, while they were preparing the budget, the ministry had been un-n-sure about the facts and figures, and therefore, they needed more mon-sure about the facts and figures, and therefore, they needed more mon-ey for some depey for some depaartmrtments than they had expected. Cavid Beyents than they had expected. Cavid Bey also re-also re-quested money for other needs, such as the travelling expenses of the quested money for other needs, such as the travelling expenses of the officers who had relocated during the Law of Severance and the reoofficers who had relocated during the Law of Severance and the reor-r-ganization of jails, among other things. At that point, they still haganization of jails, among other things. At that point, they still hadd a a month and a half until the new budget, and these expenses needed to be month and a half until the new budget, and these expenses needed to be paid within 37 days.paid within 37 days.381

On February 7, the draft law concerning the loan for the Municipa

On February 7, the draft law concerning the loan for the Municipalli-i-ty of Istanbul was discussed in the parliament. According to Cavid Beyty of Istanbul was discussed in the parliament. According to Cavid Bey, , the amount of the lothe amount of the loaan, n, 1.1 million Liras, was not exorbitant for a cou1.1 million Liras, was not exorbitant for a coun-n-try that owed 120 million Liras in debt. This was the first time that a try that owed 120 million Liras in debt. This was the first time that a municipality had signed a loan agreement with a foreign entity. The loan municipality had signed a loan agreement with a foreign entity. The loan agreement was struck between the Istanbul Municipality and agreement was struck between the Istanbul Municipality and PPeerrrrier ier Bank for 1.1 million Liras at a 5% interest rate. The main problem was Bank for 1.1 million Liras at a 5% interest rate. The main problem was that the bank decided to give 86% for the loan, which is why the rate that the bank decided to give 86% for the loan, which is why the rate

379 Özavcı, "A Little Light in The Darkness’: The MÖzavcı, "A Little Light in The Darkness’: The Missionission of Charles Laurent and the Young of Charles Laurent and the Young Turks, 1908Turks, 1908--1911," 2181911," 218--19.19.

380 During this periDuring this period, the Palace still lacked a heating system.od, the Palace still lacked a heating system.

381 MM Zabıt CeridMM Zabıt Ceridesi, esi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, , Cilt:Cilt: 1, 20 J1, 20 July 1325 (2 August 1909), 125uly 1325 (2 August 1909), 125--27.27.

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increased to 5.8%. Perrier Bank accepted the payment of the money in

increased to 5.8%. Perrier Bank accepted the payment of the money in several tranches.several tranches.382

By 1910, the revolt

By 1910, the revoltss inin Albania proved to be one of the Ottoman gov-Albania proved to be one of the Ottoman gov-ernment’s major problems. At the end of March 1910, a revolt oernment’s major problems. At the end of March 1910, a revolt occcurred curred in Albania in the district governorship of in Albania in the district governorship of İpek, an Albanian proİpek, an Albanian provvince in ince in Kosovo. The reasons for the revolt varied but centered on the spread of Kosovo. The reasons for the revolt varied but centered on the spread of the tax called the tax called octroioctroi (octruva) (octruva) from cities to rural areasfrom cities to rural areas. The aim of the . The aim of the tax was the reconstruction of the city, a population census to create tax was the reconstruction of the city, a population census to create mapping fmapping for the neor the new w taxes, compulsory military service for nontaxes, compulsory military service for non--MuslimsMuslims, et cetera, et cetera. During the revolt, the military commander of İpek . During the revolt, the military commander of İpek was muwas murrdered, and the lieutenant of İpek was injured during an assas-dered, and the lieutenant of İpek was injured during an assas-sination attesination attemmptpt. A state of emergency was declared in the regio. A state of emergency was declared in the region, and n, and the issue of the revolt spreading throughout the region came to the par-the issue of the revolt spreading throughout the region came to the par-liament’s attention. Some Albanian MPs in the CUP, including Necip Dra-liament’s attention. Some Albanian MPs in the CUP, including Necip Dra-ga, rga, reesigned from the CUP. signed from the CUP. ConsideringConsidering the situation, thethe situation, the gogovernment vernment sought and obtained a vote of confidencsought and obtained a vote of confidence.e.383 However, this revolt was However, this revolt was the bthe beeginning of the road toward Albania’s independence. During the ginning of the road toward Albania’s independence. During the Second Constitutional Era, three revolts had taken place in Albania, and Second Constitutional Era, three revolts had taken place in Albania, and at the end of the Balkan Wars, Albaat the end of the Balkan Wars, Albanniaia would separate from the Otto-would separate from the Otto-man Eman Emmpire. pire.

On Mar

On March 12, 1910, Cavid Beych 12, 1910, Cavid Bey submitted the “Provisional Budget for submitted the “Provisional Budget for March and April.” The general budget was late, as he continued to have March and April.” The general budget was late, as he continued to have difficulties in collecting data from the state’s various departments. Onedifficulties in collecting data from the state’s various departments. One ofof the key problems was the amendments to the Law the key problems was the amendments to the Law of Tithe and Cattle. of Tithe and Cattle. On March 25, 1910, Cavid BeyOn March 25, 1910, Cavid Bey stated that it took too long to prepare the stated that it took too long to prepare the amendments and that the task seemed nearly impossible. At the same amendments and that the task seemed nearly impossible. At the same time, he experienced difficulties in puttingtime, he experienced difficulties in putting totogether the general budget. gether the general budget. One of the main discuOne of the main discussion topics in the parliament in the spring of ssion topics in the parliament in the spring of 1910 was the state’s loans and where the government had spent them. 1910 was the state’s loans and where the government had spent them. According to Cavid BeyAccording to Cavid Bey, the government should make revisions, partic, the government should make revisions, particu-u-

382 The shares were exempted from an official sThe shares were exempted from an official stamp itamp in the loan agreement contracted by n the loan agreement contracted by the State. the State. ParvParvus Efendi, Cihan Harbine doğru Türkiye, 80us Efendi, Cihan Harbine doğru Türkiye, 80--81.81.

383 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejİttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücaim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908delesi, 1908--1913,1913, 176176--78.78.

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larly on high revenu

larly on high revenuee iitems. He also arguetems. He also arguedd that the state’s property tthat the state’s property tax ax was prepared in a just and methodical manner. Cavid Beywas prepared in a just and methodical manner. Cavid Bey statesstates that that though they had already begun work on the tithe law, they would not be though they had already begun work on the tithe law, they would not be able to finalize it until the following year. He further able to finalize it until the following year. He further claimclaimss ththat he at he sisimmply did not have the strength to make cply did not have the strength to make changes to the tithe law in on-hanges to the tithe law in on-ly two months, as it would be an impossible task.ly two months, as it would be an impossible task.384 The subsidies that The subsidies that the Ministry of War and Navy had asked for were provided in the provthe Ministry of War and Navy had asked for were provided in the provi-i-sional budget. According to Cavid Besional budget. According to Cavid Beyy, w, while the state’s financiers were hile the state’s financiers were preparing the bpreparing the budget of 1909, they had no precedent to look back on udget of 1909, they had no precedent to look back on and thus were unable to foresee the amounts of some expenditures. For and thus were unable to foresee the amounts of some expenditures. For example, Cavid Beyexample, Cavid Bey claimclaimeded that the expenditure foreseen in the budget that the expenditure foreseen in the budget in 1909 win 1909 waas 240s 240,000 Liras; however, as they realized later, th,000 Liras; however, as they realized later, the military e military alone had expenses of 214,000 Liras. During the parliamentary talk of alone had expenses of 214,000 Liras. During the parliamentary talk of the provisional budget, Lütfi Fikri opposed Cavid Beythe provisional budget, Lütfi Fikri opposed Cavid Bey for spending all of for spending all of the money without thinking because Cavid the money without thinking because Cavid Bet yhiBet yhinnksks ththat he can seek at he can seek for loans. After a long round offor loans. After a long round of negotiations, the parliament accepted negotiations, the parliament accepted the provisional budget.the provisional budget.385

On March 16, 1910, the parliament began negotiations on the E

On March 16, 1910, the parliament began negotiations on the Em-m-pire’s property tax. This was also a major accomplishment for Cavid Beypire’s property tax. This was also a major accomplishment for Cavid Bey as weas welll as l as one of the main goals of the constitutional perone of the main goals of the constitutional period. The brandiod. The brand--new points of the law were that it separated property tax and land tax; new points of the law were that it separated property tax and land tax; it excluded property tax from education and military equipment taxes; it excluded property tax from education and military equipment taxes; it calculated tax based on income, not value; it calculated tax based on income, not value; iit idet identified property tax as ntified property tax as 12% of national income;12% of national income; it called for the recording of properties and it called for the recording of properties and putting new regulations into force, etc. According to Cavid Beyputting new regulations into force, etc. According to Cavid Bey, the Se, the Sec-c-ond Constitutional Era had changed the situation of local notables, who ond Constitutional Era had changed the situation of local notables, who had not paidhad not paid taxestaxes before. While addressing the parliament, he stbefore. While addressing the parliament, he stateatedd that on certain points, the government and the commission had cothat on certain points, the government and the commission had con-n-flicted on some issues. In other words, even at the last stage of the legiflicted on some issues. In other words, even at the last stage of the legis-s-

384 MM ZaMM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 2, bıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 2, Cilt:Cilt: 3, 12 March 1910 (25 March 1910)3, 12 March 1910 (25 March 1910), , 7474--91. 91.

385 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima1, İçtima Senesi: 2, Senesi: 2, CilCilt:t: 3, 2 March 1325 (15 Marc3, 2 March 1325 (15 March 1910), h 1910), 158158--83.83.

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lative process, the parliament and government might not s

lative process, the parliament and government might not shhare thare the e same opinion of certain points within the lawsame opinion of certain points within the law. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey also also underlinesunderlines the fact that they favored the peasants within the scope of this law. the fact that they favored the peasants within the scope of this law. Some agricultural groups such as farmers were excluded from paying Some agricultural groups such as farmers were excluded from paying taxes. He claims that the field of agtaxes. He claims that the field of agrricultuiculture was the state’s priority. re was the state’s priority. Cavid BeyCavid Bey recommenrecommends discussing this draft law article by article witds discussing this draft law article by article with-h-out any rush.out any rush.386 In response, Ohannes Varteks Efendi, known for his sIn response, Ohannes Varteks Efendi, known for his so-o-cialist views, agrees with Cavid Beycialist views, agrees with Cavid Bey about making tax rates proportioabout making tax rates proportion-n-ate to incomate to incomee. He a. He also adds that 95% of the population of both Muslso adds that 95% of the population of both Muslims lims and nonand non--Muslims were religious people, and therefore they should help Muslims were religious people, and therefore they should help the poor to pay their taxes.the poor to pay their taxes.387

According to Cavid Bey

According to Cavid Bey, different ideas came onto the agenda in , different ideas came onto the agenda in terms of the fiscal issues to addterms of the fiscal issues to addrress iness in the second budget. The first was the second budget. The first was the Ottoman Sthe Ottoman Strike Law, and the second was the Property Law. During trike Law, and the second was the Property Law. During discussions of the first, although there were many different points of discussions of the first, although there were many different points of view within the parliament, they were ultimately able to agree on the view within the parliament, they were ultimately able to agree on the same bsame baasic posic point: the right to unionize and strike. However,int: the right to unionize and strike. However, when it when it came to the Property Law, their ideas and roadmaps completely dcame to the Property Law, their ideas and roadmaps completely di-i-verged. While Zöhrap Efendi insisted that taxes should be collected from verged. While Zöhrap Efendi insisted that taxes should be collected from people based on their income, Cavid Beypeople based on their income, Cavid Bey argued that it wargued that it waas impos imposssible sible to calculate how much an individual shouto calculate how much an individual should pay and how much they ld pay and how much they could sacrifice. Cavid Beycould sacrifice. Cavid Bey further stated that compulsory expenses and further stated that compulsory expenses and the degree of sacrifice were socialist principles. What was a more fun-the degree of sacrifice were socialist principles. What was a more fun-damental problem, however, was that damental problem, however, was that tthey cohey could not arrive at the same uld not arrive at the same definition of taxes.definition of taxes. According to Zöhrap Efendi, everybody should be re-According to Zöhrap Efendi, everybody should be re-quired to pay the provision of his/her social status as rent to the gov-quired to pay the provision of his/her social status as rent to the gov-ernment. Cavid Beyernment. Cavid Bey responded that the only outcome would be the ine-responded that the only outcome would be the ine-quality of wequality of weaalth anlth and that concepts such as social status and rent d that concepts such as social status and rent should should

386 MM Zabıt CeriMM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1desi, Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 2, , İçtima Senesi: 2, Cilt:Cilt: 3, 3 Ma3, 3 March 13rch 132525 (16 March 1910), (16 March 1910), 192192--8.8.

387 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima senesi: 3, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima senesi: 3, Cilt:Cilt: 3, 6 March 1325 (19March 1910), 3, 6 March 1325 (19March 1910), 223223--55. 55.

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not be the sole focus. This way of implementing the tax would also be

not be the sole focus. This way of implementing the tax would also be arbitrary in practice. He claimed that the duty of the goverarbitrary in practice. He claimed that the duty of the governnment was ment was not to create more inequality of wealth in society. He not to create more inequality of wealth in society. He ffurtherurther stated that stated that people are not equal, and their inpeople are not equal, and their intelligence levels are not equal: “telligence levels are not equal: “If soIf so,” ,” he joked, “he joked, “we could not take Zöhrap Efendi’s intelligence for grantedwe could not take Zöhrap Efendi’s intelligence for granted.” .” Cavid BeyCavid Bey added that “enabling equality in society would cause calami-added that “enabling equality in society would cause calami-ty, as Spencer oncety, as Spencer once statedstated.” Cavid Bey.” Cavid Bey believed that taxes should be de-believed that taxes should be de-tetermined according to a certain proportion of income that was to be rmined according to a certain proportion of income that was to be provided to the state for its services or for its losses as well as for the provided to the state for its services or for its losses as well as for the loans it had to make to protect its citizens. loans it had to make to protect its citizens.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey waswas criticcriticized in the parliament for not protecting smallized in the parliament for not protecting small enterprises, a criticism he did not agree with. He claims that he had enterprises, a criticism he did not agree with. He claims that he had never negatively affected these enterprises; on the contrary, due to the never negatively affected these enterprises; on the contrary, due to the lack of big industry in the Ottoman Empire, they were the lack of big industry in the Ottoman Empire, they were the oonly ennly enteter-r-prises through which to raise levels of prodprises through which to raise levels of production.uction.388 Zöhrap Efendi, Zöhrap Efendi, Varteks Efendi, Hasan Fehmi Efendi, and İbrahim Efendi presented a bill Varteks Efendi, Hasan Fehmi Efendi, and İbrahim Efendi presented a bill to the presidency of the Parliament opposing the draft law, which had to the presidency of the Parliament opposing the draft law, which had aimed to collect a 12% tax on incomeaimed to collect a 12% tax on income withouwithout considering the amount t considering the amount of income. In the end,of income. In the end, the parthe parliament accepted Cavid Beyliament accepted Cavid Bey’s draft of the ’s draft of the Property Law.Property Law.389

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey brought the General Accounting Law to the parliament. On brought the General Accounting Law to the parliament. On April 11, 1910, negotiations began, and on April 12, 1910, its generalApril 11, 1910, negotiations began, and on April 12, 1910, its general provisprovisions were accepted. The General Accounting Law ions were accepted. The General Accounting Law gave autgave authority hority to the Ministry of Finance to audit other departments and control their to the Ministry of Finance to audit other departments and control their budgets and expenses, including that of the army. On June 6, 1910, the budgets and expenses, including that of the army. On June 6, 1910, the parliament passed the General Accounting Lawparliament passed the General Accounting Law,, whichwhich would be one of would be one of Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s greatest accomplis’s greatest accomplishments. hments. Cavid BeyCavid Bey argued that it was an argued that it was an urgent law that needed to be ratified as soon as possible and sent to the urgent law that needed to be ratified as soon as possible and sent to the

388 MM Zabıt Ceridesi,MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 2, 2, Cilt:Cilt: 3, 7 April 1326 (20 Apri3, 7 April 1326 (20 April 1910), l 1910), 271271--274.274.

389 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçti, İçtimama Senesi: 2, Senesi: 2, Cilt:Cilt: 3, 7 April 1326 (20 April 1910),: 3, 7 April 1326 (20 April 1910),: 279.279.

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Senate.

Senate.390 However, the legislative proceedings were anything but quick However, the legislative proceedings were anything but quick due to the clash bdue to the clash beetween tween Mahmut Şevket Pasha and Cavid BeyMahmut Şevket Pasha and Cavid Bey. Mahmut . Mahmut ŞevkeŞevket Pashat Pasha——who was then Minister of War, the General Inspector of who was then Minister of War, the General Inspector of the three armies of the Empire, and the victorious commander of the 31 the three armies of the Empire, and the victorious commander of the 31 March IncidentMarch Incident——was again the CUP’s biggest obstacle. Worse, the rwas again the CUP’s biggest obstacle. Worse, the re-e-volts of volts of 1910 in Albania and Yemen had further strengthe1910 in Albania and Yemen had further strengthened Mahmned Mahmut ut Şevket Pasha’s position. The modernization of finances within the MiŞevket Pasha’s position. The modernization of finances within the Min-n-istry of War had directly created this personal conflictistry of War had directly created this personal conflict——the crux of the crux of which was the General Accounting Law. However, against all owhich was the General Accounting Law. However, against all odds, the dds, the Ministry of Finance was able to acceleMinistry of Finance was able to accelerate therate the audit process all around audit process all around the Ottoman Empire with the help of the inspectors who had just rthe Ottoman Empire with the help of the inspectors who had just re-e-turned from training in France. The press was satisfied and praised the turned from training in France. The press was satisfied and praised the developments in the ministry. While tdevelopments in the ministry. While the Empire’s subjects appreciated he Empire’s subjects appreciated the parliamentthe parliament’s autho’s authority to check the budget as one of the merits of rity to check the budget as one of the merits of the Second Constitutional Era, they also applauded the persistence of the Second Constitutional Era, they also applauded the persistence of the staff working at the Ministry of Finance.the staff working at the Ministry of Finance.391

The budget of 1910 was brought to t

The budget of 1910 was brought to the parliament on April 2, he parliament on April 2, 1910,1910, following the refollowing the report ofport of the Budget Commission.the Budget Commission.392 In accordance with In accordance with procedures, Cavid Beyprocedures, Cavid Bey presented the budget as the Minister of Finance. presented the budget as the Minister of Finance. In 1910, the state’s estimated total income was 2,601,010,000 pIn 1910, the state’s estimated total income was 2,601,010,000 piias-as-tre.tre.393 As previously mAs previously mentioned, the 1909 budget was the Ottoman Em-entioned, the 1909 budget was the Ottoman Em-pirpire’s fire’s firsst modern budget, and Cavid Beyt modern budget, and Cavid Bey contributed to its preparcontributed to its preparaation tion as a member of the Budget Commission. It was prepared under dias a member of the Budget Commission. It was prepared under diffficult ficult circumstances, notwithstanding the hardship of creating such a complecircumstances, notwithstanding the hardship of creating such a complex x document for the first time. While preparing document for the first time. While preparing and preand pressenting the 1910 enting the 1910 budget, however, Cavid Beybudget, however, Cavid Bey had been Minister of Finance for one year, had been Minister of Finance for one year,

390 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, DMM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1 İçtima Senesi: 2, evre: 1 İçtima Senesi: 2, Cilt:Cilt: 3, 12 March, 1326 (25 March 1913, 12 March, 1326 (25 March 1910), 0), 5959--73. 73.

391 Tural, "II. Meşrutiyet Döneminde DTural, "II. Meşrutiyet Döneminde Devletin Restorasyon Bağlamevletin Restorasyon Bağlamında 1909 Teşkilat ve ında 1909 Teşkilat ve Tensikat KaTensikat Kanunu," 272nunu," 272--76.76.

392 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtimaİçtima SSenesi: 2, enesi: 2, Cilt:Cilt: 3, 20 March, 1326 (2 April 1910), 3, 20 March, 1326 (2 April 1910), 293.293.

393 T.C. Maliye Bakanlığı,T.C. Maliye Bakanlığı, Osmanlı Bütçeleri, 1Osmanlı Bütçeleri, 1909909--19191818, 202, 202--209.209.

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meaning that he had experience and knowledge under his belt. Still,

meaning that he had experience and knowledge under his belt. Still, several controversies came forward regarding itseveral controversies came forward regarding items, such as the sala-ems, such as the sala-ries of the French counselries of the French counselors,ors,394 tthhe privatization of state buse privatization of state busiinesses, nesses, loans, etc, which will be detailed below. loans, etc, which will be detailed below.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey prefaced his speech to the parliament with an introduprefaced his speech to the parliament with an introduc-c-tion that encompassed stories from preparing the 1909 budtion that encompassed stories from preparing the 1909 budget on April get on April 2, 1909. He also underlined that t2, 1909. He also underlined that the treahe treassury’s coffers were empty foury’s coffers were empty fol-l-lowing the revolution and that they had borrowed advances in 1908, lowing the revolution and that they had borrowed advances in 1908, which was later transformed into a loan. According to him, this loan was which was later transformed into a loan. According to him, this loan was a necessity since it was signed ta necessity since it was signed to ensure the sustainability of the revolu-o ensure the sustainability of the revolu-tion. tion. HoweverHowever,, this loan was also inadequate to pay the accumthis loan was also inadequate to pay the accumuulated lated loans that amounted to loans that amounted to twotwo million Liras, and for this reason, they had million Liras, and for this reason, they had gotten into more debt in 1909. However, the government was insigotten into more debt in 1909. However, the government was insisstent tent on payon paying off the loan of 1908, because it was a loaning off the loan of 1908, because it was a loan made fmade foor the con-r the con-stitutional regime and was reflective of the state’s honor. To pay the stitutional regime and was reflective of the state’s honor. To pay the loan, the government had prepared an extraordinary budget, something loan, the government had prepared an extraordinary budget, something that Cavid Beythat Cavid Bey was usually not in favor of. The new was usually not in favor of. The new expenses belonged expenses belonged to various departments, but mto various departments, but mostly tostly too the army, due to its mobilization the army, due to its mobilization expenditures after the 31 March Incident. According to Cavid Beyexpenditures after the 31 March Incident. According to Cavid Bey, the , the budget deficit in 1909 was 5 million Lira; however, once taking into budget deficit in 1909 was 5 million Lira; however, once taking into consideration Abdülhamid IIconsideration Abdülhamid II’s debts, the money spent on the Adana i’s debts, the money spent on the Adana in-n-cidentcidents, the s, the ppayment for the Oriental Railways, etc., the amount reached ayment for the Oriental Railways, etc., the amount reached 8 million Liras. The amount of the loan was to be 9.58 million Liras. The amount of the loan was to be 9.5––10 million Liras, 10 million Liras, but due to the timing of the budget, the 1909 loan amounted to but due to the timing of the budget, the 1909 loan amounted to sevenseven million Liras. According to Cavid Beymillion Liras. According to Cavid Bey, the impo, the importance rtance oof the 1909 loan f the 1909 loan was that they could sign off with the IOB without the guarantee of the was that they could sign off with the IOB without the guarantee of the OPDA. Moreover, they were able to get a better interest rate at 6%, OPDA. Moreover, they were able to get a better interest rate at 6%, which was the lowest rate obtained in 60 yearswhich was the lowest rate obtained in 60 years. For the first time, in . For the first time, in

394 According to Tural, the main discussion was on the issue of salarAccording to Tural, the main discussion was on the issue of salaries of both the staff of ies of both the staff of the ministry and French counsellors suthe ministry and French counsellors such as Count ch as Count Ostrorog, ChaOstrorog, Charles Laurent, or M. rles Laurent, or M. Jolly. ThoughJolly. Though the budget relating to the salaries was approvthe budget relating to the salaries was approved, thed, the pe parliamentary vote arliamentary vote of 101 to 50 and indicated the power of the opposition. of 101 to 50 and indicated the power of the opposition. Tural, "II. Meşrutiyet DönTural, "II. Meşrutiyet Döne-e-minde Devletin Restorasyon Bağlminde Devletin Restorasyon Bağlamında 1909 Teşkilat ve Tensikat Kanunu," xxx.amında 1909 Teşkilat ve Tensikat Kanunu," xxx.

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1910, the Ottoman gove

1910, the Ottoman government rnment sstarted the new fiscal year in March tarted the new fiscal year in March without a loan. It also succeeded in raising its incomes from 24 million without a loan. It also succeeded in raising its incomes from 24 million to 26.5 million lira from 1908 to 1910. This increase not only covered to 26.5 million lira from 1908 to 1910. This increase not only covered the state revenues buthe state revenues but also the OPDA and Régie. t also the OPDA and Régie.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey provided provided informainformattion about how the budget was prion about how the budget was pre-e-pared. The reason for the increase in the deficit was that every time the pared. The reason for the increase in the deficit was that every time the government changed, each ministry would ask for more in allocations. government changed, each ministry would ask for more in allocations. In terms of expenditures, In terms of expenditures, the army’s (Ministry of War and Navy), OPDA’s the army’s (Ministry of War and Navy), OPDA’s ((for thefor the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway), and Ministry of Finance’s expenses also in-), and Ministry of Finance’s expenses also in-creased. In terms of revenue, income from the Tithe and Cattle Tax had creased. In terms of revenue, income from the Tithe and Cattle Tax had increased. According to Cavid Beyincreased. According to Cavid Bey, the worst position to be in was fin, the worst position to be in was finan-an-cial turmoil, as a country defeated in a war cial turmoil, as a country defeated in a war might rmight reecover in 3cover in 3––5 years, 5 years, but a bankrupt country would need 30but a bankrupt country would need 30––40 years to recover. Cavid Bey40 years to recover. Cavid Bey suggested that they ought to make loan agreements for the next two suggested that they ought to make loan agreements for the next two years, because the military, education, and puyears, because the military, education, and public works eblic works exxpenses were penses were urgent and needed to burgent and needed to be comple compleeted to avoid a huge trouble in the state ted to avoid a huge trouble in the state finances. The only ways were to take out a loan, increase revenues, or to finances. The only ways were to take out a loan, increase revenues, or to enact more cost cutting measures. He further undeenact more cost cutting measures. He further underrlined that cutting lined that cutting out major expenseout major expenses was out of the question and that the most effs was out of the question and that the most efficient icient tthing to do was to undergo a reform of taxes and regulate them. hing to do was to undergo a reform of taxes and regulate them.

One of the most significant aims of the Unionist government was to

One of the most significant aims of the Unionist government was to increase customs revenue by 4%, which was bound to the approval of increase customs revenue by 4%, which was bound to the approval of thethe Great Powers. The surplus gained from the riseGreat Powers. The surplus gained from the rise in cusin custtoms duties oms duties would be funneled into the budget deficit or invested in public works would be funneled into the budget deficit or invested in public works such as the railways. This issue was very much related to the utilization such as the railways. This issue was very much related to the utilization of the surplus of OPDA revenues for the of the surplus of OPDA revenues for the BaghdaBaghdad Railwayd Railway. The Ottoman . The Ottoman government also did not government also did not want thwant thee Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway Company to seize Company to seize the revenue gained from this rise in customs duties. This 4% increase the revenue gained from this rise in customs duties. This 4% increase would amount to approximately 1,5 million Liras per year: 75% of this would amount to approximately 1,5 million Liras per year: 75% of this amount was to be transferreamount was to be transferred to the government, while 25% would be d to the government, while 25% would be transfetransferred torred to the OPDA. However, as Cavid Beythe OPDA. However, as Cavid Bey highlighted, the most highlighted, the most crucial argument regarding this issue was that asking for a rise in cucrucial argument regarding this issue was that asking for a rise in cus-s-toms duties could alter the Ottoman government’s political economy. In toms duties could alter the Ottoman government’s political economy. In otherother words, the government should not raise customswords, the government should not raise customs at theat the risk of girisk of giv-v-

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ing up its free economy and free trade policies. Cavid Bey

ing up its free economy and free trade policies. Cavid Bey argued that argued that this 4% increase would not be sufficient to raise develop a sustainable this 4% increase would not be sufficient to raise develop a sustainable industry in the Ottoman Empire. According to Caindustry in the Ottoman Empire. According to Cavid Beyvid Bey, the free ma, the free marrket ket economy and a protectieconomy and a protectionist eonist ecconomic policy could never align with one onomic policy could never align with one another. Cavid Beyanother. Cavid Bey also complained about the capitulations and conces-also complained about the capitulations and conces-sion agreements that stifled the Ottoman government to the point sion agreements that stifled the Ottoman government to the point where they had no choice bwhere they had no choice but to place a tax on imports. He stated that ut to place a tax on imports. He stated that eveven thouen thouggh he was a stringent supporter of the free market ecoh he was a stringent supporter of the free market econnomy, omy, the Ottoman government needed to raise the import tax from 11% to the Ottoman government needed to raise the import tax from 11% to 15%.15%.395

Another topic that we should mention here that Cavid Bey

Another topic that we should mention here that Cavid Bey touched touched upon upon while addressing the parliament is the issue ofwhile addressing the parliament is the issue of privatprivatiization. Cavid zation. Cavid BeyBey believed that states are neither industrialists nor farmers; there-believed that states are neither industrialists nor farmers; there-fore, the Ottoman government ought to sell some businesses of its own fore, the Ottoman government ought to sell some businesses of its own such as the armory, gas works, or the Hidjaz Rasuch as the armory, gas works, or the Hidjaz Railway. He further under-ilway. He further under-lined that while there wlined that while there were somere somee developed countries that gave up op-developed countries that gave up op-erating similar works, other governments still held onto them. He un-erating similar works, other governments still held onto them. He un-derlined that the Ottoman government could not afford to build the derlined that the Ottoman government could not afford to build the railways by itself, especiallyrailways by itself, especially when the budget deficit was so high. Gewhen the budget deficit was so high. Genner-er-allyally speakispeakinng, Cavid Beyg, Cavid Bey was known as an optimist with regard to the was known as an optimist with regard to the Empire’s economic outlook: he did not believe that the Empire’s ecoEmpire’s economic outlook: he did not believe that the Empire’s econ-n-omy was in danger omy was in danger andand being challenged. He underlined being challenged. He underlined those revenuesthose revenues would riswould rise very soon.e very soon.396

After his lengthy speech, Cavid B

After his lengthy speech, Cavid Beyey coconnffrronted those who had critonted those who had criti-i-cized him. On May 8, 1910, the second phase of the budget talks cocized him. On May 8, 1910, the second phase of the budget talks com-m-menced, and many MPs declared that they were at odds with the gemenced, and many MPs declared that they were at odds with the gen-n-eral framework of the 1910 budget, includingeral framework of the 1910 budget, including members such as İsmail members such as İsmail Hakkı Bey (Gümülcine), Hakkı Bey (Gümülcine), Emanuel Emanuel Karasu (Selanik), Krikor Zöhrap Karasu (Selanik), Krikor Zöhrap

395 The first proThe first protocol was made with the Atocol was made with the Austrianustrian--Hungarian Empire, and it Hungarian Empire, and it had to then had to then be approved by the other Great Powebe approved by the other Great Powers. Thrs. This issue would be the top priority on Cavid is issue would be the top priority on Cavid Bey’s agenda until the Great War in 19Bey’s agenda until the Great War in 1914.14.

396 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 2, , İçtima Senesi: 2, Cilt:Cilt: 3, 23, 25 April 1326, (8 May 19105 April 1326, (8 May 1910), 293), 293--317.317.

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Efendi (Istanbul), İsmail Kemal Bey (Berat), Ahmet Ferit Bey (Kütahya),

Efendi (Istanbul), İsmail Kemal Bey (Berat), Ahmet Ferit Bey (Kütahya), and Varteks Efendi. In speech, Cavid Beyand Varteks Efendi. In speech, Cavid Bey stated that he would respond stated that he would respond to Zöhrap Efendi last, sincto Zöhrap Efendi last, since he was considered the worst amongst his e he was considered the worst amongst his critics.critics.397

The main topics that the MPs who were critical of Cavid Bey

The main topics that the MPs who were critical of Cavid Bey focused focused on were privatization, loans, the delay in the budget, monopolies, and on were privatization, loans, the delay in the budget, monopolies, and Régie Tobacco. In terms of privatization, Cavid BeyRégie Tobacco. In terms of privatization, Cavid Bey claimed that claimed that privaprivat-t-ized companies had lost money and that the government should take it ized companies had lost money and that the government should take it upon themselves to sell them off to local companies. He added that the upon themselves to sell them off to local companies. He added that the budget would not be ready at the beginning of March due to the lag in budget would not be ready at the beginning of March due to the lag in communication between Istanbul and the pcommunication between Istanbul and the provinces, which led to drovinces, which led to deelays lays in the data reaching the ministry. In fact, Cavid Beyin the data reaching the ministry. In fact, Cavid Bey agreed with Varteks agreed with Varteks Efendi regarding the high expenditures of the army compared to public Efendi regarding the high expenditures of the army compared to public works and education, and further emphasized that the army was the works and education, and further emphasized that the army was the main power of thmain power of the Ottoman Empire. Though disapproving of the army’s e Ottoman Empire. Though disapproving of the army’s expenditure, Cavid Beyexpenditure, Cavid Bey adopted a populist tone in the paadopted a populist tone in the parrliament, whliament, whiich ch was compatible with the government. Moreover, he complained that was compatible with the government. Moreover, he complained that there were no records that pinpointed the exact amount of the floatthere were no records that pinpointed the exact amount of the floatiing ng debts. debts.

When it came to the issue of loans, Cavid Bey

When it came to the issue of loans, Cavid Bey replied to his critics replied to his critics who opposed lowwho opposed low--priced loans by arguing that whether a loan is big or priced loans by arguing that whether a loan is big or smaller is of no importance; what is important is whether the Empire smaller is of no importance; what is important is whether the Empire needed it or not. He went on to sayneeded it or not. He went on to say,, “I did not say that we have to bo“I did not say that we have to bor-r-row; I row; I SaitSait that the ones who need it do so in order to survive will cothat the ones who need it do so in order to survive will col-l-lapse one day. But we need a loan just for a couple of years to survive.” lapse one day. But we need a loan just for a couple of years to survive.” Zöhrap Efendi criticized him for quoting from Spencer and accused him Zöhrap Efendi criticized him for quoting from Spencer and accused him of sof suupporting the rich and crushing the poor. In response to this, Cavid pporting the rich and crushing the poor. In response to this, Cavid BeyBey stated that he was against delivering state funds to the poor, which stated that he was against delivering state funds to the poor, which harms their sense of honor. Instead, what he was trying to do was to in-harms their sense of honor. Instead, what he was trying to do was to in-crease the capital and wealth of the rich bcrease the capital and wealth of the rich byy combining small entecombining small enterrprises, prises, which was why he wanted small and mediumwhich was why he wanted small and medium--sized businesses to merge sized businesses to merge

397 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 2, , İçtima Senesi: 2, Cilt:Cilt: 3, 25 April 13, 25 April 1326, (326, (8 May 1910), 373.8 May 1910), 373.

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together so as to purchase big factories. While his main ec

together so as to purchase big factories. While his main ecoonomic policy nomic policy was based on the free market, Cavid Beywas based on the free market, Cavid Bey took a centralist approach took a centralist approach when it came to powhen it came to pollitics. However, what should be pointed out here is itics. However, what should be pointed out here is that he was not an overly strict centralist. For example, İsmail Hakkı that he was not an overly strict centralist. For example, İsmail Hakkı Bey, MP for Gümülcine, asked for taxes to be abolished on bridges and Bey, MP for Gümülcine, asked for taxes to be abolished on bridges and highways. Cavid Beyhighways. Cavid Bey offered to leave the decisions to the municoffered to leave the decisions to the municiipalities palities instead of abolishing them altogether. According to him, this would en-instead of abolishing them altogether. According to him, this would en-courage local governments by giving them both the authority and re-courage local governments by giving them both the authority and re-sponsibility to decide what is best for their area. sponsibility to decide what is best for their area. 398

Despite these criticisms of Cavid Bey

Despite these criticisms of Cavid Bey and the budget, thand the budget, thee 1910 1910 budget was one of the easiest budgets to implement during the Second budget was one of the easiest budgets to implement during the Second Constitutional Era, as both Cavid BeyConstitutional Era, as both Cavid Bey and his team were experienced and his team were experienced and there were no wars or serious revolts in the country. The year 1910 and there were no wars or serious revolts in the country. The year 1910 and the beginning of 1911 (at least untiand the beginning of 1911 (at least untill the the TripolitanianTripolitanian War) proved War) proved to be a calm and tranquil period of the Second Constitutional Era. After to be a calm and tranquil period of the Second Constitutional Era. After his victories in passing legislation and successfully negotiating the 1909 his victories in passing legislation and successfully negotiating the 1909 loan and reforms, Cavid Beyloan and reforms, Cavid Bey was quite confident, optimistic, and hopwas quite confident, optimistic, and hope-e-ful. Inful. In terms of the big issues, his main targets included increasing revterms of the big issues, his main targets included increasing reve-e-nues via strict supervision of taxes, raising the rate of customs duties, nues via strict supervision of taxes, raising the rate of customs duties, investing in public works to revive the internal market, and continuing investing in public works to revive the internal market, and continuing to borrow money from Western markets for anto borrow money from Western markets for anoother couple of years. On ther couple of years. On the one hand, he was quite the realist when it came to taking concethe one hand, he was quite the realist when it came to taking conces-s-sions and capitulations into consideration. On the other hand, he was sions and capitulations into consideration. On the other hand, he was aware that it would be a while before the Empire could avoid taking out aware that it would be a while before the Empire could avoid taking out additional loans. Inadditional loans. In terms of the Empire’s economic policy, he worked terms of the Empire’s economic policy, he worked tirelessly, as far as he could to carry out the principles of the free matirelessly, as far as he could to carry out the principles of the free marrket ket economy in the Ottoman Empire, by encouraging small and meconomy in the Ottoman Empire, by encouraging small and meediumdium--sized enterprises and by trying to sell factories to local compsized enterprises and by trying to sell factories to local compaanniies. es. While Cavid BeyWhile Cavid Bey had an impressive capacity to take on a large workload, had an impressive capacity to take on a large workload, he was limited due to the budget deficit, foreign control, low tax reve-he was limited due to the budget deficit, foreign control, low tax reve-nues, demands of the military, etc. But, in the end, he became more selfnues, demands of the military, etc. But, in the end, he became more self--

398 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 2, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 2, Cilt:Cilt: 6, 9 Jun6, 9 June 1325 (22 June 1910), 488e 1325 (22 June 1910), 488--490, 498.490, 498.

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confident while addressing the parl

confident while addressing the parliiament on the second general budg-ament on the second general budg-et as the now 34et as the now 34--yearyear--old Minister of Finance. old Minister of Finance.

Before discussing the 1910 loan issue

Before discussing the 1910 loan issue——which happened to be an ewhich happened to be an ex-x-tremely important endeavor in Cavid Beytremely important endeavor in Cavid Bey’s professional life’s professional life——it is worth it is worth painting a picture of Istanbul’s domestpainting a picture of Istanbul’s domestiic political scene in 1910. As c political scene in 1910. As mentioned above, during the autumn of 1909, the Moderate Liberal Par-mentioned above, during the autumn of 1909, the Moderate Liberal Par-ty was established. However, their organization was inadequate, and ty was established. However, their organization was inadequate, and therefore, they were not strong enough within the parliament. therefore, they were not strong enough within the parliament. ŞŞerif Perif Pa-a-sha, former Ambasssha, former Ambassaador to Stockholm, and Prince Sabahaddin, who dor to Stockholm, and Prince Sabahaddin, who were key figures in the opposition parties, simultaneously began to pub-were key figures in the opposition parties, simultaneously began to pub-lish a Frenchlish a French--language newspaper called language newspaper called MechrouitteMechrouitte. In this paper, they . In this paper, they voiced their support for a new party calvoiced their support for a new party called the Fundamental Rled the Fundamental Reeformform ((Is-Is-lahatlahat--ı Esasiye)ı Esasiye). This party strengthened its organization with the help . This party strengthened its organization with the help of Şerif Pasha and his entourage, which consisted of Kemal Bey, Dr. of Şerif Pasha and his entourage, which consisted of Kemal Bey, Dr. Nihad Reşad (Belger), Halid Bey, Yahya Kemal, and Hoca Kadri Efendi, Nihad Reşad (Belger), Halid Bey, Yahya Kemal, and Hoca Kadri Efendi, among others. Asamong others. As Kansu states, Gümülcineli İKansu states, Gümülcineli İsmail Hakkı Bey and Mira-smail Hakkı Bey and Mira-lay Sadık Bey were directly supported by Şerif Pasha. With the for-lay Sadık Bey were directly supported by Şerif Pasha. With the for-mation of this new party, the opposition increased its activities dumation of this new party, the opposition increased its activities durring ing the parliament’s summer the parliament’s summer recessrecess (from June 28 to November 1)(from June 28 to November 1). .

While the opposition was

While the opposition was being being sstrengthened both inside and outrengthened both inside and out-t-side of parliament, the Albanian revolt was oppressing the government. side of parliament, the Albanian revolt was oppressing the government. Under these circumstances, the opposition pressured the CUP in the Under these circumstances, the opposition pressured the CUP in the parliament by raising issues such as how their letteparliament by raising issues such as how their letters were delivered rs were delivered already opalready opened. ened. WWhile tensions were growing in the political arena, one hile tensions were growing in the political arena, one assassination in the summer of 1910 hit like a bombshell in Istanbul’s assassination in the summer of 1910 hit like a bombshell in Istanbul’s political scene. Ahmet Samim, a journalist from political scene. Ahmet Samim, a journalist from SadaSada--yı Milletyı Millet newspnewspa-a-per, was killed on June 9 while he was walking with a friend from per, was killed on June 9 while he was walking with a friend from Tanin Tanin daily. daily. SadaSada--yı Milletyı Millet supported the absolutist regime. During the middle supported the absolutist regime. During the middle of July, a secret organization called Cemiyetof July, a secret organization called Cemiyet--i Hafiye was revealed. This i Hafiye was revealed. This organization wasorganization was a department of the Isalahata department of the Isalahat--ı Esasiye organization ı Esasiye organization and Prince Sabahaddin, Şerif Pasha, Mevlanzade Rifat Bey, Nihad Reşid and Prince Sabahaddin, Şerif Pasha, Mevlanzade Rifat Bey, Nihad Reşid Bey, Colonel Sadık Bey, and Rıza Nur Bey, MP for Sinop, were among its Bey, Colonel Sadık Bey, and Rıza Nur Bey, MP for Sinop, were among its members. After a wave of arrests and judicial proceedings, 19 members. After a wave of arrests and judicial proceedings, 19 people people were punished, including Dr. Rıza Nur. This movement played a key role were punished, including Dr. Rıza Nur. This movement played a key role

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in Cavid’s Bey life as he was later forced to resign from his position due

in Cavid’s Bey life as he was later forced to resign from his position due to pressure from this group. Behind the scenes, Colonel Sadık Bey was to pressure from this group. Behind the scenes, Colonel Sadık Bey was also supported by Mahmut Şevket Palso supported by Mahmut Şevket Pasha, who had been disgruntled asha, who had been disgruntled with the Unionists over fiscal issues.with the Unionists over fiscal issues.399

§ 2.10 1910 L1910 Loanoan OOperationperation andand IItsts IImpactmpact

As mentioned above, the Empire’s main lines of foreign policy did not

As mentioned above, the Empire’s main lines of foreign policy did not change drastically during the Second Constitutional Era when cochange drastically during the Second Constitutional Era when commpared pared to the Hamto the Hamidian Era. Similar to Abdülhamid II, the Unionists also tried idian Era. Similar to Abdülhamid II, the Unionists also tried to strike a balance with the Great Powers. While Abdülhamid’s prefer-to strike a balance with the Great Powers. While Abdülhamid’s prefer-ence was to engage with Germany, the Unionists prioritized relence was to engage with Germany, the Unionists prioritized relaations tions particularly with Britain, which had been the founder of particularly with Britain, which had been the founder of parliparliaamentar-mentar-ism and liberalism. During the Second Constitutional Era, on the one ism and liberalism. During the Second Constitutional Era, on the one side, the Unionists attempted to get closer to Britain directly or by sup-side, the Unionists attempted to get closer to Britain directly or by sup-porting Anglophile statesmen, such as Kamil Pasha. On the other side, porting Anglophile statesmen, such as Kamil Pasha. On the other side, this Entente power had two majorthis Entente power had two major priorities: finding mutually beneficial priorities: finding mutually beneficial interests and penetrating the Ottoman economy, which iinterests and penetrating the Ottoman economy, which inncluded territo-cluded territo-rial competition among the other Great Powers. This competition was rial competition among the other Great Powers. This competition was accelerated after the accelerated after the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway agreement in 1903. agreement in 1903.

While the 1910 loan

While the 1910 loan issue was an outcome of domestic politics, paissue was an outcome of domestic politics, par-r-ticularly due to the urgent needs of the army, it also became an issue at ticularly due to the urgent needs of the army, it also became an issue at the European level. While the Great Powers were trying to implement the European level. While the Great Powers were trying to implement strict financial control over the Ottoman government, Cavid Beystrict financial control over the Ottoman government, Cavid Bey prpre-e-ssented new opportunities for the unions and attempted to change the ented new opportunities for the unions and attempted to change the rules of the game. Unfortunately, Cavid Beyrules of the game. Unfortunately, Cavid Bey stopped writing in his diary stopped writing in his diary between May 11, 1909 and December 18, 1910, a crucial period in his between May 11, 1909 and December 18, 1910, a crucial period in his life. Thus, I will continue to utilize secondarylife. Thus, I will continue to utilize secondary resources resources in order to at-in order to at-tempt to shed light on this issue from the perspective of Great Power tempt to shed light on this issue from the perspective of Great Power competiton. competiton.

399 Akşin, Akşin, Ittihat ve Terakki,Ittihat ve Terakki, 19081908--1914 (Jö1914 (Jön Türkn Türkler)ler),, 280280--90.90.

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What compelled Cavid BeyWhat compelled Cavid Bey to look for a new loan, though he had to look for a new loan, though he had preferred not to, was the demands of Mahmut Şevkpreferred not to, was the demands of Mahmut Şevket Pasha for the ret Pasha for the re-e-newal of the armynewal of the army. Mahmut Şevket Pasha and Cavid Bey. Mahmut Şevket Pasha and Cavid Bey dealt with one dealt with one another on several occasions regarding the issues of military expendanother on several occasions regarding the issues of military expendi-i-tures and auditing the Ministry of War. Mahmut Şevket Pasha asked to tures and auditing the Ministry of War. Mahmut Şevket Pasha asked to receive an additional subsidy ireceive an additional subsidy in the amount of 5 million lira in adn the amount of 5 million lira in addition dition to the Ministry of War’s his annual budget of 9.5 million lira. During the to the Ministry of War’s his annual budget of 9.5 million lira. During the budget talks of June 16, 1910, Mahmut Şevket Pasha argued that witbudget talks of June 16, 1910, Mahmut Şevket Pasha argued that with-h-out ensuring security, the regulation of public affairs or finances wouout ensuring security, the regulation of public affairs or finances would ld be useless. Though Cavid Beybe useless. Though Cavid Bey objeobjected to the demands of Mahmut Şev-cted to the demands of Mahmut Şev-ket Pasha due to the state’s chronic budget deficit and additional new ket Pasha due to the state’s chronic budget deficit and additional new expenditures, the expenditures, the PPasha’s argument was simple: “asha’s argument was simple: “Without security both Without security both public works and the reorganization of the finpublic works and the reorganization of the financial system would be a ancial system would be a futile exerfutile exercise.cise.””400 He continued to argue that the relationship bHe continued to argue that the relationship beetween tween expenditure and imperial prestige must not be neglected, and as a re-expenditure and imperial prestige must not be neglected, and as a re-sult, his argument prevailed over Cavid Beysult, his argument prevailed over Cavid Bey’s with the unanimous vote ’s with the unanimous vote of the MPs to increaseof the MPs to increase the Ministry of War’s budget. Even the Ministry of War’s budget. Even after the 1909 after the 1909 loan, it was not a surprise that a new Ottoman loan would be neloan, it was not a surprise that a new Ottoman loan would be neccessary essary due to the runaway rate of expenditures.due to the runaway rate of expenditures.401 In May 1910, Cavid BeyIn May 1910, Cavid Bey met met with M. Maurice Bompard, the French Ambassador to Istanbul, to diwith M. Maurice Bompard, the French Ambassador to Istanbul, to dis-s-cuss acquiring a new loan. The Frencuss acquiring a new loan. The French government was very clear and ch government was very clear and direct on this issue. On May 22, Mr. Bompard provided Cavid Beydirect on this issue. On May 22, Mr. Bompard provided Cavid Bey with a with a list of economic and financial concessions, including from the treasury. list of economic and financial concessions, including from the treasury. Cavid BeyCavid Bey, of course, rejected the idea of , of course, rejected the idea of including the treaincluding the treassury in the ury in the loan aloan agreement. However, after receiving the list, Cavid Beygreement. However, after receiving the list, Cavid Bey decided to decided to go to Paris to discover what options he had. While he was on his way to go to Paris to discover what options he had. While he was on his way to Paris in June 1910,Paris in June 1910,402 surely considering the complicated dsurely considering the complicated diimensions of mensions of the loan issthe loan issue process, he told journalists thatue process, he told journalists that he was going to Paris not he was going to Paris not

400 Feroz Ahmad, "The Late OtFeroz Ahmad, "The Late Ottoman Empire," intoman Empire," in ThThe Great Powere Great Powers and the End of the s and the End of the Ottoman EmpireOttoman Empire, ed. Marian, ed. Marian Kent Kent (London: Frank Cass, 2005), 22(London: Frank Cass, 2005), 22--23.23.

401 Burman, "Politics anBurman, "Politics and Profit: d Profit: TheThe National Bank of Turkey National Bank of Turkey Revisited," 229.Revisited," 229.

402 Ahmad, Ahmad, Ittihat ve Terakki,Ittihat ve Terakki, 19081908--1914 (Jö1914 (Jön Türkn Türkler)ler), 111., 111.

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for any loan negotiations but just to check the availability of the Euro-

for any loan negotiations but just to check the availability of the Euro-pean markets.pean markets.403

Why did Cavid Bey

Why did Cavid Bey find himself on the train to Paris, but not to Lofind himself on the train to Paris, but not to Lon-n-don or to Berlin? In 1910, the Paris mdon or to Berlin? In 1910, the Paris market was more open than those of arket was more open than those of LoLondon and Berlin. Although in 1910, about onendon and Berlin. Although in 1910, about one--third of the world’s se-third of the world’s se-curities were quoted on the London market, the city had blacklisted the curities were quoted on the London market, the city had blacklisted the Sublime Porte due to its bankruptcy in 1875 and successive incSublime Porte due to its bankruptcy in 1875 and successive inciidents, dents, such as thsuch as the Bulgarian massacres in 1877. In ade Bulgarian massacres in 1877. In addition, Berlin’s fdition, Berlin’s fiinancial nancial situation was also seen as an advantage for Paris, which had its own situation was also seen as an advantage for Paris, which had its own plans in mind about this loan. Cavid Beyplans in mind about this loan. Cavid Bey, known as a Francophile, had , known as a Francophile, had his own objective reasons as Minister of Finance to fihis own objective reasons as Minister of Finance to first seek out loans rst seek out loans within the Frenchwithin the French market. First of all, as previously mentioned, the Ot-market. First of all, as previously mentioned, the Ot-toman Empire had been taking out loans via the Imperial Otttoman Empire had been taking out loans via the Imperial Ottooman Bank man Bank since 1856. Though the bank was established by both British and since 1856. Though the bank was established by both British and French investors and had offices French investors and had offices in both capitals, the role and weighin both capitals, the role and weight of t of France gained importance over time. France gained importance over time. As Thobie states, bAs Thobie states, beetween 1881 tween 1881 and 1914, out of 34 major operations (19 loans, seven coand 1914, out of 34 major operations (19 loans, seven connversions, versions, eight treasury bill issues), the Paris market was directly ieight treasury bill issues), the Paris market was directly innvolved in 25 volved in 25 (respec(respectively, 12, six, and seven of these tively, 12, six, and seven of these issues). Of these 25 operations, issues). Of these 25 operations, 19 were controlled by the IOB and its partners, and six were handled by 19 were controlled by the IOB and its partners, and six were handled by various French groups. In terms of economic value, close to 70% of all various French groups. In terms of economic value, close to 70% of all Ottoman issues and 90% of those involving thOttoman issues and 90% of those involving the French market con-e French market con-cerned the Ottomacerned the Ottoman Bank. In 1903, the French gon Bank. In 1903, the French govvernment’s share in ernment’s share in consolidation had increased very sharply. Between 1903 and 1914, the consolidation had increased very sharply. Between 1903 and 1914, the government share in management surplus with a real annual average government share in management surplus with a real annual average amounted to 93.3 million francs. Duamounted to 93.3 million francs. During this period, the French provid-ring this period, the French provid-

403 B. Bayrakdar, Karabulut, "İB. Bayrakdar, Karabulut, "İkinci Meşrutiyet Döneminde İstikraz Politikası üzkinci Meşrutiyet Döneminde İstikraz Politikası üzerine Bir erine Bir Basın Tartışması: “Londra İstBasın Tartışması: “Londra İstemez Berlin Yapamaz”," Çağdaş Türkiye Tarihi Araştırma-emez Berlin Yapamaz”," Çağdaş Türkiye Tarihi Araştırma-ları Dergisi (Journal of Mları Dergisi (Journal of Modern odern Turkish History Studies) XVII/35, no. 35 (2017): 42; Turkish History Studies) XVII/35, no. 35 (2017): 42; anand Özavcı, "A Little Light id Özavcı, "A Little Light in The Darkness’: The Mission of Charles Laurent an The Darkness’: The Mission of Charles Laurent and the nd the Young Turks, 1908Young Turks, 1908--1911," 221.1911," 221.

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ed 56,2% of all money loaned to Europe.d 56,2% of all money loaned to Europe.404 It was a common occurrence It was a common occurrence to register on the Paris to register on the Paris BourseBourse, the stock exchange,, the stock exchange, when the Empire when the Empire urgently needed a loan. urgently needed a loan.

As of the last quarter of the

As of the last quarter of the nineteenthnineteenth century, the develcentury, the developed and oped and induindusstrializtrialized European powed European powers accelerated their imperialistic competi-ers accelerated their imperialistic competi-tion, searching for “surplus” capital. The Ottoman Empire was still an tion, searching for “surplus” capital. The Ottoman Empire was still an undundeeveloped market full of investment options with a huge territory at veloped market full of investment options with a huge territory at the beginning of the the beginning of the twentiethtwentieth centcentury. In terms of Franury. In terms of France, two cardinace, two cardinal l princprinciiples had been essential in French foreign policy since 1880. First ples had been essential in French foreign policy since 1880. First was governmental control of foreign loan issues, and second was an in-was governmental control of foreign loan issues, and second was an in-creacreassing conviction of the oneness of private and national interests ing conviction of the oneness of private and national interests abroad.abroad. In sum, the foreign In sum, the foreign and financial rand financial relations were bounded to elations were bounded to each other. On December 28, 1909, Meach other. On December 28, 1909, Mrr. Pichon, in the debate on the . Pichon, in the debate on the budget of his ministry, made the statement that, “budget of his ministry, made the statement that, “As a minister of for-As a minister of for-eign affairs, I utilize my country’s outposts of action aneign affairs, I utilize my country’s outposts of action and of influence d of influence wherevwherever I find themer I find them..” Thus, the railways, ports, mines, and industries ” Thus, the railways, ports, mines, and industries became agencies of French foreign policy.became agencies of French foreign policy.405 It is not very difficult to It is not very difficult to understand then how the French policy toward the Ottoman Empire in understand then how the French policy toward the Ottoman Empire in 1910 aligned with this state of1910 aligned with this state of mind. mind.

According to

According to Jacques Thobie,Jacques Thobie, France’s intention was to obtain more France’s intention was to obtain more concessions for French industrialists and businessmen and change the concessions for French industrialists and businessmen and change the perception about France, which was seen as just a “bank” in the eyes of perception about France, which was seen as just a “bank” in the eyes of the Ottoman governments. Besides this, ithe Ottoman governments. Besides this, increasing competitionncreasing competition in the in the world mworld markets caused French businessmen and politicians to have a bit-arkets caused French businessmen and politicians to have a bit-ter opinion of the Empire, particularly the idea that “ter opinion of the Empire, particularly the idea that “The Ottoman Navy The Ottoman Navy Minister buys boats from England, the Ottoman Minister of War buys Minister buys boats from England, the Ottoman Minister of War buys guns from Germany; guns from Germany; the Ottoman Minister the Ottoman Minister of Finance knowof Finance knows only the s only the road of Paris to ask for moneyroad of Paris to ask for money.” On this point, Stephen Pichón, the Min-.” On this point, Stephen Pichón, the Min-

404 Jacques Jacques Thobie, "French Investments in Public and Private Funds in the Ottoman Thobie, "French Investments in Public and Private Funds in the Ottoman Empire onEmpire on the Ethe Eve of the Great War," in ve of the Great War," in East Meets West: Banking, CommEast Meets West: Banking, Commerce and Ierce and In-n-vestment in the vestment in the Ottoman EmpireOttoman Empire, ed. P. L. Cottrell, Monika Pohle , ed. P. L. Cottrell, Monika Pohle Fraser, and Iain L. Fra-Fraser, and Iain L. Fra-ser (Burlington:ser (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2008), 128Ashgate Publishing Company, 2008), 128--31.31.

405 BlaisdBlaisdell, ell, European Financial Control in the Ottoman EmEuropean Financial Control in the Ottoman Empirepire, 209., 209.

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ister of Foreign Affairs, and Georges Cochery, the Minister of F

ister of Foreign Affairs, and Georges Cochery, the Minister of Fiinance, nance, agreed about obtaining serious and unusual guarantees for French iagreed about obtaining serious and unusual guarantees for French in-n-dustry.dustry. In Paris, CaIn Paris, Cavid Beyvid Bey met M. met M. Pichón and M. Cochery with the list Pichón and M. Cochery with the list given to him by M. Bompard remained in his hands. The list cogiven to him by M. Bompard remained in his hands. The list covvered the ered the telephone concessions for the Western Electric Company in Istanbul; telephone concessions for the Western Electric Company in Istanbul; concessions for French groups interested in tconcessions for French groups interested in the construction of thhe construction of the e SamsunSamsun--Sivas Sivas railway and a new network of lines in Anatolia; and large railway and a new network of lines in Anatolia; and large military orders for Schneider. On the financial side, the reform of prop-military orders for Schneider. On the financial side, the reform of prop-erty legislation needed to be accelerated in order to allow for the estab-erty legislation needed to be accelerated in order to allow for the estab-lishment of a Crelishment of a Credit Foncier in the Otdit Foncier in the Ottoman Empire. Ftoman Empire. Finally, the imperial inally, the imperial government needed to have the approval for a treasury plan prepared government needed to have the approval for a treasury plan prepared by French counsellor M. Laurent, which would hand over coby French counsellor M. Laurent, which would hand over conntrol of Ot-trol of Ot-toman finances to the IOB and the French counsellors in the namtoman finances to the IOB and the French counsellors in the name of a e of a profound reforprofound reform. The last conm. The last condition was the most critical one for both dition was the most critical one for both Cavid BeyCavid Bey and the Ottoman government. As Thobie states, Cavid Beyand the Ottoman government. As Thobie states, Cavid Bey’s ’s trip to Paris surprised both parties. He met the representtrip to Paris surprised both parties. He met the representaatives of other tives of other French banking groups to seek out anFrench banking groups to seek out an opportunity to aopportunity to arrranrange a loan. ge a loan. The The new talks were carried out mainly with Crédit Mobinew talks were carried out mainly with Crédit Mobillier, a French ier, a French bank that already had a stock loan from 1908. The company offered a bank that already had a stock loan from 1908. The company offered a better price than the Imperial Ottoman Bank to buy bonds, which vexed better price than the Imperial Ottoman Bank to buy bonds, which vexed the latter. The dthe latter. The draft of the loan projraft of the loan project was coect was conncludcluded on August 8, 1910 ed on August 8, 1910 between Cavid Beybetween Cavid Bey and the syndicate, known as the Bénard Group. This and the syndicate, known as the Bénard Group. This group included companies such as the Bgroup included companies such as the Béénard and Jarislowsky Houses, nard and Jarislowsky Houses, Crédit Mobilier, Louis Dreyfus et Cie and Société Centrale ComCrédit Mobilier, Louis Dreyfus et Cie and Société Centrale Compagnie, pagnie, plus provinciplus provincial banks. The lal banks. The loan was issued at 4% interest rate, with a oan was issued at 4% interest rate, with a total sum of 11 million lira, or 253 million francs, with a solid guaran-total sum of 11 million lira, or 253 million francs, with a solid guaran-tee: the customs revenue of Istanbul protee: the customs revenue of Istanbul provvince. However, Article 17 of ince. However, Article 17 of the agreement specified that “the Othe agreement specified that “the Ottoman Imperial Goverttoman Imperial Government shall nment shall makmake steps necessary to obtain the admie steps necessary to obtain the admisssion of the loan to the stock sion of the loan to the stock exchange official on the Paris Stock Eexchange official on the Paris Stock Exxchange.” The execution of the con-change.” The execution of the con-tract by the bankers was particularly dependent on obtaining the offi-tract by the bankers was particularly dependent on obtaining the offi-

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cial côte of

cial côte of the French governmenthe French government.t.406 In order toIn order to be quoted on the mar-be quoted on the mar-ket, any loan had to have the approval of the French state granted by the ket, any loan had to have the approval of the French state granted by the finance and foreign ministries since 1873. This gave the French gov-finance and foreign ministries since 1873. This gave the French gov-ernment leverage to insist that issues, as in this case, sernment leverage to insist that issues, as in this case, should be spent on hould be spent on ordorders from Frenchers from French firms such as Schneider rather than German ones firms such as Schneider rather than German ones like Krupp.like Krupp.407 Nevertheless, the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs hin-Nevertheless, the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs hin-dered the French group from adered the French group from acccomplishing the loan agreement with complishing the loan agreement with the Ottoman government. Mthe Ottoman government. Mrr. Pichon i. Pichon informed the banks thanformed the banks that, unless t, unless the Othe Ottoman government would let a French consultant manage the Ot-ttoman government would let a French consultant manage the Ot-toman budget, the loans would not be granted.toman budget, the loans would not be granted.408 On September 3, MOn September 3, Mrr. . Pichon told Pichon told Hakkı Pasha that under these conditions, it was impossible Hakkı Pasha that under these conditions, it was impossible to issue the loan. Acto issue the loan. According to Pichon, oncording to Pichon, only if the Sublime Porte would ly if the Sublime Porte would give more concrete and stronger guarantees for the loan and win the give more concrete and stronger guarantees for the loan and win the trust of French investors would the loan be issued by thetrust of French investors would the loan be issued by the French gov-French gov-ernment. As a result, the Sublime Porte had to end the negotiations in ernment. As a result, the Sublime Porte had to end the negotiations in Paris.Paris.409 Cavid BeyCavid Bey could not accept could not accept these kinds of heavy conditionsthese kinds of heavy conditions, es-, es-pecially when they had been rejected by the parliament. Cavid Beypecially when they had been rejected by the parliament. Cavid Bey was was in a dilemma, caught between thesein a dilemma, caught between these weighty conditions and the urgent weighty conditions and the urgent need for money, in addition to the strong opposition campaign against need for money, in addition to the strong opposition campaign against the CUP and himself on the loan issue carried out in the Turkish press. the CUP and himself on the loan issue carried out in the Turkish press.

As can be understood from secondary sources, the plan Cavid Bey

As can be understood from secondary sources, the plan Cavid Bey had in mind cohad in mind connsisted of two steps: first, eliminating the OPDA and IOB sisted of two steps: first, eliminating the OPDA and IOB from the loan process; second, dissecting the European capital market from the loan process; second, dissecting the European capital market for increasing options and defor increasing options and de--escalating the heavy terms put forward escalating the heavy terms put forward for the loan. Without having a monopoly on the Ottoman loanfor the loan. Without having a monopoly on the Ottoman loanss, the IOB , the IOB was effectively the preferred choice for matters concerning Ottoman was effectively the preferred choice for matters concerning Ottoman state loans. However, the bank succeeded in foiling the two attempts by state loans. However, the bank succeeded in foiling the two attempts by

406 Thobie, "FinaThobie, "Finance et Politique: Le Refus en France de l’Empruntnce et Politique: Le Refus en France de l’Emprunt Ottoman 1910," 329Ottoman 1910," 329--350.350.

407 Conlin,Conlin, "Debt, Diplomacy an"Debt, Diplomacy and Dreadnoughts: the National Bank of Tud Dreadnoughts: the National Bank of Turkey, 1909rkey, 1909––1919," 523, 251919," 523, 25--45, and 47.45, and 47.

408 Zürcher, Zürcher, Turkey: Turkey: A Modern HistoryA Modern History, 124., 124.

409 Ahmad, Ahmad, Ittihat ve Terakki,Ittihat ve Terakki, 19081908--11914 (Jön Türkler)914 (Jön Türkler), 121., 121.

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Crédit Mobilier (1908 and 1910) to establish an independent policy on

Crédit Mobilier (1908 and 1910) to establish an independent policy on Ottoman securities.Ottoman securities.410 Unfortunately,Unfortunately, Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s attempt to eliminate ’s attempt to eliminate the IOB remained inconclusive and drew a reaction from the French the IOB remained inconclusive and drew a reaction from the French government. When Cavid Beygovernment. When Cavid Bey understood that there was nothing he understood that there was nothing he could do in Paris, he left for London to look for a loan. Istanbul was could do in Paris, he left for London to look for a loan. Istanbul was waiting for money whiwaiting for money whille the young minister of finance was tilting at e the young minister of finance was tilting at windmills.windmills.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey went to London to meet Sir Ernest Cassel to search for went to London to meet Sir Ernest Cassel to search for other options. He was well received in London in July 1910. The main other options. He was well received in London in July 1910. The main issues on the table were the loan issue and the 4% increase in issues on the table were the loan issue and the 4% increase in ccustoms ustoms duties. According to Conlin, Sir Ernest held a dinner in Cavid Beyduties. According to Conlin, Sir Ernest held a dinner in Cavid Bey’s hon-’s hon-or that was attended by David Lloyd George, Chancellor of the Eor that was attended by David Lloyd George, Chancellor of the Exxcheq-cheq-uer; Winston Churchill, Home Secretary; Lord Revelstoke, a British fi-uer; Winston Churchill, Home Secretary; Lord Revelstoke, a British fi-nancier; and Mr. Arthur Henderson, formnancier; and Mr. Arthur Henderson, formeer iron molder and Labor party r iron molder and Labor party leader. Mr. Churchill leader. Mr. Churchill andand Cavid BeyCavid Bey, who , who both both spoke French to each oth-spoke French to each oth-erer had a nice chathad a nice chat..411 Mr. Gulbenkian hosted Cavid BeyMr. Gulbenkian hosted Cavid Bey in Loin Lonndon and let don and let him to meet politicians and financiers who could be benefhim to meet politicians and financiers who could be benefiicial for cial for him.him.412 He was in aHe was in a very fragile position in London because he must very fragile position in London because he must have felt that he was in the lion’s denhave felt that he was in the lion’s den——if he failed to secure a loan, then if he failed to secure a loan, then he could have lost his position in the ministry. The fall of ministers had he could have lost his position in the ministry. The fall of ministers had become the norm during the new political period, though become the norm during the new political period, though CCavid Beyavid Bey’s ’s

410 As Thobie sums up, the IOB policy, as Cavid Bey knew As Thobie sums up, the IOB policy, as Cavid Bey knew very wvery well, was as follows: under ell, was as follows: under the cover of a loan option cthe cover of a loan option contract or any other systemontract or any other system, steady advances at a high i, steady advances at a high in-n-terest rate (8 to 9terest rate (8 to 9 percent) were agreed, giving the issuepercent) were agreed, giving the issue, when the time came, the , when the time came, the character of a consolidation. Thus, the careful managecharacter of a consolidation. Thus, the careful management oment of timescales allowed cof timescales allowed con-n-ditions to be dictated for all ditions to be dictated for all orders from an Ottoman goveorders from an Ottoman government that was less and rnment that was less and less in any position to less in any position to oppose the bank. The major part of its oppose the bank. The major part of its profits were from its paprofits were from its par-r-ticipation in state loans. ticipation in state loans. ThThobie, obie, "French Investments in Public and Private Funds in "French Investments in Public and Private Funds in the the Ottoman Empire on the Eve oOttoman Empire on the Eve of the Great War," 129f the Great War," 129--30.30.

411 According to Burman’According to Burman’s articles referencing the papers of Bas articles referencing the papers of Babington Smith, Churchill bington Smith, Churchill then spent 12 September to 14 September 1910 in Istanbuthen spent 12 September to 14 September 1910 in Istanbul, whel, where he was received by re he was received by Cavid Bey.Cavid Bey.

412 Conlin, "DebtConlin, "Debt, Dipl, Diplomacy and Dreadnoughts: the National Bank of Turkey, 19omacy and Dreadnoughts: the National Bank of Turkey, 190909––1919," 523, 251919," 523, 25--45, and 345, and 31 1

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position was unrivalled but challenged by strong actors such as Mahmut

position was unrivalled but challenged by strong actors such as Mahmut Şevket Pasha and all the CUP’s opponents. As there is a lack of personal Şevket Pasha and all the CUP’s opponents. As there is a lack of personal testimony to this effect, we might never be certain if he really was testimony to this effect, we might never be certain if he really was frightened and, if so, to what frightened and, if so, to what eextent hextent he was anxious. On the other hand, was anxious. On the other hand, although some of the British financiers were also as anxious as Cavid although some of the British financiers were also as anxious as Cavid BeyBey, Sir Edward Grey was only concerned about not offend France, the , Sir Edward Grey was only concerned about not offend France, the entente of Britain. An example of this was the Foreign Oentente of Britain. An example of this was the Foreign Offfice’s active re-fice’s active re-strstraint of aint of the National Bank of Turkey in 1910 from mathe National Bank of Turkey in 1910 from makking the loan ing the loan agreeement.agreeement.413

While in London Cavid Bey

While in London Cavid Bey also met Mr. Alwyn Parker, a junior clerk also met Mr. Alwyn Parker, a junior clerk in the Foreign Office, to discuss intertwined issues of the customs duties in the Foreign Office, to discuss intertwined issues of the customs duties and railway investments. Mr. Parkerand railway investments. Mr. Parker repeaterepeated the British government’s d the British government’s demands for absolute control of the last phase of the demands for absolute control of the last phase of the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway (between (between BaghdadBaghdad and Basra) or to grant the concessions for an alteand Basra) or to grant the concessions for an alter-r-native railway line along the Tigris. Mr. Parker stated that if neither of native railway line along the Tigris. Mr. Parker stated that if neither of these wethese were accepre accepted by the Ottoman government, the British Goverted by the Ottoman government, the British Govern-n-ment would not let the customs tariff be increased by 4%. In response ment would not let the customs tariff be increased by 4%. In response to this, Cavid Beyto this, Cavid Bey proposed that the Ottoman government would build proposed that the Ottoman government would build the railway in the Gulf region itself. Britain then brought fthe railway in the Gulf region itself. Britain then brought forward torward the he condition that Kuwait be the terminus of the railway line, including con-condition that Kuwait be the terminus of the railway line, including con-struction of a port concession. This condition originated due to the Em-struction of a port concession. This condition originated due to the Em-pire’s key importance in Indian trade and its convenient location for pire’s key importance in Indian trade and its convenient location for transit trade. The British offictransit trade. The British officers expeers expected that the Ottoman govercted that the Ottoman govern-n-ment would accept British control over the terminus location.ment would accept British control over the terminus location.414 During During the negotiations with the British officers, Cavid Beythe negotiations with the British officers, Cavid Bey’s emphasized that’s emphasized that,,

“

“It was a prerogative only of the Ottoman government to deteIt was a prerogative only of the Ottoman government to deter-r-mine whether thmine whether the condite conditions of construction and management of ions of construction and management of

413 Kent, "Great Britain and The End of The OKent, "Great Britain and The End of The Ottoman Empire 1900ttoman Empire 1900--1923," 11923," 16565--98.98.

414 Özyüksel, Özyüksel, The BerlinThe Berlin--Baghdad Railway anBaghdad Railway and the Ottoman Empire: Industrialization, d the Ottoman Empire: Industrialization, Imperial Imperial GermanyGermany and the Middle Eastand the Middle East, (, (LondonLondon: I.B. Tauris, 2016), 121.: I.B. Tauris, 2016), 121.

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the Baghdad Railway were beneficial or detrimental to Tu

the Baghdad Railway were beneficial or detrimental to Tur-r-keykey.”.”415

On the loan issue, due to the Entente Cordiale between Britain and

On the loan issue, due to the Entente Cordiale between Britain and France, London could not take steps against the Quai d’Orsay. Their cFrance, London could not take steps against the Quai d’Orsay. Their co-o-operatiooperation was mun was much more important than with Cavid Beych more important than with Cavid Bey and the Oand the Ot-t-toman Empire. Even the founders of the NBT realized that they faced toman Empire. Even the founders of the NBT realized that they faced stiff competition from French interests, largely in the form of the Impstiff competition from French interests, largely in the form of the Impe-e-rial Ottoman Bank, and that the Foreign Office would not jeorial Ottoman Bank, and that the Foreign Office would not jeopardize pardize the the Entente Cordiale by supporting competition with French business. In Entente Cordiale by supporting competition with French business. In September, Sir Ernest Cassel met Hakki Pasha, Grand Vizier, to negotSeptember, Sir Ernest Cassel met Hakki Pasha, Grand Vizier, to negotiiate ate a loan, but due to a number of reasons, he gave up on September 24. a loan, but due to a number of reasons, he gave up on September 24. These reasons included, first, his These reasons included, first, his inabilitinability to find the huge amount of y to find the huge amount of money necessary for the loan, even for this portion, and second, the imoney necessary for the loan, even for this portion, and second, the in-n-fluence of the Foreign Office, which advised him to withdraw from the fluence of the Foreign Office, which advised him to withdraw from the loan issue.loan issue.416 Sir Ernest Cassell informed Hakki Pasha that they should Sir Ernest Cassell informed Hakki Pasha that they should ask the ask the Foreign Foreign Office to mediate between them and the French.Office to mediate between them and the French.417 Thus, talks between the French and Ottoman governments restarted in Thus, talks between the French and Ottoman governments restarted in September between M. Cochery and Mr. Gulbenkian, Financial CounseSeptember between M. Cochery and Mr. Gulbenkian, Financial Counsel-l-lor to the embassies of the Ottoman Empire to London and Paris. lor to the embassies of the Ottoman Empire to London and Paris.

The presshe press was a very influential actor during this loan negotiation. It was a very influential actor during this loan negotiation. It became a tool utilized by the governments to manipulate the circubecame a tool utilized by the governments to manipulate the circum-m-stances. Most major Paris newspapers campaigned for asking solid stances. Most major Paris newspapers campaigned for asking solid guarantees in return of the French loan. According to guarantees in return of the French loan. According to Thobie, Thobie, especially especially The The Journal des DébatJournal des Débats asserting it but also s asserting it but also Le Temps, Le Matin, La Libre Le Temps, Le Matin, La Libre Parole, l’Aurore, Parole, l’Aurore, andand l’Humanité following the same path. Their argl’Humanité following the same path. Their argu-u-ment based on that the Ottoman government would use the French ment based on that the Ottoman government would use the French

415 Edward Mead Earle, Edward Mead Earle, Turkey, the Great Powers, and tTurkey, the Great Powers, and the Bagdad Railway: a Study he Bagdad Railway: a Study in in ImperialismImperialism (New York: The Macmillan Company, (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1923), 224.1923), 224.

416 Thobie, "FinThobie, "Finance et Politique: Le Refus en France de l’Emprunance et Politique: Le Refus en France de l’Emprunt Ottoman 1910," 341t Ottoman 1910," 341--42.42.

417 Conlin, "DebtConlin, "Debt, Diplomacy and Dreadnoughts: , Diplomacy and Dreadnoughts: TheThe National Bank oNational Bank of Turkey, 1909f Turkey, 1909––1919," 531.1919," 531.

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money for its purchased from Ger

money for its purchased from Germany.many.418 MMeanwhile, in the Empire, eanwhile, in the Empire, Tanin Tanin was claiming that the British and French had united to dethrone was claiming that the British and French had united to dethrone Cavid BeyCavid Bey. Besides. Besides, Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey should learn that public relations were should learn that public relations were one of the most şmportant components of his business. Indeed, when he one of the most şmportant components of his business. Indeed, when he would go to Pwould go to Paris in 1913, his first job was meeting with the French aris in 1913, his first job was meeting with the French press.press.

The political atmosphere was quite stressful in Istanbul d

The political atmosphere was quite stressful in Istanbul during that uring that autumn. The second phase of the French negotiations began in October autumn. The second phase of the French negotiations began in October in both Istanbul and Paris. As Thobie states, the final failure at this last in both Istanbul and Paris. As Thobie states, the final failure at this last stage was due to the parallel negotiations conducted respectively by the stage was due to the parallel negotiations conducted respectively by the Minister of Foreign AffaiMinister of Foreign Affairs and the rs and the Minister of Finance. The two miniMinister of Finance. The two minis-s-ters had very different priorities. For Pichón, the talks that were taking ters had very different priorities. For Pichón, the talks that were taking place in Istanbul followed traditional patterns and were approaching place in Istanbul followed traditional patterns and were approaching their end. On October 10, with the consent of his minister, M. Bomptheir end. On October 10, with the consent of his minister, M. Bompard ard met witmet with Cavid Beyh Cavid Bey. According to his new offer, the Ottoman Ministry of . According to his new offer, the Ottoman Ministry of Finance decided to give the loan. However, they asked for new demands Finance decided to give the loan. However, they asked for new demands as military orders from French companies as 5 gunboats and 36 mouas military orders from French companies as 5 gunboats and 36 moun-n-tain guns. In the meantime, another level oftain guns. In the meantime, another level of talks startalks started between the ted between the financial consultant of the Ottoman government, Mr. Gulbenkian, and financial consultant of the Ottoman government, Mr. Gulbenkian, and the French Minister of Finance, assisted by Charles Laurent. “The talks the French Minister of Finance, assisted by Charles Laurent. “The talks were related to the “management guarantees” that the Ottoman gowere related to the “management guarantees” that the Ottoman gov-v-ernment was able to proviernment was able to provide.” In agrde.” In agreement with the French govereement with the French govern-n-ment, the Ottoman government would appoint two officials, one of ment, the Ottoman government would appoint two officials, one of whom would be in charge of the General Directorate of Public Accounwhom would be in charge of the General Directorate of Public Account-t-ancy, the other of the Presidency of the Court of Auditors. It was a suancy, the other of the Presidency of the Court of Auditors. It was a suc-c-cess for thcess for the French goe French government who would enable the treasury over the vernment who would enable the treasury over the Ottoman finances. On October 18, Ottoman finances. On October 18, 1910,1910, Mr. Gulbenkian, accepted the Mr. Gulbenkian, accepted the French offer, but four days later, the Ottoman Council of Ministers re-French offer, but four days later, the Ottoman Council of Ministers re-jected the proposal unanimously. The negotiations with the jected the proposal unanimously. The negotiations with the FFrench gov-rench gov-eernment were completely over on October 25,1910.rnment were completely over on October 25,1910.419

418 ThobThobie, "Finance et Politique: Le Refus en France de ie, "Finance et Politique: Le Refus en France de l’Emprunt Ottoman 1910," 345.l’Emprunt Ottoman 1910," 345.

419 Thobie, "Finance et Politique: Le Refus en FrancThobie, "Finance et Politique: Le Refus en France de l’Emprunt Ottoman 1910e de l’Emprunt Ottoman 1910," 345," 345--47.47.

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The collapse of the financial negotiations in Paris and London o

The collapse of the financial negotiations in Paris and London of-f-fered Deutsche Bank an opportunity that its directors could not ovefered Deutsche Bank an opportunity that its directors could not over-r-look. Karl Helfferich was dispatched to Istanbul immediately.look. Karl Helfferich was dispatched to Istanbul immediately.420 FFrench rench obseobservers were sure that at that moment Deutsche Bank group would rvers were sure that at that moment Deutsche Bank group would not be able to float a loan from the German market. However, a consonot be able to float a loan from the German market. However, a consor-r-tium of all German, most Austrian, and some Swiss banks was created tium of all German, most Austrian, and some Swiss banks was created and gave a shortand gave a short--term sixterm six--month credit to the month credit to the EEmpire in tmpire in the hope of ehe hope of en-n-suring longsuring long--term stabilization. A loan agreement signed between the term stabilization. A loan agreement signed between the Ottoman Governmnet and the Deutsche Bank who was representing a Ottoman Governmnet and the Deutsche Bank who was representing a consortium of 31 German and Austrian banks. At first the loan covered consortium of 31 German and Austrian banks. At first the loan covered to parts; the first was 7,040,to parts; the first was 7,040,0000 Liras a00 Liras and the second was 3,960,000. nd the second was 3,960,000. However, the parties gave up However, the parties gave up havinghaving the second part of the loan. The the second part of the loan. The capital money was 7,040,000 Liras, its interest rate was 4%, and its capital money was 7,040,000 Liras, its interest rate was 4%, and its aammortization was 1%. The provision of the loan was the 550,000 Lira ortization was 1%. The provision of the loan was the 550,000 Lira aannnualy frnualy froom the incom the income of the Istanbul customs. The loan would be me of the Istanbul customs. The loan would be used to meet the used to meet the bıdgetbıdget deficit of more than eight million Liras.deficit of more than eight million Liras.421 This This loan is titiled as the 1911 Customs Loan. Cavid Beyloan is titiled as the 1911 Customs Loan. Cavid Bey later commented on later commented on GeGerrmany as having acted many as having acted “with great intelligence and ta“with great intelligence and tacctt” and sett” and setting ing no conditions “ino conditions “innconsistent with the dignity of Turkey.” According to his consistent with the dignity of Turkey.” According to his biogrbiograaphy, Karl Helfferich described the loan as the Empire’s “greatest phy, Karl Helfferich described the loan as the Empire’s “greatest diplomatic victory” between the Young Turk Revolution and the First diplomatic victory” between the Young Turk Revolution and the First World War. World War.

Once the loan wnce the loan waas out of ts out of the way, the next step for Germany was the he way, the next step for Germany was the construction of the construction of the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway. However, the loan stretched the . However, the loan stretched the capacity ofcapacity of the German market to lend Ottoman notes beyond its limits, the German market to lend Ottoman notes beyond its limits, meaning that the issuance of additional meaning that the issuance of additional BaghdadBaghdad bonds during thbonds during thee first first halhalf of 1911 was out of the question.f of 1911 was out of the question.422

Although these lengthy negotiations for the loan were over, the di

Although these lengthy negotiations for the loan were over, the dis-s-pute between Cavid pute between Cavid BBeyey and Mahmut Şevket Pasha was not over. They and Mahmut Şevket Pasha was not over. They were holding key positions in the were holding key positions in the governmentgovernment. Mahmut Şevket Pasha . Mahmut Şevket Pasha

420 Earle, Earle, Turkey, the Great Powers, andTurkey, the Great Powers, and the Bagdad Railway: a Studthe Bagdad Railway: a Study in Imperialismy in Imperialism, 225., 225.

421 Yeniay, Yeniay, Yeni Osmanlı BoYeni Osmanlı Borçları Tarihirçları Tarihi, 105, 105--6. 6.

422 WilliamWilliamson, son, Karl Helfferich, 1872Karl Helfferich, 1872--1924: Econom1924: Economist, Financier, Politicianist, Financier, Politician, 93, 93--94.94.

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wass in urgin urgeent need ofnt need of money. Cavid Beymoney. Cavid Bey was the minister who would was the minister who would subsidy the money to the ministry of war. Although Cavid Beysubsidy the money to the ministry of war. Although Cavid Bey’s excuses ’s excuses to cut to cut the expenses of the ministry of war were quite acceptable, it was the expenses of the ministry of war were quite acceptable, it was impossible to decline Mahmut Şevket Pasha during the tieimpossible to decline Mahmut Şevket Pasha during the tiess of insurrof insurreec-c-tions and wars. However, the political atmosphere was stressful for tions and wars. However, the political atmosphere was stressful for both. In September over Mahmut Şevket Pasha’s demand both. In September over Mahmut Şevket Pasha’s demand for an afor an addvance vance of 400,000 liras from the Ministry of War for certain military stores he of 400,000 liras from the Ministry of War for certain military stores he had recently acquired for the armyhad recently acquired for the army from diffefrom different contractors. In Octo-rent contractors. In Octo-ber, the situation was more serious. ber, the situation was more serious. They both obstinate with each oth-They both obstinate with each oth-er. While er. While Mahmut Şevket PashMahmut Şevket Pasha a was refusing was refusing to get involved in the audit to get involved in the audit law for the Ministries of War and the Navylaw for the Ministries of War and the Navy, , Cavid BeyCavid Bey was was threatenthreateninging to to resigresignn ifif MahmutMahmut Şevket Pasha acted in kind.Şevket Pasha acted in kind.423 The situation was too The situation was too complex in Istanbul. complex in Istanbul.

Before writing the closing remarks and comments a

Before writing the closing remarks and comments about the 1910 bout the 1910 loan issue, I would like to comment on the parliamentary discussions on loan issue, I would like to comment on the parliamentary discussions on the program of the Hakkı Pasha goverthe program of the Hakkı Pasha governnment at thment at the beginning of De beginning of Deecem-cem-ber 1910. During the talks in the parliament on December 5, 1910, the ber 1910. During the talks in the parliament on December 5, 1910, the loan issue was discussed. Cavid Bloan issue was discussed. Cavid Beyey held the floor to give informheld the floor to give informaation tion about the previous six months. According to Hakkı Pasha, the main rea-about the previous six months. According to Hakkı Pasha, the main rea-son for obtainison for obtaininng a loan wg a loan was to close the budget deficit. He told the story as to close the budget deficit. He told the story of the loan process in detail:of the loan process in detail: there had been two phases of negthere had been two phases of negootiations tiations with France and an agreement with Germany. While he was mentioning with France and an agreement with Germany. While he was mentioning the breakdown of the negotiations with France, he referthe breakdown of the negotiations with France, he referrred to Med to Mrr. . Lau-Lau-rent’s treasury plan that the parliament had objected to. However, he rent’s treasury plan that the parliament had objected to. However, he classified this as an issue of legal precedence. Hclassified this as an issue of legal precedence. He skipped over the nego-e skipped over the nego-tiations in Britain. He also mentioned the difference in the price of the tiations in Britain. He also mentioned the difference in the price of the loan, as the German priceloan, as the German price was much hwas much higher. igher. Hakkı Pasha claimed that Hakkı Pasha claimed that this was due to the this was due to the periodperiod that had elapsed bthat had elapsed beetween the two negotia-tween the two negotia-tions.tions.

As Hakkı Pasha underlined, the Ottoman government could not a

As Hakkı Pasha underlined, the Ottoman government could not ac-c-cept France’s offer; however, despite this situation, relations with cept France’s offer; however, despite this situation, relations with

423 ÖÖzavcı,zavcı, "A Little Light in The Darkness’: The Mission of Charl"A Little Light in The Darkness’: The Mission of Charles Laurent and the Young es Laurent and the Young TuTurks, 1908rks, 1908--1911," 2241911," 224--25; and Akşin, 25; and Akşin, Jön Türkler vJön Türkler ve Ittihat Terakki,e Ittihat Terakki, 118118--23.23.

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France hrance had not detad not deteeriorateriorated. As Hakkı Pasha claimed, French invesd. As Hakkı Pasha claimed, French invest-t-ments in the Ottoman Empire, including in the OPDA, French industry, ments in the Ottoman Empire, including in the OPDA, French industry, and enterprises, amounted to and enterprises, amounted to threethree billion francs.billion francs.424 The opposition The opposition MPs then held the floor and questioned Hakkı Pasha whilMPs then held the floor and questioned Hakkı Pasha while also e also expresexpress-s-inging their ctheir criticism. Rıza Tevfik, Şefik El Müeyyit, Boşo Efendi, and Lütfi riticism. Rıza Tevfik, Şefik El Müeyyit, Boşo Efendi, and Lütfi Fikri harshly criticized both the government and Cavid BeyFikri harshly criticized both the government and Cavid Bey. Their crit. Their criti-i-cism mainly centered on why the government had issued a guarantee cism mainly centered on why the government had issued a guarantee for the loan, while the loan ofor the loan, while the loan of 1909 f 1909 did not redid not reqquire anuire any securities. They y securities. They were critical of the fact that the state suffered a loss due to the contract were critical of the fact that the state suffered a loss due to the contract with the German consortium, which was a few thousand liras more with the German consortium, which was a few thousand liras more (some claimed 300,000 while others claimed 500,000 liras more). They (some claimed 300,000 while others claimed 500,000 liras more). They ququestioneestioned why Sir d why Sir EErnest Crnest Cassel and Mr. Gulbenkian were involved, assel and Mr. Gulbenkian were involved, why Cavid Beywhy Cavid Bey was rejected in both Paris and London, and why the iwas rejected in both Paris and London, and why the in-n-terest rate on the loan had increased from 4% to 5.5%. Lütfi Fikri Bey terest rate on the loan had increased from 4% to 5.5%. Lütfi Fikri Bey questioned the securities and why customs duties werequestioned the securities and why customs duties were issuedissued as guaas guar-r-ananttees thoees though this had never happened before. Lütfi Fikri Bey placed an ugh this had never happened before. Lütfi Fikri Bey placed an extraordinary amount of pressure on Cavid Beyextraordinary amount of pressure on Cavid Bey, claiming that Cavid Bey, claiming that Cavid Bey had done this just to save face. The MPs continued to complain that this had done this just to save face. The MPs continued to complain that this loan was more expensive tloan was more expensive than thehan the one offerone offereed by thd by the French. As an ie French. As an in-n-teresting side note, none of these criticisms mentioned the treasury iteresting side note, none of these criticisms mentioned the treasury is-s-sue. Their priority was the price of the loan and good relations with sue. Their priority was the price of the loan and good relations with France, the IOB, and the OPDA.France, the IOB, and the OPDA.425 Hakkı Pasha responded to this while Hakkı Pasha responded to this while suppsupporting and defendorting and defending Cavid Beying Cavid Bey. As we have seen above, especially . As we have seen above, especially during the second phase, the Grand Vizier was also involved in these during the second phase, the Grand Vizier was also involved in these negotiations. He was quite clear in explaining the negative attributes of negotiations. He was quite clear in explaining the negative attributes of the offthe offers from the French government. In terms of the first one, M. Lau-ers from the French government. In terms of the first one, M. Lau-rent had prepared a financial scheme as requested; however, the par-rent had prepared a financial scheme as requested; however, the par-liament had rejected it. The Minister of Finance could not implement a liament had rejected it. The Minister of Finance could not implement a scheme that the parliament had already objected. The scheme that the parliament had already objected. The French goFrench govvern-ern-

424 MM Zabıt MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 1, Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 1, Cilt:Cilt: 1, 22 Teşrin1, 22 Teşrin--i Sani 1326) (5 i Sani 1326) (5 DecembDecembeer 1910r 1910), 304), 304--47. 47.

425 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi 3, , İçtima Senesi 3, Cilt:Cilt: 1, 22 Teşrin1, 22 Teşrin--i Si Sani 1326 (5 December ani 1326 (5 December 1910), 3391910), 339--90.90.

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ment did not allow French banks to accept any agreement with the Em-

ment did not allow French banks to accept any agreement with the Em-pire due to the rejection of the government’s proposal to have a French pire due to the rejection of the government’s proposal to have a French officer working in the Ottoman Ministry of Finance and another one in officer working in the Ottoman Ministry of Finance and another one in the Accounting Office to implementthe Accounting Office to implement the General Accounting Law. Hakkı the General Accounting Law. Hakkı Pasha stated that they could not confidently accept these condPasha stated that they could not confidently accept these condiitions. He tions. He also blamed the press in both Paris and Istanbul. Last but not least, ac-also blamed the press in both Paris and Istanbul. Last but not least, ac-cording to Hakkı Pasha, the French influence over the treasury was cording to Hakkı Pasha, the French influence over the treasury was worse thaworse than the existence of the OPDA. He claimed that though Sir Ernest n the existence of the OPDA. He claimed that though Sir Ernest Cassel wished to lend money to the Ottoman government, the British Cassel wished to lend money to the Ottoman government, the British government did not allow him to do so because of the Entente Cordiale government did not allow him to do so because of the Entente Cordiale with France.with France.426

The 1910 loan process is mentioned in vari

The 1910 loan process is mentioned in various sources that ous sources that examineexamine the final days of the Ottoman Empire from the final days of the Ottoman Empire from the the perspectives perspectives ofof fiscal and fiscal and judicial policy. This issue additionally deserves mention as part of Cavid judicial policy. This issue additionally deserves mention as part of Cavid BeyBey’s biography, as he acted courageously and indepen’s biography, as he acted courageously and independdentlyently to secure to secure ththe loan despe loan despite increasing opposition in Istanbul. Aite increasing opposition in Istanbul. Allthough he was in a though he was in a vulnerable position as the minister of a country that was seeking a loan vulnerable position as the minister of a country that was seeking a loan to cover its budget deficit, he first tried to eliminate the strongest insti-to cover its budget deficit, he first tried to eliminate the strongest insti-tutions such as the IOBtutions such as the IOB and the OPDAand the OPDA, which use, which used to hold the bonds of d to hold the bonds of the Ottoman Empire within the European markets; second, he attempt-the Ottoman Empire within the European markets; second, he attempt-ed to divide the European markets in order to create a space in which he ed to divide the European markets in order to create a space in which he could negotiate more independently to receive becould negotiate more independently to receive bettter options. However,ter options. However, France insisFrance insisted on inclted on including the treasury conduding the treasury condiition in line with its tion in line with its strong imperialist financial policies that sought to create a wider space strong imperialist financial policies that sought to create a wider space for itself in the Ottoman Empire. Cavid Beyfor itself in the Ottoman Empire. Cavid Bey’s a’s atttempt to secure a loan tempt to secure a loan with France failed due to French governmewith France failed due to French government’s authoritnt’s authority to give cy to give cote, in ote, in other words official permission to lend money. When he could not ob-other words official permission to lend money. When he could not ob-tain the loan and felt the pressure of the budget and the opposition, he tain the loan and felt the pressure of the budget and the opposition, he went to London. Though he met many important politicians and finan-went to London. Though he met many important politicians and finan-ciers, his negotiaciers, his negotiations regarditions regarding both theng both the loan and the increase in cus-loan and the increase in cus-toms duties were fruitless due to the strong ties btoms duties were fruitless due to the strong ties beetween Britain and tween Britain and

426 MM Zabıt CeMM Zabıt Ceridesi, ridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi 3, , İçtima Senesi 3, CiltCilt:: 1, 22 Teşrin1, 22 Teşrin--i Sani 1326 (5 December i Sani 1326 (5 December 1910), 4201910), 420--48.48.

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France. When the Ottoman government realized that they needed to try

France. When the Ottoman government realized that they needed to try their chances with France again, a second phase of the negotiatitheir chances with France again, a second phase of the negotiations be-ons be-gan. Algan. Alhough M. Pihough M. Pichon had softened France’s condchon had softened France’s condiitions, the terms set tions, the terms set out by M. Cochery prevailed, and the Ottoman cabout by M. Cochery prevailed, and the Ottoman cabiinet refused France’s net refused France’s heavy terms once again. When the negotiations collapsed with both of heavy terms once again. When the negotiations collapsed with both of the Great Powers, Germany was waiting atthe Great Powers, Germany was waiting at the gate. Afthe gate. After Mr. Helter Mr. Helfferich fferich arrived in Istanbul, a loan agreement was signed in under two weeks, arrived in Istanbul, a loan agreement was signed in under two weeks, which did not hurt the dignity of the Ottwhich did not hurt the dignity of the Ottooman Empire. This case allowed man Empire. This case allowed the French to adopt a new policy toward the loan issue while also ac-the French to adopt a new policy toward the loan issue while also ac-cepting its faicepting its failure. From nolure. From now on, the Fw on, the French policy was built on the re-rench policy was built on the re-jection of German demands as Deutsche Bank noticed from the very be-jection of German demands as Deutsche Bank noticed from the very be-ginning. Cavid Beyginning. Cavid Bey, a Francophile, was not a statesman with whom his , a Francophile, was not a statesman with whom his French colleagues easily compromised. He showed that he was a foFrench colleagues easily compromised. He showed that he was a force rce to be recto be reckoned with koned with and was not to be uand was not to be unnderestimated. As will be dis-derestimated. As will be dis-cussed in the next chapter, when Cavid Beycussed in the next chapter, when Cavid Bey went to Paris again in 1913, went to Paris again in 1913, he was apprehensive about the French statesmen’s reaction toward him he was apprehensive about the French statesmen’s reaction toward him due to the failure of the 1910 loan ndue to the failure of the 1910 loan neegotiagotiations. tions.

In te

In terms of domerms of domestic politics, what is interesting is that the main ostic politics, what is interesting is that the main op-p-position figures in the parliament heavily criticized Cavid Beyposition figures in the parliament heavily criticized Cavid Bey and even and even tried to humiliate him by questioning his knowledge regarding the tried to humiliate him by questioning his knowledge regarding the state’s finances. state’s finances. Both tBoth the he governmentgovernment’’ss and and his insistenchis insistence on oe on objectbjecting ing to the conditions of the treasury were not appreciated. Instead, they to the conditions of the treasury were not appreciated. Instead, they were awere acccused of causing the deterioration of relations between France cused of causing the deterioration of relations between France and the Ottoman Empire. They also criticized Cavid Beyand the Ottoman Empire. They also criticized Cavid Bey’s and the gov-’s and the gov-ernment's displeasurernment's displeasure with the IOe with the IOB and B and OPDA.OPDA. The opposition also The opposition also made many negative comments toward Cavid Beymade many negative comments toward Cavid Bey regarding the price regarding the price and condand condiitions of the securities in return for the loan. tions of the securities in return for the loan. The foreign capi-The foreign capi-tal was a part of tal was a part of UnionistUnionist economic economic policy;policy; besides they were aware that besides they were aware that tthey needed ithey needed it for for the inthe infrastructure investments. On the other hand, frastructure investments. On the other hand, they were skeptic about the heavy burdens in return of the loans which they were skeptic about the heavy burdens in return of the loans which would put a pressure on sovereignty.would put a pressure on sovereignty.427 I agree with Ahmad that the Un-I agree with Ahmad that the Un-

427 Ahmad, "Vanguard of a NAhmad, "Vanguard of a Nascent Bourgeoise: the Social and Economic Policy of the ascent Bourgeoise: the Social and Economic Policy of the Young Turks 1908Young Turks 1908--1918,1918,"" 32.32.

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ionists were naïve in refusing to accept foreign

ionists were naïve in refusing to accept foreign loans with bloans with bitteritter rreeci-ci-pprocities, as they desperately needed a loan. However, was Cavid Beyrocities, as they desperately needed a loan. However, was Cavid Bey as as naïve in regard to this issue? On the one hand, domestically, he was very naïve in regard to this issue? On the one hand, domestically, he was very brave to try his chances at obtaining the loan at the cost of endabrave to try his chances at obtaining the loan at the cost of endanngering gering his position his position as minister. as minister. HowevHowever, iner, in the end, he was able to show his the end, he was able to show his colleagues in the CUP that he would not accept being tightly bound by colleagues in the CUP that he would not accept being tightly bound by Europe’s financial strings. On the other hand, his European colleagues, Europe’s financial strings. On the other hand, his European colleagues, despite welcoming and accepting him as the new actor witdespite welcoming and accepting him as the new actor with whom they h whom they ccould ould easilyeasily communicate and negotiate, were equally sucommunicate and negotiate, were equally surrprised by his prised by his move to challenge their plans. Cavid Beymove to challenge their plans. Cavid Bey faced many chafaced many challlenges in 1910 lenges in 1910 in addition to his inability to secure a loan from Paris and London; he in addition to his inability to secure a loan from Paris and London; he had undergone very difficult tihad undergone very difficult times and had mmes and had many cany clasheslashes with Mahmut with Mahmut Şevket Pasha in which he had to compromise his position. Although he Şevket Pasha in which he had to compromise his position. Although he managed to initiate many legislative and adminimanaged to initiate many legislative and adminisstrative reforms within trative reforms within the state apparatus, it was anything but an easy year for him in both the the state apparatus, it was anything but an easy year for him in both the interinternational arennational arena anda and in doin domestic politics. mestic politics.

§ 2.11 Chapter SummaryChapter Summary

As mentioned in the introduction to this dissertation, both biographies

As mentioned in the introduction to this dissertation, both biographies and other research covering Cavid Beyand other research covering Cavid Bey’s political and economic ’s political and economic thoughts have already been published. Therefore, what I attemptthoughts have already been published. Therefore, what I attempt to do to do in my in my dissedissertatiortation is to approach Cavid Beyn is to approach Cavid Bey’s life story covering the flow ’s life story covering the flow of political, economic, and international incidents during his life. His pof political, economic, and international incidents during his life. His po-o-sition as a negotiator is the least sition as a negotiator is the least reresearched searched areaarea in his life. I also try to in his life. I also try to ffoocus on his role ancus on his role and capacity tod capacity to chanchange thege the flow of events on behalf of flow of events on behalf of the Ottoman government. This kind of research also the Ottoman government. This kind of research also allowsallows usus toto undeunder-r-stand the role of the individual in domestic and international politics. stand the role of the individual in domestic and international politics.

This chapter, covering the period between 1908 and 1910, de

This chapter, covering the period between 1908 and 1910, details tails Cavid BCavid Beyey’s ’s first first two years as an MP and later the Minister of Finance. two years as an MP and later the Minister of Finance. This could be identified as his political apprenticeship, though in many This could be identified as his political apprenticeship, though in many ways he was not really an apprentice. His policies were well designed ways he was not really an apprentice. His policies were well designed and planned in the field of financeand planned in the field of finance. Contrary to. Contrary to genegeneral opral opinion, the Uinion, the Un-n-ionists and CUP had no concrete plans for the postionists and CUP had no concrete plans for the post--revolutionrevolutionaryary ppeeri-ri-

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od. However, in contrast Cavid Bey

od. However, in contrast Cavid Bey had his own plans concerning the had his own plans concerning the financial steps that needed to be taken to modernize the state. After the financial steps that needed to be taken to modernize the state. After the paparrliameliament was openednt was opened, he , he becamebecame a member of several commissions a member of several commissions and implemented the CUP’s financial agenda. and implemented the CUP’s financial agenda. HHe quickly developed his e quickly developed his relrelaations with foretions with foreiign representatives gn representatives inin the financial world. the financial world.

The period from 1908 to 1913 in the Second Constitutional Era co

The period from 1908 to 1913 in the Second Constitutional Era cor-r-rresponds with esponds with the lthe liberaliberal and pluralistic character of the new regime. and pluralistic character of the new regime. For this reason, Cavid BeyFor this reason, Cavid Bey’s position was firmer than ever between ’s position was firmer than ever between 1908 and 1913. 1908 and 1913. This period thus cemented his credibility as a leading This period thus cemented his credibility as a leading financial figurefinancial figure. This was for two reasons: his k. This was for two reasons: his knowledge and nowledge and his Uhis Unionion-n-isist character. Though the Committee and Cavid Beyt character. Though the Committee and Cavid Bey disagreed on cedisagreed on cerrtain tain issues such as economic policies or issues such as economic policies or the Empire’s the Empire’s entrance into the Great entrance into the Great War, he did not waver in his convictions of being a Unionist. In my opin-War, he did not waver in his convictions of being a Unionist. In my opin-ion, this is imporion, this is importanttant,, bbeecausecause thisthis also also makes him a man of duty. makes him a man of duty. AlAlt-t-hough he had adopted liberal economic views, like Prince Sabahahough he had adopted liberal economic views, like Prince Sabahadddin din (although their approach was different, as me(although their approach was different, as menntioned above), he did not tioned above), he did not support nonsupport non--centralized polcentralized poliicies. He was a centralist in terms ocies. He was a centralist in terms of both f both politipolitics ancs and the d the economyeconomy——but not a strict centralist like Talat Bey. For but not a strict centralist like Talat Bey. For example, he supported the expansion of the authority of the mexample, he supported the expansion of the authority of the muunicipali-nicipali-ties. The Ities. The Isstanbul municipality arranged a loan for the first time during tanbul municipality arranged a loan for the first time during this period. He supported this period. He supported thethe mmunicipaunicipallityity’s’s desidesirere to to seek loans seek loans as as long aslong as good conditions were obtained. He was also more realistic and good conditions were obtained. He was also more realistic and addressed local demands when it came to Ottoman investments. For ex-addressed local demands when it came to Ottoman investments. For ex-ample, if there were ongoing negotiations with the French to coample, if there were ongoing negotiations with the French to connstruct a struct a port or port or railway cheaprailway cheaper aner and fastd faster than the Ottomans could do so, then er than the Ottomans could do so, then he did not want to give that business to Ottoman citizens merely be-he did not want to give that business to Ottoman citizens merely be-cause they were Ottoman citizens. He fcause they were Ottoman citizens. He foocused on business and negotia-cused on business and negotia-tions, because from his perspective, the Ottoman Empire wations, because from his perspective, the Ottoman Empire was in urgent s in urgent nneed oeed of publf public works to improve and develop its ecoic works to improve and develop its econnomy. On the mod-omy. On the mod-ernization of state affairs, he beliernization of state affairs, he belieeved that the construved that the construcction of ports and tion of ports and rairaillways would improve agriculture. This was the leading ways would improve agriculture. This was the leading economiceconomic sec-sec-tor of the Ottoman Empire and retor of the Ottoman Empire and related to centrlated to centralaliizzation,ation, a policy of a policy of Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s that was compatible with the CUP. Ho’s that was compatible with the CUP. Howwever, Cavid Beyever, Cavid Bey was was one step ahead of the Unionists in terms of implone step ahead of the Unionists in terms of impleementing financial ac-menting financial ac-

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counttability and restricting the army. He clashed with Mahmud Şevket ability and restricting the army. He clashed with Mahmud Şevket Pasha over tPasha over the budget and he budget and the authothe authorrity of the army in 1910 and 1911. ity of the army in 1910 and 1911. In 1910, Cavid BeyIn 1910, Cavid Bey threatened to rthreatened to reesign when Mahmud Şevket Pasha sign when Mahmud Şevket Pasha iinnsisted on increasing the military’s budget. In 1911, thsisted on increasing the military’s budget. In 1911, they clashed again ey clashed again on the General Accounon the General Accountting Law. This conflict was even written about in ing Law. This conflict was even written about in the newspapers. This situation also points to Cavid Beythe newspapers. This situation also points to Cavid Bey’s strong charac-’s strong charac-ter when standing up to a successful and iter when standing up to a successful and immpressive commander like pressive commander like Mahmud Sevket Pasha. HoMahmud Sevket Pasha. Howwever, ever, in the end, as in many cases, the last in the end, as in many cases, the last word belonged to the Coword belonged to the Commmittee, and Cavid Beymittee, and Cavid Bey had to step back withad to step back with-h-out losing respect. The army was always a priority in the eyes of both out losing respect. The army was always a priority in the eyes of both the Unionists and the rest of the goverthe Unionists and the rest of the governnment. Homent. Howwever, despite these ever, despite these clashes anclashes and retreats, Cavid Beyd retreats, Cavid Bey continued to act as a figure who tried to continued to act as a figure who tried to restrict the authority of the army in the name of democratic order.restrict the authority of the army in the name of democratic order. As As eevenven contended bycontended by Mahmud Sevket PMahmud Sevket Paashasha, there was, there was no one to replace no one to replace Cavid BeyCavid Bey. .

Returning to the beginning of this period,

Returning to the beginning of this period, 19081908––1910 was one of 1910 was one of Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s strongest moments as the most influential financier of the ’s strongest moments as the most influential financier of the Empire. Both the Unionists and opposition groups held him in high rEmpire. Both the Unionists and opposition groups held him in high re-e-gard for his knowledge, even though he also often faced criticism. The gard for his knowledge, even though he also often faced criticism. The CUP treated him with greCUP treated him with great respect until the end of the Second Constitat respect until the end of the Second Constitu-u-tional Period. The financial and economic agenda had both longtional Period. The financial and economic agenda had both long-- and and shortshort--term targets such as preparing the first modern budget of the term targets such as preparing the first modern budget of the Empire or creating an Ottoman bourgeoisie among the Empire’s Muslim Empire or creating an Ottoman bourgeoisie among the Empire’s Muslim commucommunity. Following the Young Turk Revolution, Cavid Beynity. Following the Young Turk Revolution, Cavid Bey engaged in engaged in work immediately by focusing on the Budget Commission. Although work immediately by focusing on the Budget Commission. Although parliamentary control of the budget was a right granted by the constitparliamentary control of the budget was a right granted by the constitu-u-tion, between 1876 and 1878, this right could not be impltion, between 1876 and 1878, this right could not be implemented for emented for political and administrative reasons. However, in 1908, the political sys-political and administrative reasons. However, in 1908, the political sys-tem and conditions were ripe to allow for the implementation of a tem and conditions were ripe to allow for the implementation of a budget formed by the parliament. Cavid Beybudget formed by the parliament. Cavid Bey was a leading figure in the was a leading figure in the preparation of the budget. He was preparation of the budget. He was the one who presented it to the pathe one who presented it to the par-r-liament, and thus, as the presenter, he was the one responsible for it. liament, and thus, as the presenter, he was the one responsible for it. The Empire’s first modern budget was confirmed by the parliament in The Empire’s first modern budget was confirmed by the parliament in the summer of 1909, and it was based on the universal principles of uni-the summer of 1909, and it was based on the universal principles of uni-

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ty, genera

ty, generalization, accountability, and transparency. Cavid Beylization, accountability, and transparency. Cavid Bey was the was the key person who led the modern budget process, the legacy of which was key person who led the modern budget process, the legacy of which was carried into the Republican Era. carried into the Republican Era.

Secondly, the beginning of the constitutional regime marked the b

Secondly, the beginning of the constitutional regime marked the be-e-ginning of a struggle beginning of a struggle between the legislative and executive powers, tween the legislative and executive powers, which lasted until the Republican Era. This clash was exacerbated by the which lasted until the Republican Era. This clash was exacerbated by the 31 March Incident, which showcased the dysfunctionality of the parlia-31 March Incident, which showcased the dysfunctionality of the parlia-ment. Thus, following this incident the CUP prioritized legal rment. Thus, following this incident the CUP prioritized legal reeforms forms re-re-stricting the authority of the sultan and executive power. These reforms stricting the authority of the sultan and executive power. These reforms were collected into a comprehensive package that encowere collected into a comprehensive package that encommpassed an passed an amendment to the constitution in favor of the parliament and new laws amendment to the constitution in favor of the parliament and new laws that aimed at modernizing the state. that aimed at modernizing the state.

At this p

At this point, it is possible to argue that Cavid Beyoint, it is possible to argue that Cavid Bey stood at the head stood at the head of the constitutional regime. As a liberal man, two things were very iof the constitutional regime. As a liberal man, two things were very im-m-portant to him: law and institutions. He implemented several changes in portant to him: law and institutions. He implemented several changes in the Empire’s legislation and institutions in orderthe Empire’s legislation and institutions in order to establish a modern to establish a modern state model. In terms of legislation, factors such as legal reforms, transtate model. In terms of legislation, factors such as legal reforms, trans-s-parency, accountability, checks and balances, and supervising the budparency, accountability, checks and balances, and supervising the budg-g-ets of institutions such as the army and the palace made the state more ets of institutions such as the army and the palace made the state more democratic. On thdemocratic. On the one hand, Cavid Beye one hand, Cavid Bey supported legal reforms such as supported legal reforms such as the Law of Severance, of which the Budget Law was also part and pathe Law of Severance, of which the Budget Law was also part and parrcel. cel. On the other hand, as seen in the Lynch project, in order to proceed On the other hand, as seen in the Lynch project, in order to proceed swiftly, Cavid Beyswiftly, Cavid Bey sided with the government, which was supposided with the government, which was supported by rted by the CUP, to try to avoid bringing certain issues related to international the CUP, to try to avoid bringing certain issues related to international agreements to the parliament. Cavid Beyagreements to the parliament. Cavid Bey declared that the goverdeclared that the governnment’s ment’s approval of such concessions was not related to the future of the entire approval of such concessions was not related to the future of the entire country; otherwise, they wouldcountry; otherwise, they would not be able to proceed easily and rapid-not be able to proceed easily and rapid-ly. In fact, he also rationalized avoiding the ly. In fact, he also rationalized avoiding the pparliamentary process. He arliamentary process. He knew that the government might not get the approval of the knew that the government might not get the approval of the pparliarliaament ment at all. Cavid Beyat all. Cavid Bey was was aa pragmatic person who was focused on the out-pragmatic person who was focused on the out-come. come. As will be seen in the next chapter, bypassing parliamentary ap-As will be seen in the next chapter, bypassing parliamentary ap-proval was a trick up Cavid Beyproval was a trick up Cavid Bey’s sleeve that he often used against the ’s sleeve that he often used against the Great Powers on issues to do with the railways, which were subject to Great Powers on issues to do with the railways, which were subject to international agreements. However, as the CUP stillinternational agreements. However, as the CUP still did not hold abso-did not hold abso-

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lute power, Cavid Bey

lute power, Cavid Bey was constantly anxious about opposition from was constantly anxious about opposition from various actors. various actors.

In terms of institutions, commercial institutions were more prom

In terms of institutions, commercial institutions were more promi-i-nent in determining Cavid Beynent in determining Cavid Bey’s economic policies. Capital was in short ’s economic policies. Capital was in short supply in the Ottsupply in the Ottoman economy. To remedy this, the CUP attempted to oman economy. To remedy this, the CUP attempted to allow Ottoman citizens to establish joint stock companies, which would allow Ottoman citizens to establish joint stock companies, which would then proliferate commerce and capital. They aimed to ensure a secure then proliferate commerce and capital. They aimed to ensure a secure political environment for the business world. For this reason, thpolitical environment for the business world. For this reason, they were ey were anxious about strikes so as not to scare off foreign and domestic capital. anxious about strikes so as not to scare off foreign and domestic capital. On the other hand, such legislation as The Law of Severeance aimed to On the other hand, such legislation as The Law of Severeance aimed to free people from bureaucracy and make them entrepreneurfree people from bureaucracy and make them entrepreneurss. Ho. Howwever, ever, due to the lack of capital among thedue to the lack of capital among the Empire’s Muslim community bEmpire’s Muslim community be-e-tween 1908 and 1914, joint stock companies in the Empire were mostly tween 1908 and 1914, joint stock companies in the Empire were mostly established between Muslims and nonestablished between Muslims and non--Muslims. Nevertheless, ecMuslims. Nevertheless, ecoonomic nomic policies that focused on creating a Muslim entrepreneurial class were policies that focused on creating a Muslim entrepreneurial class were implemented from theimplemented from the first day. Cavid Beyfirst day. Cavid Bey pushed these policies pushed these policies through and developed propaganda in hopes of creating this new Muthrough and developed propaganda in hopes of creating this new Mus-s-lim entrepreneurial class. Cavid Beylim entrepreneurial class. Cavid Bey’s reforms of the law’s reforms of the lawss regreguulating lating commercecommerce——an essential part of the economic fieldan essential part of the economic field——were signifwere signifiicant. cant. He made cHe made changes to these laws in order to promote the establishanges to these laws in order to promote the establishhment ment of new companies and a new merchant class. Cavid Beyof new companies and a new merchant class. Cavid Bey was in favor of was in favor of increasing the number of merchants, not tradesmen (increasing the number of merchants, not tradesmen (esnafesnaf). However, ). However, when merchants and tradesman were in conflict, the CUP awhen merchants and tradesman were in conflict, the CUP allwayways stood s stood on the side of the tradesmen as the CUP’s national economy policy ron the side of the tradesmen as the CUP’s national economy policy re-e-lied on their support. Thus, Cavid Beylied on their support. Thus, Cavid Bey’s ideals of Ottomanism and libe’s ideals of Ottomanism and liber-r-alism had limited success in improving the national economy in the alism had limited success in improving the national economy in the short term.short term.

One of Cavid Bey

One of Cavid Bey’s major tasks’s major tasks in this period was modernizing the in this period was modernizing the Ministry of Finance. He implemented new measures to modernize the Ministry of Finance. He implemented new measures to modernize the procedures and processes in the ministry, including human resources. procedures and processes in the ministry, including human resources. He opened a financial school to raise new officers for the ministry and He opened a financial school to raise new officers for the ministry and sent young ofsent young officers to Paris as interns. These efforts were part of his ma-ficers to Paris as interns. These efforts were part of his ma-jor administrative achievements. One of the main obstacles he ejor administrative achievements. One of the main obstacles he enncoun-coun-tered was the lack of financial data. In 1909, Cavid Beytered was the lack of financial data. In 1909, Cavid Bey was still not very was still not very

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certain about the exact figures when it came to inc

certain about the exact figures when it came to income, expendome, expendiitures, tures, and loans that the state owed to the domestic market. This was because and loans that the state owed to the domestic market. This was because the state did not have an institution that collected and analyzed data. the state did not have an institution that collected and analyzed data. Cavid BeyCavid Bey thus used the data that he received from the IOB and the thus used the data that he received from the IOB and the OPDA to determine the stateOPDA to determine the state’s budget. The state did not use statist’s budget. The state did not use statistiical cal calculations until calculations until the the Second Constitutional Era. It is obvious from eSecond Constitutional Era. It is obvious from ex-x-amining Cavid Beyamining Cavid Bey’s diaries that he was a very meticulous and well’s diaries that he was a very meticulous and well--organized person.organized person.

During the first years of the Second Constitutional Era

During the first years of the Second Constitutional Era, Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey became a key figure in domestic politics. The role he played was not on-became a key figure in domestic politics. The role he played was not on-ly limited to being a financier. The 31 March Incident was the first shock ly limited to being a financier. The 31 March Incident was the first shock in his political life, which ended in a shortin his political life, which ended in a short--term period of exile for Cavid term period of exile for Cavid BeyBey. This break also . This break also delayed the completion of the 1909 budget as well delayed the completion of the 1909 budget as well as his work at the international level. First of all, Cavid Beyas his work at the international level. First of all, Cavid Bey was some-was some-one with whom the European diplomats, financiers, and statesmen one with whom the European diplomats, financiers, and statesmen could very easily communicate, do business, and negotiate. He could nocould very easily communicate, do business, and negotiate. He could not t be replaced as either a domestic or foreign actor. Even when there was a be replaced as either a domestic or foreign actor. Even when there was a rupture in his position as minister, he continued his meetings with Eu-rupture in his position as minister, he continued his meetings with Eu-ropean representatives. One of the most crucial aspects of this diropean representatives. One of the most crucial aspects of this dissserta-serta-tion is its emphasis on his role in inttion is its emphasis on his role in international negotiations, which last-ernational negotiations, which last-ed through the spring of 1914 and covered the rise in customs ded through the spring of 1914 and covered the rise in customs duuties ties and the resolution of problems over the and the resolution of problems over the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway. This process . This process concluded with the emergence of economic penetration in the Ottoman concluded with the emergence of economic penetration in the Ottoman lands and insplands and inspired the secret agreements of 1916, such as Sykesired the secret agreements of 1916, such as Sykes--Picot. Picot. Though these negotiations were multilateral, Cavid BeyThough these negotiations were multilateral, Cavid Bey was the main was the main actor who led the negotiations with unrivaled authority. actor who led the negotiations with unrivaled authority.

During this period, the treasury was empty, and the state could not

During this period, the treasury was empty, and the state could not pay tpay the salaries that it owed. It should be noted that the lack of cash he salaries that it owed. It should be noted that the lack of cash money in the treasury was a significant issue throughout the Second money in the treasury was a significant issue throughout the Second Constitutional Period. From what we can glean from his diaries, Cavid Constitutional Period. From what we can glean from his diaries, Cavid BeyBey attempted to find solutions to pay these salarattempted to find solutions to pay these salaries, or at least part of ies, or at least part of them, on time. As of 1908, the government started to accept loans from them, on time. As of 1908, the government started to accept loans from European markets. Although Cavid BeyEuropean markets. Although Cavid Bey was not involved in the first loan was not involved in the first loan process, he was active in the second loan process in 1909. His main aim process, he was active in the second loan process in 1909. His main aim

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and policy

and policy waswas tto rule out the OPDA as the main guarantor of Ottoman o rule out the OPDA as the main guarantor of Ottoman debts, as it had been since 1881. Although he saw the debts, as it had been since 1881. Although he saw the IOBIOB as a part of as a part of the Empire’s fthe Empire’s fiinancial family, he tried to keep the OPDA from getting in-nancial family, he tried to keep the OPDA from getting in-volved. He was able to accomplish this in 1909 and received volved. He was able to accomplish this in 1909 and received a loan a loan without the guarawithout the guaranntee of the OPDA. He emphasized this success in his tee of the OPDA. He emphasized this success in his talks in parliament. This was a major success for the CUP in domestic talks in parliament. This was a major success for the CUP in domestic politics, as well. Sepolitics, as well. Seccond, Cavid Beyond, Cavid Bey tried to increase the leverage of the tried to increase the leverage of the Ottoman economy in the European marOttoman economy in the European markets. This strategy had two kets. This strategy had two components: first, in terms of foreign policy, the Unionists followed Acomponents: first, in terms of foreign policy, the Unionists followed Ab-b-dulhamid II’s strategy, which was to play off one European group dulhamid II’s strategy, which was to play off one European group against the other. While Germany was the most influential Great Power against the other. While Germany was the most influential Great Power during the Hamidian Eduring the Hamidian Era, the Unionists turned toward Great Britain, ra, the Unionists turned toward Great Britain, which was at the forwhich was at the foreefront when it came to parliamentarism and liberal-front when it came to parliamentarism and liberal-ism, to solve the Eism, to solve the Emmpire’s problems. They even supported Kamil Ppire’s problems. They even supported Kamil Paasha sha as the grand vizier, who despite his tieas the grand vizier, who despite his tiess to Britain was an oldto Britain was an old--schoolschool pol-pol-itician from the Hamidian Era. Cavid Beyitician from the Hamidian Era. Cavid Bey initiated the establishment of a initiated the establishment of a bank called the National Bank of Turkey with British financier Sir Ern-bank called the National Bank of Turkey with British financier Sir Ern-est Cassel. He and some of his fellows were also among the founders of est Cassel. He and some of his fellows were also among the founders of this bank. As methis bank. As menntioned before, I asstioned before, I assume that Cavid Beyume that Cavid Bey aimed to iaimed to in-n-crease the Empire’s options. Cavid Beycrease the Empire’s options. Cavid Bey became close to prominent fibecame close to prominent fig-g-ures such as Sir Ernestures such as Sir Ernest CasselCassel, Gulbenkian, M. Maurice Bompard, Sir Ad-, Gulbenkian, M. Maurice Bompard, Sir Ad-am Bloch, and even with Sir Winston Churchill. His international values, am Bloch, and even with Sir Winston Churchill. His international values, fluency in Frenfluency in French, strong rhetoric, and consistent character (though he ch, strong rhetoric, and consistent character (though he was also known as arrogant and of acute intelligence) no doubt helped was also known as arrogant and of acute intelligence) no doubt helped him along the way.him along the way.

The 1910 loan issue was the first chaotic incident at

The 1910 loan issue was the first chaotic incident at thethe interninternaation-tion-al level in Cavid Beyal level in Cavid Bey life. This transforlife. This transformed him into a real game changer med him into a real game changer in Ottoman finances. It was a bold move to try to exclude the IOB and in Ottoman finances. It was a bold move to try to exclude the IOB and France’s demandFrance’s demandss for the treasury. Moreover, he tried to gloss over this for the treasury. Moreover, he tried to gloss over this by making a new deal with other French banks. However, the French by making a new deal with other French banks. However, the French state, which hstate, which had considered their economic agreements as part of their ad considered their economic agreements as part of their imperialist aims and intentions, hindered his plan. Cavid Beyimperialist aims and intentions, hindered his plan. Cavid Bey had taken had taken the initiative to divide the French market and tried his chances at get-the initiative to divide the French market and tried his chances at get-ting the best option for the Ottoman government to rting the best option for the Ottoman government to reelealease it from for-se it from for-

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eign ties to the treasury and the OPDA. Even the E

eign ties to the treasury and the OPDA. Even the Enntente Cordiale btente Cordiale be-e-tween Great Britain and France stood as an obstacle to Cavid Beytween Great Britain and France stood as an obstacle to Cavid Bey’s at-’s at-tempts to receive a loan from London. As Cavid Beytempts to receive a loan from London. As Cavid Bey was desperate due was desperate due to the lack of money in the state trto the lack of money in the state treasury and the fear that he might lose easury and the fear that he might lose his position, the Germans came to his rescue. One of the most ihis position, the Germans came to his rescue. One of the most innterest-terest-ing points for me was that during the parliamentary talks, the oing points for me was that during the parliamentary talks, the oppposi-posi-tion did not mention the treasury issue, although Cavid Beytion did not mention the treasury issue, although Cavid Bey himself and himself and Hakki Hakki Pasha, then the grand vizier, referred to it. APasha, then the grand vizier, referred to it. Allthough he was not though he was not successful, Cavid Beysuccessful, Cavid Bey became a game changer in Europe as he abecame a game changer in Europe as he atttempt-tempt-eded to establish his own policies in the new political era. to establish his own policies in the new political era.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey had achieved or tried to achieve goals that nobody hahad achieved or tried to achieve goals that nobody had d dared to attempt before. For instance, he wanted to abolish tax exemdared to attempt before. For instance, he wanted to abolish tax exemp-p-tions for foreigners that had been set up because of the capitulations. He tions for foreigners that had been set up because of the capitulations. He drew support from the Unionists, who wanted to redefine the rules drew support from the Unionists, who wanted to redefine the rules through a more nationalist approach through a more nationalist approach andand widewiden the tax range for for-n the tax range for for-eign companies, which opposed by foreign capital circles. eign companies, which opposed by foreign capital circles.

As seen in this chapter, Cavid Bey

As seen in this chapter, Cavid Bey’s life and character had multiple ’s life and character had multiple ddiimensions. He was a financier, politician, negotiator, professor, and mensions. He was a financier, politician, negotiator, professor, and overalloverall, an intellectua, an intellectual. Despitel. Despite the turmoil and upheavalthe turmoil and upheaval after the revo-after the revo-lutionlution, he was able to publish one of the first liberal periodicals on eco-, he was able to publish one of the first liberal periodicals on eco-nomic and social issues. This magazine was published between Dnomic and social issues. This magazine was published between Deecem-cem-ber 29, ber 29, 1908,1908, and March 14, 1911, and it ran for 27 issues. Cavid Band March 14, 1911, and it ran for 27 issues. Cavid Beyey wrote wrote several artseveral artiicles in the magazine on different subjects, including cles in the magazine on different subjects, including loans, public works, the OPDA, the stock exchange, among others. In my loans, public works, the OPDA, the stock exchange, among others. In my opinion, he also utiopinion, he also utillized the magazine and his articles to promote his ized the magazine and his articles to promote his policies, which were compatible with thpolicies, which were compatible with the CUP. The CUP. This magazine provided a is magazine provided a great contrgreat contriibution to the intellectual life of the Ottoman Empire and re-bution to the intellectual life of the Ottoman Empire and re-flected the vividness of the Second Constitutional Era. It should also be flected the vividness of the Second Constitutional Era. It should also be mentioned that Cavid Beymentioned that Cavid Bey was “a gentleman of the press.” From the be-was “a gentleman of the press.” From the be-ginning ofginning of the Secothe Second Constitutional Period, he wrote articles in send Constitutional Period, he wrote articles in sevveral eral papers such as papers such as TaninTanin, , SabahSabah, and the periodical of the Istanbul Chamber , and the periodical of the Istanbul Chamber of Commerce, which was known for its liberal character. He had also of Commerce, which was known for its liberal character. He had also given many interviews to several French and German pgiven many interviews to several French and German papers andapers and maga-maga-

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zines. His main subject was the Great Powers, and his me

zines. His main subject was the Great Powers, and his messsages directly sages directly targeted these Eurtargeted these Euroopean capitals. pean capitals.

The chapter covering 1908

The chapter covering 1908––1910 depicts Cavid Bey1910 depicts Cavid Bey’s first years ri’s first years ris-s-ing through the ranks as a statesman and a game changer in both ding through the ranks as a statesman and a game changer in both do-o-mesmestic and itic and international politics. The events of this period also show nternational politics. The events of this period also show the many dimensions of his role as a state financier. Last but not least, it the many dimensions of his role as a state financier. Last but not least, it should be once again pointed out that he was welcomed and held in should be once again pointed out that he was welcomed and held in high esteem by the CUP regarding financial ishigh esteem by the CUP regarding financial issues. He sues. He was was primarily primarily susuppported by Talat Bey until the endported by Talat Bey until the end of the latter’s lifeof the latter’s life. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey was was someone who was not restricted to dealing with financial issues such as someone who was not restricted to dealing with financial issues such as taxes, loans, and budgets; he was also engaged in politics and the bataxes, loans, and budgets; he was also engaged in politics and the bal-l-ance betweenance between thethe llegislaturegislature and executive, legal reforms, and interne and executive, legal reforms, and interna-a-tional negotiations. The modernization of tional negotiations. The modernization of the the state apparatus and later state apparatus and later secularization of social life were one of his priorities in state asecularization of social life were one of his priorities in state afffairs. fairs.

From July 23, 1908, he was one of the CUP’s most fervent

From July 23, 1908, he was one of the CUP’s most fervent spokespokesspeper-r-sons and gave speeches wherever he visited, including during casons and gave speeches wherever he visited, including during cammpaign paign periods. His rhetoric, policies, goals, aims, and methodology were all periods. His rhetoric, policies, goals, aims, and methodology were all wellwell--organized in his mind. On the other hand, his economic policy was organized in his mind. On the other hand, his economic policy was notnot compatible with real life. It compatible with real life. It was more was more conceptual and had a more conceptual and had a more fiscal base. Yet still, his efforts contributed to the modernfiscal base. Yet still, his efforts contributed to the moderniization of Ot-zation of Ot-toman finances. Political upheaval constantly intetoman finances. Political upheaval constantly interrrupted his work, but rupted his work, but as an optimist, he continued to believe that he could oveas an optimist, he continued to believe that he could overrcome every come every obstacobstacle. Cavidle. Cavid BeyBey bravely attempted to change the institbravely attempted to change the instituutional order tional order of the Ottoman Empire with new codes and regof the Ottoman Empire with new codes and reguulations. From the sum-lations. From the sum-mer of 1909 through to the 1909 codification and 1910 loan opermer of 1909 through to the 1909 codification and 1910 loan operaations, tions, he bravely and wholeheartedly tried to change the acche bravely and wholeheartedly tried to change the accepted iepted immaage of ge of the Ottoman political and economic order, both intethe Ottoman political and economic order, both interrnally and interna-nally and interna-tionally. Due to the rapid and revolutionary ntionally. Due to the rapid and revolutionary naature of these changes, is it ture of these changes, is it possible to call Cavid Beypossible to call Cavid Bey a radical? I do not think so, but this idea will a radical? I do not think so, but this idea will be discussed in the be discussed in the conclusioconclusion of this dissen of this disserrtation once again. tation once again.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey was 33 years old when he became the minister of finance. was 33 years old when he became the minister of finance. Although he had limited experience in state affairs, he had adequate Although he had limited experience in state affairs, he had adequate knowledge of these issues. Thus, the period from 1908 to 1910 can be knowledge of these issues. Thus, the period from 1908 to 1910 can be seen aseen as Cavid Bs Cavid Beyey’s period of apprenticeship. As we will continue to see ’s period of apprenticeship. As we will continue to see

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in the next chapters, Cavid Bey

in the next chapters, Cavid Bey’s life is the story of a self’s life is the story of a self--made man who made man who was a positivist, liberal, and optimist intellectual and hardworking, diwas a positivist, liberal, and optimist intellectual and hardworking, dis-s-ciplined, rational, and practical. ciplined, rational, and practical.

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“No One

“No One CCan Replace Cavid Bey”: Domestic Turmoil an Replace Cavid Bey”: Domestic Turmoil and the Loss of the Balkansand the Loss of the Balkans

“… T

“… The children of the CUP he children of the CUP areare never afraid of never afraid of surveillance and blockade. The children of the surveillance and blockade. The children of the CUP areCUP are not afraid of fire and thunder… the CUP not afraid of fire and thunder… the CUP isis never afraid of deathnever afraid of death….”….”

–

– MehmedMehmed Cavid BeCavid Beyy, Parlimantary Speech, Au-, Parlimantary Speech, Au-gust 5, 1912. gust 5, 1912.

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hen I was initially planning the framework of my dissertation, I

hen I was initially planning the framework of my dissertation, I considered writing the main chapter about the 1908considered writing the main chapter about the 1908––1914 p1914 peeriod. riod. But then I realized that 1908But then I realized that 1908––1910, 19111910, 1911––19131913,, and 1913and 1913––1914 1914 could be evacould be evaluated inluated in different chapters of the dissertation. Idifferent chapters of the dissertation. Inndeed, the deed, the 19111911––1913 period also engenders its own patterns and events. Firstly, a 1913 period also engenders its own patterns and events. Firstly, a significant mark of this time was the rise of the oppositionsignificant mark of this time was the rise of the opposition, which, which led to led to the fall of the Unionistthe fall of the Unionist--backed government and backed government and a strua struggglglee between the between the two dissident groups. As a two dissident groups. As a unionist ministerunionist minister, Cavid Bey was in the mid-, Cavid Bey was in the mid-dle of this conflictdle of this conflict, which , which challenged the established fchallenged the established fiinancial order. He nancial order. He was also distinctive among this group as he was a freethinking, secwas also distinctive among this group as he was a freethinking, secuular lar freemason and cofreemason and cosmopolitasmopolitann. Secondly, this period covered the i. Secondly, this period covered the innsusur-r-rections and wars from the Albanian Revolt to the Balkan Wars, events rections and wars from the Albanian Revolt to the Balkan Wars, events which which spurredspurred the Empire’s dismemberment, tranthe Empire’s dismemberment, transsforming its structure forming its structure and the CUP’s policies. During this period, the tension band the CUP’s policies. During this period, the tension beetween Catween Cavid vid Bey aBey annd Mahmut Şevket Pasha on financial issues did not abate. d Mahmut Şevket Pasha on financial issues did not abate.

From 1908 to 1910, particularly in the summer of 1909, the CUP had

From 1908 to 1910, particularly in the summer of 1909, the CUP had implemented numerous legal regulations. However, beginning in 1911, implemented numerous legal regulations. However, beginning in 1911, the CUP became more isolated domestically and internathe CUP became more isolated domestically and internationally tionally aand lost nd lost its support and legitimacy, despite support from the officer corps. The its support and legitimacy, despite support from the officer corps. The rise of the opposition, as well as the friction among the CUP in parlia-rise of the opposition, as well as the friction among the CUP in parlia-ment, led the Unionists to try to change the ment, led the Unionists to try to change the cconstitution. In eonstitution. In efffect, the fect, the passage of Article 35passage of Article 35 of the of the ccoonstitution would give the execnstitution would give the execuutive more tive more power over the legislative branch. During this period, the CUP turned power over the legislative branch. During this period, the CUP turned the tables: though the party had the authority to amend the relevant ar-the tables: though the party had the authority to amend the relevant ar-ticle of the ticle of the cconstitution, it lost its legitimacy. As Cavid Bey onstitution, it lost its legitimacy. As Cavid Bey repeatedlrepeatedlyy pointed out, neither parliament nor the government was dpointed out, neither parliament nor the government was deecisive and cisive and confident enough to confront the domestic and international challenges. confident enough to confront the domestic and international challenges. Thirdly, during this period, we observe that Cavid Bey dealt with domes-Thirdly, during this period, we observe that Cavid Bey dealt with domes-tic politics more than in any othetic politics more than in any other period r period oof the Young Turks era. At this f the Young Turks era. At this time, support for the CUP in the chamber began to split, while Cavid Bey time, support for the CUP in the chamber began to split, while Cavid Bey and Talat Bey remained strong figures in the CUP.and Talat Bey remained strong figures in the CUP.

When the “Great Cabine

When the “Great Cabinet”t”428 adjourned on August 5, 1912, Cavid adjourned on August 5, 1912, Cavid

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Bey’s speech in the parliament

Bey’s speech in the parliament attractedattracted the full attention of all political the full attention of all political aacctors. His political activities in Selanik, the congress of the CUP held in tors. His political activities in Selanik, the congress of the CUP held in Istanbul, his brief imprisonment, escape from Istanbul, and thoughts on Istanbul, his brief imprisonment, escape from Istanbul, and thoughts on such incidents as the coup d’état of January 1913 provide us such incidents as the coup d’état of January 1913 provide us with iwith in-n-sisigghts into Cavid Bey’s role as a Unionist and a politician. hts into Cavid Bey’s role as a Unionist and a politician.

Another dimension of this chapter involves the negotiations over

Another dimension of this chapter involves the negotiations over raising customs duties and the raising customs duties and the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway. . Although iAlthough it was not t was not easy to reconcile the Great Powers, who were rivals oeasy to reconcile the Great Powers, who were rivals on these vn these veery critry criti-i-cal issues, there cal issues, there was somewas some reconciliation among Britain, Gereconciliation among Britain, Gerrmany, many, France, and RussiaFrance, and Russia..429 At the beginning of 1911, Cavid Bey worked as At the beginning of 1911, Cavid Bey worked as the Minister of Finance in the Hakkı Pasha government until he resigned the Minister of Finance in the Hakkı Pasha government until he resigned on May 8, 1911. Therefore, he wason May 8, 1911. Therefore, he was involvedinvolved in the negotiations on the in the negotiations on the cucusstoms duties and concessions covering the toms duties and concessions covering the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway until the until the entire process was interrupted due to the ensuing wars. Within the span entire process was interrupted due to the ensuing wars. Within the span of five months, his agenda was filled with chaof five months, his agenda was filled with challlenging issues such as the lenging issues such as the BagBaghdad Railhdad Railwwayay, the 1911 budget, the military’s ceaseless d, the 1911 budget, the military’s ceaseless deemands, mands, and a fierce struggle for power.and a fierce struggle for power.430 After he rAfter he reesigned, Cavid Bey set out signed, Cavid Bey set out on two different journeys in opposite directions: first, he went to Mace-on two different journeys in opposite directions: first, he went to Mace-donia as part of an imperial visit; second, he tdonia as part of an imperial visit; second, he traveled traveled too the Easthe Easttern ern provinces with a group of Unionists. It should be noted that even though provinces with a group of Unionists. It should be noted that even though his reforms and work were intehis reforms and work were interrrupted after Cavid Bey officially left the rupted after Cavid Bey officially left the ministry, he continued to puministry, he continued to purrsue the same issues and meet with key fig-sue the same issues and meet with key fig-ures of the inteures of the internationalrnational financial or diplomatic milieu. financial or diplomatic milieu. During the peri-During the peri-od aod affter 1911, Cavid Bey began to harvest the fruit of his work. As will ter 1911, Cavid Bey began to harvest the fruit of his work. As will be detailed below, the Empire’s income increased follobe detailed below, the Empire’s income increased followwing the iming the impple-le-mentation of the 1911 and 1912 budgets. During this pmentation of the 1911 and 1912 budgets. During this peeriod, Cavid Briod, Cavid Bey ey presented two budgets in the parliament and contributed to the codifpresented two budgets in the parliament and contributed to the codifi-i-cation of the financial area. At the end of 1911, he became Minister of cation of the financial area. At the end of 1911, he became Minister of

428 Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha’s cabinet was named as “The Great Cabinet,” referring toGazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha’s cabinet was named as “The Great Cabinet,” referring to the the fact that its senior statesmen had taken chafact that its senior statesmen had taken charge.rge.

429 Özyüksel, Özyüksel, The BerlinThe Berlin--Baghdad Railway and the Ottoman EmpireBaghdad Railway and the Ottoman Empire, , 136.136.

430 CaCavid vid Bey and Talat Bey had received the first threats of resignation in January 1911, Bey and Talat Bey had received the first threats of resignation in January 1911, seseee Kansu, İKansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908ttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 204., 204.

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Public Works and then Minister of Finance

Public Works and then Minister of Finance iin Sain Saitt Pasha’s cabinet during Pasha’s cabinet during the wars and revolts. Cavid Bey draftedthe wars and revolts. Cavid Bey drafted the legislation for and imple-the legislation for and imple-mented the war tax dumented the war tax durring the ing the Tripolitanian WarTripolitanian War. However, due to his . However, due to his political activities in Ipolitical activities in Isstanbul and Selanik, opposing the Gazi Ahmet Mu-tanbul and Selanik, opposing the Gazi Ahmet Mu-htar Pasha govehtar Pasha goverrnment in the spring and autumn of 1912, Cavid Bey nment in the spring and autumn of 1912, Cavid Bey was forced to flee was forced to flee the country for the second time. With the help of the the country for the second time. With the help of the French embassy, he escaped to Marseille and then traFrench embassy, he escaped to Marseille and then travveled to Lyon, eled to Lyon, Brussels, and Vienna. He was with Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, the ambassBrussels, and Vienna. He was with Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, the ambassa-a-dor to Vienna, when he heard about the coup d’étatdor to Vienna, when he heard about the coup d’état in?in?. .

Though Cavid

Though Cavid Bey was known as a financier, this chapter will undeBey was known as a financier, this chapter will under-r-line his role in domestic politics, lobbying alongside Talat Bey. I will line his role in domestic politics, lobbying alongside Talat Bey. I will share the conclusions that I reached while share the conclusions that I reached while asseassessing this pssing this perioeriodd at the at the end of this chapter.end of this chapter.

§ 3.1 SiameseSiamese TwinsTwins

3.1.1 Siamese Twins: CustomsSiamese Twins: Customs Duties and Concessions Duties and Concessions

In 1911, Cavid Bey was a 35

In 1911, Cavid Bey was a 35--yearyear--old widower who was praised by both old widower who was praised by both the CUP and the international milieu as the “star” of Ottoman fthe CUP and the international milieu as the “star” of Ottoman fiinances. nances. At tAt the bhe beginning of eginning of 19111911,, his task was quite difficult; however, he was his task was quite difficult; however, he was enthusiastic and oenthusiastic and optimistic about achieving his goals. The year 1910 ptimistic about achieving his goals. The year 1910 had been filled with turmoil due to the complicated processes ihad been filled with turmoil due to the complicated processes innvolved volved in taking out the 1910 loan. The major issue of in taking out the 1910 loan. The major issue of thisthis period was period was the the rreor-eor-ganization of the ganization of the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway to meet the government’s urgto meet the government’s urgent ent need to permanently increase revenue. The only way to do this was by need to permanently increase revenue. The only way to do this was by increasing customs duties by 4%, in order to take in an addincreasing customs duties by 4%, in order to take in an addiitional 1.5 tional 1.5 million Ottoman million Ottoman llira in anira in annualnual revenue.revenue.431 TThis his wwas in fact not a benefit as in fact not a benefit but a natural outcome of sovereignty. Hebut a natural outcome of sovereignty. Hence, the capitulnce, the capitulaations and bilat-tions and bilat-eral agreements provided the Great Powers with the authority to de-eral agreements provided the Great Powers with the authority to de-termine whethertermine whether or notor not the Ottoman government might raise its cus-the Ottoman government might raise its cus-

431 MM Zabıt MM Zabıt CCeridesi, eridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 2, , İçtima Senesi: 2, Cilt:Cilt: 3, 27 3, 27 KanunKanun--u Sani 1327 (9 u Sani 1327 (9 February 1911), February 1911), 45.45.

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toms du

toms dutiesties. The Great . The Great PowePowerrs were required to unanimously as were required to unanimously appprove prove the rise in customs dutiesthe rise in customs duties. Receiving their approval, which would take . Receiving their approval, which would take almost three years, entailed resolving issues such as the almost three years, entailed resolving issues such as the Baghdad Rail-Baghdad Rail-wayway among the Great Powers (i.e., Britain, France, Germamong the Great Powers (i.e., Britain, France, Germany,any, and Ruand Russsia)sia) andand between the Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire. Cavid Bey, then between the Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire. Cavid Bey, then Minister of Finance in the Hakkı Pasha government, initiated negMinister of Finance in the Hakkı Pasha government, initiated negootia-tia-tions at the beginning of 1911 that would last until the spring of tions at the beginning of 1911 that would last until the spring of 1914.1914.432

The railway market was revived after the Revoluti

The railway market was revived after the Revolution of 1908. In aon of 1908. In ad-d-dition to the Great Powers, American companies bdition to the Great Powers, American companies began flocking to the egan flocking to the Empire in order to find investment opportunities following changes in Empire in order to find investment opportunities following changes in American foreign policy. One of these investments was the project of the American foreign policy. One of these investments was the project of the American company Chester, oAmerican company Chester, owned by Admiral Chester. This was a mas-wned by Admiral Chester. This was a mas-sive railway project, conssive railway project, consisting of 3,218 km of railway lines, aiming to isting of 3,218 km of railway lines, aiming to connect the Black Sea in Samsun to the Mediterranean lands through to connect the Black Sea in Samsun to the Mediterranean lands through to HalepHalep, all the way east to Van and Bitlis. The railway would cross a, all the way east to Van and Bitlis. The railway would cross arreas eas rrich in mineral deposits, and as per the agreement with the Empireich in mineral deposits, and as per the agreement with the Empire, the , the company would be able to operate mines up to company would be able to operate mines up to 2020 km from both sides of km from both sides of the railway lines. According to Tunaya, Chester’s company first applied the railway lines. According to Tunaya, Chester’s company first applied for the project in 1909. The for the project in 1909. The Assembly beganAssembly began didisscussing the project on cussing the project on July 9, 1909. Cavid Bey’s argument wasJuly 9, 1909. Cavid Bey’s argument was rooted in his liberal views that rooted in his liberal views that the state should not get involved in construction projects: the state should not get involved in construction projects: “the state is “the state is not a miner, a merchant, or an artistnot a miner, a merchant, or an artist. The state only takes taxes!”. The state only takes taxes!”433

Although the lthough the Chester company signed a protocol with the Ottoman goChester company signed a protocol with the Ottoman gov-v-ernment andernment and placed a deposit on the project, the European states were placed a deposit on the project, the European states were also involved in the issue. The Americans had decided to deal with this also involved in the issue. The Americans had decided to deal with this

432 In the end, the Ottoman government succeeded in increasing customs dutieIn the end, the Ottoman government succeeded in increasing customs dutiess bby 4%y 4%, , and obtained a consolidated loan from the Great Powers. However, as a result the and obtained a consolidated loan from the Great Powers. However, as a result the ccountry was in effect divided into economic zones ountry was in effect divided into economic zones long before Sykes Picot, which dlong before Sykes Picot, which de-e-termtermined the Great Powers’ sphere of political influence in the Ottoman Empire befoined the Great Powers’ sphere of political influence in the Ottoman Empire beforre e the the Treaty of Sèvres.Treaty of Sèvres.

433 Tunaya, Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Tunaya, Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki, BBir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir ir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi, 434Partinin Tarihi, 434--442.2.

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case directly; however, it could not be solv

case directly; however, it could not be solveed within the lid within the life of the Ofe of the Ottto-to-man Empire, and the issue would return to Turkey’s man Empire, and the issue would return to Turkey’s desk in the Rdesk in the Reepub-pub-lican Era.lican Era.434

The B

The Baghdad Railwayaghdad Railway was the largest investment in the Empire and was the largest investment in the Empire and passed through critical routes that covered fertile areas as well as those passed through critical routes that covered fertile areas as well as those rich irich inn resources suchresources such as oil. Although the railway was a local invesas oil. Although the railway was a local invest-t-ment, it was alsoment, it was also a global issue from the beginning. The last section of a global issue from the beginning. The last section of the railway was the the railway was the BaghdadBaghdad--Persian Gulf stretch. This was one of the Persian Gulf stretch. This was one of the most important most important componentscomponents of the negotiations betof the negotiations betwween the Ottomaneen the Ottoman Empire, Germany, and Britain. The CUP and Cavid Bey’s goal to raEmpire, Germany, and Britain. The CUP and Cavid Bey’s goal to raise ise customs duties was closely linked to the right to cruise on the Tigris and customs duties was closely linked to the right to cruise on the Tigris and EuphrEuphraates, ates, allong with taxes on transportation and shipping, French ong with taxes on transportation and shipping, French shares in the shares in the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway companies, the companies, the Syrian Railways (as it Syrian Railways (as it would extend to the Mediterranean coast), would extend to the Mediterranean coast), and the utilization of iand the utilization of in-n-comes from the comes from the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway, among other issues. Nevertheless, , among other issues. Nevertheless, due to capitulations, the Great Powers had to unanimously agree to idue to capitulations, the Great Powers had to unanimously agree to in-n-crease the cucrease the cussttooms duties, whicms duties, which hinged on the h hinged on the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway. . As As Earle states, wEarle states, while the hile the BaghdBaghdad Railwayad Railway was the Empire’s magnum opus was the Empire’s magnum opus project, it also led the Empire to make significant concessions. Due to project, it also led the Empire to make significant concessions. Due to this factor, it was a heavy burden on the Ottoman Empire.this factor, it was a heavy burden on the Ottoman Empire.435

The

The nnegotiations betegotiations between Germany, carried out by Mr. Gwinner, the ween Germany, carried out by Mr. Gwinner, the representative of Drepresentative of Deutsche Bank, and Britain, carried out by Sir Ernest eutsche Bank, and Britain, carried out by Sir Ernest Cassel in 1910, had deeply worried Mr. Izvolsky, Foreign Minister of Cassel in 1910, had deeply worried Mr. Izvolsky, Foreign Minister of Russia. British diplomat Sir Arthur Nicholson had metRussia. British diplomat Sir Arthur Nicholson had met with Izvolsky iwith Izvolsky in n order to dispel Russian suspicions concerning the Gwinner/Casseorder to dispel Russian suspicions concerning the Gwinner/Cassel nl ne-e-gotiations. He also affirmed that a compromise not approved by the gotiations. He also affirmed that a compromise not approved by the Russians was out of the question. Nevertheless, as the Gwinner/Cassel Russians was out of the question. Nevertheless, as the Gwinner/Cassel talks would fail, Russia began negtalks would fail, Russia began negootiations with Gtiations with Germany. The new foermany. The new for-r-

434 Özyüksel, Özyüksel, The Baghdad RailwayThe Baghdad Railway, 123, 123--29; and Tunaya, 29; and Tunaya, İttihat veİttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin TarKuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihiihi, 3, 434, 3, 434--42.42. Bilmaz, Bülent Can Bilmaz, Bülent Can DDemiryolundan Petrole Ches-emiryolundan Petrole Ches-ter projesi (1908ter projesi (1908--1923)1923), (İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yy, (İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yyaınlaraınları, 2010), 154ı, 2010), 154--166166

435 Earle, TEarle, Turkey, The Great Powers, and The Baurkey, The Great Powers, and The Baghdad ghdad Railway. A Study in IRailway. A Study in Imperialismmperialism, 236, 236--37.37.

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eign minister of Russia, Sergey Dmitriyevich S

eign minister of Russia, Sergey Dmitriyevich Sazanov, showed interest in azanov, showed interest in the the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway issue and had reflected on the solution to this issue and had reflected on the solution to this problem with the new foreign minister of Germany, Kiderlenproblem with the new foreign minister of Germany, Kiderlen--Waechter. Waechter. Through theThrough the positive impactpositive impact of these statesmen, Germany and Russia of these statesmen, Germany and Russia approached each other. Meapproached each other. Meanwhile, anwhile, bothboth were concerned with the Ches-were concerned with the Ches-ter project. Kaiser Wilhelm II and Tsar Nicholas II met at Potsdam dur-ter project. Kaiser Wilhelm II and Tsar Nicholas II met at Potsdam dur-ing the first week of November 1910. The Russian and Geing the first week of November 1910. The Russian and Gerrman minis-man minis-ters of foreigters of foreign affairs also accompanied them. The two groups had n affairs also accompanied them. The two groups had agreed on conagreed on conditions and signed the Potsdam Agreement on November ditions and signed the Potsdam Agreement on November 4, 1910. According to the 4, 1910. According to the agreementagreement, the Germans , the Germans wouldwould ooffficially rec-ficially rec-ognize the Russians’ sphere of influence in Iognize the Russians’ sphere of influence in Irran, and the Ruan, and the Russsians wesians were re to withdraw their opposition to the railway and construct an ato withdraw their opposition to the railway and construct an ancillary ncillary railway line reaching Iran (the railway line reaching Iran (the BaghdadBaghdad--Hanekin line). Hanekin line). The main prob-The main prob-lem in the international arena was that neither Britain nor France was lem in the international arena was that neither Britain nor France was informed about suchinformed about such a significant deal witha significant deal with their ally, Rutheir ally, Russsia. Germany sia. Germany and Russia signed the final agreemenand Russia signed the final agreement on August 19, 1911. Both France t on August 19, 1911. Both France and Britain were quite frustrated.and Britain were quite frustrated.436 Istanbul Istanbul also also felt efelt exxcluded and ig-cluded and ig-nored, as did Britain and France.nored, as did Britain and France. The Potsdam Agreement was a ‘The Potsdam Agreement was a ‘wwinin--win’ agreement for bwin’ agreement for both Russia and Germany. On the one hand, Russia oth Russia and Germany. On the one hand, Russia got the Germans tgot the Germans to accept its sphere of influence in Norto accept its sphere of influence in Northhern Iran. On ern Iran. On the other, it was a diplomatic victory for Germany. The ithe other, it was a diplomatic victory for Germany. The innfluence of fluence of German trade and the German trade and the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway in Iranin Iran could expand, since Rus-could expand, since Rus-sian opposition to the projected railway was removed. Rusian opposition to the projected railway was removed. Russsia’s opsia’s opposi-posi-tion led to French opposition, and therefore, with this treaty the most tion led to French opposition, and therefore, with this treaty the most important obstacle obstructing a compromise with France had been important obstacle obstructing a compromise with France had been removed. In sum, this agreremoved. In sum, this agreeement triggered the procment triggered the procedure of agreements edure of agreements and made it possible to open a blank page on and made it possible to open a blank page on the the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway and and to increase customs duties, which I refer to as the Siamese twins. to increase customs duties, which I refer to as the Siamese twins.

Shortly after the promulgation of the Soma

Shortly after the promulgation of the Soma--Bandirma railway coBandirma railway con-n-tract (1910)tract (1910) and the Potsdam Agreemeand the Potsdam Agreement, the Ottoman government nt, the Ottoman government took additional steps to further extentook additional steps to further extend French railway interests in And French railway interests in Ana-a-

436 Özyüksel,Özyüksel, The BerlinThe Berlin--Baghdad Railway and the OttoBaghdad Railway and the Ottoman man EmpireEmpire, 130, 130--32. 32.

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tolia and Syria. Cavid Bey began talks with the French Embassy and the

tolia and Syria. Cavid Bey began talks with the French Embassy and the Imperial Ottoman Bank (IOB) after the end of the 1910 loan negoImperial Ottoman Bank (IOB) after the end of the 1910 loan negottiia-a-tions. The Bank carritions. The Bank carried out the negotiations and awarded the contract ed out the negotiations and awarded the contract to the Frenchto the French--owowned company La Société pour la Construction et ned company La Société pour la Construction et l’Exploitation du Réseau de la Mer Noire in return for the construction l’Exploitation du Réseau de la Mer Noire in return for the construction of a comprehensive system of railways in Northerof a comprehensive system of railways in Northernn Anatolia. It was pro-Anatolia. It was pro-poposed that elaborate ports would be constructed in the Black Sea tosed that elaborate ports would be constructed in the Black Sea towns wns of Eregli, Samsun, and Trabzon and connect with inland towns such as of Eregli, Samsun, and Trabzon and connect with inland towns such as Erzurum, Sivas, Harput, and Van. Connections were to be estaErzurum, Sivas, Harput, and Van. Connections were to be estabblished in lished in Bolu and Sivas with extBolu and Sivas with exteensions tonsions to the Anatolianthe Anatolian railways and in Elazığ railways and in Elazığ with a branch of the with a branch of the BaghdadBaghdad line going tline going to Nissibi (close to Adiyaman) o Nissibi (close to Adiyaman) and Diyarbakır. Thus, a network of railways would be coand Diyarbakır. Thus, a network of railways would be commpleted from pleted from the Aegean region to the Persian Gulf. Simultaneously, nthe Aegean region to the Persian Gulf. Simultaneously, neegotiations gotiations were being were being carried out becarried out between the Ottoman Ministry of Public Works tween the Ottoman Ministry of Public Works and the IOB to provideand the IOB to provide extensive concessions to the French Syrian Rail-extensive concessions to the French Syrian Rail-ways, which were owned and operated by La Société du Chemin de Fer ways, which were owned and operated by La Société du Chemin de Fer de Damasde Damas--Hama et Prolongements. Provisions were made for the cHama et Prolongements. Provisions were made for the con-on-struction ofstruction of ports and terminal facilities in Jaffa, Haifa, and ports and terminal facilities in Jaffa, Haifa, and TrablusgarpTrablusgarp. . In Syria, a traffic agreement was negotiated with the OttomanIn Syria, a traffic agreement was negotiated with the Ottoman--owned owned HiHijjaz Railway, pledging both parties to abstain from discriminatory az Railway, pledging both parties to abstain from discriminatory rates and other unfair competition. Tentrates and other unfair competition. Tentaative agretive agreeementments were struck s were struck for the construction of a line from Homs to the Efor the construction of a line from Homs to the Euupphrates. Provisional hrates. Provisional agreements for the Black Sea and Syrian railway and port concessions agreements for the Black Sea and Syrian railway and port concessions were signed in 1911.were signed in 1911.437

For Britain, the liberal government of H.H. Asquith determined it

For Britain, the liberal government of H.H. Asquith determined itss main policy lmain policy lines toward the ines toward the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway and the rise in customs and the rise in customs duties. Tduties. The he BaghdadBaghdad--Hanekin railway was a threat to British trade in Hanekin railway was a threat to British trade in Iran. In terms of the Iran. In terms of the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway overall, the key point about the overall, the key point about the German concession of building the German concession of building the Baghdad RaiBaghdad Raillwayway on Turkishon Turkish terrterriito-to-ry was giving the British consent to provide further sourry was giving the British consent to provide further sources of revces of reveenue nue to the Turkish government in return for the increase in customs duties. to the Turkish government in return for the increase in customs duties.

437 Mehmed CaviMehmed Cavid Bey, d Bey, MeMeşrutiyşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 50et Ruznâmesi I, 50--5151..

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By this means, the Ottoman government might increase

By this means, the Ottoman government might increase itsits iinncome and come and continue to spend moncontinue to spend moneey on the y on the BaghdBaghdad Railwayad Railway. . According to Grey, According to Grey, “the Turkish government should mak“the Turkish government should make it clear that the revenue would e it clear that the revenue would be used only for the government policiesbe used only for the government policies..””438

As we can see from the above explanation, the main negotiation pro-

As we can see from the above explanation, the main negotiation pro-cesses focused on lines going cesses focused on lines going “f“frrom the Black Som the Black Sea region, from Aea region, from Annkara to kara to the east, from Northern Syria to the lithe east, from Northern Syria to the lines going to the coast, and from nes going to the coast, and from Baghdad to the Persian Gulf.”Baghdad to the Persian Gulf.” Though a Though a agreement wasagreement was postponed due postponed due to the technical difficulties of surveying the lines and the political insta-to the technical difficulties of surveying the lines and the political insta-bbility caused bility caused by the y the warswars, the key points in negotiations on the rai, the key points in negotiations on the raillroads roads with with all parties were all parties were more or less more or less determined in 1911.determined in 1911.439 As seen in As seen in Cavid Bey’s journal at the beginning of 1911, he had already started Cavid Bey’s journal at the beginning of 1911, he had already started working on this issue with M. Maurice Bompardworking on this issue with M. Maurice Bompard,, the French Amthe French Ambassbassa-a-dor to Istanbul.dor to Istanbul.440

One of the key issues Cavid Bey dealt with

One of the key issues Cavid Bey dealt with during this period was during this period was smoothing over relations with the IOB, particularly after the 1910 loan smoothing over relations with the IOB, particularly after the 1910 loan issue. The Ministry of Finance and the IOB started a series of negotiissue. The Ministry of Finance and the IOB started a series of negotia-a-tions, whitions, whicch were to be fh were to be finalized in 1912, covering different issues such inalized in 1912, covering different issues such as changing the as changing the members of the executive board and opening a checmembers of the executive board and opening a checkking ing account for the Ottoman state with an amount of 1.5 million account for the Ottoman state with an amount of 1.5 million liralira. Cavid . Cavid Bey would accomplish these tasks rather quickly. IBey would accomplish these tasks rather quickly. Inn addition, theaddition, the gov-gov-ernment wanted to take out a loan for roads and public works ernment wanted to take out a loan for roads and public works in 1911. in 1911. For this reason, Cavid Bey began negotiations on these two issues with For this reason, Cavid Bey began negotiations on these two issues with Mr. Revoil, the new director of the IOB. Meanwhile, on January 15, 1911, Mr. Revoil, the new director of the IOB. Meanwhile, on January 15, 1911, Cavid Bey finalized a tCavid Bey finalized a trrade agreement ade agreement with Bulgaria.with Bulgaria.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey would would memeeet Hakkı Pashat Hakkı Pasha,, the grand vizierthe grand vizier and former aand former am-m-bassador to Romebassador to Rome,, at his house to discuss the at his house to discuss the BaghdadBaghdad--Persian Gulf sePersian Gulf sec-c-tion of the railway, the 4% increase in cution of the railway, the 4% increase in cusstoms duties, and the Chester toms duties, and the Chester project. The cabinet aimed to take concrete steps toward increasing cproject. The cabinet aimed to take concrete steps toward increasing cus-us-

438 Özyüksel, Özyüksel, TThe Berlinhe Berlin--Baghdad Railway and the Ottoman Empire,Baghdad Railway and the Ottoman Empire, 132132--34.34.

439 EarleEarle, , TTurkey, The urkey, The Great Powers, and The Baghdad Railway. Great Powers, and The Baghdad Railway. A Study in Imperialism,A Study in Imperialism, 245245--47.47.

440 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmeRuznâmessi I, i I, 5050--51.51.

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toms duties. The government a

toms duties. The government attempted to avoid discussing the ettempted to avoid discussing the exxten-ten-sion to the sion to the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway in the chamber. In return, they decided to in the chamber. In return, they decided to ask for compromises from the ask for compromises from the Baghdad RaiBaghdad Raillwayway company. After they company. After they agreed with the agreed with the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway company, they wouldcompany, they would seek new ways seek new ways to come to termsto come to terms with France and Britainwith France and Britain..

Another important issue that consumed Cavid Bey’s time during this

Another important issue that consumed Cavid Bey’s time during this period was the future of Régie Tobacco. This is significant because, as he period was the future of Régie Tobacco. This is significant because, as he would underline in the budget talks, the tobacco trade cowould underline in the budget talks, the tobacco trade concerned a wide ncerned a wide range of people,range of people, from politicians to ordinary people in the coffefrom politicians to ordinary people in the coffeeehouses. houses. Tobacco was a popular product that provided massive revenue for the Tobacco was a popular product that provided massive revenue for the Empire. The state’s agreement with Régie Tobacco would expire in Empire. The state’s agreement with Régie Tobacco would expire in 1914. The Unionists wanted to eith1914. The Unionists wanted to either transform the company into aer transform the company into a statestate--held monopoly or adopt a counterband system (banderole syheld monopoly or adopt a counterband system (banderole sys-s-tem) to prevent smuggling in place of tem) to prevent smuggling in place of the the Regie. Cavid Bey met with Dr. Regie. Cavid Bey met with Dr. La Bouliniere regarding this topic and requested that the OPDA should La Bouliniere regarding this topic and requested that the OPDA should not insist on the not insist on the extension of the Regie issue. extension of the Regie issue.

On January 29, when Cavid Bey

On January 29, when Cavid Bey again again met with Hakkı Pasha at his met with Hakkı Pasha at his house, they heard about an incident in Rome concerning house, they heard about an incident in Rome concerning TrablusgarpTrablusgarp, , which was a hawhich was a harrbinger of what was to come. Italian Prime Minister San binger of what was to come. Italian Prime Minister San Giuliano had said to thGiuliano had said to the Ottoman ambassador that “if things continued e Ottoman ambassador that “if things continued like this, we would like this, we would be obliged to conquer be obliged to conquer TrablusgarpTrablusgarp.”.”441 The ambassThe ambassa-a-sor referred to the neglect of sor referred to the neglect of TrablusgarpTrablusgarp economically and politically economically and politically by the Ottoman Eby the Ottoman Emmpire. Ten months later, the pire. Ten months later, the Tripolitanian WarTripolitanian War broke broke out. While neither Hakkı Pasha nor Cavid Bey was surprised, the Uniout. While neither Hakkı Pasha nor Cavid Bey was surprised, the Unioon-n-ists had been waiting for an attack on the Balkans due to the ongoing ists had been waiting for an attack on the Balkans due to the ongoing insurgeinsurgenncies, such as the Albanian revolt. At the time of his visit to cies, such as the Albanian revolt. At the time of his visit to Hakkı Pasha, Cavid Bey was carrying out negotiHakkı Pasha, Cavid Bey was carrying out negotiations on the railways in ations on the railways in the Adriatic region, where the Serbs and the Adriatic region, where the Serbs and Austrians had clashed on the Austrians had clashed on the issue. The Austrians rejected any line that would allow the Serbs to be issue. The Austrians rejected any line that would allow the Serbs to be economically indeconomically indeependent. During a meeting, Mr. Pallavicini, Austriapendent. During a meeting, Mr. Pallavicini, Austria--Hungary’s ambassadoHungary’s ambassador to Istanbul, asked Cavid Bey what the goverr to Istanbul, asked Cavid Bey what the govern-n-

441 Cavid Bey, MeşruCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet tiyet Ruznâmesi I, Ruznâmesi I, 5959--60.60.

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ment would do if they

ment would do if they faced an attack in the Balkans, as the Empire faced an attack in the Balkans, as the Empire lacked an adequate nulacked an adequate nummber of troops due to the riots in Yemen. Cavid ber of troops due to the riots in Yemen. Cavid Bey replied that Bulgaria would not take any action without the support Bey replied that Bulgaria would not take any action without the support oof one of the Great Pof one of the Great Powwers,ers, showing that the Unionists were aware thshowing that the Unionists were aware that at support from a Great Power was necessary for an attack.support from a Great Power was necessary for an attack.

3.1.2 Siamese Twins: The Budget Deficit and Military Expenses Siamese Twins: The Budget Deficit and Military Expenses

Between 1908 and 1913, Cavid Bey, alongside Talat Bey, was engaged in

Between 1908 and 1913, Cavid Bey, alongside Talat Bey, was engaged in domdomestic politics as one of the leading figures in the CUP. He restic politics as one of the leading figures in the CUP. He reemainemained d close to Talat Bey’s faction in the CUP. In domestic politics, the CUP close to Talat Bey’s faction in the CUP. In domestic politics, the CUP faced two main issuesfaced two main issues, , Mahmut Şevket Pasha and the opposition. Both Mahmut Şevket Pasha and the opposition. Both were related to each other and made Cavid Bey a were related to each other and made Cavid Bey a target and an etarget and an ennemy. emy. The most important clash with Mahmut Şevket Pasha in 1910 oThe most important clash with Mahmut Şevket Pasha in 1910 occcurred curred over finances, particularly Mahmut Şevket Pasha’s extra finaover finances, particularly Mahmut Şevket Pasha’s extra finanncial de-cial de-mands fmands for the renovation of the army. The dispute centered on the Gen-or the renovation of the army. The dispute centered on the Gen-eral Accounting Law and the authority to check the accounts of the mili-eral Accounting Law and the authority to check the accounts of the mili-tary through an accountant assigned by the Ministry of Finance. tary through an accountant assigned by the Ministry of Finance. According to the law, a Board of Audit would be set up to aAccording to the law, a Board of Audit would be set up to audit the audit the ac-c-counts of other ministries. Cavid Bey claimed that these extraordinary counts of other ministries. Cavid Bey claimed that these extraordinary expenses should be paid for through the military budget. He was obstexpenses should be paid for through the military budget. He was obsti-i-nate in his approach and claimed he would rather resign than accept the nate in his approach and claimed he would rather resign than accept the situation. situation. Yeni IkdamYeni Ikdam ((The New EfThe New Effortfort) reported on this situation as a ) reported on this situation as a crisis between the ministers, while crisis between the ministers, while TaninTanin described it as a mere didescribed it as a mere disspute. pute. A group of Unionists paid a visit to Mahmut Şevket Pasha at his house, A group of Unionists paid a visit to Mahmut Şevket Pasha at his house, and in the end the CUP was forced to compromise: The Ministry of War and in the end the CUP was forced to compromise: The Ministry of War was was excluded from the Board of Audit’s authority. The aim of the board excluded from the Board of Audit’s authority. The aim of the board was to audit the accounts according to the annual budget, which was was to audit the accounts according to the annual budget, which was intended prevent misfeasance. There was already a dispute bintended prevent misfeasance. There was already a dispute beetween tween highhigh--level military officers and the Unionists over thelevel military officers and the Unionists over the missing money in missing money in the Yıldız Treasury after the March 31 Incident. The Unionists believed the Yıldız Treasury after the March 31 Incident. The Unionists believed that the military officers were abusing their power. When the Board of that the military officers were abusing their power. When the Board of Audit came to the table with the legislation on the General AAudit came to the table with the legislation on the General Acccounting counting Law in 1910, the issue oLaw in 1910, the issue of the Yıldız Treasury came to the fore once f the Yıldız Treasury came to the fore once again. The only obstacle that remained was the chamber’s aagain. The only obstacle that remained was the chamber’s appproval. Fi-proval. Fi-

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nally, Mahmut Şevket Pasha’s demands for the allowance of military

nally, Mahmut Şevket Pasha’s demands for the allowance of military equipment were not mentioned in the annual budget. The situation be-equipment were not mentioned in the annual budget. The situation be-came a cacame a cabinet crisis, which enhanced Mahmut Şevket Pbinet crisis, which enhanced Mahmut Şevket Paasha’s reputa-sha’s reputa-tion. At the end of 1910, Mahmut Sevket Pasha asked to use 3 million in tion. At the end of 1910, Mahmut Sevket Pasha asked to use 3 million in gold of the 9 million Ottoman Liras allocated to the Ministry of War in gold of the 9 million Ottoman Liras allocated to the Ministry of War in the way he deemed suitable. Though the chamber resistedthe way he deemed suitable. Though the chamber resisted, once again, , once again, he got the allocation he asked for. It was still the time of military he-he got the allocation he asked for. It was still the time of military he-gemony, and Mahmut Şevket Pasha was a charismatic and irreplaceable gemony, and Mahmut Şevket Pasha was a charismatic and irreplaceable commandercommander for the CUP.for the CUP.442 Mahmut Mahmut ŞŞevket Pasha consievket Pasha consisstently refused tently refused to obey the rules of the contemporaryto obey the rules of the contemporary state that were put forward by state that were put forward by Cavid Bey. While everybody agreed on the necessity for a strong army, Cavid Bey. While everybody agreed on the necessity for a strong army, the CUP did not have enough power to either negotiate or resist. the CUP did not have enough power to either negotiate or resist. The The main question was thatmain question was that of who would of who would steer governance of the Empire, steer governance of the Empire, the the military,military, or or tthe civil government.he civil government.443 The CUP was coThe CUP was conncerned about cerned about the power held by Mahmut Şevket Pasha. the power held by Mahmut Şevket Pasha.

The second issue in domestic politics for the CUP was the oppos

The second issue in domestic politics for the CUP was the opposi-i-tion, which had been gaining strength every day. The opposition tion, which had been gaining strength every day. The opposition —— whose roots were found among the army officers whose roots were found among the army officers —— were particularly were particularly encourencouraged by the conflict between the Unionists and Mahmut Şevket aged by the conflict between the Unionists and Mahmut Şevket Pasha. As a matter of fact, an opposition group called The New Party Pasha. As a matter of fact, an opposition group called The New Party ((HizbHizb--i Cedidi Cedid), which was established under the leadership of Colonel ), which was established under the leadership of Colonel Sadık Bey, had already threatened Cavid Bey and Talat BeSadık Bey, had already threatened Cavid Bey and Talat Bey and dy and de-e-manded that they resign in January 1911. Sadık Bey, who had fired the manded that they resign in January 1911. Sadık Bey, who had fired the first shot in Manastır on July 23, 1908, had fallen out with the Unionists first shot in Manastır on July 23, 1908, had fallen out with the Unionists after a short while. He participated in the opposition and became the after a short while. He participated in the opposition and became the leader of the New Party. Founded leader of the New Party. Founded at the beginning of February 1911, the at the beginning of February 1911, the New Party differed from previous opposition partiesNew Party differed from previous opposition parties444 in how they re-in how they re-cruited military officers: from the CUP. Moreover, they were sucruited military officers: from the CUP. Moreover, they were suppported ported by highby high--ranking officers such as Nazım Pasha. ranking officers such as Nazım Pasha. The Party had made de-The Party had made de-

442 Ahmad, Ahmad, Ittihat ve TerakkiIttihat ve Terakki,1908,1908--1914 (Jö1914 (Jön Türkler),n Türkler), 111111--116116

443 See also See also Hanioğlu, "CivilHanioğlu, "Civil--Military Relations in the SecMilitary Relations in the Second Constitutiond Constitutional Period, 1908onal Period, 1908––1911918," 1778," 177--89.89.

444 Referring to the opposition groups prior to 31 March Incident peReferring to the opposition groups prior to 31 March Incident period.riod.

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mands on cer

mands on certain issues such as that the ministers who were not ex-tain issues such as that the ministers who were not ex-perinced should be demoted to undersecretary before holding the posi-perinced should be demoted to undersecretary before holding the posi-tion of ministerstion of ministers..445 Even Mahmut Şevket Pasha had protected them by Even Mahmut Şevket Pasha had protected them by not punishing the officers for their involvement in politics. This not punishing the officers for their involvement in politics. This cocon-n-cerned the Unionists very much. According to Sina Akşin, Mahmut cerned the Unionists very much. According to Sina Akşin, Mahmut ŞŞev-ev-ket Pasha’s reason for keeping the New Party close was related to his ket Pasha’s reason for keeping the New Party close was related to his conflict with Cavid Bey regarding the budget.conflict with Cavid Bey regarding the budget.446 The New Party taThe New Party tarrgeted geted the CUP as the primary cause of the Empire’s pthe CUP as the primary cause of the Empire’s problems and aroblems and acccused the cused the Unionists of being atheists and freemasons who spread their beliefs Unionists of being atheists and freemasons who spread their beliefs throughout the country.throughout the country.447 But still, Cavid Bey would remain one of the But still, Cavid Bey would remain one of the targets of this new opposition movement. As Ahmad quoted Count Os-targets of this new opposition movement. As Ahmad quoted Count Os-trorog, trorog, ““the reasons for the the reasons for the separation between the CUP and the opposi-separation between the CUP and the opposi-tion were mainly economic instead of ideological.tion were mainly economic instead of ideological.”” The UThe Unnionists were ionists were attempting to establish a contemporary, constitutional, and centralist attempting to establish a contemporary, constitutional, and centralist governance that financed the state through state monopolies. For in-governance that financed the state through state monopolies. For in-stance,stance, when it came to the tobacco issue, Cavid Bey and the CUP argued when it came to the tobacco issue, Cavid Bey and the CUP argued that the production and sale of tobacco should be carried out by the that the production and sale of tobacco should be carried out by the state. Their formula was the implementation of banderole, which would state. Their formula was the implementation of banderole, which would mean that the state could easily collect taxes and imean that the state could easily collect taxes and increase increase inncome as come as well as ensure the liberalization of the tobacco business. This solution well as ensure the liberalization of the tobacco business. This solution bothered the groups who had formerly had indirect interests related to bothered the groups who had formerly had indirect interests related to the French institutions that had penetrated the Ottoman economy. the French institutions that had penetrated the Ottoman economy. Ah-Ah-mad states that the conflicmad states that the conflict mainly had an economic base rather than a t mainly had an economic base rather than a religious aspectreligious aspect..448 TThe new opposition was composed of a group of he new opposition was composed of a group of people who would not likely benefit from the changes in the economy people who would not likely benefit from the changes in the economy and society. and society.

In 1911, the first significant national issue to arise was lift

In 1911, the first significant national issue to arise was liftiing the ng the state of emergency that Mahmut state of emergency that Mahmut ŞŞevket Pasha had declared following evket Pasha had declared following the March 31 Incident. While Hakkı Pasha wanted to lift it permanently, the March 31 Incident. While Hakkı Pasha wanted to lift it permanently,

445 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19191313, 20, 204 and 07.4 and 07.

446 AAkşin,kşin, Jön TürkJön Türkler ve Ittihat Terakkler ve Ittihat Terakkii, 286., 286.

447 Bayur,Bayur, TürkTürk İnkılâbı Tarihi, İnkılâbı Tarihi, II/I, 55.II/I, 55.

448 Ahmad, Ahmad, Ittihat ve Terakki,Ittihat ve Terakki, 11908908--1914 (Jön Türkler)1914 (Jön Türkler), 134., 134.

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both the CUP and Mahmut Şevket Pasha desired to keep it in place. Su

both the CUP and Mahmut Şevket Pasha desired to keep it in place. Sur-r-prisingly, Cavid Bey also backed retaining the state of emergency.prisingly, Cavid Bey also backed retaining the state of emergency.449 This then bThis then became a problem among the Unionists, who feared that ecame a problem among the Unionists, who feared that Hakkı PHakkı Paasha would resign. However, Hakkı Pasha agreed to continue the sha would resign. However, Hakkı Pasha agreed to continue the state of emergency under one condition: a change in the cabinet. Talat state of emergency under one condition: a change in the cabinet. Talat Bey, HaBey, Halllaçyan Efendi, and Emrullah Efendi were forced to resilaçyan Efendi, and Emrullah Efendi were forced to resign from gn from their dtheir duuties.ties.450 Cavid Bey was angry at the idea of sacrificing Hallaçyan, Cavid Bey was angry at the idea of sacrificing Hallaçyan, as he was the only Armenian in the cabinet. Excluding Armenians, who as he was the only Armenian in the cabinet. Excluding Armenians, who were referred to as “the community most loyal” to the state, was wrong. were referred to as “the community most loyal” to the state, was wrong. Cavid Bey also thought that Nail BCavid Bey also thought that Nail Bey,ey,451 who was the candidate to rwho was the candidate to re-e-place Hallaçyan, was incompetent. In response, he offered his resignplace Hallaçyan, was incompetent. In response, he offered his resigna-a-tion alongside Talat Bey; however, it was rejected. A few days later, the tion alongside Talat Bey; however, it was rejected. A few days later, the CUP considered a total change in the cabinet, but Cavid Bey strongly CUP considered a total change in the cabinet, but Cavid Bey strongly opposed it. opposed it. Cavid Bey became angry and declared, “I am remaining in Cavid Bey became angry and declared, “I am remaining in this cabinet with Mahmut this cabinet with Mahmut ŞŞevket Pasha due to my respect for Hakkı Pevket Pasha due to my respect for Hakkı Pa-a-sha. But, how could you expect me to enter any new cabinet under the sha. But, how could you expect me to enter any new cabinet under the same circumstances? I am very surprised.”same circumstances? I am very surprised.”452 In the meantime, on In the meantime, on FeFeb-b-ruary 6, 1911, a fire broke out at the Sublime Porte, destroying several ruary 6, 1911, a fire broke out at the Sublime Porte, destroying several buildings and official papers of governmental institutions. According to buildings and official papers of governmental institutions. According to Cavid Bey, the cause of this fire was accidental, not intentional.Cavid Bey, the cause of this fire was accidental, not intentional.453 Fires Fires in Istanbul at that time were comin Istanbul at that time were common, particularly during the summer.mon, particularly during the summer.

In the meantime, Cavid Bey prepared the deed of consent for the

In the meantime, Cavid Bey prepared the deed of consent for the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway with the grand vizier. The most delicate subject was with the grand vizier. The most delicate subject was the last section concerning the the last section concerning the BaghdadBaghdad--Persian Gulf stretch. His plan Persian Gulf stretch. His plan was to establiswas to establish a company to run this business. The plan was that the h a company to run this business. The plan was that the business would be owned exclusively by the Ottoman Empire or collebusiness would be owned exclusively by the Ottoman Empire or collec-c-tively by an international group and the Ottoman Empire. Under the latively by an international group and the Ottoman Empire. Under the lat-t-

449 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, 60. , 60.

450 Kansu,Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesiİttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908, 1908--19131913, 205., 205.

451 Nail BNail Beey was y was also one the finance ministers in the Second Constitutional Period. also one the finance ministers in the Second Constitutional Period.

452 Cavid Bey, MeşrutiyCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet et RuznRuznâmesi I,âmesi I,71.71.

453 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi Ruznâmesi II,, 60, 60, 61.61.

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ter plan, the shares of the international group could not excee

ter plan, the shares of the international group could not exceed 50%.d 50%.454 Cavid Bey’s main concern regarding the Cavid Bey’s main concern regarding the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway was complewas complet-t-ing the line as quickly as possible, which would free the state from this ing the line as quickly as possible, which would free the state from this financial burden. Cavid Bey asked the financial burden. Cavid Bey asked the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway company to acompany to ac-c-cept the implicit article on not utilizincept the implicit article on not utilizing the surplus from the tobacco g the surplus from the tobacco and patent taxes, and in turn, the government would deliver a series of and patent taxes, and in turn, the government would deliver a series of loans to the company, even if there were no provisions for that. Cavid loans to the company, even if there were no provisions for that. Cavid Bey gambled on the fact that they would not take this issue to the paBey gambled on the fact that they would not take this issue to the par-r-liament, whiliament, which bore a very important responsibility.ch bore a very important responsibility.455 However, these However, these negotiations would be interrupted due to the negotiations would be interrupted due to the Tripolitanian WarTripolitanian War and and Balkan Wars. In the 1913Balkan Wars. In the 1913--1914 period they would continue but the pa1914 period they would continue but the par-r-liament would be closed and then the outbreak of the Great War wliament would be closed and then the outbreak of the Great War would ould cause them to be obsolete. The key point here is that, even a parliamecause them to be obsolete. The key point here is that, even a parliamen-n-tarist, a liberal man like Cavid Bey might use the card of avoiding a patarist, a liberal man like Cavid Bey might use the card of avoiding a par-r-liamentary discussion liamentary discussion toto proceed faster. proceed faster.

Currently

Currently, another important issue was the demands of t, another important issue was the demands of the army, he army, particularly of the navy. On February 7, 1911, during the Council of Miparticularly of the navy. On February 7, 1911, during the Council of Min-n-isters, two issues were discussed: Russian political influence in Iran and isters, two issues were discussed: Russian political influence in Iran and the Ottoman Navy program. Regarding the latter, the General Staff had the Ottoman Navy program. Regarding the latter, the General Staff had adopted a new navy program woradopted a new navy program worth 15 milth 15 million lion LirasLiras, which included , which included plans to purchase six big and 20 small dreadnoughts, motor torpedo plans to purchase six big and 20 small dreadnoughts, motor torpedo boats, and more. boats, and more. TheyThey wanted to purchase a UKwanted to purchase a UK--manufactured dread-manufactured dread-nought that Brazil wanted to sell. The General Staff wanted to outfit the nought that Brazil wanted to sell. The General Staff wanted to outfit the navy for the next ten yenavy for the next ten years, and for this reason, they needed to purchase ars, and for this reason, they needed to purchase these military supplies, piece by piece. Cavid Bey strongly opposed this, these military supplies, piece by piece. Cavid Bey strongly opposed this, stating, “In ten years the state’s revenue will have increased to 40 mil-stating, “In ten years the state’s revenue will have increased to 40 mil-lion. But the expenditure is now 34 lion. But the expenditure is now 34 million.” In other wordsmillion.” In other words, the country , the country was not able to invest in these things. Cavid Bey complained that the was not able to invest in these things. Cavid Bey complained that the soldiers did not understand accounting, even in its simplest form. He soldiers did not understand accounting, even in its simplest form. He accused the military of not thinking about the repayment of loans, even accused the military of not thinking about the repayment of loans, even the lothe loan worth 1 million an worth 1 million LLirairass that needed to be repaid in April. Cavid that needed to be repaid in April. Cavid

454 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 57., 57.

455 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I,6060--61.61.

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Bey added that there was no competent naval officer to captain the

Bey added that there was no competent naval officer to captain the dreadnoughts that had been purchased from Gedreadnoughts that had been purchased from Gerrmany. Cavid Bey fur-many. Cavid Bey fur-ther underlined that the government could hardly afford to ther underlined that the government could hardly afford to pay for the pay for the navy programnavy program, which had cost 5 million Ottoman Liras., which had cost 5 million Ottoman Liras.

Cavid Bey met with M. Paul Revoil, the new head of the Ottoman

Cavid Bey met with M. Paul Revoil, the new head of the Ottoman Bank, to discuss the loans for the Ministry of Public Works. Their talks Bank, to discuss the loans for the Ministry of Public Works. Their talks spanned the ongoing negotiations about both the railwaspanned the ongoing negotiations about both the railways and the iys and the in-n-crease in ccrease in customs duties. Due to the Potsdam Agreement, he advised ustoms duties. Due to the Potsdam Agreement, he advised Cavid Bey against making it a fait accompli without informing Britain Cavid Bey against making it a fait accompli without informing Britain and France. Cavid Bey states that he was concerned with the reaction of and France. Cavid Bey states that he was concerned with the reaction of Britain more than France. He also Britain more than France. He also adds that delay in constadds that delay in construction would ruction would not please the Germans.not please the Germans.456 Last but not least, the issue of the Eastern Last but not least, the issue of the Eastern Anatolian Railway was related to the Siamese twins: customs duties and Anatolian Railway was related to the Siamese twins: customs duties and concessions. In 1900, Abdülhamid II had signed a concession agreement concessions. In 1900, Abdülhamid II had signed a concession agreement with thwith the Russian government thae Russian government that relinquished the Ottoman govert relinquished the Ottoman govern-n-ment’s right to establish a railway line in Eastern Anatolia close to the ment’s right to establish a railway line in Eastern Anatolia close to the Russian border. The Unionists tried to get rid of this agreement Russian border. The Unionists tried to get rid of this agreement by by ususinging an article in the agreement against Russia. According to the artan article in the agreement against Russia. According to the artiicle, the cle, the OOttoman Empire could outsource the railway and, for example, ask the ttoman Empire could outsource the railway and, for example, ask the French to establish it. After all, the Russians would agree with their ally French to establish it. After all, the Russians would agree with their ally France buildiFrance buildinng a railway from Sivas to Van. The Ottoman and French g a railway from Sivas to Van. The Ottoman and French sides warned the Russian government that an sides warned the Russian government that an American coAmerican commpany called pany called Chester was eager to build the railway line. For Russia, both the exten-Chester was eager to build the railway line. For Russia, both the exten-sion of the railway and the transfer of the Armenians who had sion of the railway and the transfer of the Armenians who had ffled from led from the Eastern provinces such as Van in the 1890s were impothe Eastern provinces such as Van in the 1890s were imporrtant bargain-tant bargain-ing tools. Accordinging tools. According to a secret agreement signed between France and to a secret agreement signed between France and Russia on April 26, 1911, the railway line would consist of two routes. Russia on April 26, 1911, the railway line would consist of two routes. The first was the SamsunThe first was the Samsun--SivasSivas--HarpuHarputt--Diyarbakir line; the second was Diyarbakir line; the second was comprised of three shorter lines: Divricomprised of three shorter lines: Divriğğ--ErzincanErzincan--Erzurum, TrabzoErzurum, Trabzonn--Erzurum, and if necessary, DiyarbakirErzurum, and if necessary, Diyarbakir--BitlisBitlis--Van, to be built by the Ches-Van, to be built by the Ches-ter Group. In July 1911, the Ottoman government came to an agreement ter Group. In July 1911, the Ottoman government came to an agreement

456 Cavid BCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet ey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, 71., 71.

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with a French company called Régie Générale de Chemins de Fer; how-

with a French company called Régie Générale de Chemins de Fer; how-ever, the ever, the TripolitanTripolitanian Warian War and Russia’s attemand Russia’s attempt on the straits halted pt on the straits halted the railway negotiations. the railway negotiations.

After pressure from the opposition, Talat Bey finally resigned, crea

After pressure from the opposition, Talat Bey finally resigned, creat-t-ing confusion and shock within the party.ing confusion and shock within the party.457 His centralist policies His centralist policies which left less room to manouvre for nonwhich left less room to manouvre for non--MMuslim communities had al-uslim communities had al-reready drawn attention to the Albanian, Greek, and Armenian MPs. It also ady drawn attention to the Albanian, Greek, and Armenian MPs. It also indindiicated that the positions of the other Unionist ministers were not as cated that the positions of the other Unionist ministers were not as safe and secure as many had thought.safe and secure as many had thought.458 Halil Bey replaced Talat Bey Halil Bey replaced Talat Bey and the first thing and the first thing he did was to publish a cihe did was to publish a circular declaring that all of rcular declaring that all of the Ottthe Ottoomans would enjoy freedom and justice enabling equality in so-mans would enjoy freedom and justice enabling equality in so-ciety.ciety.459 Two days later, on February 10, Hallaçyan Efendi and Emrullah Two days later, on February 10, Hallaçyan Efendi and Emrullah Efendi resigned from their positions.Efendi resigned from their positions.460

Meanwhile, Cavid Bey rec

Meanwhile, Cavid Bey received a letter from the Ceeived a letter from the Central Committee ntral Committee about Colonel Sadabout Colonel Sadıık, Bey claiming that Jewish people in Europe had k, Bey claiming that Jewish people in Europe had immigrated to the Ottoman Empire, which Cavid Bey thought was immigrated to the Ottoman Empire, which Cavid Bey thought was groundless. Nevertheless, these claims would be discussed during the groundless. Nevertheless, these claims would be discussed during the budget talks. Ismail Hakkı Bey (budget talks. Ismail Hakkı Bey (laterlater GumuGumulcineli) directly accused lcineli) directly accused CavCavid Beyid Bey. One of the key points was the Law of Land Property,. One of the key points was the Law of Land Property,461 which which many feared would move the Jewish people to the sacred land of Pales-many feared would move the Jewish people to the sacred land of Pales-tine. Though Cavid Bey postponed this draft law, it was sent to parlia-tine. Though Cavid Bey postponed this draft law, it was sent to parlia-ment while he was in Ement while he was in Europe. Talat Bey responded tourope. Talat Bey responded to the cthe claims in par-laims in par-liliaament that both Cavid Bey and himself had declined the demands of ment that both Cavid Bey and himself had declined the demands of the Zionist communities about moving the Jewish people to Palestinian the Zionist communities about moving the Jewish people to Palestinian lands.lands.462 In addition, Sadık Bey and his party still insisted that Cavid In addition, Sadık Bey and his party still insisted that Cavid Bey Bey should make a public statshould make a public statement ement about the 1910 loan. Cavid Bey stated about the 1910 loan. Cavid Bey stated

457 MMehmed Cavid Bey, ehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 70.70.

458 Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim vve İktie İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908dar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 204, 204, 204, 204--7.7.

459 AhmadAhmad,, Ittihat ve Terakki,1908Ittihat ve Terakki,1908--1914 (Jön Türkler),1914 (Jön Türkler), 130 a130 and 31.nd 31.

460 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçılarınİttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--1913,1913, 208.208.

461 ““Eşhası Hükmiye’nin Emvali GayrimenkEşhası Hükmiye’nin Emvali Gayrimenkuleye Tasarrufuleye Tasarruflarına Dair Kanun”, 16 February larına Dair Kanun”, 16 February 1912. Düstur, 2. Typography, Vol 1912. Düstur, 2. Typography, Vol 55, 79. , 79.

462 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 212., 212.

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that this would harm relations with France, which had been on the

that this would harm relations with France, which had been on the verge of recovering.verge of recovering.463

Cavid Bey was the Minister of F

Cavid Bey was the Minister of Finance who had given the utmost im-inance who had given the utmost im-portance to education and apprenticeships. As mentioned in the prportance to education and apprenticeships. As mentioned in the preevi-vi-ous chapter, he had already opened a school to teach modern metous chapter, he had already opened a school to teach modern methhods ods in economy and finance to his staff. Second, he asked France to ain economy and finance to his staff. Second, he asked France to acccept cept interns who wouinterns who would be part of this staff. In February 1911, the French ld be part of this staff. In February 1911, the French Ministry of Finance accepted the Ottoman officers for sixMinistry of Finance accepted the Ottoman officers for six--month intern-month intern-ships in Paris. Cavid Bey was quite pleased to hear this news.ships in Paris. Cavid Bey was quite pleased to hear this news.464

§ 3.2 The The BBudget of 1911udget of 1911

One of the most important incidents during this

One of the most important incidents during this period was the 1911 period was the 1911 budget talks, which lasted for two weeks in the chamber. Cavid Bey both budget talks, which lasted for two weeks in the chamber. Cavid Bey both presented and defended the budget, which was prepared under his presented and defended the budget, which was prepared under his leadership. The budget talks also witnessed leadership. The budget talks also witnessed the discussion of other pthe discussion of other po-o-litical issues as seen above. litical issues as seen above. On February 22, 1911, the budget talks bOn February 22, 1911, the budget talks be-e-gan in parliament.gan in parliament.465 The expenditure items of the budget were The expenditure items of the budget were 3,623,318,487 piastres, while the state’s income was 2,844,579,500 p3,623,318,487 piastres, while the state’s income was 2,844,579,500 pi-i-astres.astres.466 Therefore, the budgeTherefore, the budget deficit was 778,738,987 piastres. In his t deficit was 778,738,987 piastres. In his diaries, Cavidiaries, Cavid Bey stated that though he spoke for the entirety of the two d Bey stated that though he spoke for the entirety of the two meetings, he still was not able to say everything he wanted to say. He meetings, he still was not able to say everything he wanted to say. He mentioned that the majority of parliament happily and intently limentioned that the majority of parliament happily and intently lissttened ened to him speak, and even the opposition kept silent.to him speak, and even the opposition kept silent.467 As Ahmed Rıza As Ahmed Rıza states, during this meeting, he was able to speak for three and a half states, during this meeting, he was able to speak for three and a half hours without looking at his notes. It was quite a lengthy speech that hours without looking at his notes. It was quite a lengthy speech that was broken up into several sessions. I willwas broken up into several sessions. I will attempt to summarize the attempt to summarize the

463 MMeehmed Chmed Cavid Bey, avid Bey, MeşMeşrrutiyet Ruznâmesi Iutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 61, 61--65.65.

464 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâmesi Iuznâmesi I, 72, 72--73.73.

465 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, İçtima Senesi: 3, , İçtima Senesi: 3, Cilt:Cilt: 3, 3, 227 Kanu7 Kanunn--Sani 1326 (9 February Sani 1326 (9 February 1911), 45.1911), 45.

466 T.C. Maliye Bakanlığı, T.C. Maliye Bakanlığı, Osmanlı Bütçeleri, 1909Osmanlı Bütçeleri, 1909--19181918, 305., 305.

467 Mehmed Cavid Bey,Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmesMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesii I,I, 7777--78.78.

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general information regarding

general information regarding the budget, as well as the aims and tar-the budget, as well as the aims and tar-gets for the upcoming years. First, Cavid Bey provided information gets for the upcoming years. First, Cavid Bey provided information about the current economic and fiscal situation. His first remark was about the current economic and fiscal situation. His first remark was significant as he highlighted the importance of the army and the finasignificant as he highlighted the importance of the army and the finan-n-cial systecial system. According to him, the first aim was to protect the country m. According to him, the first aim was to protect the country against attack, and the second aim was to govern the country. It could be against attack, and the second aim was to govern the country. It could be argued that his emphasis on the importance of the army indicates that argued that his emphasis on the importance of the army indicates that he had made peace with he had made peace with Mahmut Şevket Pasha. SecondMahmut Şevket Pasha. Second, he r, he reesponded to sponded to the news and negative critiques published in European countries about the news and negative critiques published in European countries about the country’s financial situation. He stated, “When I read the news, I as-the country’s financial situation. He stated, “When I read the news, I as-sume that we are living in an Eskimo clan.” He bsume that we are living in an Eskimo clan.” He beelieves that the finlieves that the financial ancial situation of the Ottoman government had been exaggerated in European situation of the Ottoman government had been exaggerated in European circles. He alluded to Sir Adam Bloch’s report on the Ottoman economy, circles. He alluded to Sir Adam Bloch’s report on the Ottoman economy, which pointed out the positive facts about the economic develop-which pointed out the positive facts about the economic develop-ments.ments.468 Cavid Bey stated that they needed to vCavid Bey stated that they needed to view the entire picture iew the entire picture that had emerged since 1908. On July 23, 1908, the treasury’s coffers that had emerged since 1908. On July 23, 1908, the treasury’s coffers were almost empty, and people began raising their voices about their were almost empty, and people began raising their voices about their needs. Therefore, the government was forced to take out a loan of 4.7 needs. Therefore, the government was forced to take out a loan of 4.7 million million LirasLiras in 1908. Tin 1908. They entered 1909 without a budget and with ap-hey entered 1909 without a budget and with ap-proximately 191,000 proximately 191,000 LirasLiras in the treasury, needing to pay their dues. In in the treasury, needing to pay their dues. In 1909, until the March 31 Incident, the government had prepared ex-1909, until the March 31 Incident, the government had prepared ex-traordinary and provisional budgets while also wortraordinary and provisional budgets while also workking on the annual ing on the annual budgbudget. The first annual and general budget in line with the Constitu-et. The first annual and general budget in line with the Constitu-tion and General Accounting Law was presented that year. Cavid Bey tion and General Accounting Law was presented that year. Cavid Bey underlined the rise in expenditures related to many faunderlined the rise in expenditures related to many facctors such as the tors such as the debts of Sultan Abdülhamid II, as well as the urgentdebts of Sultan Abdülhamid II, as well as the urgent needs of the army needs of the army and Ministry of Finance. He also underlined that each year since 1908, and Ministry of Finance. He also underlined that each year since 1908, the revenues gained from direct taxes had increased on the whole. The the revenues gained from direct taxes had increased on the whole. The 1910 budget had a surplus of 2.6 million Ottoman L1910 budget had a surplus of 2.6 million Ottoman Liiras, as a result of a ras, as a result of a

468 Due to the lack of regular statistiDue to the lack of regular statistical work, even Cavid Bey utilized tcal work, even Cavid Bey utilized the data and reports he data and reports oof the OPDA and IOB. Statistics becames one of the key areaf the OPDA and IOB. Statistics becames one of the key areass in thin the economy as of the e economy as of the Second Constitutional Period. Second Constitutional Period.

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loan that had recently

loan that had recently been taken out. He underlined that the budget been taken out. He underlined that the budget would be balanced within four or five years. would be balanced within four or five years.

As of 1910, according to the new legislation, the government started

As of 1910, according to the new legislation, the government started to receive shortto receive short--term advances on loans of not more than five years.term advances on loans of not more than five years.469 In 1910, the government hIn 1910, the government had to take out an advance that amounted to 2 ad to take out an advance that amounted to 2 million million LirasLiras. The advances were taken from the Banque Française, NTB, . The advances were taken from the Banque Française, NTB, IOB, and Banque de Selanique. But these advances were not suffIOB, and Banque de Selanique. But these advances were not suffiicient to cient to cover the deficit, and for this reason, the government wanted to takcover the deficit, and for this reason, the government wanted to take out e out another loan. The loan issue became an international matter. While he another loan. The loan issue became an international matter. While he was talking, the was talking, the deputiesdeputies asked Cavid Bey questions about the 1910 asked Cavid Bey questions about the 1910 loan operation. Cavid Bey replied that although they had also shown al-loan operation. Cavid Bey replied that although they had also shown al-lowance income from the Istanbul Customs belowance income from the Istanbul Customs before, the IOB had insisted fore, the IOB had insisted on financial control. He then provided information about the loan taken on financial control. He then provided information about the loan taken out with the consortium of German and Austrian bankers. This agree-out with the consortium of German and Austrian bankers. This agree-ment consisted of two different issues: a 1911 Customs Loan of 7 mil-ment consisted of two different issues: a 1911 Customs Loan of 7 mil-lion lion LirasLiras and a 5.5 miand a 5.5 million llion LirasLiras advance, which would be paid off in advance, which would be paid off in 1911. Lütfi Fikri Bey pressed him with questions. According to Cavid 1911. Lütfi Fikri Bey pressed him with questions. According to Cavid Bey, relations with France had not deteriorated due to the 1910 Bey, relations with France had not deteriorated due to the 1910 lloanoan operationoperation, and, and the main conflict occurred between the IOB and the Ot-the main conflict occurred between the IOB and the Ot-ttooman government. Cavid Bey stated that “the IOB is a member of our man government. Cavid Bey stated that “the IOB is a member of our family, and we will consolidate our relationship with a new agreement, family, and we will consolidate our relationship with a new agreement, which will be valid as of 1912.” Cavid Bey also claimed that the ecwhich will be valid as of 1912.” Cavid Bey also claimed that the ecoonom-nom-ic outlook was quite optimistic based on the thic outlook was quite optimistic based on the thrreeee--monthly reports of monthly reports of the OPDA and IOB. Agricultural production, and incomes parallel with it, the OPDA and IOB. Agricultural production, and incomes parallel with it, were on the rise. were on the rise.

After discussing the budget’s general framework, Cavid Bey moved

After discussing the budget’s general framework, Cavid Bey moved on to talking about the details of the articles of the new budget law that on to talking about the details of the articles of the new budget law that wweere related to revenue and expenditures. With regard to loans, he stat-re related to revenue and expenditures. With regard to loans, he stat-ed that as of the following year, the government would only take out ed that as of the following year, the government would only take out loans for big investments, not for general expenses. He had written a loans for big investments, not for general expenses. He had written a sentence at the beginning of the budget, which sentence at the beginning of the budget, which wwould later be changed ould later be changed

469 Moreover, according to the samMoreover, according to the samee law, the Ministry of Finance (Treasury) was the slaw, the Ministry of Finance (Treasury) was the sole ole authority to mint coins. authority to mint coins. Öztel,Öztel, II. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı MaliII. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı Maliyyesiesi, 29., 29.

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by the Budget Commission: “the budget deficit always has an expurg

by the Budget Commission: “the budget deficit always has an expurga-a-torial merit.” However, the Commission interpreted his phrase as “the torial merit.” However, the Commission interpreted his phrase as “the governments that have to resolve budget deficits with loans limit their governments that have to resolve budget deficits with loans limit their financial fortune.” Cavifinancial fortune.” Cavidd Bey was criticized for his statement, but he dBey was criticized for his statement, but he de-e-fended himself saying that he did not mean that the government should fended himself saying that he did not mean that the government should have a budget deficit. have a budget deficit.

Cavid Bey also presented information about the state’s largest taxes

Cavid Bey also presented information about the state’s largest taxes such as the tithe, cattle tax, and customs dsuch as the tithe, cattle tax, and customs duuties. The 4% increase in cuties. The 4% increase in cus-s-toms duties would bring in an additional 1.5 million toms duties would bring in an additional 1.5 million LirasLiras of revenue of revenue annually. However, the government was unable to increase the customs annually. However, the government was unable to increase the customs duty by themselves as the matter was strictly tied to the duty by themselves as the matter was strictly tied to the Baghdad RaiBaghdad Rail-l-wayway issue. Accordiissue. Accordinng to the g to the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway Agreement in 1903, after Agreement in 1903, after the government’s loans were paid off, all surplus revenue was to be the government’s loans were paid off, all surplus revenue was to be used for developing the railway business. The rise in customs duties used for developing the railway business. The rise in customs duties would lead to a rise in revenue. In turn, the Great Powers were disawould lead to a rise in revenue. In turn, the Great Powers were disap-p-pointed that the surplus could be utilized by only one country, Gepointed that the surplus could be utilized by only one country, Gerrmany. many. Cavid Bey announced to the parliament that, “today, both the Cavid Bey announced to the parliament that, “today, both the Baghdad Baghdad RailwayRailway and customs duty issues are being negotiated tand customs duty issues are being negotiated toogether. The on-gether. The on-ly lines that should be constructed are the ly lines that should be constructed are the EEl Halifl Halif--BaghdadBaghdad and and Bagh-Bagh-daddad--Persian Gulf lines.” According to Cavid Bey, the Ottoman govern-Persian Gulf lines.” According to Cavid Bey, the Ottoman govern-ment was negotiating to construct the ment was negotiating to construct the BaghdadBaghdad--Persian Gulf section but Persian Gulf section but not to pay for the El Halifnot to pay for the El Halif--BaghdadBaghdad line with the revline with the reveenue from the cus-nue from the cus-toms duties. toms duties.

In his sp

In his speeech, Cavid Bey also made optimistic predictions about the ech, Cavid Bey also made optimistic predictions about the future. Over the previous four years, the government had successfully future. Over the previous four years, the government had successfully increased revenue by 5 million increased revenue by 5 million LirasLiras. It would aim to raise 35 million . It would aim to raise 35 million LirasLiras in revenue over the following five years. Accordinin revenue over the following five years. Accordingg to Cavid Bey, to Cavid Bey, the most urgent need was to construct more railways, which would pro-the most urgent need was to construct more railways, which would pro-vide support for agriculture and commerce. The three railway lines vide support for agriculture and commerce. The three railway lines would be the would be the BaghdadBaghdad--Persian Gulf line, a line through the Black Sea Persian Gulf line, a line through the Black Sea region, andregion, and, , a line on the Adriatic a line on the Adriatic bbasinasin. . The construction of these lines The construction of these lines could be completed in eight to ten years. Moreover, irrigation projects in could be completed in eight to ten years. Moreover, irrigation projects in Adana and Konya remained on the agenda, as well as a project in Adana and Konya remained on the agenda, as well as a project in ElEl--CezireCezire for two yearsfor two years. There were also ongoing negotiations with a . There were also ongoing negotiations with a

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French corench commpany to construct a port that would cost 100 million francs. pany to construct a port that would cost 100 million francs. On the one hand, according to Article 11 of the Budget Law of 1911On the one hand, according to Article 11 of the Budget Law of 1911––12, 12, the Ministry of Finance was allowed to make a loan agreement of no the Ministry of Finance was allowed to make a loan agreement of no more than 3 million more than 3 million LirasLiras. However, on the othe. However, on the otherr hand, Chand, Caavid Bey estvid Bey esti-i-mated that the Ministry would go 2.5 million mated that the Ministry would go 2.5 million LirasLiras into debt building into debt building new roads,new roads,470 the provision for which he had already made with the the provision for which he had already made with the IOB.IOB.471

The process of reaching trade agreements with Romania and Bu

The process of reaching trade agreements with Romania and Bullgar-gar-ia was ia was also also ongoingongoing, while, while CCaavid Bey exvid Bey expected thapected that in two years they t in two years they would sign a treaty with the Austriawould sign a treaty with the Austria--Hungary Empire addressing the Hungary Empire addressing the customs duty increase. The greatest show of opposition came from Lütfi customs duty increase. The greatest show of opposition came from Lütfi Fikri as well as Şefik El Müeyyit, Rıza Tevfik, and Kozmidi Efendi. During Fikri as well as Şefik El Müeyyit, Rıza Tevfik, and Kozmidi Efendi. During ththee meeting, meeting, Cavid Bey Cavid Bey continuously took notes and provided his coun-continuously took notes and provided his coun-teterrparts with lengthy answers. The parliament appreciated his speech parts with lengthy answers. The parliament appreciated his speech and responses to his counterparts so much that they allocated 60,000 and responses to his counterparts so much that they allocated 60,000 ppiiestre to publish his speech and distribute it to testre to publish his speech and distribute it to thhe provincee provinces.s.472 CavidCavid Bey’s speech had painted the Empire’s financial situation in a positive Bey’s speech had painted the Empire’s financial situation in a positive light.light. It further showed that Cavid Bey was ready to reconcile with his It further showed that Cavid Bey was ready to reconcile with his rivals, particularly with the military commanders. Though he was a lirivals, particularly with the military commanders. Though he was a lib-b-eral economist witheral economist with a francophoa francophone backgrne background, he did not accept the ound, he did not accept the terms that were provided to him by the Treasury of France, which gave terms that were provided to him by the Treasury of France, which gave him an air of dignity. him an air of dignity. YetYet, the opposition still took issue with Cavid Bey , the opposition still took issue with Cavid Bey on the topic. According to his notes, Cavid Bey seemon the topic. According to his notes, Cavid Bey seemeed cod conntent following tent following tthehe budget talks. He budget talks. He noted noted that the majority of the pathat the majority of the parrliament had lis-liament had lis-tened with interest and the opposition stayed silent. He even claimed tened with interest and the opposition stayed silent. He even claimed that the day after the budget that the day after the budget talks,talks, he was met with uhe was met with unnprecedented ap-precedented ap-plause in parliament.plause in parliament.473 RegaRegarrding the attacks levding the attacks leviied ed on him by the op-on him by the op-

470 MM Zabıt CeMM Zabıt Ceridesi, ridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, İçt, İçtima Senesi: 3, ima Senesi: 3, Cilt:Cilt: 3, 27 Kanun3, 27 Kanun--u Sani 1326 (9 u Sani 1326 (9 February 1February 19911), 111), 159 59 -- 189. 189.

471 T.C. Maliye Bakanlığı, T.C. Maliye Bakanlığı, Osmanlı Bütçeleri, 1Osmanlı Bütçeleri, 1909909--19181918, 306., 306.

472 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1Devre: 1, İçtima Sen, İçtima Seneesi: 3,si: 3, Cilt:Cilt: 4, 27 April 1327 (10 May 1911), 4, 27 April 1327 (10 May 1911), 249. 249.

473 MMehmed Cavid Bey, ehmed Cavid Bey, MeşrMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi Iutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 77., 77.

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position, he states, “their claims were groundless and very personal and

position, he states, “their claims were groundless and very personal and therefore infertile. But their policy humiliated the country in the eyes of therefore infertile. But their policy humiliated the country in the eyes of the foreign public opinion.”the foreign public opinion.”

After Cavid Bey presented the Budget

After Cavid Bey presented the Budget oof 1911, he returned f 1911, he returned hhis is focus focus to the railway and customs duty issues. On March 1, 1911, Rifat Pasha, to the railway and customs duty issues. On March 1, 1911, Rifat Pasha, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, had sent a memorandum to the British the Minister of Foreign Affairs, had sent a memorandum to the British ambassador informing him of the negotiations on the ambassador informing him of the negotiations on the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway, , concerning its concerning its ccompletion, the 4% inompletion, the 4% inccrearease in Ottoman Customs, and se in Ottoman Customs, and the British interests on these issues. This note was the first step toward the British interests on these issues. This note was the first step toward reconciliation and compromises on these issues. It is very clear, even reconciliation and compromises on these issues. It is very clear, even from the softening of the attitude of the railway’s opponefrom the softening of the attitude of the railway’s opponennts, that the ts, that the key to key to tthe he compromise had been the Ottomans’ annulment of the compromise had been the Ottomans’ annulment of the BagBagh-h-daddad--Gulf concession granted to Germany. In return, the British had prGulf concession granted to Germany. In return, the British had pre-e-sented two red lines: firstly, safeguarding their interests in the Persian sented two red lines: firstly, safeguarding their interests in the Persian Gulf; secondly, not utilizing tGulf; secondly, not utilizing thhe revenue obtained fe revenue obtained frrom om the rise in cuthe rise in cus-s-toms duties for the construction of the toms duties for the construction of the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway. The Ottoman . The Ottoman government first considered constructing the last section of the railway government first considered constructing the last section of the railway line from line from BaghdadBaghdad to the Persian Gulf by itself. However, they quickly to the Persian Gulf by itself. However, they quickly reareallized that they wouldized that they would be be unable to cover the cost. At this point, Cavid unable to cover the cost. At this point, Cavid Bey was able to find a formula that would establish a consortium coBey was able to find a formula that would establish a consortium con-n-sisting of Ottoman, German, British, and French investors. The capital sisting of Ottoman, German, British, and French investors. The capital needed to be financed from London, Paris, Berneeded to be financed from London, Paris, Berllin, and Istanbul as in, and Istanbul as iit ht had ad been for the Konyabeen for the Konya--BaghdadBaghdad section of the railway. The details of tesection of the railway. The details of terrmi-mi-nal stations in Kuwait and the Persian Gulf could be considered later. nal stations in Kuwait and the Persian Gulf could be considered later. But Britain, before replying to the memorandum, provided a brief aBut Britain, before replying to the memorandum, provided a brief an-n-swer to two essentiswer to two essentiaal points. First, thel points. First, theyy didid not find the Ottoman god not find the Ottoman gov-v-ernment’s promise sufficient. Second, Sir Edward Grey added a precoernment’s promise sufficient. Second, Sir Edward Grey added a precon-n-dition: dition: giving authorization togiving authorization to EgyptEgypt for obtaining its own debtsfor obtaining its own debts..474 Egypt could still not obtain loans without the permission of the SublEgypt could still not obtain loans without the permission of the Subliime me Porte and the sovPorte and the soveereireign Sultan. The British government formally rgn Sultan. The British government formally reeplied plied to the memo on July 29, 1911.to the memo on July 29, 1911.

474 Bayur, Bayur, Türk Inkilâbı Tarihi, II/ITürk Inkilâbı Tarihi, II/I, 470, 470--71, an71, andd 75; a75; and Özyüksel, nd Özyüksel, The BerlinThe Berlin--Baghdad Baghdad Railway and the ORailway and the Ottoman Empirettoman Empire,, 137.137.

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On March 20, 1911, Cavid Bey announced that negotiations with

On March 20, 1911, Cavid Bey announced that negotiations with Deutsche Bank and the Deutsche Bank and the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway Company had been concluded. Company had been concluded. According to this suppAccording to this suppllemental agreement, Demental agreement, Deeutsutsche Bank agreed to che Bank agreed to construct the section between El Halif and construct the section between El Halif and BaghdadBaghdad. The second article . The second article shows that the company gave up its right to use state funds to construct shows that the company gave up its right to use state funds to construct the railway line as per the 1903 agreement. Instead, the company wouthe railway line as per the 1903 agreement. Instead, the company woulld d use only the surpluse only the surpluus fs from Ottoman taxes and funds. Before this agree-rom Ottoman taxes and funds. Before this agree-ment, the managers of Deutsche Bank had announced “The Berlin Dec-ment, the managers of Deutsche Bank had announced “The Berlin Dec-laration” on March 7, 1911. According to this declaration, the railaration” on March 7, 1911. According to this declaration, the raillway way company had abandoned the construction of the company had abandoned the construction of the BagBaghhdaddad--Persian Gulf Persian Gulf secsecttionion and the ports of Kuwait and the Persian Gulf. The Germans and the ports of Kuwait and the Persian Gulf. The Germans would construct the Osmaniyewould construct the Osmaniye--Iskenderun railway and Iskenderun Port Iskenderun railway and Iskenderun Port and would not ask for the allocation of Ottoman funds to build the El and would not ask for the allocation of Ottoman funds to build the El HalifHalif--Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway. This situat. This situatiion became official won became official wiith th the contract the contract signed on March 20. signed on March 20.

According to Cavid Bey, the agreement on the

According to Cavid Bey, the agreement on the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway had had an extremely positive impact on both domestic and international polan extremely positive impact on both domestic and international poli-i-tics. His sole concern was to resolve the Kuwait issue without htics. His sole concern was to resolve the Kuwait issue without haarming rming the honor of tthe honor of thhe Oe Ottoman state.ttoman state.475 After concluding an agreement bAfter concluding an agreement be-e-tween the Getween the Gerrmans and the Ottoman government, the French sought mans and the Ottoman government, the French sought new ways to solve the Baghdad Railway issue. However, the IOB's new ways to solve the Baghdad Railway issue. However, the IOB's heavy heavy ddeemands made this attempt impossible. In March 191mands made this attempt impossible. In March 19111, Mr. Helferrich, Mr. Helferrich, , anandd MrMr. Count Vitali representing the . Count Vitali representing the French French railwayrailwayss in the Ottoman in the Ottoman Empire Empire had methad met. . The meeting was inconclusive. As a matter of factThe meeting was inconclusive. As a matter of fact, the , the Germans Germans adopted a blockage policy which meant to block the French adopted a blockage policy which meant to block the French unntile they would accept the unntile they would accept the GGerman conditionserman conditions..476 ThThe me most difficult ost difficult

475 Mehmed CaMehmed Cavviid Bey, d Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznMeşrutiyet Ruznââmesi Imesi I,, 84; and Bayur, T84; and Bayur, Türk Inkilâbı Tarihi, II/I,ürk Inkilâbı Tarihi, II/I, 470470--75.75.

476 In Asiatic Turkey, the FrenIn Asiatic Turkey, the Frencch were to have Syria and Northern Anatolia, while th were to have Syria and Northern Anatolia, while the he Germans were to have the BaghdaGermans were to have the Baghdad Railway and the lined Railway and the lines necessary to fill it out. The s necessary to fill it out. The differences were mostly odifferences were mostly ovver theer the exact lines of demarcation. exact lines of demarcation. WiWillliamsoliamson, Karl Heln, Karl Helfffer-fer-ich, 1872ich, 1872--1924: Economist, Financi1924: Economist, Financier, Politicianer, Politician, 96, 96--7.7.

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negotiations in 1913

negotiations in 1913––1914 were held between the French and Ge1914 were held between the French and Gerrmansmans.. Naturally they were the hardest part of Cavid Bey’s work. Naturally they were the hardest part of Cavid Bey’s work.

On March 21, 1911, Hüseyin

On March 21, 1911, Hüseyin CahitCahit was elected as the Ottoman delwas elected as the Ottoman dele-e-gate of the OPDA. Both thegate of the OPDA. Both the IOB and Régie voted iIOB and Régie voted in fan favor of him. Cavid vor of him. Cavid Bey was concerned about the gossip which would emerge because of Bey was concerned about the gossip which would emerge because of the political position of the political position of Hüseyin Hüseyin Cahit Bey.Cahit Bey.477 Hüseyin CahiHüseyin Cahitt would rwould re-e-main in this position until 1922, at which point Cavid Bey would take main in this position until 1922, at which point Cavid Bey would take over, whiover, whille both were in exile e both were in exile in Ein Europe during the National Struggle. urope during the National Struggle. The two were close friends, a financier and a journalist, and their The two were close friends, a financier and a journalist, and their friendship became a shelter from politics or business. For example, as friendship became a shelter from politics or business. For example, as Hüseyin Hüseyin CahitCahit became the Ottoman delegate to the OPDA, became the Ottoman delegate to the OPDA, tthe articles he he articles he wrote wrote in in TTaninanin were read by everyone. Cavid Bey owned the license for were read by everyone. Cavid Bey owned the license for TaninTanin when it was shut down by a court martial. But it should be mewhen it was shut down by a court martial. But it should be men-n-tioned that tioned that TaninTanin would be shut down several times in the near future, would be shut down several times in the near future, and Cavid Bey would be a part oand Cavid Bey would be a part off its story. its story.

The rail

The railway way talks started on the theme of the talks started on the theme of the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway’s ’s spread into the vast Ottoman territory, which the French investors spread into the vast Ottoman territory, which the French investors might be interested in. However, the Ottoman statesmen also had their might be interested in. However, the Ottoman statesmen also had their own agenda. The Manager of Railways and town agenda. The Manager of Railways and thhe Undersecretary of Pe Undersecretary of Publiublic c Works proposed to Cavid Bey to construct all of or at least a part of the Works proposed to Cavid Bey to construct all of or at least a part of the SamsunSamsun--Sivas line using Ottoman capital and to claim a 50% share in Sivas line using Ottoman capital and to claim a 50% share in the managing company. Though he agreed that the state ought to hold the managing company. Though he agreed that the state ought to hold 50% of the shares,50% of the shares, Cavid Bey refused to Cavid Bey refused to use use Ottoman capital to coOttoman capital to con-n-struct the Samsunstruct the Samsun--Sivas line, as long as the French company’s offer was Sivas line, as long as the French company’s offer was less generous. This decision aligned with Cavid Bey’s liberal economic less generous. This decision aligned with Cavid Bey’s liberal economic views as, first and foremost, Cavid Bey did not want to spend monviews as, first and foremost, Cavid Bey did not want to spend moneey on y on anything other tanything other than han public works, administrative issues, and education. public works, administrative issues, and education. In particular, he did not want to spend money on something that could In particular, he did not want to spend money on something that could be done at a lower price. Secondly, he did not want to interrupt work or be done at a lower price. Secondly, he did not want to interrupt work or contracts already in effect. Thirdlcontracts already in effect. Thirdlyy, he did not want to , he did not want to scarscare away French e away French investors. It should be noted that these are my own assumptions on the investors. It should be noted that these are my own assumptions on the

477 Mehmed CaMehmed Cavvid Bey, id Bey, Meşrutiyet RMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,uznâmesi I, 84.84.

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issue, not based on anything written by Cavid Bey himself or any other

issue, not based on anything written by Cavid Bey himself or any other historian. historian.

Aside from dealing with these challenging negotiations, Cavid

Aside from dealing with these challenging negotiations, Cavid BBey ey spent the majorityspent the majority of of his time handling the military’s ceaseless dhis time handling the military’s ceaseless de-e-mands. As understood from his diaries, no cash money existed to pay off mands. As understood from his diaries, no cash money existed to pay off the state’s debts. This meant that it was up to him to find solutions to the state’s debts. This meant that it was up to him to find solutions to the state debt crisis on a daily basis. the state debt crisis on a daily basis. FFor example, the formeor example, the former sur sultan’s ltan’s jewelry was to be sold to pay off an installment of a loan for dreajewelry was to be sold to pay off an installment of a loan for dread-d-noughts in April, only for Mahmut Muhtar Pasha to refuse to take rnoughts in April, only for Mahmut Muhtar Pasha to refuse to take re-e-sponsibility for selling off a former sultan’s jewelry. Situations like this sponsibility for selling off a former sultan’s jewelry. Situations like this caused Cavicaused Cavidd Bey to resent militaBey to resent military ory officers, particularly Mahmut Mfficers, particularly Mahmut Mu-u-htar Pasha, who failed to take responsibility for their decisions on ehtar Pasha, who failed to take responsibility for their decisions on ex-x-penditures. According to Cavid Bey, the best thing to do was to resign penditures. According to Cavid Bey, the best thing to do was to resign and leave them to deal with their problems. Though he hadand leave them to deal with their problems. Though he had attempted attempted to solve thto solve this pis problem for four days, he was tired of their cavalier attroblem for four days, he was tired of their cavalier atti-i-tude. Cavid Bey was able to locate money for the Marine Commission tude. Cavid Bey was able to locate money for the Marine Commission from the IOB for the Commission’s debt to Deutsche Bank. He approved from the IOB for the Commission’s debt to Deutsche Bank. He approved the loan from the IOB and decided to the loan from the IOB and decided to ddiscuss the conditionsiscuss the conditions of of the loan the loan later. The money was delivered surreptitiously.later. The money was delivered surreptitiously.478 Therefore, Cavid Bey Therefore, Cavid Bey planned to use the former sultan’s jewelry to pay the debt. Talat Bey and planned to use the former sultan’s jewelry to pay the debt. Talat Bey and Şefik Bey found this plan reasonable. The most interesting point is that Şefik Bey found this plan reasonable. The most interesting point is that the the OOttoman government purttoman government purchaschased German dreadnoughts with French ed German dreadnoughts with French money. But when it commoney. But when it comes to the IOB, Bompard did not become angry, es to the IOB, Bompard did not become angry, and the French government did not intervene.and the French government did not intervene.479

In addition to the Budget Law, Cavid Bey initiated an amendment to

In addition to the Budget Law, Cavid Bey initiated an amendment to the General Accthe General Accoounting Law adopted inunting Law adopted in 1901909.9.480 The decree law of 1911 The decree law of 1911 laid the foundations for the slaid the foundations for the state’s system of accounting.tate’s system of accounting.481 A commiA commis-s-sion was established to formulate these amendments. However, sion was established to formulate these amendments. However,

478 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I,, 92.92.

479 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 96.96.

480 The Decree LawThe Decree Law on the General Accounting (Usulon the General Accounting (Usul--ı Muhasebeı Muhasebe--i Umumiyi Umumiye Kanune Kanun--ı ı MuvakkatMuvakkatıı), No: 101. 9 R), No: 101. 9 Rebilevvel 1330, 14 Şubat 1327. ebilevvel 1330, 14 Şubat 1327.

481 Öztel, Öztel, II. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı MaliyesiII. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı Maliyesi, 8, 8--11.11.

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Mahhmut Şevket Pasha opposed these changes on the grounds that he mut Şevket Pasha opposed these changes on the grounds that he did not wdid not waant the accounts brought unt the accounts brought under control of the civilian govern-nder control of the civilian govern-ment and state bureaucrats. Cavid Bey claimed that opponents to the ment and state bureaucrats. Cavid Bey claimed that opponents to the amendment wanted to disrupt the spirit of the law.amendment wanted to disrupt the spirit of the law. This This eeventually be-ventually be-came part of the struggle to break military tutelage over civilian gov-came part of the struggle to break military tutelage over civilian gov-ernments. In the end, Cavid Bey resolved the issue by proposing to Talat ernments. In the end, Cavid Bey resolved the issue by proposing to Talat Bey that he would give up the article regarding the board’s auditing of Bey that he would give up the article regarding the board’s auditing of the Ministry of War if, in rthe Ministry of War if, in reeturn, Mahmut Şevket Pasha was to give up on turn, Mahmut Şevket Pasha was to give up on making changes to the general framework of the law. According to Cavid making changes to the general framework of the law. According to Cavid Bey, though Mahmut Şevket Pasha referred to this law as a burden, it did Bey, though Mahmut Şevket Pasha referred to this law as a burden, it did not impede the state’s military expeditions to Havran, Yemen, and Anot impede the state’s military expeditions to Havran, Yemen, and Allba-ba-nia.nia.

During the railway negotiations, as Minister of Finance Cavid Bey

During the railway negotiations, as Minister of Finance Cavid Bey was stuck between the Ottoman government and the French Ambasswas stuck between the Ottoman government and the French Ambassa-a-dor. After the Council of Ministers decided on which railway lines were dor. After the Council of Ministers decided on which railway lines were to be built, negotiations began with Ambassador to be built, negotiations began with Ambassador Bompard. However, Bompard. However, Bompard was not satisfied with the route of the railway. He stated that Bompard was not satisfied with the route of the railway. He stated that the French thought that Germany was the most predominant foreign the French thought that Germany was the most predominant foreign actor in Turkey. In response to this, Cavid Bey claimed, “France had actor in Turkey. In response to this, Cavid Bey claimed, “France had raised the position of Germans iraised the position of Germans in the Ottoman public sphere due to the n the Ottoman public sphere due to the 1910 loan issue.” Bompard was also against both the British getting i1910 loan issue.” Bompard was also against both the British getting in-n-volved in this issue, and Ottoman shares in the construction and mavolved in this issue, and Ottoman shares in the construction and man-n-agement of the international company that would establish the agement of the international company that would establish the BagBagh-h-daddad--Persian GPersian Gulf section of the railway.ulf section of the railway.482

Meanwhile, the British had once more disappointed the

Meanwhile, the British had once more disappointed the Ottoman Ottoman governmentgovernment. The British government refused . The British government refused the Ottoman request to the Ottoman request to introduce income tax for foreignersintroduce income tax for foreigners..483 This news was very disappoinThis news was very disappoint-t-ing for the Unionists, because iing for the Unionists, because implementation of an income tax for fomplementation of an income tax for for-r-eigners was one of the main goals of the new regime, as well as of Cavid eigners was one of the main goals of the new regime, as well as of Cavid Bey himself. The British insisted that OttomanBey himself. The British insisted that Ottoman--German shares should German shares should not exceed more than 50% of the company established for the not exceed more than 50% of the company established for the BaghdadBaghdad--

482 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, MeşrutiyeMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi It Ruznâmesi I,92, 99 and 105.,92, 99 and 105.

483 Özyüksel, Özyüksel, The BerlinThe Berlin--Baghdad Railway and the Ottoman EmpireBaghdad Railway and the Ottoman Empire,, 138.138.

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Persian G

Persian Gulf part of the railway.ulf part of the railway.484 As stated in secondary sources such As stated in secondary sources such as Bayur, Britain attempted to get involved in many other issues that as Bayur, Britain attempted to get involved in many other issues that they had they had nevernever been interested in.been interested in.485

In addition to dealing with international financial issues, Cavid Bey

In addition to dealing with international financial issues, Cavid Bey was also trwas also tracking acking developments in domestic politics developments in domestic politics —— in particular, the in particular, the New Party. The New Party had strongly criticized the Unionists for bNew Party. The New Party had strongly criticized the Unionists for be-e-ing members of parliament and ministers in the Cabinet. Talat Bey was ing members of parliament and ministers in the Cabinet. Talat Bey was the first target of this criticism; however, this did nthe first target of this criticism; however, this did not lastot last long. On April long. On April 23, 1911, the New Party announced a declaration of ten articles that 23, 1911, the New Party announced a declaration of ten articles that limited the criteria for becoming a minister. Meanwhile, the CUP asked limited the criteria for becoming a minister. Meanwhile, the CUP asked MahmutMahmut Şevket Pasha to reassign Colonel Sadık to a place far away from Şevket Pasha to reassign Colonel Sadık to a place far away from Istanbul. He refused tIstanbul. He refused the Committee’s request, as he was losing power in he Committee’s request, as he was losing power in those days. In a failed attempt, the CUP tried to reconcile with Colonel those days. In a failed attempt, the CUP tried to reconcile with Colonel Sadık. During the meeting between Sadık Bey anSadık. During the meeting between Sadık Bey and Talat Bey, the former d Talat Bey, the former accused the CUP and Unionists of being atheists, freemasons, Zionists, accused the CUP and Unionists of being atheists, freemasons, Zionists, and selfand self--seekers. Colonel Sadık insisted that Talat Bey resign from the seekers. Colonel Sadık insisted that Talat Bey resign from the government and parliament.government and parliament.486 But, on April 27, Hakkı Pasha received a But, on April 27, Hakkı Pasha received a vote of confidence ivote of confidence in the parliament, which was a victory for the Union-n the parliament, which was a victory for the Union-ists. After this incident, upon the request of the sultan, Colonel Sadık ists. After this incident, upon the request of the sultan, Colonel Sadık was assigned to Selanik. Yet, the upheaval in Istanbul continued.was assigned to Selanik. Yet, the upheaval in Istanbul continued.487

On April 14, 1911, Talat Bey, and Dr. Nazım convened at Cavid Bey

On April 14, 1911, Talat Bey, and Dr. Nazım convened at Cavid Bey’s ’s house. Hüseyin house. Hüseyin CahitCahit Bey was also invited to this meeting, and together Bey was also invited to this meeting, and together they discussed the issue of Colonel Sadık in detail. Colonel Sadık and his they discussed the issue of Colonel Sadık in detail. Colonel Sadık and his supporters were in the process of establishing a secret political party, supporters were in the process of establishing a secret political party, and it was rumored that members oand it was rumored that members of the CUP would also join the party. f the CUP would also join the party. Cavid Bey grew angry when he learned that Talat and others knew Cavid Bey grew angry when he learned that Talat and others knew about this secret organization for 3about this secret organization for 3––4 days but did not inform him. For 4 days but did not inform him. For Cavid Bey, one of the CUP’s most fundamental flaws was its lack of Cavid Bey, one of the CUP’s most fundamental flaws was its lack of communication. Tcommunication. The aim of this new opposition group was to comply he aim of this new opposition group was to comply

484 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 96., 96.

485 Bayur, Bayur, Türk Inkilâbı Türk Inkilâbı Tarihi, II/ITarihi, II/I, 465, 465--510.510.

486 Ahmad,Ahmad, Ittihat ve TerakIttihat ve Terakki,1908ki,1908--1914 (Jön Türkler)1914 (Jön Türkler), 131., 131.

487 Akşin, Akşin, Jön Türkler ve IJön Türkler ve Ittihat Terakki,ttihat Terakki, 286286--88.88.

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with religious principles and save the government from irreligious

with religious principles and save the government from irreligious freemasons. The first thing they decided to do was to get in touch with freemasons. The first thing they decided to do was to get in touch with the CUP members and ask them to join the new party. Following this the CUP members and ask them to join the new party. Following this news, Cavid Bey gathered with two members of the CUP who had joined news, Cavid Bey gathered with two members of the CUP who had joined Colonel Sadık’s new partColonel Sadık’s new party,y, Ali Osman Bey and Habib Bey. During the Ali Osman Bey and Habib Bey. During the meeting, Ali Osman claimed that Shaykh almeeting, Ali Osman claimed that Shaykh al--Islam was a freemason and Islam was a freemason and needed to be removed from the government. Cavid Bey cneeded to be removed from the government. Cavid Bey criticized the riticized the men, stating that people who joined opposition groups followed their men, stating that people who joined opposition groups followed their personal interests rather than political considerations. Habib Bey, for personal interests rather than political considerations. Habib Bey, for instance, was someone who was angry at the CUP because his family instance, was someone who was angry at the CUP because his family was never commissioned during the nwas never commissioned during the new era. Thus, Cavid Bey disaew era. Thus, Cavid Bey disap-p-proved of Habib Bey’s complaints as they related to personal inteproved of Habib Bey’s complaints as they related to personal inter-r-ests.ests.488 Cavid Bey also learned during the meeting that the Cavid Bey also learned during the meeting that the NNew ew PParty arty opposed freemasonry because they believed that the freemasons would opposed freemasonry because they believed that the freemasons would transform the Ottoman Emptransform the Ottoman Empire into a Republic. Cavid Bey expressed his ire into a Republic. Cavid Bey expressed his concern about how men with such narrowconcern about how men with such narrow--minded beliefs wanted to minded beliefs wanted to rule the country. He was further worried that Mahmut Şevket Pasha rule the country. He was further worried that Mahmut Şevket Pasha may play an important role in this issue.may play an important role in this issue.

At the end of this crisis caused by the

At the end of this crisis caused by the New Party, Cavid Bey resigned New Party, Cavid Bey resigned from his position, and the entire incident of removing Unionist mefrom his position, and the entire incident of removing Unionist mem-m-bers from the government lasted for almost a month. Meanwhile, a very bers from the government lasted for almost a month. Meanwhile, a very long negotiation process took place regarding Colonel Sadık’s dismissal. long negotiation process took place regarding Colonel Sadık’s dismissal. Cavid Bey obserCavid Bey observed that this issue remained unresolved due to Mahmut ved that this issue remained unresolved due to Mahmut Şevket Pasha’s weakness. Mahmut Şevket Pasha reportedly told people Şevket Pasha’s weakness. Mahmut Şevket Pasha reportedly told people around him, “around him, “we have no other man to replace we have no other man to replace him.”him.”489 The same senti-The same senti-ment was echoed by the sultan and many others. Cavid Bey criticized ment was echoed by the sultan and many others. Cavid Bey criticized and blamed all three of parliament, the party, and the ministers for this and blamed all three of parliament, the party, and the ministers for this crisis. He believed that they lacked confidence and power to reach a crisis. He believed that they lacked confidence and power to reach a resolution before it turresolution before it turnned into a cabinet crisis.ed into a cabinet crisis.

Many scholars such as Kansu mention that the British Embassy o

Many scholars such as Kansu mention that the British Embassy of-f-ten criticized Cavid Bey. The dragoman of the embassy, Mr. Gerald W. ten criticized Cavid Bey. The dragoman of the embassy, Mr. Gerald W.

488 MehmedMehmed Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 108, 108--10, and 1410, and 1400..

489 MehmedMehmed Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 1, 13636..

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Fitzmaurice,

Fitzmaurice, criticizedcriticized Cavid Bey at every turn. In his meeting with Cavid Bey at every turn. In his meeting with Bompard on AprBompard on April 20, 1911, Cail 20, 1911, Cavid Bey claimed that Fitzmaurice should vid Bey claimed that Fitzmaurice should be blamed for the Sadık Bey issue.be blamed for the Sadık Bey issue.490 The Unionists considered that the The Unionists considered that the British embassy and especially Mr. Fitzmaurice had a role in the 31 British embassy and especially Mr. Fitzmaurice had a role in the 31 March Incident. For this reason, they were skeptical about the March Incident. For this reason, they were skeptical about the British British embassyembassy and their support to the opposition groups against the CUP. On and their support to the opposition groups against the CUP. On April 21, the newspapers began writing about Cavid Bey’s resignation. April 21, the newspapers began writing about Cavid Bey’s resignation. However, following his resignation, he continued to be involved in pHowever, following his resignation, he continued to be involved in poolit-lit-ical developments and the corresponical developments and the corresponding financial ding financial issues. For exaissues. For exammple, ple, after concluding the negotiations regarding the after concluding the negotiations regarding the BoluBolu--Adapazarı track, Adapazarı track, Sir Adam BlocSir Adam Blockk and Cavid Bey signed a protocol.and Cavid Bey signed a protocol.491

On April 25, 1911, the U.S. Secretary of State was notified that pa

On April 25, 1911, the U.S. Secretary of State was notified that par-r-liament would soon discuss the Chester project. Sure enough, the grand liament would soon discuss the Chester project. Sure enough, the grand vizier submitted the project to parliament on vizier submitted the project to parliament on May 14. Following two May 14. Following two days of negotiations, the final vote on the project was postponed until days of negotiations, the final vote on the project was postponed until the autumn, but eventually it passed with 77 votes in favor and 64 the autumn, but eventually it passed with 77 votes in favor and 64 against. On the eve of the Great War, the world’s navies had begun to use against. On the eve of the Great War, the world’s navies had begun to use oil rather than coal.oil rather than coal. The demand for oil by both industry and tranThe demand for oil by both industry and transspor-por-tation was increasing day by day, and the Great Powers knew that Mes-tation was increasing day by day, and the Great Powers knew that Mes-opotamia had massive oil reserves. This led to a Great Power struopotamia had massive oil reserves. This led to a Great Power strugggle gle within the Ottoman lands. In the end, while some newspapers prwithin the Ottoman lands. In the end, while some newspapers preesent-sent-eded the postponement of the vote as a victory for the Germans, the Otto-the postponement of the vote as a victory for the Germans, the Otto-mans had successfully played the Great Powers off against each other. mans had successfully played the Great Powers off against each other.

The Chester project’s mining prospects and operating concessions

The Chester project’s mining prospects and operating concessions for the area within a 20 km radius on both sides of for the area within a 20 km radius on both sides of the railway lines the railway lines would increase the importance of the would increase the importance of the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway contract. On the contract. On the international front, the Germans protested against the project; they did international front, the Germans protested against the project; they did

490 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların İttihadçıların RRejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi 1908 ejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi 1908 –– 19131913, 215. See also: G.R. , 215. See also: G.R. Berridge Berridge İngiliz Gizli Beİngiliz Gizli Belgelerinde “lgelerinde “Yahudi Dönmesi İttihatçılar” Gerald H. Fitzmaurice Yahudi Dönmesi İttihatçılar” Gerald H. Fitzmaurice Türkiye’deTürkiye’deki İnki İnggiiliz Büliz Büyükelçiliği Baştercümanı’nın Anılarıyükelçiliği Baştercümanı’nın Anıları, (Istanbul: Kırmızı Kedi,, (Istanbul: Kırmızı Kedi, 2011).2011).

491 KanKansu, su, İttihadçıların Rejİttihadçıların Rejiim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908m ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 213; and Akşin, , 213; and Akşin, Jön Jön Türkler ve Ittihat Terakki, 1Türkler ve Ittihat Terakki, 10707--31.31.

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not want to accept that American capital would take over the constru

not want to accept that American capital would take over the construc-c-tion rights that they had tion rights that they had fought so hard for. On the domestic front, Ofought so hard for. On the domestic front, Ot-t-toman deputy Pastırmacıyan claimed that from whatever economic, ptoman deputy Pastırmacıyan claimed that from whatever economic, po-o-litical, or strategic point of view, the “Oriental Anatolian Railway”litical, or strategic point of view, the “Oriental Anatolian Railway”—— which would reach Eastern Anatolia via Ankara, Sivas, Erzurum and Dwhich would reach Eastern Anatolia via Ankara, Sivas, Erzurum and Di-i-yarbakyarbakır ır —— was much more useful for the country in comparison to the was much more useful for the country in comparison to the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway. To prove this, he prepared pages and pages of . To prove this, he prepared pages and pages of cost/advantage analyses. Moreover, there were hushed discussions in cost/advantage analyses. Moreover, there were hushed discussions in parliamentary corridors of the political problems that would aparliamentary corridors of the political problems that would arise with rise with the construction of said network in these provinces, which were pathe construction of said network in these provinces, which were parrtial-tial-ly populated by Armenians; thus, fears of a new Armenian question ly populated by Armenians; thus, fears of a new Armenian question arose. Another more serious danger, of a spiritual nature, was mearose. Another more serious danger, of a spiritual nature, was men-n-tioned: according to rumors, the said linestioned: according to rumors, the said lines were to be constructed with were to be constructed with American missionary money, with the intention to convert both MuAmerican missionary money, with the intention to convert both Mus-s-lims and Armenians to Protestantism. At first, the Americans were alims and Armenians to Protestantism. At first, the Americans were at-t-tractive to the Ottoman authorities, because up until then they had nev-tractive to the Ottoman authorities, because up until then they had nev-er asked for political er asked for political concessions but rather aimed to pursue ecconcessions but rather aimed to pursue ecoonomic nomic interests. interests. However, these different railway projects revealed various ap-However, these different railway projects revealed various ap-proaches and interests in the Ottoman political milieu. proaches and interests in the Ottoman political milieu. While While Mahmut Mahmut Şevket Pasha Şevket Pasha was asserting that was asserting that nothing could nothing could be replaced with the be replaced with the friendship of Germany,friendship of Germany, the deputies the deputies belonging to different campsbelonging to different campshad had united under the same bannerunited under the same banner. On the other hand, these pr. On the other hand, these proojects also jects also revealed conflicts of interest in parliament, as many of the deputies revealed conflicts of interest in parliament, as many of the deputies were also businessmen, contractors, or merchants.were also businessmen, contractors, or merchants.492

At the end of April, Talat Bey met with

At the end of April, Talat Bey met with Sadık Bey; however, their Sadık Bey; however, their meeting was inconclusive. On May 1, Sadık Bey had gone into exile to meeting was inconclusive. On May 1, Sadık Bey had gone into exile to Selanik after the cabinet took a vote of no confidence in him. At the bSelanik after the cabinet took a vote of no confidence in him. At the be-e-ginning of May, the newspapers in Selanik and Manastir published ginning of May, the newspapers in Selanik and Manastir published propaganda against the Cpropaganda against the CUP’s liberal wing, including Cavid Bey and UP’s liberal wing, including Cavid Bey and Hüseyin Cahit Bey. As will be mentioned below, Cavid Bey would face Hüseyin Cahit Bey. As will be mentioned below, Cavid Bey would face challenging times during the 1912 campaign due to the propaganda challenging times during the 1912 campaign due to the propaganda

492 Özyüksel, Özyüksel, The BerliThe Berlinn--Baghdad Railway and the Ottoman EmpireBaghdad Railway and the Ottoman Empire, 123, 123--29; and Tunaya, 29; and Tunaya, İttihat ve Terakki, Bir İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir KÇağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir uşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi, 3,Partinin Tarihi, 3, 434434--42.42.

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against him. It is worth mentioning that this kind of propaganda was

against him. It is worth mentioning that this kind of propaganda was effective aeffective among the conservative social strata of the Selanik province mong the conservative social strata of the Selanik province outside the cosmopolitan city center. outside the cosmopolitan city center.

In light of

In light of these developments, on May 8, 1911, Cavid Bey resigned these developments, on May 8, 1911, Cavid Bey resigned from his position and asked parliament for permission to leave for rest from his position and asked parliament for permission to leave for rest and medical treatand medical treatment.ment.493 Along with him, Babanzade İsmail Hakkı Bey Along with him, Babanzade İsmail Hakkı Bey also resigned from his position as Minister of Education. Nail Bey ralso resigned from his position as Minister of Education. Nail Bey re-e-placed Cavid Bey as the Minister of Finance. Talat Bey resigned from placed Cavid Bey as the Minister of Finance. Talat Bey resigned from presidency of the party and was replaced by Seyyit Bey, a moderate fpresidency of the party and was replaced by Seyyit Bey, a moderate fiig-g-ure on the Committee. In August 1911, Rifat Pasha, the Minister of Foure on the Committee. In August 1911, Rifat Pasha, the Minister of For-r-eign Affairs and MP for Istanbul, was appointed as the ambassador of eign Affairs and MP for Istanbul, was appointed as the ambassador of the Ottoman Empire to Paris. This assignment shifted the balance in the the Ottoman Empire to Paris. This assignment shifted the balance in the cabinet against the Unionists. This situaticabinet against the Unionists. This situation caused the CUP to lose on caused the CUP to lose power in domestic politics and put the CUP in a dire position. But now, power in domestic politics and put the CUP in a dire position. But now, losing power along with the resignation of itslosing power along with the resignation of its members. members. Mahmut Şevket Mahmut Şevket Pasha played a direct role in the rise of the opposition, according to Pasha played a direct role in the rise of the opposition, according to some historians, some historians, such as Sina Akşin, as he ignored the dissidents, espsuch as Sina Akşin, as he ignored the dissidents, espe-e-cially those in the army such as Colonel Sadık Bey. Mahmut Şevket Pcially those in the army such as Colonel Sadık Bey. Mahmut Şevket Pa-a-sha’s power became absolute aftesha’s power became absolute after the March 31 Incident as he became r the March 31 Incident as he became commander of the First, Second, and Third Armies. Moreover, as of commander of the First, Second, and Third Armies. Moreover, as of 1909, insurgences in Albania, Syria (Havran), and Yemen (Asir) made it 1909, insurgences in Albania, Syria (Havran), and Yemen (Asir) made it difficult to question the position of the army within the empire accordifficult to question the position of the army within the empire accord-d-ing to its ing to its budget, needs, and decisions. On the other hand, Cavid Bey was budget, needs, and decisions. On the other hand, Cavid Bey was challenged by Mahmut Şevket Pasha more than once, and in return, challenged by Mahmut Şevket Pasha more than once, and in return, Cavid Bey threatened to resign from the cabinet. In 1910, the newspCavid Bey threatened to resign from the cabinet. In 1910, the newspa-a-pers had covered the conflict. Even in 1911, due to the Accpers had covered the conflict. Even in 1911, due to the Accounting Law, ounting Law, the conflict between the two was ongoing. According to Akşin, it is pothe conflict between the two was ongoing. According to Akşin, it is pos-s-sible that the pasha used the New Party sible that the pasha used the New Party toto take revenge on Cavid Bey.take revenge on Cavid Bey.494

After his resignation, Cavid Bey worked as a deputy in Selanik and a

After his resignation, Cavid Bey worked as a deputy in Selanik and a professor at the Facultprofessor at the Faculty of Poliy of Political Sciences. Based on his journals, his tical Sciences. Based on his journals, his financial situation was quite bad. However, the propaganda campaign financial situation was quite bad. However, the propaganda campaign

493 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, DevrDevree:: 11, İç, İçtima Senesi: 3, tima Senesi: 3, Cilt:Cilt: 4, 3 May4, 3 Mayısıs 1911 (13 May 1911), 438. 1911 (13 May 1911), 438.

494 AAkşin, kşin, Jön Türkler ve İJön Türkler ve İtttihat ve Terakkitihat ve Terakki, 286 , 286 –– 287. 287.

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against him claimed that he was a rich (and corrupt) man. It was at this

against him claimed that he was a rich (and corrupt) man. It was at this time that Cavid Bey wrote that it was the educated people time that Cavid Bey wrote that it was the educated people —— notnot the fa-the fa-nanatical, religious segments tical, religious segments —— who were keeping the country from awho were keeping the country from ad-d-vancing in the name of freemasonry and Zionism. On May 10, 1911, vancing in the name of freemasonry and Zionism. On May 10, 1911, Cavid Bey went to the palace, and the sultan told him again that there Cavid Bey went to the palace, and the sultan told him again that there was no one else who could do his job. Mehmed Rewas no one else who could do his job. Mehmed Reşat invitşat invited Cavid Bey ed Cavid Bey to travel with him to Selanik.to travel with him to Selanik.495 His journal entry dated Friday, May 12, His journal entry dated Friday, May 12, 1911 contains Cavid Bey’s comments about what people were saying 1911 contains Cavid Bey’s comments about what people were saying concerning his resignation. In his entry, he wrote that within the course concerning his resignation. In his entry, he wrote that within the course of one week, of one week, TaninTanin, , SabSabahah, , StanboulStanboul, , Jeune TurcJeune Turc, and , and Osmanischer LloydOsmanischer Lloyd had all published wonderful articles about him. During that time, he rhad all published wonderful articles about him. During that time, he re-e-ceived a telegraph from a meeting held in ceived a telegraph from a meeting held in İzmirİzmir with 10,000 people, with 10,000 people, which made him happy. German, Austrian and even French newspapers which made him happy. German, Austrian and even French newspapers pubpublished positive articles about him, too. In terms of his resignation, lished positive articles about him, too. In terms of his resignation, the papers of the opposition had reacted variously: the papers of the opposition had reacted variously: Yeni GazeteYeni Gazete was was calm, calm, İkdamİkdam was aggressive, and was aggressive, and SabahSabah was untrustworthy. Moreover, was untrustworthy. Moreover, the officers in the ministry expressed their grief the officers in the ministry expressed their grief regarding Cavid Bey’s regarding Cavid Bey’s resignation. Supporters of Sadık Bey still claimed that Cavid Bey was resignation. Supporters of Sadık Bey still claimed that Cavid Bey was extremely rich. In response to this, Cavid Bey wroteextremely rich. In response to this, Cavid Bey wrote, “, “Corruption is so Corruption is so widespread in these lands, one cannot even envision an honest pewidespread in these lands, one cannot even envision an honest perrson.”son.” Following his time inFollowing his time in Selanik, Cavid Bey went to Büyükada, where he Selanik, Cavid Bey went to Büyükada, where he spent his summer holidays and stayed for a while. After two years of spent his summer holidays and stayed for a while. After two years of hard work, he felt worn out.hard work, he felt worn out. During this period, the dispute between the During this period, the dispute between the newspapers newspapers Tanzimat Tanzimat and and Tanin Tanin ended in an unpleasant decisionended in an unpleasant decision, as, as MMahmut Şevket Pasha ordered the newspapers shut down. ahmut Şevket Pasha ordered the newspapers shut down. TaninTanin was was then published under a new name, then published under a new name, CeninCenin, and the new license was e, and the new license was ex-x-tended to Cavid Bey. On May 21, the parliamentary term ended after a tended to Cavid Bey. On May 21, the parliamentary term ended after a long meeting in Cavid Bey’s absence. When Cavid Bey returlong meeting in Cavid Bey’s absence. When Cavid Bey returnned to Ied to Isstan-tan-bul from Büyükada, he met with his acquaintances from political and bul from Büyükada, he met with his acquaintances from political and economic circles. He met with Monsieur Schwabach, the General Maeconomic circles. He met with Monsieur Schwabach, the General Man-n-ager of Bleichroeder Bank, to discuss why France had not given a loan to ager of Bleichroeder Bank, to discuss why France had not given a loan to

495 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, 138., 138.

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the Ottoman Empire in 1910. As Cavid B

the Ottoman Empire in 1910. As Cavid Beey pointed out, even though the y pointed out, even though the French denied the loan for financial reasons, it was known by evFrench denied the loan for financial reasons, it was known by eveerybody rybody that politics and finance were intertwined. He also met Mothat politics and finance were intertwined. He also met Monnsieur sieur Bompard, who stated that the common belief in France was that the Ot-Bompard, who stated that the common belief in France was that the Ot-toman Empire did whtoman Empire did whaatever Germany asked them to do. He added that tever Germany asked them to do. He added that France saw Sadık Bey and his followers as a fundamentalist movFrance saw Sadık Bey and his followers as a fundamentalist moveement ment and asked and asked whetherwhether the CUP was going to oppose them. Bompard went the CUP was going to oppose them. Bompard went on to say that the Ottoman military was also a source of concern for on to say that the Ottoman military was also a source of concern for the the FreFrennch.ch.496

§ 3.3 The Summer of 1911: Two Journeys in Opposite DireThe Summer of 1911: Two Journeys in Opposite Direc-c-tionstions

After his resignation, Cavid Bey went on two trips during the summer of

After his resignation, Cavid Bey went on two trips during the summer of 1911. First, he joined the imperial visit to Macedonia. Second, he visited 1911. First, he joined the imperial visit to Macedonia. Second, he visited the Eastern Provinces along with a couplthe Eastern Provinces along with a couple of Une of Uniionists and a journalist onists and a journalist from from TaninTanin. Both were part of the party’s political moves to increase sol-. Both were part of the party’s political moves to increase sol-idarity in these two regions, which had been mired in turmoil as men-idarity in these two regions, which had been mired in turmoil as men-tioned above. Though Cavid Bey’s diaries provide us with insight into tioned above. Though Cavid Bey’s diaries provide us with insight into the former trthe former trip, we ip, we hhave little information about the latter trip, aave little information about the latter trip, allthough though we do know that he set off for the Eastern Provinces at the end of June. we do know that he set off for the Eastern Provinces at the end of June. Thus, we do not have enough information to determine what he thought Thus, we do not have enough information to determine what he thought about the most backward part of the country in termabout the most backward part of the country in terms of des of devveellopment opment and education, as well as about the Muslim communities there. and education, as well as about the Muslim communities there.

The situation in Macedonia on the eve of the Balkan Wars (1912

The situation in Macedonia on the eve of the Balkan Wars (1912––1913) was precarious and dangerous due to the insurgencies that b1913) was precarious and dangerous due to the insurgencies that beegan gan in Albania in 1909. Though the Ottoman armyin Albania in 1909. Though the Ottoman army had tahad takken harsh en harsh measures to control the area, a new rebellion flared up in 1911 in dimeasures to control the area, a new rebellion flared up in 1911 in dif-f-ferent parts of Albania. The CUP was also deeply worried about the sit-ferent parts of Albania. The CUP was also deeply worried about the sit-uation in Macedonia, hence the imperial visit. The plan was to auation in Macedonia, hence the imperial visit. The plan was to arrrange range for the sultan to take toursfor the sultan to take tours of theof the different provinces. Though these different provinces. Though these

496 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, 141 , 141 -- 150.150.

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kinds of tours were not a part of the Ottoman monarchic trad

kinds of tours were not a part of the Ottoman monarchic tradiition, Sul-tion, Sul-tan Mehmet tan Mehmet Reşat had already taken two official trips to Bursa and Reşat had already taken two official trips to Bursa and Edirne, both former capitals of the Ottoman Empire. The expedition to Edirne, both former capitals of the Ottoman Empire. The expedition to MacedonMacedonia ia —— which included Selanik, Üsküp, and Manastır which included Selanik, Üsküp, and Manastır —— was me-was me-ticulously planned by both the government and the palace. For thisticulously planned by both the government and the palace. For this rea-rea-son, its leaders participated in the journey, including Talat Bey, Ömer son, its leaders participated in the journey, including Talat Bey, Ömer Naci, Haci Adil, Rahmi Bey, and Cavid Bey. The sultan’s imperial flotilla Naci, Haci Adil, Rahmi Bey, and Cavid Bey. The sultan’s imperial flotilla left Istanbul on June 4, 1911.left Istanbul on June 4, 1911.497 Cavid Bey was also in the ship with Sul-Cavid Bey was also in the ship with Sul-tan Mehmed Reşat, his sons, and thetan Mehmed Reşat, his sons, and the ministers of Interior Aministers of Interior Afffairs and fairs and Education. It was an exciting event for each party. As ZürcherEducation. It was an exciting event for each party. As Zürcher states, this states, this tour served four political purposes: to cement ties with the Albanian tour served four political purposes: to cement ties with the Albanian Muslim population, wMuslim population, whhich was regarded by the CUP as a crucial factor in ich was regarded by the CUP as a crucial factor in retretaiainning its hold over the area; to strengthen the policy of the Unity of ing its hold over the area; to strengthen the policy of the Unity of ElEleements of Ottomanism (İttihadments of Ottomanism (İttihad--i Anasir); to strengthen the political i Anasir); to strengthen the political posposiition of the CUP, which had been losing public support and political tion of the CUP, which had been losing public support and political power over the past year; and lastly, to strengthen Ottoman national power over the past year; and lastly, to strengthen Ottoman national consciousness through historically significant consciousness through historically significant symbols that were rsymbols that were re-e-ferred to during the visit.ferred to during the visit.498 However, the imperial visit to Macedonia However, the imperial visit to Macedonia failed to meet most of its objectives. failed to meet most of its objectives.

That summer, Cavid Bey’s schedule in Selanik was also quite busy.

That summer, Cavid Bey’s schedule in Selanik was also quite busy. Cavid Bey gave a speech in the public gardens of Beşçınar Cavid Bey gave a speech in the public gardens of Beşçınar —— which awhich at-t-tracted a large crowd (10,000 people according to the Unionist newtracted a large crowd (10,000 people according to the Unionist newsspa-pa-pers) pers) —— in which he called for unity between the communities and in which he called for unity between the communities and praised the CUP. Cavid Bey also attended the ceremony held for the praised the CUP. Cavid Bey also attended the ceremony held for the opening of the girls’opening of the girls’ section of section of Fevziye SchoolFevziye School, where he was the director , where he was the director between 1902 and 1910. Cavid Bey briefly left the imperial visit to rbetween 1902 and 1910. Cavid Bey briefly left the imperial visit to re-e-turn to Istanbul, turn to Istanbul, toto resume his business meetings. Afterwards, he re-resume his business meetings. Afterwards, he re-

497 According to Cavid Bey’s diAccording to Cavid Bey’s diaarry, they, they departed on June 4, but according to Erik J. y departed on June 4, but according to Erik J. Zürcher’s article, they deparZürcher’s article, they departed on Jted on Juune 5. I have taken the date as given in Cavid Bey’s ne 5. I have taken the date as given in Cavid Bey’s diary. diary. EErrik Jan Zürcher, "Sultan Mehmet V's Visit to Kosovo in June 1911," in ik Jan Zürcher, "Sultan Mehmet V's Visit to Kosovo in June 1911," in The Young The Young Turk LTurk Legacy and thegacy and the National Awakening: from the Ottoman Empire to Atatürk's Turkey,e National Awakening: from the Ottoman Empire to Atatürk's Turkey, eed. Erid. Erik Jan Zürcher, k Jan Zürcher, (London: I.B. Tauris, 2010), 86.(London: I.B. Tauris, 2010), 86.

498 IbidIbid? ? Zürcher, "Sultan MeZürcher, "Sultan Mehmet V’shmet V’s Visit to Kosovo in June 1911," 85Visit to Kosovo in June 1911," 85--6, 926, 92--3.3.

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turned to Selanik for the final leg of the imperial visit. He met the direc-

turned to Selanik for the final leg of the imperial visit. He met the direc-tor oftor of DeutscheDeutsche Bank, Mr. Helfferich in Istanbul, and they contiBank, Mr. Helfferich in Istanbul, and they continnued dis-ued dis-cussing the Frenchcussing the French--German dispute regarding the railways. HelGerman dispute regarding the railways. Helffferich ferich expressed the opinion that the negotiations between the two countries expressed the opinion that the negotiations between the two countries about the railways, loans, and the ports would neveabout the railways, loans, and the ports would never come tor come to an agreea-an agreea-ble end.ble end.499 Helfferich’s statements during this meeting are iHelfferich’s statements during this meeting are inndicative of dicative of the heightened tension between Germany and France over their inter-the heightened tension between Germany and France over their inter-ests in the Ottoman Empire. Cavid Bey returned to Istanbul with the ests in the Ottoman Empire. Cavid Bey returned to Istanbul with the members of the Central Committemembers of the Central Committee on Junee on June 30. He had a week 30. He had a week aheadahead to to prepare for his second trip. During this week, he met Aram Efendi, a prepare for his second trip. During this week, he met Aram Efendi, a former manager of former manager of BaghdadBaghdad Foreign Affairs (Foreign Affairs (BaghdadBaghdad UmûrUmûr--ı Ecnebiy-ı Ecnebiy-ye) who was also very close to Nazım Pasha. This meeting was featured ye) who was also very close to Nazım Pasha. This meeting was featured in the newspapein the newspapers with ars with a note that the Unionists’ approach was not note that the Unionists’ approach was not wellwell--received by Nazım Pasha. According to Cavid Bey, Nazım Pasha was received by Nazım Pasha. According to Cavid Bey, Nazım Pasha was trying to take advantage of the dispute between the Commitrying to take advantage of the dispute between the Committtee and tee and Mahmut Şevket Pasha, in order to get closer to the CUP. AccorMahmut Şevket Pasha, in order to get closer to the CUP. Accordding toing to Cavid BeCavid Bey, Nazım Pasha was willing to be grand vizier or minister of war y, Nazım Pasha was willing to be grand vizier or minister of war in a Unionist cabinet. Cavid Bey also met with M. Bompard and M. Re-in a Unionist cabinet. Cavid Bey also met with M. Bompard and M. Re-voil, who complained that the Germans were held in higher evoil, who complained that the Germans were held in higher essteem than teem than the French. He also met with Grand Vizier Hakthe French. He also met with Grand Vizier Hakkı Pasha kı Pasha to conveyto convey a mes-a mes-sage from the French representatives. The government decided to sage from the French representatives. The government decided to award the concessions of the Samsun and Trabzon ports to the British, award the concessions of the Samsun and Trabzon ports to the British, although based on the terms agreed upon in previous negalthough based on the terms agreed upon in previous negootiations, the tiations, the construction of the railroadconstruction of the railroads and thes and the ports should be given to the ports should be given to the French.French. This arrangement would be best for Cavid Bey.This arrangement would be best for Cavid Bey.500 The policy The policy was obvious: whoever builds the railways also builds the ports. was obvious: whoever builds the railways also builds the ports.

On July 8, 1911, Cavid Bey departed for the Eastern Provinces. As

On July 8, 1911, Cavid Bey departed for the Eastern Provinces. As mentioned almentioned already, ready, hhis diary is diary does not include details of this trip. We do does not include details of this trip. We do know that he visited the Black Sea coast, Erzurum, and Van. On Septeknow that he visited the Black Sea coast, Erzurum, and Van. On Septem-m-ber 7, 1911, he returned from the trip earlier than expected due to a ber 7, 1911, he returned from the trip earlier than expected due to a cholera epidemic. Like the imperial visit, this trip had been cholera epidemic. Like the imperial visit, this trip had been pplanned inlanned in

499 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 15, 1522--53.53.

500 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 154154--55.55.

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order to strengthen the CUP’s position in the Eastern Provinces. This

order to strengthen the CUP’s position in the Eastern Provinces. This was seen as a way to invest in the campaign for the upcoming elections. was seen as a way to invest in the campaign for the upcoming elections. As Erzurum MP Şahin Efendi would state during the budget talks of As Erzurum MP Şahin Efendi would state during the budget talks of 1912, during his trip Cavid Bey was a1912, during his trip Cavid Bey was abble to witle to witness the low quality of ness the low quality of life in these areas in terms of lack of infrastructure. The road between life in these areas in terms of lack of infrastructure. The road between Erzurum and Van known as Erzurum and Van known as the “Blade Breach” (the “Blade Breach” (Kılıç GediğiKılıç Gediği) was diff) was diffi-i-cult to travel.cult to travel.501 This was important for Cavid Bey to see as he would This was important for Cavid Bey to see as he would soon becomesoon become the Ministthe Minister of Public Works. er of Public Works.

While Cavid Bey was in the Eastern Provinces, tensions were high in

While Cavid Bey was in the Eastern Provinces, tensions were high in the political sphere in Istanbul. On July 10, the political sphere in Istanbul. On July 10, 1911,1911, Zeki Bey, a journalist Zeki Bey, a journalist working at a monarchist paper called working at a monarchist paper called ŞehrahŞehrah, was killed on his way , was killed on his way home. The murdehome. The murderrer was a er was a CUP member and was arrested after the iCUP member and was arrested after the in-n-cident. This made things worse for the Unionists. Furthermore, the Acident. This made things worse for the Unionists. Furthermore, the Ar-r-menian MPs were uneasy about the CUP’s policies and the Chester prmenian MPs were uneasy about the CUP’s policies and the Chester pro-o-ject, which had led to an increase in attacks levied by the Kurdish ject, which had led to an increase in attacks levied by the Kurdish bebeyyss againstagainst the the Armenian people in the region. Though the grand vizier was Armenian people in the region. Though the grand vizier was careful to select an Armenian minister in the cabinet, these develocareful to select an Armenian minister in the cabinet, these develop-p-ments caused the Armenian deputies to drift apart from the goverments caused the Armenian deputies to drift apart from the govern-n-ment.ment.502

Additionally, on July 29, Britain finally

Additionally, on July 29, Britain finally ssubmitted ubmitted its proposals to its proposals to Tevfik Pasha regarding the shares of the new railway company in the Tevfik Pasha regarding the shares of the new railway company in the route between Basra and Shatt al Arab; the British position in the Peroute between Basra and Shatt al Arab; the British position in the Per-r-sian Gulf region, particularly in Kuwait; and authorizsian Gulf region, particularly in Kuwait; and authorizaation for Egypt to tion for Egypt to obtain loans indepobtain loans indepeendently. ndently. According to Tevfik Pasha, Britain’s rAccording to Tevfik Pasha, Britain’s re-e-quests were much more onerous than he had been expecting.quests were much more onerous than he had been expecting.503 The OThe Ot-t-toman response was submitted on April 16, 1912. The whole process toman response was submitted on April 16, 1912. The whole process proceeded very slowly.proceeded very slowly.

Cavid Bey return

Cavid Bey returneded from his travel to the Eastern pfrom his travel to the Eastern prorovinces atvinces at the the bbeeginning of September 1911. In September, the hottest issue in the ginning of September 1911. In September, the hottest issue in the capcapiital city is the tal city is the TrablusgarpTrablusgarp issue, whether the Italians would attack issue, whether the Italians would attack

501 MMMM Zabıt Ceridesi, Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 2Devre: 2, , Cilt:Cilt:1, 19 1, 19 HaziranHaziran 1328 (18 June 1912), 616. 1328 (18 June 1912), 616.

502 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 236, 236--3838--39.39.

503 Özyüksel, Özyüksel, The BerlThe Berliinn--BaghBaghddad Raiad Railway and the Ottoman Empirelway and the Ottoman Empire, 138, 138--40.40.

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the region or not.

the region or not. On September 23, 1911, Cavid Bey came across MOn September 23, 1911, Cavid Bey came across Mrr. . HHuuguenin, General Manager of thguenin, General Manager of the e BBaghdad Raghdad Railwayailway, at the office of the , at the office of the Minister of Public Works. He deduced from his words on the Minister of Public Works. He deduced from his words on the Tra-Tra-blublussgarpgarp issue that the situation was worsening. The interesting thing issue that the situation was worsening. The interesting thing to note here is that he learned this from M. Huguenin instead of hearing to note here is that he learned this from M. Huguenin instead of hearing it from tit from thehe CUP admiCUP administrators with whom he was always in contact. nistrators with whom he was always in contact. The same day he also met with German Ambassador Baron von Mar-The same day he also met with German Ambassador Baron von Mar-schall. The latter criticized the Ottoman Empire’s political stance re-schall. The latter criticized the Ottoman Empire’s political stance re-garding garding TrablusgarpTrablusgarp and explained how economic privileges should beand explained how economic privileges should be ggrranted. Ianted. In short, much to the chagrin of the Unionists, they could not n short, much to the chagrin of the Unionists, they could not expect any support from the Germans. He also met the grand vizier expect any support from the Germans. He also met the grand vizier with Hakkı Bey, Talat Bey, and Nesimi Efendi. At this meeting, everyone with Hakkı Bey, Talat Bey, and Nesimi Efendi. At this meeting, everyone in the room understood that the Western statin the room understood that the Western states es were leawere leaving the CUP to ving the CUP to deal with the deal with the TrablusgarpTrablusgarp issue on its own. As the military was in a des-issue on its own. As the military was in a des-peperrate situation, one thing led to another, and the Empire found itself at ate situation, one thing led to another, and the Empire found itself at war.war.504

At the beginning of

At the beginning of OctoberOctober, the ominous hum of the , the ominous hum of the Tripolitanian Tripolitanian WarWar could be could be heard inheard in Istanbul. Cavid Bey met with Hakkı Pasha, the Istanbul. Cavid Bey met with Hakkı Pasha, the former ambassador to Rome, about the situation at that time. The grand former ambassador to Rome, about the situation at that time. The grand vizier wished to broker conciliatory solutions to maintain the peace. vizier wished to broker conciliatory solutions to maintain the peace. Cavid Bey thought that losing Cavid Bey thought that losing TrablusgarpTrablusgarp would lead to the would lead to the loss of loss of oth-oth-er parts of the empireer parts of the empire as well. Similarly, on October 14, 1911, Cavid Bey as well. Similarly, on October 14, 1911, Cavid Bey talked to then Minister of Education Abdurrahman Bey, who sutalked to then Minister of Education Abdurrahman Bey, who suppported ported peace, and told him how the loss of peace, and told him how the loss of TrablusgarpTrablusgarp would be as uwould be as unnfortu-fortu-nate as the loss of Rumelia. He furnate as the loss of Rumelia. He furtther asseher asserted how he believed that the rted how he believed that the Balkan issue could be resolved through military force.Balkan issue could be resolved through military force.505 The main The main question that preoccupied both Cavid Bey and the CUP was how to pro-question that preoccupied both Cavid Bey and the CUP was how to pro-tect the other regions of the empire if tect the other regions of the empire if TrablusgarpTrablusgarp would fall. Cavid Bey would fall. Cavid Bey lamented thlamented thee fact thfact that he was always the one blamed for conflicts, even at he was always the one blamed for conflicts, even

504 Cavid BeCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet y, Meşrutiyet RuznâmesRuznâmesii II, 1, 159 59 –– 60. 60.

505 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 154.154.

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though the CUP was the party that dealt with the military and f

though the CUP was the party that dealt with the military and fiinancial nancial burdens of the war.burdens of the war.506

§ 3.4 The The Tripolitanian WarTripolitanian War

Cavid Bey supported the Ottoman forces in fighting against the Italians

Cavid Bey supported the Ottoman forces in fighting against the Italians from thefrom the beginninbeginning as he believed that the loss of g as he believed that the loss of TrablusgarpTrablusgarp may lead may lead to the loss of other regions, first and foremost the Balkans. Libya was to the loss of other regions, first and foremost the Balkans. Libya was the Ottoman Empire’s last remaining territory in Africa the Ottoman Empire’s last remaining territory in Africa whenwhen the the Tripo-Tripo-litanian Warlitanian War in 1911in 1911––19121912 brokbroke oute out. Apart f. Apart from itsrom its loss, tloss, the war itself he war itself held great significance for the Ottoman Empire. The war did not come held great significance for the Ottoman Empire. The war did not come as a surprise to the politicians: Italy’s ambitions in North Aas a surprise to the politicians: Italy’s ambitions in North Affrica and in-rica and in-vestments in the region had shown the country’s intentions long beforevestments in the region had shown the country’s intentions long before. . The war had The war had farfar--reareaching coching consequences not only for the Ottomans but nsequences not only for the Ottomans but also for the future of Europe.also for the future of Europe.507 In terms of the Ottoman Empire, the In terms of the Ottoman Empire, the Italian invasion of Trablusgarp triggered other conflicts in other parts of Italian invasion of Trablusgarp triggered other conflicts in other parts of the Empire, namely, the Balkans.the Empire, namely, the Balkans.

Since th

Since the 1909 Raccogne 1909 Raccogngi Agregi Agreement beement between Russia and Italy, Itween Russia and Italy, Ittaly aly had pursued its plan to invade Trablusgarp. The Banco di Roma bhad pursued its plan to invade Trablusgarp. The Banco di Roma beegan gan making considerable investments in Libya such as railways, shimaking considerable investments in Libya such as railways, shippping, ping, port development, and agricultural modernization.port development, and agricultural modernization.508 Britain, Britain, France, France, and Ruand Russsia, tsia, the powerhe powers of the Entente rather than Italy’s allies within s of the Entente rather than Italy’s allies within the Triple Alliance, encouraged Rome to take action on Trabluthe Triple Alliance, encouraged Rome to take action on Trablussgarp.garp.509 The ItaThe Itallian government was convinced that it was the right time for an ian government was convinced that it was the right time for an onslaught on Trablusgarp. onslaught on Trablusgarp. On On SeptembSeptember 29, the ulter 29, the ultiimatum matum that Itathat Italy ly had delivered to the Ottoman government ehad delivered to the Ottoman government exxpired. Italian troops and pired. Italian troops and

506 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I,, 163 163 -- 66.66.

507 ChristopChristopher M. Clarkher M. Clark, , TThehe Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914,Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914, (London: (London: Allen LAllen Lane, 2020), 242ane, 2020), 242--51.51.

508 R. Bosworth, R. Bosworth, J.J., "Ita, "Itally and y and the End of ththe End of thee Ottoman Empire," in TOttoman Empire," in The Great Powers and the he Great Powers and the End of the OttomanEnd of the Ottoman EmpireEmpire, ed., ed. Marian Kent (London: Frank Cass, 2005), 55Marian Kent (London: Frank Cass, 2005), 55--56.56.

509 Clark, Clark, The SleThe Sleepepwalkerwalkerss: How : How Europe Went to War in 1914Europe Went to War in 1914, 245; and Armaoğlu, , 245; and Armaoğlu, Siyasi Siyasi Tarih, 1789Tarih, 1789--19141914, 611, 1, 611, 122, and 17., and 17.

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ships were already sailing toward the Libyan coast.

ships were already sailing toward the Libyan coast.510 The Unionists The Unionists understood that the Ottoman government was alone. Aunderstood that the Ottoman government was alone. Allthough Italy was though Italy was a formal ally in thea formal ally in the Triple AllianTriple Alliance, Berce, Berlin’s eflin’s efforts would be inadforts would be inadeequate quate to help the Ottoman government.to help the Ottoman government.511

According to Halit Ziya

According to Halit Ziya,, chief secretary to the sultan, the night of the chief secretary to the sultan, the night of the invasion was unforgettable.invasion was unforgettable.512 Hakkı Pasha had sent a message to Halit Hakkı Pasha had sent a message to Halit Ziya to approach the sulZiya to approach the sultan before he wtan before he went to sleep. Halit Ziya stated ent to sleep. Halit Ziya stated that Hakkı Pasha was no longer optimistic and that he that Hakkı Pasha was no longer optimistic and that he hadhad run out ofrun out of options in asking for help. Hakkı Pasha’s plan was simple: he had aoptions in asking for help. Hakkı Pasha’s plan was simple: he had al-l-ready aready asked Saisked Saitt Pasha to come to the palace to consult him. Everybody Pasha to come to the palace to consult him. Everybody was aware that it was impossible to win the war; moreover, the war was aware that it was impossible to win the war; moreover, the war could spread to other regions. With the help of tcould spread to other regions. With the help of the sultan, the plan prhe sultan, the plan pro-o-ceeded as follows: Hakkı Pasha resigned, and Saiceeded as follows: Hakkı Pasha resigned, and Saitt PasPasha became grand ha became grand vizier after the outbreak of the Italian War on September 29, 1911.vizier after the outbreak of the Italian War on September 29, 1911.513 The Ottoman government responded to the ultimatum on the same day, The Ottoman government responded to the ultimatum on the same day, informing Italy that it woulinforming Italy that it would not accept such an invasion but would tod not accept such an invasion but would tol-l-erate Italy’s economic facilitieserate Italy’s economic facilities in in TrablusgarpTrablusgarp. The Ottoman Empire’s . The Ottoman Empire’s military was weak due to the insurrections in Albania, Macedonia, and military was weak due to the insurrections in Albania, Macedonia, and some of the Arab provinces. When the war began, there were only a few some of the Arab provinces. When the war began, there were only a few ththousand soldiers in ousand soldiers in TrablusgarpTrablusgarp. It was also not possible to send more . It was also not possible to send more troopstroops to to TrablusgarpTrablusgarp after the war broke out due to the Italian navy after the war broke out due to the Italian navy presence in the Aegean Sea. The presence in the Aegean Sea. The routeroute between the Empire and Libya between the Empire and Libya was also closed because Britain had declared Egwas also closed because Britain had declared Egypt’s neutrality. Italy ypt’s neutrality. Italy thought that the war would not take too long, thought that the war would not take too long, but thisbut this is not how it is not how it panned out. The Italians could not proceed inland, and the Turks could panned out. The Italians could not proceed inland, and the Turks could not clear the Italians out of the coastal region. The Ottoman Empire sent not clear the Italians out of the coastal region. The Ottoman Empire sent its leading militaits leading military staff ry staff —— the likes of which included Mustafa Kemal, the likes of which included Mustafa Kemal, Enver, and Ali FEnver, and Ali Fethi Beyethi Bey —— to to TrablusgarpTrablusgarp to engage in guerrilla wato engage in guerrilla warrfare fare

510 BBoswortosworthh, "Ita, "Italy and the End of the Ottoman Empire," 56.ly and the End of the Ottoman Empire," 56.

511 Ulrich Trumpeter, "Germany and the EUlrich Trumpeter, "Germany and the Endnd of thof thee OttomOttoman Empire," in an Empire," in The Great Powers The Great Powers and the End of the Ottoman Empire (2016)and the End of the Ottoman Empire (2016), 128, 128--229.9.

512 UşakUşaklıgil, lıgil, Saray ve ÖtesiSaray ve Ötesi, 510 , 510 –– 515. 515.

513 Tunaya, Tunaya, İttihat ve Terakki, İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir KuşağBir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partininın, Bir Partinin TarihiTarihi, 3, 3, , 121.121.

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with the local tribes.

with the local tribes.514 EnverEnver BeyBey immediately left Berlin, where he had immediately left Berlin, where he had been a military attaché since 1909, to organize resistancbeen a military attaché since 1909, to organize resistance in Libya.e in Libya.515

As mentioned above, Cavid Bey supported, at least publicl

As mentioned above, Cavid Bey supported, at least publicly, the Oy, the Ot-t-toman Empire entering the war against the Italians. On October 29, toman Empire entering the war against the Italians. On October 29, 1911, Cavid Bey sent a letter to Winston Churchill, First Lord of Adm1911, Cavid Bey sent a letter to Winston Churchill, First Lord of Admi-i-ralty, whom he had met in London in 1910ralty, whom he had met in London in 1910. . Halide HanHalide Hanıım (Edip Adıvar) m (Edip Adıvar) translated the letter into English.translated the letter into English.516 His His letter emphasized the necessity letter emphasized the necessity of cooperation between the two countries in the war and was meant to of cooperation between the two countries in the war and was meant to strengthen relations between the Ottoman Empire and Britainstrengthen relations between the Ottoman Empire and Britain. The le. The let-t-ter coincided with the memorater coincided with the memorandum of Tevfik Pasha, Ottoman ambandum of Tevfik Pasha, Ottoman ambas-s-sador to London, to asksador to London, to ask for British support in the war on the side of the for British support in the war on the side of the Ottoman Empire. The memorandum proposed economic concessions to Ottoman Empire. The memorandum proposed economic concessions to Italy, which would be approved by the British, in return for the OttItaly, which would be approved by the British, in return for the Otto-o-mans’ territormans’ territorial sovereignty in ial sovereignty in TrablusgarpTrablusgarp. While Cavid Bey’s letter t. While Cavid Bey’s letter to o Churchill was sent on behalf of him and, implicitly, the CUP, the note of Churchill was sent on behalf of him and, implicitly, the CUP, the note of the Sublime Porte and Cavid Bey’s letter overlapped.the Sublime Porte and Cavid Bey’s letter overlapped.517 Churchill’s rChurchill’s re-e-sponse to this letter was mentioned in a note in Cavidsponse to this letter was mentioned in a note in Cavid Bey’s journal on Bey’s journal on Saturday, November 25, 1911. Churchill pSaturday, November 25, 1911. Churchill politely turned down the offer olitely turned down the offer and emphasized that Britain would maintain its neutral position in the and emphasized that Britain would maintain its neutral position in the war. Cavid Bey did not reply to this letter and went on to the next iwar. Cavid Bey did not reply to this letter and went on to the next is-s-sue.sue.518

Meanwhile, the outbr

Meanwhile, the outbreak of the war in eak of the war in TrablusgarpTrablusgarp rescued the CUP rescued the CUP from its shafrom its shaky political position. If not for the war, the CUP could have ky political position. If not for the war, the CUP could have

514 Armaoğlu, Armaoğlu, Siyasi TSiyasi Tarih, 1789arih, 1789--19141914, 622., 622.

515 KieKieser, ser, Talaat Pasha: Father of MTalaat Pasha: Father of Modern Turkey, Architect of Genocideodern Turkey, Architect of Genocide, 112., 112. It is It is worth worth mentioning that the Tripolitanian War had mentioning that the Tripolitanian War had brought about a novelty in the fieldbrought about a novelty in the field of milof mili-i-tary:tary: this was the first war to see aerial bombardments. The military searchlight wathis was the first war to see aerial bombardments. The military searchlight was s not a completely new piece onot a completely new piece of technology. Nonetheless, it was a highf technology. Nonetheless, it was a high--ttech weaech weappon thaon that t figured prominently in contemporary accofigured prominently in contemporary accounts of the Libyan War. Clark, unts of the Libyan War. Clark, The SThe Slleeeep-p-walwalkker: Her: How Europe Went to War in 1914ow Europe Went to War in 1914, 243. , 243.

516 Clark, Clark, The SleeThe Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to Wpwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914ar in 1914, 186., 186.

517 Bayur, Bayur, Türk InTürk Inkilâbı Tarihi, II/Ikilâbı Tarihi, II/I, 177, 78, , 177, 78, 79, and 82.79, and 82.

518 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,znâmesi I, 195.195.

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completely lost power in the face of rising opposition.

completely lost power in the face of rising opposition.519 As mentioned As mentioned above, Saiabove, Saitt Pasha became grand vizier after the outbreak of the waPasha became grand vizier after the outbreak of the war and r and remained in power until July 15, 1912. The Unionistsremained in power until July 15, 1912. The Unionists, who had a Jacobin , who had a Jacobin character, had been trying to oust Saicharacter, had been trying to oust Saitt Pasha since 1908; hoPasha since 1908; howwever, in ever, in 1911, they held tightly onto him like a life buoy as their power was 1911, they held tightly onto him like a life buoy as their power was weakening. In 1910, Cavid Bey and weakening. In 1910, Cavid Bey and TaninTanin publicly pressed Saipublicly pressed Sait t PPaasha sha over his tax obligations. Cavover his tax obligations. Cavid Bey investigated Saiid Bey investigated Saitt Pasha’s tax loan Pasha’s tax loan when he became Minister of Finance in 1910 and accused Saiwhen he became Minister of Finance in 1910 and accused Saitt PPaasha of sha of avoiding paying his public debt. A committee was sent to his mansion avoiding paying his public debt. A committee was sent to his mansion and seized some ofand seized some of his belongings. his belongings. Sait PashaSait Pasha responded to the accusa-responded to the accusa-tions, tions, andand paid his debt.paid his debt.520 At that point, the CUP was not aware that At that point, the CUP was not aware that they would need him, and my best guess is that Cavid Bey could not they would need him, and my best guess is that Cavid Bey could not foresee that he would work with him again in the future. Uforesee that he would work with him again in the future. Unnfortufortunatelnately, y, though, while they tried to carry out the procedurthough, while they tried to carry out the procedures aes acccording to the cording to the principles of equality, accountability, and transparency, the rigid charac-principles of equality, accountability, and transparency, the rigid charac-ter of politics drove them to different positions. ter of politics drove them to different positions.

Following the establishment of the new cabinet, Cavi

Following the establishment of the new cabinet, Cavid Beyd Bey conticontin-n-ued to follow his routine and schedule. Cavid ued to follow his routine and schedule. Cavid Bey met with Mr. Stead, a Bey met with Mr. Stead, a member of the Peace Association, to end the war in member of the Peace Association, to end the war in TrablusgarpTrablusgarp on Oon Oc-c-tober 14, 1911 at the Pera Palace Hotel. Stead, who believed that the tober 14, 1911 at the Pera Palace Hotel. Stead, who believed that the Italians should be forced to go toItalians should be forced to go to the the Permanent Court of Arbitration in Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague, made an The Hague, made an interesting comparison to Cavid Bey. In London, interesting comparison to Cavid Bey. In London, there were rumors about how Cavid Bey and Chancellor of the Exchethere were rumors about how Cavid Bey and Chancellor of the Excheq-q-uer Lloyd George resembled each other in disposition. Nonetheless, uer Lloyd George resembled each other in disposition. Nonetheless, Stead believed thStead believed that that there was a difference: while Cavid Bey always rere was a difference: while Cavid Bey always re-e-spondesponded in a keen and cruel way, Lloyd George preferred gentler ad in a keen and cruel way, Lloyd George preferred gentler an-n-swers. swers. It is possible to gain insight into Cavid Bey’s arrogance and It is possible to gain insight into Cavid Bey’s arrogance and straight style here.straight style here.521

519 AhAhmad, mad, ItItttihat vihat ve Terakki,1908e Terakki,1908--1914 (Jön Türkler)1914 (Jön Türkler), 136., 136.

520 Tunaya, Tunaya, Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terave Terakkki, Biki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir r Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi, Partinin Tarihi, 120120--21.21.

521 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 164164--65.65.

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On October 15, 1911, the parliament began the n

On October 15, 1911, the parliament began the new leew legislative year gislative year with fierce and heated debates. The owith fierce and heated debates. The opposition’s target was the witpposition’s target was the with-h-drawal of the Saidrawal of the Saitt Pasha government. Their aim was to appoint Kamil Pasha government. Their aim was to appoint Kamil Pasha as grand vizier. On the night of October 16, 1911, some of the Ar-Pasha as grand vizier. On the night of October 16, 1911, some of the Ar-menian deputies from the parmenian deputies from the parliameliament nt —— Pastırmacıyan, Varteks, and Pastırmacıyan, Varteks, and Zöhrap Zöhrap —— gathered atgathered at Cavid Bey’s house with Talat, Hakkı and Halil. Cavid Bey’s house with Talat, Hakkı and Halil. Though they discussed politics, the Armenian MPs also made their coThough they discussed politics, the Armenian MPs also made their con-n-cerns known about the CUP’s chauvinist attitudes. The topics discussed cerns known about the CUP’s chauvinist attitudes. The topics discussed during thisduring this meetmeeting woulding would prove meaningful for Turkey in the upcom-prove meaningful for Turkey in the upcom-ing ing yearsyears. . According to the Unionists, the state faced two threats: fun-According to the Unionists, the state faced two threats: fun-ddaamentalism and territorial integrity. As a matter of fact, as of 1911, the mentalism and territorial integrity. As a matter of fact, as of 1911, the Armenian MPs began constituting an alternative group tArmenian MPs began constituting an alternative group thhat wat would gain ould gain strength in 1913 and 1914. After the governmstrength in 1913 and 1914. After the government’s program was read ent’s program was read out in parliament out in parliament on October 18, 1911, the on October 18, 1911, the Tripolitanian WarTripolitanian War became a became a matter of discussion. In his notes, Cavid Bey commented that the pamatter of discussion. In his notes, Cavid Bey commented that the par-r-liament did not have the power or stliament did not have the power or strrengtength to handle this issue. Moreh to handle this issue. Moreo-o-ver, he added that the paver, he added that the parliament did not know what to do about it.rliament did not know what to do about it.522

At a meeting on Wednesday, October 25, 1911, Sai

At a meeting on Wednesday, October 25, 1911, Saitt Pasha declared Pasha declared his prohis pro--peace stance. He was concerned that the war would go on and peace stance. He was concerned that the war would go on and spread to other partspread to other partss of of the Empire. He was also concerned about the the Empire. He was also concerned about the fact that fact that the heirs to the throne now had the upper hand due to the old the heirs to the throne now had the upper hand due to the old age of the sultan. In contrast, Cavid Bey stated that he was confident of age of the sultan. In contrast, Cavid Bey stated that he was confident of victory in a tone mixed with determination, boldness, and delvictory in a tone mixed with determination, boldness, and deluusionsion. He . He declared that the Ottoman Empire’s intentions werdeclared that the Ottoman Empire’s intentions were to establish a goe to establish a gov-v-ernorship in ernorship in TrablusgarpTrablusgarp that was loyal to the sultan. An Ottoman gathat was loyal to the sultan. An Ottoman garrri-ri-son would also accompany the governorship.son would also accompany the governorship.523 For a politician who For a politician who was in charge of economic policies and riwas in charge of economic policies and rissk mak management, the fact that nagement, the fact that his predictions were so wrong his predictions were so wrong indicates that he likely did not follow the indicates that he likely did not follow the local situation closely and thoroughly enough. Kieser claimslocal situation closely and thoroughly enough. Kieser claims thatthat “Ott“Otto-o-man Libya had become an absorbing symbol of Ottoman patriotism and man Libya had become an absorbing symbol of Ottoman patriotism and militant resistmilitant resistaance nce against imperialist Europe. This unfortunately diagainst imperialist Europe. This unfortunately dis-s-

522 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, , 164 164 -- 76.76.

523 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 182.182.

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trac

tracted even bright minds like Cavid’s, not only from the main chated even bright minds like Cavid’s, not only from the main challleng-leng-es and backes and back--breaking work at home but also from fundamental ibreaking work at home but also from fundamental innterro-terro-gations of Ottoman versions of imperialism.”gations of Ottoman versions of imperialism.”524 However, I do notHowever, I do not fullfully y share Kieser’s ideas in terms of Cavid Bey’s stance,share Kieser’s ideas in terms of Cavid Bey’s stance, because first of all, because first of all, as a Unionist, his opinions were mostly parallel with the CUP’s while as a Unionist, his opinions were mostly parallel with the CUP’s while addressing foreign representatives. Whenever he disagreed with his col-addressing foreign representatives. Whenever he disagreed with his col-leagues and grew angry with them, leagues and grew angry with them, hhe wre wrote it down in his diary. In ote it down in his diary. In terms of the terms of the Trablusgarp Trablusgarp issueissue, I assume that Cavid Bey looked at the , I assume that Cavid Bey looked at the picture from the perspective of the entirety of the Empire. He had just picture from the perspective of the entirety of the Empire. He had just recently made two trips to the west and the east, which were the most recently made two trips to the west and the east, which were the most problematiproblematicc regregions during that period. He noticed the fragile and voions during that period. He noticed the fragile and volla-a-tile situation in the region and knew that losing tile situation in the region and knew that losing TrablusgarpTrablusgarp would trig-would trig-ger the loss of the Balkans. In the end, he turned out to be right. ger the loss of the Balkans. In the end, he turned out to be right.

Meanwhile, the opposition was able to establish a poli

Meanwhile, the opposition was able to establish a politticalical party party with a liberal character. The important figureswith a liberal character. The important figures of this opposition party of this opposition party were Ferit Pasha, Lütfi Fikri, İsmail Hakkı, Mahir Said, Sıtkı, and Rıza were Ferit Pasha, Lütfi Fikri, İsmail Hakkı, Mahir Said, Sıtkı, and Rıza Nur.Nur.525 As the Liberal and Entente Party (As the Liberal and Entente Party (Hürriyet ve İtilaf PartisiHürriyet ve İtilaf Partisi, here-, here-aaffter LEP) was founded on ter LEP) was founded on NNovemovember 21, 1911, Cavid Bey filled the ber 21, 1911, Cavid Bey filled the pages of his journapages of his journal on this day with his opinions about the new opposi-l on this day with his opinions about the new opposi-tion party. He spoke with many people whom he saw frequently about tion party. He spoke with many people whom he saw frequently about this issue, such as Zöhrap Efendi, who thought that the LEP was even this issue, such as Zöhrap Efendi, who thought that the LEP was even worse thaworse thann thethe Ottoman Liberty Party. Everyone seemed to be uncom-Ottoman Liberty Party. Everyone seemed to be uncom-forfortable with Prince Sabahaddin and Ali Kemal stepping into the politi-table with Prince Sabahaddin and Ali Kemal stepping into the politi-cal arena.cal arena.526 Although five MPs affiliated with the CUP had transferred Although five MPs affiliated with the CUP had transferred to the LEP, the party only had around 70 members, which was to the LEP, the party only had around 70 members, which was nnot aot adde-e-quate to establish a new government.quate to establish a new government.527

On Friday, Dec

On Friday, December 8, 1911, Cavid Bey met with Talat Bey and ember 8, 1911, Cavid Bey met with Talat Bey and HaHalllaçyan Efendi at Asım Bey’s house to discuss the memorandum re-laçyan Efendi at Asım Bey’s house to discuss the memorandum re-ceived from Russia on the “Straits Question.” The memorandum covered ceived from Russia on the “Straits Question.” The memorandum covered

524 KKiieser, eser, Talaat Pasha: Father of Modern Turkey, Architect of GenocideTalaat Pasha: Father of Modern Turkey, Architect of Genocide, 116., 116.

525 Mehmed CMehmed Caavid Bey, vid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 1Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 17575--76.76.

526 Cavid Bey, MeşrutiyetCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, Ruznâmesi I, 198.198.

527 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejİttihadçıların Rejiim ve İktidar Mücadelesim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908, 1908--19119133, 269., 269.

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the following p

the following poointsints were sawere saving the Ottoman state from its commit-ving the Ottoman state from its commit-ments coments concerning the railways in the Black Sea Region; jointly deter-ncerning the railways in the Black Sea Region; jointly deter-mining the routes of the railways toward Van and Bitlis; Russia’s consid-mining the routes of the railways toward Van and Bitlis; Russia’s consid-eration of projects related to the economic and financial benefiteration of projects related to the economic and financial benefitss forfor the the Ottoman government; the Ottoman government’s willOttoman government; the Ottoman government’s willingness to open ingness to open the Straits to Russian ships and offering a common defense policy under the Straits to Russian ships and offering a common defense policy under a possible attack on the Straits; preserving the status quo on the Straits; a possible attack on the Straits; preserving the status quo on the Straits; issuing the agreement to the Greaissuing the agreement to the Greatt PowPowers after signing the agreement ers after signing the agreement (accor(accordding to Cavid Being to Cavid Bey, this was a fait accompli); drawing up an article y, this was a fait accompli); drawing up an article on legal capitulations. While Asım Bey, Minister of Foreign Affairs, on legal capitulations. While Asım Bey, Minister of Foreign Affairs, wanted to turn down Russia’s demands, Cavid Bey thought that it was wanted to turn down Russia’s demands, Cavid Bey thought that it was worth neworth neggootiatiating. According to Cavid Bey, the government should diting. According to Cavid Bey, the government should dis-s-cuss the railways and economic capitulations; however, it remained an cuss the railways and economic capitulations; however, it remained an open question as to how Russia could help in the Balkans. The issue of open question as to how Russia could help in the Balkans. The issue of the Straits was key to Russia being able to traverse althe Straits was key to Russia being able to traverse alll watwaters freely, and ers freely, and for this reason, the Straits were a Eufor this reason, the Straits were a European issue. The German ambas-ropean issue. The German ambas-sador clearly stated that approving this request was a matter of war for sador clearly stated that approving this request was a matter of war for both Austria and Germany. This was also out of the question for Britain. both Austria and Germany. This was also out of the question for Britain. RuRusssia seemed to be asia seemed to be a protprotectorate of the Ottoman Empire in the event ectorate of the Ottoman Empire in the event of possiblof possible attack.e attack.528 What is interesting is that almost a year before the What is interesting is that almost a year before the Italian attack on the Italian attack on the ÇanakkaleÇanakkale and the invasion of the Dodecanese, and the invasion of the Dodecanese, Russia had released a memorandum primarily concerning the StraitsRussia had released a memorandum primarily concerning the Straits..

An election was held in Istanbul following election was held in Istanbul following Rifat Pasha’sRifat Pasha’s assignment assignment as Ambassador to Paris on December 11, 1911. The competition bas Ambassador to Paris on December 11, 1911. The competition be-e-tween the CUP and the LEP became clear during this election. Tahir tween the CUP and the LEP became clear during this election. Tahir Hayreddin Hayreddin —— who was the son of former Grand Vizier Hayrwho was the son of former Grand Vizier Hayreeddinddin from from Tunis Tunis —— was nominated by the LEP. The CUP’s candwas nominated by the LEP. The CUP’s candidate was Memduh idate was Memduh Bey, the Minister of Interior Affairs. Although Memduh Bey was very Bey, the Minister of Interior Affairs. Although Memduh Bey was very confident about his position, Tahir Hayreddin won the election by a nar-confident about his position, Tahir Hayreddin won the election by a nar-row margin. According to Cavid Bey, it warow margin. According to Cavid Bey, it wass thethe CUP’s first electoral de-CUP’s first electoral de-feat. He noted in his diary tfeat. He noted in his diary that since the March 31 Incident, he had nev-hat since the March 31 Incident, he had nev-

528 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 204., 204.

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er been as sad as he was then. After the election, a smear campaign was

er been as sad as he was then. After the election, a smear campaign was run claiming that Tahir Hayreddin was one of the spies (run claiming that Tahir Hayreddin was one of the spies (jurnalcijurnalci) for the ) for the palace dpalace duuringring the Hamidian Era. He also admitted that he was a spy the Hamidian Era. He also admitted that he was a spy for for the palace during this period. According to Cavid Bey, Tahir Hayreddin’s the palace during this period. According to Cavid Bey, Tahir Hayreddin’s certificate of election was illegally approved, and when it was an-certificate of election was illegally approved, and when it was an-nounced, none of the Unionists were present. Cavid Beynounced, none of the Unionists were present. Cavid Bey critcritiicized both cized both Tahir Hayreddin and the Tahir Hayreddin and the CUP andCUP and compared compared the CUP with the Tower of the CUP with the Tower of Babel where no one could understand each other.Babel where no one could understand each other.529

In his writings from January 8

In his writings from January 8––29, 1912, Cavid Bey recounts the 29, 1912, Cavid Bey recounts the abolition of the parliament and the senate, which he claimabolition of the parliament and the senate, which he claimeed wad wass due to due to the CUP’s defeat. In the days that followed Tthe CUP’s defeat. In the days that followed Tahir Hayreddin’s election, ahir Hayreddin’s election, chaos ruled in parliament. The CUP had a difficult time controlling its chaos ruled in parliament. The CUP had a difficult time controlling its members. The most frightening part was the power that the opposition members. The most frightening part was the power that the opposition gained within the party. Undegained within the party. Underr thethesse circumstances, the CUP decided to e circumstances, the CUP decided to change Article 35change Article 35 of the Constitution and to renew both elections and of the Constitution and to renew both elections and the cabinet. This meant that, in 1909, through constitutional amenthe cabinet. This meant that, in 1909, through constitutional amend-d-ments, the CUP made great strides toward parliamentary governance, ments, the CUP made great strides toward parliamentary governance, giving thegiving the regiregimme a democratic character. But when the Committee e a democratic character. But when the Committee coulcould not control parliament, including its deputies, the Unionists dd not control parliament, including its deputies, the Unionists de-e-cided to change the system in favor of executive power. Though what cided to change the system in favor of executive power. Though what they had done was completely legal, the move lacked legitimacy.they had done was completely legal, the move lacked legitimacy. For For tthis his reason, they lost public support. Cavid Bey also reason, they lost public support. Cavid Bey also believed that the CUP’s believed that the CUP’s positive image was damaged due to its inability to efficiently apositive image was damaged due to its inability to efficiently acccomplish complish tasks, a matter that annoyed him. In general, he was disturbed by its tasks, a matter that annoyed him. In general, he was disturbed by its lack of principles and work lack of principles and work ethics ethics andand thought that the party would be thought that the party would be buried in irresoburied in irresolution and incompetency.lution and incompetency.530

Almost a year before Selanik fell, the city had become both an inte

Almost a year before Selanik fell, the city had become both an inter-r-nal and international issue. The Central Committee of the CUP was still nal and international issue. The Central Committee of the CUP was still located in Selanik. The Unionislocated in Selanik. The Unionistts wes werere discussing whether or not to rdiscussing whether or not to re-e-locate the Committeelocate the Committee to Istanbul. Even the British Embassy got ito Istanbul. Even the British Embassy got in-n-volved. Cavid Bey’s decision was to keep the head office in Selanik, pavolved. Cavid Bey’s decision was to keep the head office in Selanik, par-r-

529 Mehmed Mehmed CCavid Bavid Bey, ey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,208.208.

530 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I,, 221221--26.26.

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ticularly because of the upcoming elections; however, Selanik’s situation

ticularly because of the upcoming elections; however, Selanik’s situation was bewas beccominoming g increasingly critical and fragile. On the one hand, increasingly critical and fragile. On the one hand, the CUP the CUP exiled some officers such as Colonel Sadık Bey to Selanik. On the other, exiled some officers such as Colonel Sadık Bey to Selanik. On the other, the conservatives and the conservatives and ulemaulema began to increase their facilbegan to increase their faciliities in the ties in the province, similar to what the church used to dprovince, similar to what the church used to doo. As. As CCavid Bey stated, the avid Bey stated, the nominees for the 1912 election nominees for the 1912 election were not selected based on merit; ra-were not selected based on merit; ra-ther, the CUP supported and prioritized those candidates who would ther, the CUP supported and prioritized those candidates who would support the change to Article 35support the change to Article 35531 of the Constitution.of the Constitution.532 The main task The main task of the Unionists was ameof the Unionists was amenndingding tthis article, even though it was the oppo-his article, even though it was the oppo-site of whatsite of what they had done in the summer of 1909. The CUP thought it they had done in the summer of 1909. The CUP thought it could fight the dissidents in parliament by making it easier to adjourn it. could fight the dissidents in parliament by making it easier to adjourn it.

As mentioned before, Cavid Bey’s diary mainly focuses on his w

As mentioned before, Cavid Bey’s diary mainly focuses on his woork rk rratather than people. Sometimes he gives space to some miher than people. Sometimes he gives space to some minor incidents nor incidents about people. There was one about Yusuf Akcura, the father of the nabout people. There was one about Yusuf Akcura, the father of the na-a-tional economy and his competitor in the intellectual field. But it should tional economy and his competitor in the intellectual field. But it should be noted that issues such as rivalry in be noted that issues such as rivalry in tthosehose ddays did not mean hostility ays did not mean hostility between people. While peobetween people. While people might take positions at opposite ends of ple might take positions at opposite ends of the spectrum, they still kept in touch. Yusuf Akçura visited Cavid Bey’s the spectrum, they still kept in touch. Yusuf Akçura visited Cavid Bey’s house with Sahir on the evening of Saturday, February 2, 1912. At that house with Sahir on the evening of Saturday, February 2, 1912. At that time, Yutime, Yussuf Auf Akçkçura wanted to run as a CUP candidate. Cavid Bey saidura wanted to run as a CUP candidate. Cavid Bey said that he would pass this wish on to his friends, and that he would be that he would pass this wish on to his friends, and that he would be happy if this happened.happy if this happened.533 The abovementioned incidents concerning The abovementioned incidents concerning relations with the press and the news about Yusuf Akçura’s increlations with the press and the news about Yusuf Akçura’s incllusiousion n into the party signal the fact that Cavid Bey was quinto the party signal the fact that Cavid Bey was quite influential in the ite influential in the CUP. CUP.

531 Constitution AConstitution Arrticle 35: This article defined the authoticle 35: This article defined the authority of the Sultan to dissolve the rity of the Sultan to dissolve the Parliament when Parliament when the Cabinet and Parliament wouthe Cabinet and Parliament would have a conflict between them. The ld have a conflict between them. The approapproval of val of tthe Senhe Senate was necessary for the diate was necessary for the dissolution of the Parliament. The ssolution of the Parliament. The amendment of the amendment of the CCUP aimed to change the last condition: tUP aimed to change the last condition: the approval of the Senate. he approval of the Senate. KaKansu, nsu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İİttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908ktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913; and Tunaya, ; and Tunaya, İttihatİttihat ve ve TerTerakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağınakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi, 3, Bir Partinin Tarihi, 3, 200, 16, 89, and 494., 200, 16, 89, and 494.

532 İttihat ve Terakki, İttihat ve Terakki, Bir ÇaBir Çağın, Biğın, Birr KuşağKuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarihi, 3ın, Bir Partinin Tarihi, 3, , 230.230. See also: Tanör, See also: Tanör, Osmanlı Osmanlı –– Türk Anayasal GelTürk Anayasal Geliişmelerişmeleri,198 ,198 –– 202.202.

533 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 234.234.

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At the beginning of 1912, he had a heavy workload, working b

At the beginning of 1912, he had a heavy workload, working be-e-tween the CUP, parliament, the palace, and Sublime Porte. For example, tween the CUP, parliament, the palace, and Sublime Porte. For example, the government asked for his knowledthe government asked for his knowledgge abe abouout issues such as the t issues such as the BagBagh-h-dad Railwaydad Railway agreement and iagreement and invited him to give conferences at the CUP’s nvited him to give conferences at the CUP’s clubs. He accepted breakfast and dinner invitations and met people clubs. He accepted breakfast and dinner invitations and met people such as Sir Henry Babingtonsuch as Sir Henry Babington--Smith, M. Revoil, and Mr. Lowther, at Circle Smith, M. Revoil, and Mr. Lowther, at Circle D’Orient, or D’Orient, or iin prn privivate mansions.ate mansions.534 Cavid Bey was Cavid Bey was a keya key part part of both of both domestic and international politics during this period. When the gov-domestic and international politics during this period. When the gov-ernment could not stop the amendment of Article 35, Saiernment could not stop the amendment of Article 35, Saitt Pasha re-Pasha re-signed on December 30, signed on December 30, 1911,1911, but was then reassigned the but was then reassigned the ffoolllolowing wing day. Theday. The sultan adjourned the parliament until thsultan adjourned the parliament until the election to be held in e election to be held in the first month of 1912. Meanwhile, the government continued to work the first month of 1912. Meanwhile, the government continued to work as a caretaker government. Though some neutral MPs aimed for recon-as a caretaker government. Though some neutral MPs aimed for recon-ciliation, it was fruitless. In the eciliation, it was fruitless. In the ennd, sd, some Unionistsome Unionists —— such as Talat Bey, such as Talat Bey, Hacı Adil, and SaitHacı Adil, and Sait Halim Pasha (President of the Council of State) Halim Pasha (President of the Council of State) —— en-en-tered the cabinet. This meant that Mahmut Şevket Pasha partially yield-tered the cabinet. This meant that Mahmut Şevket Pasha partially yield-ed power to the Unionist ministers. Akşin states that this was because of ed power to the Unionist ministers. Akşin states that this was because of tthe che closure of parlosure of parliament.liament.535 But I argue that Mahmut Şevket But I argue that Mahmut Şevket Pasha had Pasha had solved his most importsolved his most important problem with the CUP aant problem with the CUP allready: the budget ready: the budget issue. According to Cavid Bey’s diaries (February 10issue. According to Cavid Bey’s diaries (February 10––17, 1912), Nail 17, 1912), Nail Bey, then Minister of Finance, was getting close to Bey, then Minister of Finance, was getting close to rreesisigning due to gning due to the the budget issue. However, instead of resbudget issue. However, instead of resigning, he came to terms with igning, he came to terms with Mahmut Şevket Pasha and gave an 8.5 millionMahmut Şevket Pasha and gave an 8.5 million LirasLiras susubbsidy to the Min-sidy to the Min-istry of War as well as allowing them to appoint an aistry of War as well as allowing them to appoint an acccountant.countant.536 It It could be argued that Mahmut Şevcould be argued that Mahmut Şevket ket Pasha had alrPasha had already solved his main eady solved his main problem with the CUPproblem with the CUP, and for this reason, he did not attempt to prevent , and for this reason, he did not attempt to prevent the Unionists from entering the cabinet. the Unionists from entering the cabinet.

534 MehMehmed Cavid Bey, med Cavid Bey, MeMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,şrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 243.243.

535 Akşin, Akşin, Jön Türkler veJön Türkler ve Ittihat TerakkiIttihat Terakki, 303., 303.

536 Mehmed Cavid BeMehmed Cavid Bey, y, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,, 242.242.

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On February 18 1912, Cavid Bey was appointed Minister of Public

On February 18 1912, Cavid Bey was appointed Minister of Public Works, which also overlapped with the eWorks, which also overlapped with the electlection period.ion period.537 He was called He was called to the palace by the first to the palace by the first secretary and met with Saisecretary and met with Saitt Pasha there. The Pasha there. The decree related to the assignment that was given to him. Cavid Bey stated decree related to the assignment that was given to him. Cavid Bey stated that Saithat Sait t Pasha looked sick and tired, leading him to become a bit pes-Pasha looked sick and tired, leading him to become a bit pes-simistic asimistic aboutbout his health. his health. He also had a positive, hourHe also had a positive, hour--long meetinglong meeting with with Sultan Mehmed Reşat. That was the first time that Cavid Bey had be-Sultan Mehmed Reşat. That was the first time that Cavid Bey had be-come Minister of Public Works. The main issues that he would deal with come Minister of Public Works. The main issues that he would deal with in this position included the following: in this position included the following:

■ Railways: (i)Railways: (i) TheThe Black Sea liBlack Sea line (French capital); (ii) The Adriatic line (French capital); (ii) The Adriatic line ne (French); (iii) The Chester Project in Anatolia (American); (iv) The (French); (iii) The Chester Project in Anatolia (American); (iv) The BaghdadBaghdad--Basra line (British); (v) the line connecting Ankara with the Basra line (British); (v) the line connecting Ankara with the SamsunSamsun--Sivas line (German)Sivas line (German)

■ Ports: (i) Samsun and TrabzonPorts: (i) Samsun and Trabzon undunder survey; (ier survey; (ii) the large harbor at i) the large harbor at Dedeagac (AlexandrDedeagac (Alexandrapoapouuli li —— lost to Greece in the Balkan Wars); (iii) a lost to Greece in the Balkan Wars); (iii) a small port at Kavala; (iv) the enlargement of Selanik; (v) the ports at small port at Kavala; (iv) the enlargement of Selanik; (v) the ports at Jaffa, Haifa, and/or Jaffa, Haifa, and/or TrablusgarpTrablusgarp

■ Irrigation: (i) Contract for MesopotamiaIrrigation: (i) Contract for Mesopotamia to to be opened to be opened to bids; (ii) plans bids; (ii) plans for the Adana region as for the Adana region as well as for the rivers Bardar, Boyana, Maritza, well as for the rivers Bardar, Boyana, Maritza, and the Jordan and the Jordan

■ Highways: 9,655 miles to be constructed in four years. Highways: 9,655 miles to be constructed in four years.

Cavid Bey expected that provincial governors would mobilize local

Cavid Bey expected that provincial governors would mobilize local resources toresources to carcarry out small ry out small projects. projects. During February 1912, a note seDuring February 1912, a note sent nt from the Russian Embassy in Paris to the French Ministry of Foreign Af-from the Russian Embassy in Paris to the French Ministry of Foreign Af-fairs reestablished the talks between France and Russia. They asked to fairs reestablished the talks between France and Russia. They asked to research two kinds of railway routes, approaching the research two kinds of railway routes, approaching the OttoOttomanman--Russian Russian bborder or not. They also wanted to investiorder or not. They also wanted to investigate the financial dgate the financial diimension mension of the two kinds of routes. During the talks, the Ottoman Eof the two kinds of routes. During the talks, the Ottoman Emmpire’s do-pire’s do-mestic affairs were in turmoil. The line spanning Samsunmestic affairs were in turmoil. The line spanning Samsun--SivasSivas--ÇaltaÇalta--ErzincanErzincan--PekeriçPekeriç--Trabzon would Trabzon would be sbe subject to lonubject to long negotig negotiaations, which tions, which

537 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 24, 242.2.; ; and Pakalın,and Pakalın, Maliye TeşkilaMaliye Teşkilattı Tarihi ı Tarihi (1442(1442--1930),1930), IV, 238.IV, 238.

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would be carried ov

would be carried over later into the 1913er later into the 1913––1914 talks. It was planned 1914 talks. It was planned that the line would be completed in 8that the line would be completed in 8––10 years. As Count Vitali stated, 10 years. As Count Vitali stated, the Russians had consented to the construction after reathe Russians had consented to the construction after reallizing that it izing that it wouldwould taktake a long timee a long time. They did not want a railway line close . They did not want a railway line close to the to the Russian border. Therefore, they willingly consented to the lines that ran Russian border. Therefore, they willingly consented to the lines that ran from the shore inland. For them, a railway line from Afrom the shore inland. For them, a railway line from Annkara to the east-kara to the east-ern part could not go beyond Pekeriç. Due to tern part could not go beyond Pekeriç. Due to the Bhe Balkan Wars, talkan Wars, the nego-he nego-tiations stopped and were delayed tiations stopped and were delayed until the end of the war in 1913.until the end of the war in 1913.538 According to Count Vitali, such a line, which would cross Northeastern According to Count Vitali, such a line, which would cross Northeastern Anatolia, would be expensive and hard to build due to technical difficul-Anatolia, would be expensive and hard to build due to technical difficul-ties. ties.

The pages of

The pages of CaviCavid Bey’s journd Bey’s journal dated February 28, 1912 reveal his al dated February 28, 1912 reveal his comcommentary on the ministry’s workflow, as well as the current events of mentary on the ministry’s workflow, as well as the current events of the day. Through these passages we are able to shed light on his cthe day. Through these passages we are able to shed light on his caapaci-paci-ty and potential as an administrator. He observes while hity and potential as an administrator. He observes while hiringring offoffiicers cers thathat the rules of awarding jobs based on comt the rules of awarding jobs based on competition and compatpetition and compatiibility bility were never followed. He inspected processes such as filing, and ordered were never followed. He inspected processes such as filing, and ordered officers to work night and day to overcome operational defofficers to work night and day to overcome operational defiiciencies. ciencies. These details indicate that heThese details indicate that he waswas serious, priserious, principled, and incipled, and immplemented plemented his own system whis own system wherever he was in charge. The same day, he mentioned herever he was in charge. The same day, he mentioned important news from Selanik. For the first time, aimportant news from Selanik. For the first time, a Greek mayor was Greek mayor was elected, and the newspapers opposing the CUP had created a storm over elected, and the newspapers opposing the CUP had created a storm over this sitthis situuatiation.on.539 The CUP The CUP was accused of imprudence and recklessnesswas accused of imprudence and recklessness. . This situation came as a warning for everybody. In the next pages of This situation came as a warning for everybody. In the next pages of Cavid Bey’s journal, we see that Selanik comes to the fore several times Cavid Bey’s journal, we see that Selanik comes to the fore several times and that he was closely tracking the situation over tand that he was closely tracking the situation over thhereere. He heard fr. He heard from om Ismail Bey and Abdurrahman Bey, who camIsmail Bey and Abdurrahman Bey, who came from Se from Seelanik, that the Mus-lanik, that the Mus-lim community in particular was stupefied by the fact that the mayor lim community in particular was stupefied by the fact that the mayor was Greek. They feared that the next step was electing a Greek MP in the was Greek. They feared that the next step was electing a Greek MP in the upcoming parliamentary elecupcoming parliamentary electtionions. We can tels. We can tell from the notes in his dia-l from the notes in his dia-ry that the atmry that the atmosphere in Selanik was not as peaceful and safe as the osphere in Selanik was not as peaceful and safe as the

538 Bayur, Bayur, TTürk Inkilâbı Tarihi, II/I,ürk Inkilâbı Tarihi, II/I, 493493--510.510.

539 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznRuznâmesi Iâmesi I, 256., 256.

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year before. He received letters from other provinces that expressed

year before. He received letters from other provinces that expressed dismay over what was happening in Selanik. Cavid Bey himself thought dismay over what was happening in Selanik. Cavid Bey himself thought thatthat thethe CUP had failCUP had failed to manage its affairs well. ed to manage its affairs well.

In March 1

In March 1912, Musa Kazım Efendi Shaykh al912, Musa Kazım Efendi Shaykh al--Islam wrote a declarIslam wrote a declara-a-tion subjecting Muslim women to a strict dress code based on Sharia tion subjecting Muslim women to a strict dress code based on Sharia law. Secularism was one of the most important issues during the Second law. Secularism was one of the most important issues during the Second ConsConsttituitutional Periodtional Period, and Cavid Bey wrote that the declaration, and Cavid Bey wrote that the declaration left a left a negative impression on the secular intelligentsia. Cavid Bey was both negative impression on the secular intelligentsia. Cavid Bey was both distraught and angered with the fact that Emrullah Efendi, one of the distraught and angered with the fact that Emrullah Efendi, one of the CUP’s leading figures and Minister of Education, CUP’s leading figures and Minister of Education, pprairaised Shaykh alsed Shaykh al--Islam. Cavid Bey believed that women wereIslam. Cavid Bey believed that women were negatively affected at the negatively affected at the end of these popular political controversies. According to Shaykh alend of these popular political controversies. According to Shaykh al--Islam those measures were taken because the dissidents were going Islam those measures were taken because the dissidents were going doordoor--toto--door telling people that wdoor telling people that weeariaring hats wouldng hats would become the norm become the norm and that the CUP would baand that the CUP would ban the hijab. Whereas Cavid Bey was against n the hijab. Whereas Cavid Bey was against this sort of act, the people living in the city of Negvanthis sort of act, the people living in the city of Negvan--Langaza in SLangaza in Seelanik lanik province also claimed that they supported Sharia law after a diprovince also claimed that they supported Sharia law after a disspute pute with milwith miliitartary officers. Ty officers. This place was the birthplace of Sheikh Ömehis place was the birthplace of Sheikh Ömer, r, leader of the LEP in the region. These incidents were taken very seri-leader of the LEP in the region. These incidents were taken very seri-ously, especially since they happened only two hours away from the ously, especially since they happened only two hours away from the center of Selanik. These acts were considered to be a resucenter of Selanik. These acts were considered to be a resullt ot of the oppf the oppo-o-sitsition’s influence in the political sphere.ion’s influence in the political sphere.540

The parliament was called back into session on January 17, 1912 for

The parliament was called back into session on January 17, 1912 for the elections in three months. The news related to the election was athe elections in three months. The news related to the election was an-n-nounced in the press next day. The elections were to be helnounced in the press next day. The elections were to be heldd onon two lev-two lev-els. els. The first one was to be held at the end ofThe first one was to be held at the end of February and the seFebruary and the seccond ond level was to be held in April. As a matter of fact, the election period went level was to be held in April. As a matter of fact, the election period went on so long. Meanwhile, Cavid Bey was assigned as the minister of public on so long. Meanwhile, Cavid Bey was assigned as the minister of public works on February 17. Cworks on February 17. Caavidvid Bey’s agendaBey’s agenda was again very full, because was again very full, because this time hethis time he had to both pursue his work as the minister and on the oth-had to both pursue his work as the minister and on the oth-er hand, he had to contribute to the campaigning during the eleer hand, he had to contribute to the campaigning during the elecction pe-tion pe-

540 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuzRuznnâmesi âmesi II, , 286286--87.87.

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riod in both Istanbul and his polling district Selanik, where the s

riod in both Istanbul and his polling district Selanik, where the siituatuation tion of the Cof the CUP was not as strong as it had used to be.UP was not as strong as it had used to be.541 His caHis cammppaign start-aign start-ed very successfully in Istanbuled very successfully in Istanbul,, where he gave speeches at the CUP where he gave speeches at the CUP clubs in various neighborhoods such as Beşiktaş, Kadıköy, and Süley-clubs in various neighborhoods such as Beşiktaş, Kadıköy, and Süley-maniye. In Beşiktaş, he gave two speeches maniye. In Beşiktaş, he gave two speeches dudue to publice to public demand. As an demand. As an impressive spokesman, a wizard with words, impressive spokesman, a wizard with words, people loved to lipeople loved to lissten to ten to him, and he washim, and he was always able to gather crowds to listen to him speak. always able to gather crowds to listen to him speak. The organization of the The organization of the ulemaulema against the CUP proved to be quite effec-against the CUP proved to be quite effec-tive, particularly in the rural areas of Selanik province. It was sutive, particularly in the rural areas of Selanik province. It was sugggested gested that they shoulthat they should change his polling district; however, hd change his polling district; however, he did not accept e did not accept this offer. Cavid Bey visited Selanik April 5this offer. Cavid Bey visited Selanik April 5––13, 1912, right b13, 1912, right beefore the fore the elections.elections.542 He gave public speeches in favor of the CUP in many differ-He gave public speeches in favor of the CUP in many differ-ent locations including Langaza. He also joined the inaent locations including Langaza. He also joined the inauguguuration cere-ration cere-mony of a train station in mony of a train station in Selanik. His speech targeted sociaSelanik. His speech targeted sociallism. He be-ism. He be-lieved that his speech had a negative impact on socialist cilieved that his speech had a negative impact on socialist cirrcles due to cles due to the media coverage it received. Selanik was one of the Ottoman cities the media coverage it received. Selanik was one of the Ottoman cities where socialism was adoptewhere socialism was adopted among the workers due to its industrial-d among the workers due to its industrial-ized economyized economy, and port , and port facilitiesfacilities..543 This is another example of his antiThis is another example of his anti--socialist commentaries. Another time, he wrote in his diary about a socialist commentaries. Another time, he wrote in his diary about a speech he gave at the Süleymaniye Club in Istanbul, where he addressed speech he gave at the Süleymaniye Club in Istanbul, where he addressed workers and underlined theworkers and underlined the importance of laboimportance of labor. Afterwards, he ex-r. Afterwards, he ex-plained why he had adopted an antiplained why he had adopted an anti--socialist approach.socialist approach.544 These com-These com-ments made by Cavid Bey, who believed in a liberal economy, should be ments made by Cavid Bey, who believed in a liberal economy, should be used to evalused to evaluuate his economic views as well as the status of socialism ate his economic views as well as the status of socialism both globalboth globally and locally. In ly and locally. In his speeches, Cavid Bey criticized Selanik as his speeches, Cavid Bey criticized Selanik as well. First off, he mentioned how bizarre the elections were, even in a well. First off, he mentioned how bizarre the elections were, even in a city as civcity as civiilized as Selanik. He also stated that the city was rather poor in lized as Selanik. He also stated that the city was rather poor in terms of highterms of high--ranking military and governranking military and government officers. Accoment officers. According to rding to

541 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuzRuznâmesi I, nâmesi I, 297.297.

542 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,znâmesi I, 296296--98.98.

543 Ilham KhuriIlham Khuri--MakdisiMakdisi, , The Eastern Mediterranean and the GloThe Eastern Mediterranean and the Global bal RadicalisRadicalismm, 1860, 1860--19141914 (California: (California: University of CaliforniUniversity of California Press, 201a Press, 2010), 1350), 135--16164. 4.

544 MMehmed Cavid Beehmed Cavid Beyy, , Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 240240--41.41.

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Cavid Bey, the main reason for this situation was the CUP’s policy of ex-

Cavid Bey, the main reason for this situation was the CUP’s policy of ex-iling highiling high--ranking officials from the city. Since Selanik was considered to ranking officials from the city. Since Selanik was considered to be the center of the CUP, the city became the focus of opposition parties be the center of the CUP, the city became the focus of opposition parties and fuand fundamentalists. One ndamentalists. One of the main factors was that the CUP sent of the main factors was that the CUP sent people into exile mainly to Selanik. As thepeople into exile mainly to Selanik. As the CUP organized in the city in CUP organized in the city in the prethe pre--revolution period, the opposition strengthened itself in the city. revolution period, the opposition strengthened itself in the city. This was beyond the projection of the UnionistThis was beyond the projection of the Unionists. He mentioned in s. He mentioned in ppar-ar-ticular how the highticular how the high--ranking soldiers behaved in a hostile manner to-ranking soldiers behaved in a hostile manner to-ward the CUP in Selanik.ward the CUP in Selanik.545 During the election period, he continued During the election period, he continued work at the ministry and complained about its disorganization and lack work at the ministry and complained about its disorganization and lack of a modern filing system, eof a modern filing system, education, and authoducation, and authorrity. Another problemat-ity. Another problemat-ic issue, aic issue, acccording to him, was the lack of qualified human resources. In cording to him, was the lack of qualified human resources. In effect, the implications and consequences of the Severance Law were effect, the implications and consequences of the Severance Law were not what he expected. It had a negative impact on institutional organiza-not what he expected. It had a negative impact on institutional organiza-tion in terms of hution in terms of humman resources.an resources. Meanwhile, he was working on a new Meanwhile, he was working on a new loan agreloan agreeement, the extension of the Régie, reconciling the ment, the extension of the Régie, reconciling the BaghdadBaghdad--Persian Gulf section of the Persian Gulf section of the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway according to the demands according to the demands of the British, public works, and the railway agreeof the British, public works, and the railway agreement with the Frenment with the Frencch. h. He worked at the ministry until midnight every day.He worked at the ministry until midnight every day.546

Cavid Bey met M

Cavid Bey met Mrr. Delaunay, representative of the French gover. Delaunay, representative of the French govern-n-ment, on April 20, 1912.ment, on April 20, 1912.547 The French government asked him to reach The French government asked him to reach a definitive agreement on the Samsuna definitive agreement on the Samsun--Sivas railway Sivas railway line. They did thiline. They did thiss because the Russians would not permit a deal that would extend further because the Russians would not permit a deal that would extend further than Sivas, based on the requirements in the 1900 Agreement.than Sivas, based on the requirements in the 1900 Agreement.548 Russia Russia was the deterrent factor on the Eastern Anatolian lines due to this was the deterrent factor on the Eastern Anatolian lines due to this agreement. Cavid Bey also thagreement. Cavid Bey also thought that his meeought that his meettings with M. Bompard ings with M. Bompard and M. Delaunay would pose a problem with the Russians in terms of and M. Delaunay would pose a problem with the Russians in terms of the Eastern Anatolian railway lines; however, he believed that the the Eastern Anatolian railway lines; however, he believed that the

545 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, MMeşrutiyet Ruznâeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,mesi I, 298.298.

546 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, MeşrutMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,iyet Ruznâmesi I, 252252--56.56.

547 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, MeşrutiyetMeşrutiyet RuzRuznâmnâmesi I,esi I, 307.307.

548 Armaoğlu, Armaoğlu, Siyasi Tarih, 1789Siyasi Tarih, 1789--19141914, 627., 627.

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French government was trying to cover its own interests in case they

French government was trying to cover its own interests in case they fell out withfell out with the Russians.the Russians.549

In the meantime, othe meantime, on 16 April 1912, n 16 April 1912, the Ottoman governmentthe Ottoman government susub-b-mitted the Ottoman proposals covering the mitted the Ottoman proposals covering the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway in writing in writing to to the Foreign Office. the Foreign Office. The new packageThe new package of British proposals of British proposals was suwas subbmit-mit-ted on April 24, but the negotiations wted on April 24, but the negotiations were interrupted beere interrupted beccause of the ause of the Balkan War. New talks began later during the London ConferenceBalkan War. New talks began later during the London Conference in in 19131913..550

While the war with Italy was still ongoing, the cabinet discussed the

While the war with Italy was still ongoing, the cabinet discussed the possibility that the Italians could cross the possibility that the Italians could cross the ÇanakkaleÇanakkale. According to . According to Cavid Bey, tCavid Bey, the measures in plahe measures in placce to prevent such an attack were still not e to prevent such an attack were still not in place. Though the ministers did not think that it was possible for the in place. Though the ministers did not think that it was possible for the Italians to cross the Italians to cross the ÇanakkaleÇanakkale, they decided that the best course of a, they decided that the best course of ac-c-tion if such an attack were to occur was to stoption if such an attack were to occur was to stop the Italians in Ithe Italians in Isstanbul. tanbul.

The 1912 elections were known as the “election with the stick” due The 1912 elections were known as the “election with the stick” due to the violence and intimidation used by the CUP to ensure its majority to the violence and intimidation used by the CUP to ensure its majority in parliament. As a result, the new chamber was an obedient instrument in parliament. As a result, the new chamber was an obedient instrument of the Committee,of the Committee, with only a handfwith only a handfuul of opposition candidates being l of opposition candidates being elected. Though the CUP won a victory, it was of legitimation. For this elected. Though the CUP won a victory, it was of legitimation. For this reason, Colonel Sadık Bey and some of his friends totally cut their losses reason, Colonel Sadık Bey and some of his friends totally cut their losses with the CUP and in May and June 1912, Colonel Sadık Bey with the CUP and in May and June 1912, Colonel Sadık Bey and his and his friends esfriends esttablished a new group called the Savior Officers (ablished a new group called the Savior Officers (Halaskâr Halaskâr ZabitanZabitan). Very soon, they would demand the resignation of the gover). Very soon, they would demand the resignation of the govern-n-ment and threaten an armed intervention unless the CUP complied.ment and threaten an armed intervention unless the CUP complied.551 The Savior Officers had contacts with rebelliThe Savior Officers had contacts with rebellious military officous military officeers in rs in MMaacedonia, and in the Entente Party, and significant figures such as cedonia, and in the Entente Party, and significant figures such as Prince Sabahaddin and Nazım Pasha. Their aim was to dethrone the Prince Sabahaddin and Nazım Pasha. Their aim was to dethrone the CUP and to reestablish the government without the Unionists. Their CUP and to reestablish the government without the Unionists. Their other aim was for the militaryother aim was for the military officers to stay out of poofficers to stay out of politics.litics.552

549 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,znâmesi I, 313313..

550 Özyüksel, Özyüksel, The BerlinThe Berlin--Baghdad Railway aBaghdad Railway and thend the Ottoman EmpireOttoman Empire, 140, 140--44.44.

551 Zürcher,Zürcher, TurTurkeykey: A Modern History,: A Modern History, 103.103.

552 Ahmad, Ahmad, Ittihat ve Terakki,Ittihat ve Terakki, 19081908--1914 1914 (Jön (Jön Türkler)Türkler), 154., 154.

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Cavid Bey was aware that the state’s income needed to increase, and

Cavid Bey was aware that the state’s income needed to increase, and that the peasants’ quality of life needed to improve. When he became that the peasants’ quality of life needed to improve. When he became the Minister of Public Works in 1912, he initiated a project on the irrthe Minister of Public Works in 1912, he initiated a project on the irriiga-ga-tion of Mesopotamia. Deutsche Bank btion of Mesopotamia. Deutsche Bank began conducting a massive regan conducting a massive re-e-search project around Adana province to look for new investments, hop-search project around Adana province to look for new investments, hop-ing to create a second Egypt in the region.ing to create a second Egypt in the region.553 Cavid Bey traveled to Cavid Bey traveled to Adana for the inauguration of new train stations on the AdanaAdana for the inauguration of new train stations on the Adana--Mersin Mersin railway line from Aprilrailway line from April 2424––29, 1912.29, 1912.554 According to his diary, the CUP According to his diary, the CUP had opened schools in some significant cities, which were quite im-had opened schools in some significant cities, which were quite im-poporrtant for both education and mobilization. Cavid Bey stopped by the tant for both education and mobilization. Cavid Bey stopped by the city of Konya on his way to Adana and met the students there. Similar city of Konya on his way to Adana and met the students there. Similar schschoools could be found in Tarsus and Adana as well. Cavid Bey also ols could be found in Tarsus and Adana as well. Cavid Bey also spoke to the students there about the current economic situation. Duspoke to the students there about the current economic situation. Dur-r-ing this trip, Cavid Bey visited not only Adana but also Tarsus and Mer-ing this trip, Cavid Bey visited not only Adana but also Tarsus and Mer-sin. Upon his arrival in Mersin, people publicly hunsin. Upon his arrival in Mersin, people publicly hungg banners in the banners in the streets and carried signs demanding a seaport. Although Cavid Bey had streets and carried signs demanding a seaport. Although Cavid Bey had promised the construction of a seaport, he told people not to expect the promised the construction of a seaport, he told people not to expect the state to provide everything for them and praised the entrepreneurship, state to provide everything for them and praised the entrepreneurship, industry, and art in the industry, and art in the ccity. On the train, he met notables from the city ity. On the train, he met notables from the city and listened to their complaints about the sale of the Çukurova Farm to and listened to their complaints about the sale of the Çukurova Farm to a French company. They complained, “If we knew about it, we would a French company. They complained, “If we knew about it, we would raise the money, 350,000 Liras (to outbid the French).” Cavid Bey noraise the money, 350,000 Liras (to outbid the French).” Cavid Bey notted ed that the amount of money was not easy to collect, as the farm had athat the amount of money was not easy to collect, as the farm had al-l-ready been sold to foreigners. While these anecdotes do not constitute ready been sold to foreigners. While these anecdotes do not constitute definitive proof, they do support the argument that the centerdefinitive proof, they do support the argument that the center--local local communication in decisioncommunication in decision--making processes wmaking processes waas not perfect; decisions s not perfect; decisions were made mainly from the center. In the same vein, we can observe were made mainly from the center. In the same vein, we can observe important differences between central and local interests: the center important differences between central and local interests: the center acted pragmatically when in need of monetary resources, and the local acted pragmatically when in need of monetary resources, and the local acted to preserve acted to preserve locallocal and religious concernsand religious concerns. In short, the fate of the . In short, the fate of the farm had been determined by Cavid Bey’s liberal economic policies for farm had been determined by Cavid Bey’s liberal economic policies for

553 EroğEroğlu, lu, Ittihatçıların Ünlü Maliye Nazırı Cavid BeyIttihatçıların Ünlü Maliye Nazırı Cavid Bey, 172., 172.

554 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, 314, 314--18.18.

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the time being. He also paid a visit to an Armenian orphanage in

the time being. He also paid a visit to an Armenian orphanage in Adana Adana andand noted that there the handicrafts made by widows and onoted that there the handicrafts made by widows and orrpphahans ns were were being purchased by the Americans. He left Adana onbeing purchased by the Americans. He left Adana on April 28, April 28, 1912,1912, and and arrived in Istanbul in record time, 41.5 hours.arrived in Istanbul in record time, 41.5 hours.555

Accoring to Parvus Efendi, du

Accoring to Parvus Efendi, during 1911 and 1912, gross income had ring 1911 and 1912, gross income had increased 30% compared to 1907/1908, rising to 242,792 increased 30% compared to 1907/1908, rising to 242,792 LirasLiras..556 CCaavid Bey’s contribution to this was obvious, as the projects mentioned vid Bey’s contribution to this was obvious, as the projects mentioned above were compatible with the economic approach of the Committee’s above were compatible with the economic approach of the Committee’s liberal wing to which Cavid Bey belonged. According to this group, the liberal wing to which Cavid Bey belonged. According to this group, the Ottoman Empire did not have adequate means Ottoman Empire did not have adequate means sucsuchh as capital and tecas capital and tech-h-nology to establish industries of its own. Any state effort to establish nology to establish industries of its own. Any state effort to establish industries under the aegis of the public sector would be fruitless. Hoindustries under the aegis of the public sector would be fruitless. How-w-ever, the country had untouched forests and underground treasures, ever, the country had untouched forests and underground treasures, which became more appwhich became more appealealiing given the cheapness of land and labor as ng given the cheapness of land and labor as well as the fertility of the land. These factors favored agricultural ewell as the fertility of the land. These factors favored agricultural exxpan-pan-sion. According to Cavid Bey, the state should not attach an addition to sion. According to Cavid Bey, the state should not attach an addition to the budget or raise taxes just to protect industry or agricuthe budget or raise taxes just to protect industry or agricultulturre.e.557 Though if industry and Though if industry and agriculture clashedagriculture clashed with each other, the state with each other, the state would need to choose agricultural development.would need to choose agricultural development.558

On April 18

On April 18, 1912, 1912, The Parliament was opened and Cavid Bey co, The Parliament was opened and Cavid Bey con-n-tinued his office as the minster of public works. His salary was 15,tinued his office as the minster of public works. His salary was 15,000000 piastres. On May 23, after Nail Bey resigned, he also became the deputy piastres. On May 23, after Nail Bey resigned, he also became the deputy minister of finance. Nail Bey resigned due to the pressure of the military minister of finance. Nail Bey resigned due to the pressure of the military expenses. Cavid Bey continued to manage the economy fullexpenses. Cavid Bey continued to manage the economy full--fledged till fledged till the resignation of the Saithe resignation of the Sait t Pasha gPasha goveoverrnment on July 9, 1912.nment on July 9, 1912.559

555 Mehmed Cavid BeMehmed Cavid Beyy, , Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 318, 318..

556 Parvus Efendi, Parvus Efendi, CCihan Harbine ihan Harbine ddoğru Türkiyeoğru Türkiye, 1, 11144--26.26.

557 Eroğlu, Eroğlu, Ittihatçıların Ünlü Maliye Nazırı Cavid BeyIttihatçıların Ünlü Maliye Nazırı Cavid Bey, 171, 171--73.73.

558 Toprak, Toprak, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, 19081908--1918,1918, 335.335.

559 Eroğlu, Eroğlu, Ittihatçıların Ünlü Maliye Nazırı Cavid BeyIttihatçıların Ünlü Maliye Nazırı Cavid Bey, 53; , 53;

BOA. İ___DUIT___00008_0000BOA. İ___DUIT___00008_000056_002_001. 56_002_001.

This document from the private secretary of the palace (This document from the private secretary of the palace (mabeynmabeyn--ii humayunhumayun) inf) infoorms rms us that Cavus that Caviid Bey will take the office of the ministry of find Bey will take the office of the ministry of finaancnce ase as itits deputy. BOA. s deputy. BOA. I__DUIT___00008_000029_001_001. I__DUIT___00008_000029_001_001.

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Meanwhile, the war with Ital

Meanwhile, the war with Italy y was was in full swing and tin full swing and the turning he turning point point camecame when Italy attacked in Ottwhen Italy attacked in Ottooman waters. On April 18, Italian man waters. On April 18, Italian gunboats bombarded the two outer forts guarding the entrance to the gunboats bombarded the two outer forts guarding the entrance to the TurkiTurkish straits. This was a ssh straits. This was a symbolic demonstration on the partymbolic demonstration on the part ofof Italy Italy rather than a real blow to the erather than a real blow to the ennemy’s military strength. The Ottoman emy’s military strength. The Ottoman government responded by closing the straits to neutral commerce. Ten government responded by closing the straits to neutral commerce. Ten days later, there was another naval attack on the days later, there was another naval attack on the Dodecanese Islands, Dodecanese Islands, whicwhich lasted from April 28 to May 21,h lasted from April 28 to May 21, 191912, with the Italians eventually 12, with the Italians eventually seizing control of the thirteen islands. After a lull, the Italians stepped seizing control of the thirteen islands. After a lull, the Italians stepped up the pressure in July, sending eight submarines into the up the pressure in July, sending eight submarines into the straits. The straits. The closure of the closure of the straits became a questraits became a quesstiotion between Istanbul and Peters-n between Istanbul and Peters-burgburg. B. But this time, the Ottoman goverut this time, the Ottoman governnment was determined ment was determined to dis-to dis-tance the Russians from the straits tance the Russians from the straits and and thethe government government laid mines in laid mines in the straits.the straits.560 TheThe Ottoman government also issued a harsh response byOttoman government also issued a harsh response by deciding to deport the edeciding to deport the enntire Italian community within itire Italian community within its ts borders. At borders. At thatthat time, the Italian poptime, the Italian popuulation in Istanbul was around 20,000, and the lation in Istanbul was around 20,000, and the overall Italian population in the Empire had reached 50,000.overall Italian population in the Empire had reached 50,000.561 Salem Salem Efendi, who had Italian orEfendi, who had Italian oriigins and was worgins and was working closely with Cavid Bking closely with Cavid Bey ey on several financial maon several financial mattters,ters, wawas asked to leave Istanbul. Although Cavid s asked to leave Istanbul. Although Cavid Bey talked to Talat Bey and stated that Salem Efendi was a great help to Bey talked to Talat Bey and stated that Salem Efendi was a great help to him, Talat Bey ihim, Talat Bey innsisted that there were no exceptions. Cavid Bey was sisted that there were no exceptions. Cavid Bey was frustrated bfrustrated by the way Salem Efendi way the way Salem Efendi was treated s treated consideringconsidering his contri-his contri-butbution to financial affairs.ion to financial affairs.562

Some members of parliament as well as Talat, Emrullah, and Prince

Some members of parliament as well as Talat, Emrullah, and Prince SaSaitit Pasha gathered at Cavid Bey’s house on the night of May 11, 1912. Pasha gathered at Cavid Bey’s house on the night of May 11, 1912. Cavid Bey had differing views thCavid Bey had differing views than the general opinion onan the general opinion on two matters two matters

According to the document, According to the document, Sait PashaSait Pasha,, the grand vizier, announced that Cavid Bey will the grand vizier, announced that Cavid Bey will take the office of the ministrtake the office of the ministry of finance y of finance aas the deputy dus the deputy duee to the resignation of Nail to the resignation of Nail Bey. Bey.

560 Clark, TClark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to Whe Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914,ar in 1914, 248248--49; and Armaoğlu, 49; and Armaoğlu, Siyasi Tarih, 1789Siyasi Tarih, 1789--19141914, 622., 622.

561 Armaoğlu, Armaoğlu, Siyasi TSiyasi Taaririhh, 1, 1789789--1914, 323.1914, 323.

562 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 329.329.

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concerning

concerning TrablusgTrablusgarparp. First, he thought that the battle ought to co. First, he thought that the battle ought to con-n-tinue until the end. He believed that any peace offer that would give tinue until the end. He believed that any peace offer that would give TrablusgarpTrablusgarp to Italy and Benghazi to the Ottoman Empire should be rto Italy and Benghazi to the Ottoman Empire should be re-e-jected, aljected, although he did not go intothough he did not go into detail on this matter. Second, detail on this matter. Second, hishis oop-p-position to the deportation of the Italians put him in the minority opiposition to the deportation of the Italians put him in the minority opin-n-ion again. He wrote that exceptions should be made for the Italian ion again. He wrote that exceptions should be made for the Italian clergymen working for the government. Three days afterclergymen working for the government. Three days after this discuthis discus-s-sion, the grasion, the grand vizier began negotiations on nd vizier began negotiations on a pa peace offer coming from eace offer coming from the Austrian ambassador. Although the war raged on, it was neverththe Austrian ambassador. Although the war raged on, it was neverthe-e-less decided that the government should assess peace offers coming less decided that the government should assess peace offers coming from Europe.from Europe.

The Minister of Finance Na

The Minister of Finance Nail Bey adopted many policil Bey adopted many policies compatible ies compatible with those of hiswith those of his prpredecessor. But there was huge pressure on him. edecessor. But there was huge pressure on him. First, he First, he also had discussions with Mahmut Şevket Pasha due to the laalso had discussions with Mahmut Şevket Pasha due to the lat-t-ter’s persistence not to bring the Ministry of War under the control of ter’s persistence not to bring the Ministry of War under the control of the Ministry of Finance. Second, the lack of cash money was quite the Ministry of Finance. Second, the lack of cash money was quite stressful for Nail Bey. On May 21, 1912, he presented his stressful for Nail Bey. On May 21, 1912, he presented his resignation to resignation to the grand vizier.The following day, Cavid Bey got in touch with Salem the grand vizier.The following day, Cavid Bey got in touch with Salem Efendi and asked him to find out to what extent their European parEfendi and asked him to find out to what extent their European parttners ners could provide them with financial aid in the event he took office. On May could provide them with financial aid in the event he took office. On May 23, 1912, the imperial de23, 1912, the imperial decree went out related to the deputcree went out related to the deputaation from tion from the Ministry of Finance.the Ministry of Finance.563 Around 6 pm that day, Cavid Bey took office Around 6 pm that day, Cavid Bey took office to begin his active duty as Minister of Finance.to begin his active duty as Minister of Finance.564 Bedros HaBedros Halllaçyan be-laçyan be-came the Minister of Public Works as the successor to Cavid Bey.came the Minister of Public Works as the successor to Cavid Bey.565

Cavid

Cavid Bey met M. Bompard on Saturday May 25, 1912 to discuss the Bey met M. Bompard on Saturday May 25, 1912 to discuss the Tripolitanian WarTripolitanian War, among other things., among other things.566 As Italy had captured the DAs Italy had captured the Do-o-decanese, Maurice Bompard stated that recapturing decanese, Maurice Bompard stated that recapturing TrablusgarpTrablusgarp and and Benghazi was no longer an option for the Ottomans. He remarked Benghazi was no longer an option for the Ottomans. He remarked that that the Ottomans needed to focus their attention on the activities carried the Ottomans needed to focus their attention on the activities carried

563 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 2Ruznâmesi I, 2227,330, 345, 346, 349.7,330, 345, 346, 349.

564 Pakalın, Pakalın, Maliye TeşMaliye Teşkilatı Tarihi (1442kilatı Tarihi (1442--1930)1930) IV, 238.IV, 238.

565 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücaİttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908delesi, 1908--19131913, 344., 344.

566 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 357.357.

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out by the Russians and Albanians in the Balkans and that hard times

out by the Russians and Albanians in the Balkans and that hard times lay ahead for the country. At this point, Cavid Bey again asserted that lay ahead for the country. At this point, Cavid Bey again asserted that the abandonment of the abandonment of TrablusgarpTrablusgarp would dewould destroy the country, and that stroy the country, and that TrablusgarpTrablusgarp and Benghazi should not be given away. He added that it and Benghazi should not be given away. He added that it was not so easy for the Empire to perish, but that if it did, many other was not so easy for the Empire to perish, but that if it did, many other countries and nations would go down with it. Cavid Bey declared that countries and nations would go down with it. Cavid Bey declared that such pressures on such pressures on TrablusgarpTrablusgarp and Benghazi would lead to immense and Benghazi would lead to immense xenophobia in the country following the war and that it would harm Eu-xenophobia in the country following the war and that it would harm Eu-rope the most, France in particular. rope the most, France in particular.

Cavid Bey’s notes on May 27, 1912 paint a comprehensive picture of

Cavid Bey’s notes on May 27, 1912 paint a comprehensive picture of the general state of the Ottoman Emthe general state of the Ottoman Empire’s economic affairs. From this, pire’s economic affairs. From this, we can further observe that the state’s tendencies begin to take a diffewe can further observe that the state’s tendencies begin to take a differ-r-ent course under the influence of the CUP. On this day Cavid Bey notes ent course under the influence of the CUP. On this day Cavid Bey notes that the company did not accept his corrections to the contract of the that the company did not accept his corrections to the contract of the port port of of İzmirİzmir. He was irritated by the company’s unwilling attitude. . He was irritated by the company’s unwilling attitude. Again, on the same day, we get a glimpse of what he thought about the Again, on the same day, we get a glimpse of what he thought about the state’s independent stance regarding financial administration. He dstate’s independent stance regarding financial administration. He de-e-clared to M. Weil from the Régie Company that he wouldclared to M. Weil from the Régie Company that he would nonot allow the t allow the company’s contract to be extended, unlike Nail Bey had. He also noted company’s contract to be extended, unlike Nail Bey had. He also noted that the French felt bad about Nail Bey’s departure from office, namely that the French felt bad about Nail Bey’s departure from office, namely because under Cavid Bey’s administration, Ottoman interests would be because under Cavid Bey’s administration, Ottoman interests would be prioritized over those of the prioritized over those of the FreFrench.nch.

As Cavid Bey was in search of a loan worth 1.5 million

As Cavid Bey was in search of a loan worth 1.5 million LLiras, Weil iras, Weil told him that the Régie Company would provide him with a loan of only told him that the Régie Company would provide him with a loan of only 200,000 liras as a snub for not extending the deal with the Régie Co200,000 liras as a snub for not extending the deal with the Régie Com-m-pany. Although the Ottoman government was pany. Although the Ottoman government was trytrying to build a more iing to build a more in-n-dependent economy, the financial situation at that moment did not fully dependent economy, the financial situation at that moment did not fully permit it. It seemed that Western countries were not willing to allow permit it. It seemed that Western countries were not willing to allow this to happen, which is why they opposed the loan requests. Hence, this to happen, which is why they opposed the loan requests. Hence, Cavid Bey expressed tCavid Bey expressed to Wo Weil that it was illogical to get 10 million liras eil that it was illogical to get 10 million liras into debt to France in order to obtain a loan that was worth 1 million. into debt to France in order to obtain a loan that was worth 1 million. He complained about the problematic obligation of pleasing the foHe complained about the problematic obligation of pleasing the for-r-eigners and added that the Germans objected loudest to the situateigners and added that the Germans objected loudest to the situationion with the Régie Company. Two days later, Cavid Bey sent Cahit Bey to M. with the Régie Company. Two days later, Cavid Bey sent Cahit Bey to M.

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Révoil, chief of the IOB Istanbul office, to talk about the matter of a

Révoil, chief of the IOB Istanbul office, to talk about the matter of ad-d-vance loans. vance loans.

The Unionists considered introducing a war tax for the

The Unionists considered introducing a war tax for the Tripolitanian Tripolitanian WarWar in the form of a rise in the form of a rise in in the sale price of salt and alcoholic bevethe sale price of salt and alcoholic beverrages. ages. Cavid Bey discussed this with both Révoil and Block, asking for the lat-Cavid Bey discussed this with both Révoil and Block, asking for the lat-ter’s approval. We can deduce Cavid Bey’s agenda by looking at his ac-ter’s approval. We can deduce Cavid Bey’s agenda by looking at his ac-count of the meeting of the Council of Ministers in early June 19count of the meeting of the Council of Ministers in early June 1912.12.567 He was working on loans and had hopes for a positive response from He was working on loans and had hopes for a positive response from the bank. He stood firm on his decision not to extend the duration of the the bank. He stood firm on his decision not to extend the duration of the agreement with the Régie Company. He defended the war tax based on agreement with the Régie Company. He defended the war tax based on the conviction that another loan would not the conviction that another loan would not be be possible in the near fpossible in the near fu-u-ture.ture.

Sait Pasha

Sait Pasha, , Emrullah, Nesimi, Talat, Ziya Hayri, Dr. Nazım, and Mithat Emrullah, Nesimi, Talat, Ziya Hayri, Dr. Nazım, and Mithat Şükrü gathered at Cavid Bey’s house on the evening of WedneŞükrü gathered at Cavid Bey’s house on the evening of Wednessday, June day, June 5, 1912. They were pessimistic about the amendment to Art5, 1912. They were pessimistic about the amendment to Artiicle 35. cle 35. Close friends of the Unionists such as Hallaçyan were also agClose friends of the Unionists such as Hallaçyan were also against this ainst this amendment. Although unrest in Selanik continued, amendment. Although unrest in Selanik continued, Sait PashaSait Pasha and Talat and Talat Bey stated that the government should change its mind about the Bey stated that the government should change its mind about the amendment. Dr. Nazım spoke about Hüseyin Kazım’s (the Uamendment. Dr. Nazım spoke about Hüseyin Kazım’s (the Unnionist gov-ionist gov-ernor of Selanik) insolent behavior of engagiernor of Selanik) insolent behavior of engaging in counter propaganda ng in counter propaganda against the CUP. This anecdote became significant in the sense that it against the CUP. This anecdote became significant in the sense that it signalled the situation in Selanik on the eve of the Balkan Wars. signalled the situation in Selanik on the eve of the Balkan Wars.

On Wednesday, June 12, 1912, Cavid Bey wrote in his journal that

On Wednesday, June 12, 1912, Cavid Bey wrote in his journal that the revenues had been collecthe revenues had been collected from Istanbul and the provinces, and ted from Istanbul and the provinces, and that the total sum reached 1 million Liras. He scoffed at the words of the that the total sum reached 1 million Liras. He scoffed at the words of the former Minister of Finance, Nail Bey, who said, “We only have enough former Minister of Finance, Nail Bey, who said, “We only have enough money left for four days,” and thought that the tide was turning in mamoney left for four days,” and thought that the tide was turning in mat-t-ters of finance. But as the gap between income and expenses was naters of finance. But as the gap between income and expenses was nar-r-rowing, there was in fact only 200,000 rowing, there was in fact only 200,000 LLiras left in the Treasury, which iras left in the Treasury, which had been borrowed from the Régie Company. Thus, on Sunday, June 16, had been borrowed from the Régie Company. Thus, on Sunday, June 16,

567 Mehmed Cavid Mehmed Cavid BBey, ey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 364364--80.80.

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1912, Cavid Bey’s legislative proposal for the w

1912, Cavid Bey’s legislative proposal for the war tax was approved by ar tax was approved by the Council of Ministers. the Council of Ministers.

That same evening, Cavid Bey hosted members of the Central Co

That same evening, Cavid Bey hosted members of the Central Com-m-mittee and ministers. They discussed at length the mittee and ministers. They discussed at length the Tripolitanian WarTripolitanian War and decided to continue the battle with perseverance and resolution. and decided to continue the battle with perseverance and resolution. HoweveHowever, Cavid Bey began to believe that this was not going to bring vic-r, Cavid Bey began to believe that this was not going to bring vic-tory. He was taken aback by those who still hoped that tory. He was taken aback by those who still hoped that TrablusgarpTrablusgarp and and Benghazi would be handed back to the Ottomans. The invasion of the Benghazi would be handed back to the Ottomans. The invasion of the Dodecanese was possibly a breaking point for him. AfDodecanese was possibly a breaking point for him. After this incter this inciident, dent, he lost hopehe lost hope——if he had really ever had any at all, that is. if he had really ever had any at all, that is.

Based on what we can glean from Cavid Bey’s journals, his schedule

Based on what we can glean from Cavid Bey’s journals, his schedule seemed to be quite busy during the month of June 1912. He was preoseemed to be quite busy during the month of June 1912. He was preoc-c-cupied with certain issues such as the ongcupied with certain issues such as the ongoing oing Tripolitanian WarTripolitanian War, neg, nego-o-tiations regarding loans and advance payments, the Manastır (Bitola) tiations regarding loans and advance payments, the Manastır (Bitola) Incident, projects such as railway construction (like the Black Sea, SyriaIncident, projects such as railway construction (like the Black Sea, Syria--Hejaz, and RayakHejaz, and Rayak--Leda lines), and Leda lines), and ElEl--CezireCezire. The war tax was also one of . The war tax was also one of thethe top isstop issues on his agenda.ues on his agenda.

The OPDA and mainly Britain were pushing Cavid Bey on several i

The OPDA and mainly Britain were pushing Cavid Bey on several is-s-sues, specifically the perilous financial situation and excessive military sues, specifically the perilous financial situation and excessive military expenses. The amount of military costs was one of the major concerns expenses. The amount of military costs was one of the major concerns of creditor nations aof creditor nations and foreind foreign institutions; they did not like the fact gn institutions; they did not like the fact that the loans given to the Ottomans were being funneled into military that the loans given to the Ottomans were being funneled into military expenditures. On the other hand, the War Office kept asking for money expenditures. On the other hand, the War Office kept asking for money without even the slightest cut, which could have been easily mawithout even the slightest cut, which could have been easily made. Sir de. Sir Adam Block, on behalf of the OPDA, had cornered the Ottoman Bank and Adam Block, on behalf of the OPDA, had cornered the Ottoman Bank and Cavid Bey in order to make a provision for OPDA revenues. M. Revoil, Cavid Bey in order to make a provision for OPDA revenues. M. Revoil, Chief of the IOB Istanbul office, considered giving the concession of the Chief of the IOB Istanbul office, considered giving the concession of the Black Sea railway construction to thBlack Sea railway construction to the Frenche French and asked whether Russia and asked whether Russia would be fine with the section in Van. Cavid Bey had to explain to him would be fine with the section in Van. Cavid Bey had to explain to him that it was not the Russians but the Armenians who might object to the that it was not the Russians but the Armenians who might object to the project.project.568

568 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 387 and 407, 387 and 407--08.08.

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An important financial and economic gain during the Second Const

An important financial and economic gain during the Second Consti-i-tutiotutional Era nal Era was the rise in tax rates. In fact the Germans, mainly was the rise in tax rates. In fact the Germans, mainly Deutsche Bank, agreed on the increase of tax rates for salt. The events Deutsche Bank, agreed on the increase of tax rates for salt. The events transpiring in Manastir (Bitola) and Albania were the Empire’s most in-transpiring in Manastir (Bitola) and Albania were the Empire’s most in-tricate internal problems at the time. The Albaniantricate internal problems at the time. The Albanian riots wriots were in part ere in part caused by the CUP’s increased taxation, recruitment, and centralization caused by the CUP’s increased taxation, recruitment, and centralization policies, such as the introduction of Latin script in Albanian schools. policies, such as the introduction of Latin script in Albanian schools. While the riots were spreading and gaining strength, the Ottoman soWhile the riots were spreading and gaining strength, the Ottoman sol-l-diers who were members diers who were members of the Sof the Savior avior OfficersOfficers also participated in the also participated in the riots. Cavid Bey was deeply affected when he heard from the Ministry of riots. Cavid Bey was deeply affected when he heard from the Ministry of War that nearly 100 soldiers had defected and taken to the mountains. War that nearly 100 soldiers had defected and taken to the mountains. He thought that this was not a simple act of mutiny.He thought that this was not a simple act of mutiny.

The advance p

The advance payment cayment contract was signed with the Ottoman Bank ontract was signed with the Ottoman Bank on Monday June 24, 1912. The advance payments kept coming and com-on Monday June 24, 1912. The advance payments kept coming and com-ing. Different advances were under discussion for different reasons, ing. Different advances were under discussion for different reasons, such as an advance for the Yemen issue or another one for the roads such as an advance for the Yemen issue or another one for the roads that that were to were to be built.be built.569 Meanwhile, the Unionists were able to amend Meanwhile, the Unionists were able to amend Articles 7 and 35 of the Constitution,Articles 7 and 35 of the Constitution,570 which gave the sultan the right which gave the sultan the right to adjourn and dissolve parliament. The amendment was approved by to adjourn and dissolve parliament. The amendment was approved by parliament on June 24, 1912. Though rumors followed aboparliament on June 24, 1912. Though rumors followed about a resut a reshuffle huffle of the government, nothing happened in this regard.of the government, nothing happened in this regard.

The

The Tripolitanian WarTripolitanian War remained one of the most important issues remained one of the most important issues on Cavid Bey’s agenda in the on Cavid Bey’s agenda in the second quarter ofsecond quarter of 1912. For Cavid Bey, 1912. For Cavid Bey, there were two significant aspects. First, the war was a there were two significant aspects. First, the war was a matter omatter of dif dis-s-cussion and negotiation during the loan discussions with foreign instcussion and negotiation during the loan discussions with foreign insti-i-tutions; second, Cavid Bey was one of the decision makers in this pro-tutions; second, Cavid Bey was one of the decision makers in this pro-ccess, as he was very involved in domestic politics and actively ess, as he was very involved in domestic politics and actively participated in meetings on the war. In participated in meetings on the war. In fact, Cafact, Cavid Bey was a member of vid Bey was a member of

569 MehmeMehmed Cavid Bey, d Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 409, 409--10.10.

570 IfIf there there waswas a dispute between the government and the parliament on an article and if a dispute between the government and the parliament on an article and if the governmenthe government insisted on its claim and the parliament rejected it by a majority vote t insisted on its claim and the parliament rejected it by a majority vote the gthe government wouovernment woulld be reshuffledd be reshuffled or a new election would be held within four or a new election would be held within four monthmonthss. . Kansu, Kansu, İttihadİttihadççıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908ıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 34, 3444--45.45.

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the newly established war committee in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

the newly established war committee in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Although Enver Pasha declared to the committee, which consisted of the Although Enver Pasha declared to the committee, which consisted of the Ministers of War, Navy, Internal Affairs, Foreign Affairs, Post and Econ-Ministers of War, Navy, Internal Affairs, Foreign Affairs, Post and Econ-omy, thatomy, that the warthe war would continue for two more years, this declarwould continue for two more years, this declaraation tion contradicted the news coming from the front. Neşet Bey wrote that the contradicted the news coming from the front. Neşet Bey wrote that the time for a truce had already passed as they fired the last cannons and time for a truce had already passed as they fired the last cannons and urgently needed to come up with a solution. The only turgently needed to come up with a solution. The only thing thahing that the t the committee could do was to send Prince committee could do was to send Prince Sait PashaSait Pasha to Britain and France.to Britain and France.

On 27 June 1912, Cavid Bey met with the French envoy, M. Bo27 June 1912, Cavid Bey met with the French envoy, M. Bommpard, pard, who told him that the Ottomans had lost who told him that the Ottomans had lost TrablusgarpTrablusgarp and Beand Bennghazi. ghazi. Cavid Bey responded that they did not Cavid Bey responded that they did not believe believe they would lose Bengha-they would lose Bengha-zi, even though they had surely lost zi, even though they had surely lost TrablusgarpTrablusgarp. He further said that . He further said that they would lose them both in the long run but that meanwhile damage they would lose them both in the long run but that meanwhile damage would continue to be inflicted on the enemy as much as posswould continue to be inflicted on the enemy as much as possiible.ble.571 What is interesting iWhat is interesting is Cavid s Cavid Bey’s sharp statements on these sorts of Bey’s sharp statements on these sorts of military and political matters given that he was a civilian. His character military and political matters given that he was a civilian. His character as a statesman never faltered in foreign affairs.as a statesman never faltered in foreign affairs.

For sure, the most important matter that would arise for Cavid Bey

For sure, the most important matter that would arise for Cavid Bey over the summerover the summer of 1912of 1912 was to immediately find money for the state, was to immediately find money for the state, which only had enough until July 10.which only had enough until July 10.572 During the meetings between During the meetings between the Ottoman Bank and the Régie, the company tried to impose political the Ottoman Bank and the Régie, the company tried to impose political pressure on the CUP as it did not want to extend the term for the pressure on the CUP as it did not want to extend the term for the Régie, Régie, wwhich was about to end. M. Weil, who was looking for loans in Paris on hich was about to end. M. Weil, who was looking for loans in Paris on behalf of the Régie, had written to Cavid Bey that they faced a great deal behalf of the Régie, had written to Cavid Bey that they faced a great deal of opposition about advance payments. It was understood during the of opposition about advance payments. It was understood during the meetings with the ministers of economeetings with the ministers of economy in Pamy in Paris, Vienna, and Berlin, ris, Vienna, and Berlin, that the reason was that the Régie’s period was not to be extended. Athat the reason was that the Régie’s period was not to be extended. Ac-c-cording to Cavid Bey, Weil put the Régie’s agenda back on the table in an cording to Cavid Bey, Weil put the Régie’s agenda back on the table in an attempt to bribe him with an advance.attempt to bribe him with an advance.573 This issue would be part of the This issue would be part of the discussidiscussions untions until the CUP gave in toward the end of the Balkan Wars. M. l the CUP gave in toward the end of the Balkan Wars. M.

571 MMehmed Cavid Bey, ehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 410, 410--14.14.

572 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, Ruznâmesi I, 442299--31.31.

573 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 412412--13 and 16.13 and 16.

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Révoil stopped by Cavid Bey’s office to ask him about the state’s debts

Révoil stopped by Cavid Bey’s office to ask him about the state’s debts before leaving for Paris. Like Weil, he also told him that it was difficult to before leaving for Paris. Like Weil, he also told him that it was difficult to find money. Cavid Bey stated that he expefind money. Cavid Bey stated that he expected a rcted a reesponse by July 10, the sponse by July 10, the day the Treasury would run dry. day the Treasury would run dry.

As Kansu states, a series of incidents paved the way for the

As Kansu states, a series of incidents paved the way for the resigna-resigna-tiontion of Mahmud Şevket Pasha government. of Mahmud Şevket Pasha government. On June 25, 1912, a group On June 25, 1912, a group called the Safeguard of Land (called the Safeguard of Land (MuhafazaMuhafaza--i Vatani Vatan) headed by Tayyar Bey ) headed by Tayyar Bey in Manastır sent a telegram to the government with a list of demands. in Manastır sent a telegram to the government with a list of demands. Their demands included joining the Albanian revolt aTheir demands included joining the Albanian revolt and tnd the trial of the he trial of the Hakkı Pasha government, along with Talat, Cavid, Hüseyin Cahit, Ömer Hakkı Pasha government, along with Talat, Cavid, Hüseyin Cahit, Ömer Naci, Dr. Nazim, BabanNaci, Dr. Nazim, Babanzade Ismail Hakkı Bey, and Rahmi (Arslan). Also zade Ismail Hakkı Bey, and Rahmi (Arslan). Also on the list of demands was a ban on the CUP’s political activiton the list of demands was a ban on the CUP’s political activities. A ies. A group of highgroup of high--ranking soldiranking soldiers ers had supported the Albanian revolt, had supported the Albanian revolt, which had turned it against the CUP. The Savior which had turned it against the CUP. The Savior OfficersOfficers also delivered also delivered their message to Nazim Pasha. The list from the Savior their message to Nazim Pasha. The list from the Savior OfficersOfficers also de-also de-manded the resignations of Cavid Bey, Talat Bey, and Mahmut Şevket manded the resignations of Cavid Bey, Talat Bey, and Mahmut Şevket Pasha aPasha as wes well as the closure of the Committee and dissolution of pall as the closure of the Committee and dissolution of parrlia-lia-ment. When this was heard, Mahmut Şevket Pasha ment. When this was heard, Mahmut Şevket Pasha recalled parlirecalled parliaament ment in a plenary session in order to approve legislation prohibiting any kind in a plenary session in order to approve legislation prohibiting any kind of political activity for military officers.of political activity for military officers.574 AlthoAlthough ugh parliament passed parliament passed the bill, it could not save the government. As Cavid Bey pointed out, it the bill, it could not save the government. As Cavid Bey pointed out, it was too late. was too late.

These developments paved the way for the government’s resignhese developments paved the way for the government’s resigna-a-tion. On June 30, Mahmud Şevket Pasha (Minister of War), Mahmud tion. On June 30, Mahmud Şevket Pasha (Minister of War), Mahmud Muhtar Pasha (MinisteMuhtar Pasha (Minister ofr of Navy), and Talat Bey, Prince Said Halim PNavy), and Talat Bey, Prince Said Halim Pa-a-sha, Cevat Bey,sha, Cevat Bey,575 and Cavid Bey attended a meeting in the residenand Cavid Bey attended a meeting in the residence of ce of the Minister of War. First, they discussed the the Minister of War. First, they discussed the Tripolitanian WarTripolitanian War. Cavid . Cavid Bey stated that it was as if during this meeting the cabinet was trBey stated that it was as if during this meeting the cabinet was tryingying to to legitimize their position against the General Staff, since there was a slegitimize their position against the General Staff, since there was a se-e-rious difference of opinion berious difference of opinion between the cabinet and the military. Atween the cabinet and the military. Allt-t-hough morale was low and ammunition was almost depleted, the cabhough morale was low and ammunition was almost depleted, the cabi-i-

574 KansKansu, u, İttihadİttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908çıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 350, 350--53 and 55.53 and 55.

575 Chief RepresentChief Representative and Vice President of the Commander in Chief, Staff Officer.ative and Vice President of the Commander in Chief, Staff Officer.

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net refused to accept this and carry out

net refused to accept this and carry out the the peace settlement. During a peace settlement. During a meeting of the cabinet, the issue of Manastır came up. Cavid Bey comeeting of the cabinet, the issue of Manastır came up. Cavid Bey com-m-plained that nothing had been done, even though nine days had passed. plained that nothing had been done, even though nine days had passed. This was a conflictual matter between Mahmut Şevket Pasha and the This was a conflictual matter between Mahmut Şevket Pasha and the CUP. Cavid Bey in parCUP. Cavid Bey in particuticular seemed frustrated with Mahmut Şevket Plar seemed frustrated with Mahmut Şevket Pa-a-sha for two reasons: the punishment of only two soldiers following the sha for two reasons: the punishment of only two soldiers following the insurrection and the case of Galip Pasha, an enemy of the CUP who had insurrection and the case of Galip Pasha, an enemy of the CUP who had withdrawn from withdrawn from Selanik andSelanik and returned to active duty. Cavid Bey ereturned to active duty. Cavid Bey ex-x-prepressedssed these thoughts to Mahmut Şevket Pasha in person. That night, these thoughts to Mahmut Şevket Pasha in person. That night, Cavid Bey’s friends from the Central Committee and the cabinet gatCavid Bey’s friends from the Central Committee and the cabinet gath-h-ered at his house. Cavid Bey and a couple of others believed that ered at his house. Cavid Bey and a couple of others believed that MaMahhmut Şevket Pasha should resign from his position, and mut Şevket Pasha should resign from his position, and thisthis idea was idea was supported by a vote. Meanwhile, Talat and Haci Adil were meeting with supported by a vote. Meanwhile, Talat and Haci Adil were meeting with Mahmut Şevket Pasha, who claimed, “I'll resign the moment the bill is Mahmut Şevket Pasha, who claimed, “I'll resign the moment the bill is passed in the Parliament and the Senate.”passed in the Parliament and the Senate.”576

576 Mehmed CaMehmed Cavid Bey, vid Bey, MeşMeşrutiyet Rurutiyet Ruznâmesi I, znâmesi I, 418418--19.19.

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Figure Figure 33.4 .4 Cavid Bey and his his friends. Cavid Bey and his his friends. From right tFrom right to leo lefft: Krikor t: Krikor Söhrap Efendi, deputy for Istanbul, Varteks Serengül, deputy ofSöhrap Efendi, deputy for Istanbul, Varteks Serengül, deputy of ErzErzu-u-rum, Hüsyein Cahit Yalçın, deputy for İsyanbul and Cavid Bey’s very rum, Hüsyein Cahit Yalçın, deputy for İsyanbul and Cavid Bey’s very close friend, Mehmed Cavid Bey, deputy for Selanik, Bedros Hallaçyan, close friend, Mehmed Cavid Bey, deputy for Selanik, Bedros Hallaçyan, droutydrouty for Istanbul, Bimen Şen (Defor Istanbul, Bimen Şen (Der Ğar Ğazzaaryryan), composer, an unknown an), composer, an unknown person. person. Aras Yayıncılık (@arasyayincilik), Aras Yayıncılık (@arasyayincilik), “A“A photograph depicting the photograph depicting the II. Second onstitutuional Period with prominent Armenian politicians II. Second onstitutuional Period with prominent Armenian politicians and Unionists together.” Twitter photo. 8 October, 2020. and Unionists together.” Twitter photo. 8 October, 2020. https://twitter.com/arasyayincilik/status/1314132086731792385https://twitter.com/arasyayincilik/status/1314132086731792385

§ 3.5 The Budget of 1912The Budget of 1912

Before I mention the 1912 budget, I want to first discuss the important

Before I mention the 1912 budget, I want to first discuss the important developments that took place in 1912. At the bedevelopments that took place in 1912. At the beginnginniingng of the fiscal year of the fiscal year in March, the Decree Law in the General Accounting Law had come into in March, the Decree Law in the General Accounting Law had come into force. This was the new version of the General Accounting Law of 1910 force. This was the new version of the General Accounting Law of 1910 prepared by Cavid Bey. In 1911, he made some amendments to the law prepared by Cavid Bey. In 1911, he made some amendments to the law that also influenced lethat also influenced legislgislaatition in this area during the Republon in this area during the Republiican Era. can Era.

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This decree law was also adopted in 1927 under the title “Fi

This decree law was also adopted in 1927 under the title “Fisscal Man-cal Man-agement and Control Act, No: 5018” and was implemented until 2006. agement and Control Act, No: 5018” and was implemented until 2006. This is one of Cavid Bey’s main legacies in terms of financial regThis is one of Cavid Bey’s main legacies in terms of financial reguulatilation. on. BBefefore going into details, I would like to wrap up details of the story ore going into details, I would like to wrap up details of the story from the beginning and touch on the points that might be missing from from the beginning and touch on the points that might be missing from the previous chapter. the previous chapter.

As emphasized above, the budget of 1909

As emphasized above, the budget of 1909 —— which was based on the which was based on the principles of generalprinciples of generality ity aandnd unity unity —— was prepared according to the was prepared according to the basic rules of the budget of 1863basic rules of the budget of 1863––1864. In preparation for the 1909 1864. In preparation for the 1909 budget, there was a need for a general accounting law. Important provbudget, there was a need for a general accounting law. Important provi-i-sions that encapsulated principles related to a contemporary budget sions that encapsulated principles related to a contemporary budget and and accoaccouuntnting were first included in the 1909 budget. Thus, the coing were first included in the 1909 budget. Thus, the con-n-cept of the modern budget and its implementation were a concept from cept of the modern budget and its implementation were a concept from the Second Constitutional Period. The most important person who initthe Second Constitutional Period. The most important person who initi-i-ated, prepared, and implemented this law was Cavid Beyated, prepared, and implemented this law was Cavid Bey. Wi. Witth h the 1909 the 1909 budget, state revenues distributed to other departments were tranbudget, state revenues distributed to other departments were trans-s-ferred to the ministry of finance. The OPDA’s income and expenses were ferred to the ministry of finance. The OPDA’s income and expenses were also included in the general budget, as were the state’s income and ex-also included in the general budget, as were the state’s income and ex-penses. Only some special institupenses. Only some special institutiontionss wwere excluded such as The Gen-ere excluded such as The Gen-eral Directorate of Foundations (eral Directorate of Foundations (Evkâf)Evkâf), The Department of Border and , The Department of Border and Coastal Health (Coastal Health (Hudut ve Sevahili SağlıkHudut ve Sevahili Sağlık), et cetera. ), et cetera.

Meanwhile, Cavid Bey made another contribution to Turkey’s fina

Meanwhile, Cavid Bey made another contribution to Turkey’s finan-n-cial history. In 1909, Cavid Bey analyzed the accumulated documents cial history. In 1909, Cavid Bey analyzed the accumulated documents that were related to state accounts under the Ministry of Finance’s sthat were related to state accounts under the Ministry of Finance’s su-u-pervision. Thepervision. The Ministry of Finance prepared Ministry of Finance prepared The Financial StatisticsThe Financial Statistics ((IIh-h-saiyatsaiyat--ı Maliye)ı Maliye), which depicts the state’s financial situation during the , which depicts the state’s financial situation during the preceding 23 years between 1887 and 1909. In particular, preceding 23 years between 1887 and 1909. In particular, thethe docdocuument ment provides detailed figures and explanations related toprovides detailed figures and explanations related to all tax and nonall tax and non--tax tax government revenues and government debts for the period in question.government revenues and government debts for the period in question.

Cavid Bey sought to establish the principles of the budget and legally

Cavid Bey sought to establish the principles of the budget and legally enshrine them in Ottoman law. The General Accounting Law was enshrine them in Ottoman law. The General Accounting Law was based based onon FrenchFrench Accounting Law of Accounting Law of 1862, and the financial provisions were 1862, and the financial provisions were approved by the parliament on June 6, 1910. This law included calculat-approved by the parliament on June 6, 1910. This law included calculat-ing gross revenues in the budget, determining alloing gross revenues in the budget, determining allowwances for each state ances for each state

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department, and implementing regulations that prevent s

department, and implementing regulations that prevent state depart-tate depart-ments frments from increasing their expenses through spom increasing their expenses through speecial income. In short, cial income. In short, the law set out the rules for implementing the budget based on the the law set out the rules for implementing the budget based on the principles of generality and unity. Furthermore, it also stipulated the principles of generality and unity. Furthermore, it also stipulated the budget’s format concerning its contbudget’s format concerning its content, appendices, anent, appendices, and tables. Along d tables. Along with Cavid Bey, a team led by M. Charles Laurent, the French consultant with Cavid Bey, a team led by M. Charles Laurent, the French consultant at the ministry, contributed to preparing the law. at the ministry, contributed to preparing the law.

This was the first time the budget was explained in detail. Under the

This was the first time the budget was explained in detail. Under the General Accounting Law, theGeneral Accounting Law, the Minister of FinancMinister of Finance became the sole exae became the sole exam-m-iner of the state’s revenues and expenses. All proceeds, except those iner of the state’s revenues and expenses. All proceeds, except those from the OPDA, would go to the treasury. As a rule, all expenses would from the OPDA, would go to the treasury. As a rule, all expenses would be paid by the treasury under the authority of the minister and his abe paid by the treasury under the authority of the minister and his ac-c-councountants. In other wortants. In other words, the financial officers were to be the ds, the financial officers were to be the keykey aac-c-tors in state finances. As discussed in the previous chapter, their saltors in state finances. As discussed in the previous chapter, their salaaries ries had become a big issue during the budget talks. However, Cavid Bey had become a big issue during the budget talks. However, Cavid Bey succeeded in awarding accountants the highestsucceeded in awarding accountants the highest salaries among stasalaries among state te employees. The new regulations insured that all of the state’s income employees. The new regulations insured that all of the state’s income and expenses were included in the accounting records of the treasurers and expenses were included in the accounting records of the treasurers affiliated with the finance minister. It became possible to continuously affiliated with the finance minister. It became possible to continuously monitor the state bumonitor the state budget’s income and edget’s income and expense accounts on a monthly xpense accounts on a monthly and annual basis.and annual basis.

Cavid Bey had made an amendment the following year. The amen

Cavid Bey had made an amendment the following year. The amend-d-ment was completed on February 27, ment was completed on February 27, 1911,1911, and came into force at the and came into force at the beginning of the fiscal year (March) of 1912. In 1910, while Cbeginning of the fiscal year (March) of 1912. In 1910, while Cavid Bey avid Bey was reorgwas reorganizing the financial structure, the task of preparing “the geanizing the financial structure, the task of preparing “the gen-n-eral account of the treasury” (eral account of the treasury” (hazine hesabhazine hesab--ı umumisiı umumisi) was given to the ) was given to the Directorate of General Accounting. Later on, this concept was added into Directorate of General Accounting. Later on, this concept was added into the General Accounting Law in the General Accounting Law in 1927. During the S1927. During the Second Constitecond Constituutional tional Period, only the final accounts of the years 1910, 1911, and 1912 could Period, only the final accounts of the years 1910, 1911, and 1912 could be issued. Political insurgencies and wars prevented the goverbe issued. Political insurgencies and wars prevented the governnment ment from following these basic regulations and measures taken for ffrom following these basic regulations and measures taken for fiinancial nancial reforreform. However, the Com. However, the Constitution provided the government with power nstitution provided the government with power to issue decrees. With these decrees, the government was able to issue to issue decrees. With these decrees, the government was able to issue

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appropriations as it wanted and put the previous year's budget into ef-

appropriations as it wanted and put the previous year's budget into ef-fect the following year.fect the following year.

After this

After this summarysummary, , we can now proceed to diwe can now proceed to discuss the 1912 budget. scuss the 1912 budget. On July 2, budget talks began in parliament under the provOn July 2, budget talks began in parliament under the proviisional name sional name “The Draft Law of The Budget of 1912” (“The Draft Law of The Budget of 1912” (1328 Senesi Bütçe Kanun Lay-1328 Senesi Bütçe Kanun Lay-ishasıishası).).577 Cavid Bey presented this budget, but as he pointed out, it wasCavid Bey presented this budget, but as he pointed out, it was prepared while Nail Beyprepared while Nail Bey was the Minister of Finance. Bwas the Minister of Finance. Beecause parlia-cause parlia-ment had adjourned, the budget of 1911 was simply used for 1912 in-ment had adjourned, the budget of 1911 was simply used for 1912 in-stead of preparing a new one.stead of preparing a new one.578 At the beginning of his talk, Cavid Bey’s At the beginning of his talk, Cavid Bey’s key message was as follows: “if you prioritize thkey message was as follows: “if you prioritize the interest of the state,e interest of the state, then you might hurt your friends; but if you prioritize your friends’ in-then you might hurt your friends; but if you prioritize your friends’ in-terests, you would be very welcomed but disregard the state’s interest.” terests, you would be very welcomed but disregard the state’s interest.” After this message, he asked his colleagues (members of the cabinet) to After this message, he asked his colleagues (members of the cabinet) to ask for fewer ask for fewer allocations. The countryallocations. The country was in a difficult situation, and was in a difficult situation, and the cabinet’s constant demands could not be met all at once. As was typ-the cabinet’s constant demands could not be met all at once. As was typ-ical of Cavid Bey’s speeches, he began by mentioning previous budgets, ical of Cavid Bey’s speeches, he began by mentioning previous budgets, to help bring the audience up to date with the new measto help bring the audience up to date with the new measures and steps ures and steps taken. Hetaken. He started by discussing expenditures, which increased annually. started by discussing expenditures, which increased annually. As he stated, the current expenditures were 34 miAs he stated, the current expenditures were 34 milllion lion LirasLiras. He asked . He asked the ministers to withdraw their demands for new allocations. The main the ministers to withdraw their demands for new allocations. The main point here is that due to thpoint here is that due to the dissolution of the pae dissolution of the parrliament in January liament in January 1912, the previous budget was accepted by decree instead of issuing a 1912, the previous budget was accepted by decree instead of issuing a new budget for 1912. Therefore, the expenditures were mostly from the new budget for 1912. Therefore, the expenditures were mostly from the previous year. The data from the two budgets did not match. The gov-previous year. The data from the two budgets did not match. The gov-ernmenernment showed each item’s expt showed each item’s expenditure as less than it should have enditure as less than it should have been in 1912. This was not compatible with the Court of Accounts. He been in 1912. This was not compatible with the Court of Accounts. He stated that Nail Bey’s intention was to prevent the ministers from stated that Nail Bey’s intention was to prevent the ministers from spending money. However, unfortunately, they had rspending money. However, unfortunately, they had reeceived aceived allocations llocations via supplemenvia supplementary allowances. In the first quarter alone, their expendi-tary allowances. In the first quarter alone, their expendi-tures were almost 36 million tures were almost 36 million LirasLiras. He mentioned that the General As-. He mentioned that the General As-

577 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 2Devre: 2, , Cilt:Cilt: 1, 19 1, 19 HaziranHaziran 1326 (2 J1326 (2 July 1912) 585.uly 1912) 585.

578 Erdoğan Öner Erdoğan Öner Osmanlı Devleti 1912 Yılı Hazine Genel Hesabı veOsmanlı Devleti 1912 Yılı Hazine Genel Hesabı ve Kesin Hesap Kesin Hesap KKanunu anunu TasarısıTasarısı ((Ankara: Maliye Bakanlığı, 2009), 209.Ankara: Maliye Bakanlığı, 2009), 209.

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sembly’s expenditure was 10,000

sembly’s expenditure was 10,000 LirasLiras more than the previous year. He more than the previous year. He warned his colleagues that they shouwarned his colleagues that they should ask theld ask themmselves selves —— not not him him —— why this had happened. Due to the why this had happened. Due to the Tripolitanian WarTripolitanian War, the allocations to , the allocations to certain state offices such as the postal service had increased. He was certain state offices such as the postal service had increased. He was very content with the Court of Accounts. Though their expenditure had very content with the Court of Accounts. Though their expenditure had increased, thincreased, the auditing process had pe auditing process had proceeded successfully. In general, roceeded successfully. In general, he gave priority to three different institutions: the military, navy, and he gave priority to three different institutions: the military, navy, and finances. finances.

Cavid Bey pointed out that revenues had increased each year since

Cavid Bey pointed out that revenues had increased each year since 1909 in parallel with expenditures. He complai1909 in parallel with expenditures. He complained about the lack of a ned about the lack of a proper census. The revenue obtained from tithes was 6,260,000 proper census. The revenue obtained from tithes was 6,260,000 LirasLiras in in 1908 and increased to 7,353,000 1908 and increased to 7,353,000 LirasLiras in 1911. The general revenue in 1911. The general revenue had increased from 26.5 million had increased from 26.5 million LirasLiras in 1909 to 28 million in 1910 and in 1909 to 28 million in 1910 and to 30 million in 1911.to 30 million in 1911. In 1912, he utilized a In 1912, he utilized a different methodology while different methodology while calculating revenue: until 1912, he made calculations based on the acalculating revenue: until 1912, he made calculations based on the av-v-erage of the preceding three years. But in 1912, he used the data only erage of the preceding three years. But in 1912, he used the data only from the previous year. The state’s estimated revenue for 1912 wfrom the previous year. The state’s estimated revenue for 1912 was as 30,514,000 30,514,000 LirasLiras. He . He was quite optimistic about this rise, since revenue was quite optimistic about this rise, since revenue had increased despite the war. But, he said, the state’s revenue would had increased despite the war. But, he said, the state’s revenue would not be able to meet expenditures if they could not find new sources of not be able to meet expenditures if they could not find new sources of income such as the 4% increase in custincome such as the 4% increase in customs duties, the patent toms duties, the patent tax, and ax, and the consumption tax. The foreigners who complained about the budget the consumption tax. The foreigners who complained about the budget deficit needed to take this into consideration. Even the 4% increase in deficit needed to take this into consideration. Even the 4% increase in customs duties would not be enough to cover expenditures. customs duties would not be enough to cover expenditures.

According to Cavid, 1911

According to Cavid, 1911 was a good year: there was a good year: there was no war, and was no war, and there was money in the treasury due to the loans taken out in 1910 and there was money in the treasury due to the loans taken out in 1910 and 1911. Though he was criticized for this loan, he argued that taking out 1911. Though he was criticized for this loan, he argued that taking out the loan then was the right decision. In 1912, the Ottoman government the loan then was the right decision. In 1912, the Ottoman government recreceived advances from the eived advances from the IOB. The IOB was quite IOB. The IOB was quite helpfulhelpful during this during this period sinceperiod since the stock exchange markets were closed to the goverthe stock exchange markets were closed to the governnment ment due to the war. The total amount of the loans was 140,950,000 due to the war. The total amount of the loans was 140,950,000 LirasLiras. He . He stated that by the end of 1911, approximately stated that by the end of 1911, approximately 15 million 15 million LirasLiras had beenhad been paid off, while 115 million paid off, while 115 million LirasLiras remained. The largest debts were due remained. The largest debts were due to the to the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway, the Soma, the Soma--Bandirma line, and the Yemen rail-Bandirma line, and the Yemen rail-

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way. According to Cavid Bey, the 115 million that remained was not a

way. According to Cavid Bey, the 115 million that remained was not a massive amount of money massive amount of money for a country like the Otfor a country like the Ottoman Etoman Emmpire that pire that had a huge territory full of abovehad a huge territory full of above-- and underground resources. Even and underground resources. Even during a war, they were able to pay off 1 million during a war, they were able to pay off 1 million LirasLiras in debt. Cavid Bey in debt. Cavid Bey was against taking out loans to cover daily or unnecessary expenses. Hwas against taking out loans to cover daily or unnecessary expenses. He e announced that he wouldannounced that he would secure a loan of 20secure a loan of 20--30 million 30 million LirasLiras for large for large investments investments soonsoon. After the war, he foresaw that the state’s revenue . After the war, he foresaw that the state’s revenue would increase and that they would first close the budget deficit and would increase and that they would first close the budget deficit and thereafter appropriately utilithereafter appropriately utilize the loans for puze the loans for pubblic works such as blic works such as by y raising revenues and consolidating funds. raising revenues and consolidating funds.

The value of Ottoman funds decreased after the

The value of Ottoman funds decreased after the Tripolitanian WarTripolitanian War. . However, afterwards, it increased again, though not to preHowever, afterwards, it increased again, though not to pre--war levels. war levels. The most valuable Ottoman fund was The most valuable Ottoman fund was the Ottoman Loans Union (the Ottoman Loans Union (DüyunDüyun--ı Mübadeı Mübadelele--i Muvahhadei Muvahhade). Its value was 93 francs in August 1911, 82 ). Its value was 93 francs in August 1911, 82 francs in September, and 91.55 francs in francs in September, and 91.55 francs in FebruaryFebruary 1912. He thought 1912. He thought that, despite the war, the rate of reduction was not so bad. Cavid Bey that, despite the war, the rate of reduction was not so bad. Cavid Bey wanted parliament to pass legislation in thiwanted parliament to pass legislation in this regard such s regard such as the Law of as the Law of Floating Loans. This legislation was to repay the state’s debts to about 1 Floating Loans. This legislation was to repay the state’s debts to about 1 million of its citizens. One of the key issues was the Régie. Due to its emillion of its citizens. One of the key issues was the Régie. Due to its ex-x-piration date, Cavid Bey filed with the OPDA to abolish it. According to piration date, Cavid Bey filed with the OPDA to abolish it. According to CavidCavid Bey, a monopoBey, a monopoly on tobacco controlled by the government ily on tobacco controlled by the government innstead stead of the existing private monopoly would be the most profitable structure. of the existing private monopoly would be the most profitable structure. The Council of State (The Council of State (ŞuraŞura--ı Devletı Devlet) was examining the draft law.) was examining the draft law.

Some of the MPs criticized Cavid Bey on certain issues such as Some of the MPs criticized Cavid Bey on certain issues such as ththe inadequacy of public works, the methodology of tax collection, and e inadequacy of public works, the methodology of tax collection, and failing to establish the railways using Ottoman capital failing to establish the railways using Ottoman capital —— which was iwhich was im-m-possiblpossible, according to Cavid Bey. Also on the agenda weree, according to Cavid Bey. Also on the agenda were massive, massive, problematic projectsproblematic projects such as Elsuch as El--Cezire.Cezire.579 Cavid BeyCavid Bey focused on the Rfocused on the Ré-é-gie issue during the last months of his time in the ministry in 1912. He gie issue during the last months of his time in the ministry in 1912. He worked closely with M. Weil, although in his worked closely with M. Weil, although in his journalsjournals hhe admits that he e admits that he

579 MM ZabıMM Zabıtt CeridCeridesi, esi, DevreDevre: 2: 2, , Cilt:Cilt: 2, 192, 19 Haziran 1326 (2 July 1912)Haziran 1326 (2 July 1912),, 614614--616616..

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was irritated by him from time to time. He was particularly bothered by

was irritated by him from time to time. He was particularly bothered by Weil’s character and Weil’s character and his pushy and manipulative techniques. The main his pushy and manipulative techniques. The main issue was that France and Germany had begun railway negotiations, issue was that France and Germany had begun railway negotiations, while the Ottoman government wwhile the Ottoman government waass to raise customs duties by 4% and to raise customs duties by 4% and determine the partition of the railways in Ottoman lands. The Régie determine the partition of the railways in Ottoman lands. The Régie companycompany wanted to renew itself, and in doing so, went through complex wanted to renew itself, and in doing so, went through complex negotiations, since it was in urgent need of money from the Ottoman negotiations, since it was in urgent need of money from the Ottoman government fogovernment forr its own interests. M. Weil pushed Cavid Bey during the its own interests. M. Weil pushed Cavid Bey during the negotiations and eventually stated that the French no lnegotiations and eventually stated that the French no longer wanted to onger wanted to give an advance that they had already asked for. The amount of the agive an advance that they had already asked for. The amount of the ad-d-vance was 500,000 vance was 500,000 LirasLiras. The government had already taken 2. The government had already taken 20000,000 ,000 LirasLiras of it, and negotiations were still ongoing for the remaining of it, and negotiations were still ongoing for the remaining 300,000 300,000 LirasLiras. The Régie Company force. The Régie Company forced the government to ensure sol-d the government to ensure sol-id guarantees for the loan. In the end, Cavid Bey emphasized that they id guarantees for the loan. In the end, Cavid Bey emphasized that they were in the midst of a war and would not hawere in the midst of a war and would not havvee asked for the rasked for the reenewal of newal of the Régie agreement if they had trusted in the future of Turkey and the the Régie agreement if they had trusted in the future of Turkey and the Ottoman natiOttoman nation. Cavid Bey stated that the government did not need on. Cavid Bey stated that the government did not need 300,000 300,000 LirasLiras from the Régie.from the Régie.

Cavid Bey participated in the meeting of the Central Committ

Cavid Bey participated in the meeting of the Central Committeeee (CC), (CC), which decided to ask Mahmut Şevket Pasha for his resignation. While which decided to ask Mahmut Şevket Pasha for his resignation. While there were many reasons for this, tthere were many reasons for this, the main reason was due to Mahmut he main reason was due to Mahmut Şevket Pasha’s inability to quell the Albanian riot in Manastır and his Şevket Pasha’s inability to quell the Albanian riot in Manastır and his reluctance to punish Colonel Sadık Bey.reluctance to punish Colonel Sadık Bey. DDuring the meeting, an issue re-uring the meeting, an issue re-lated to the El Cezire project had bothered Cavid lated to the El Cezire project had bothered Cavid BeyBey. Rahmi (Arslan) . Rahmi (Arslan) had claimehad claimed that they had lost money because of Cavid Bey’s obstinacy d that they had lost money because of Cavid Bey’s obstinacy on the project. According to him, he wanted Karasu (Emmanuel) to prof-on the project. According to him, he wanted Karasu (Emmanuel) to prof-it from this prit from this proojject. Cavid Bey explained that the loss of money was due ect. Cavid Bey explained that the loss of money was due to the agreement signed between Jackson and Nazim Pashto the agreement signed between Jackson and Nazim Pasha. He warned a. He warned them against getting involved in something they did not know about. them against getting involved in something they did not know about. After the meeting of the CC, Cavid Bey and Asım Bey met Nazım PAfter the meeting of the CC, Cavid Bey and Asım Bey met Nazım Paassha at ha at Asım Bey’s house. Nazım Pasha had several conditions for rAsım Bey’s house. Nazım Pasha had several conditions for reemoving moving Sait Sait PashaPasha and Mahmut and Mahmut ŞŞevket Pasha froevket Pasha from their positions as soon as possi-m their positions as soon as possi-

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ble.

ble.580 The meeting was inconclusive. It seemed as if Nazım Pasha was The meeting was inconclusive. It seemed as if Nazım Pasha was humoring the Unionists, who were trying tohumoring the Unionists, who were trying to hhold onto power.old onto power.

During those days, Cavid Bey had a heavy workload that included

During those days, Cavid Bey had a heavy workload that included state affairs, meetings, inaugstate affairs, meetings, inaugurations, etc. In the evenings, he met with urations, etc. In the evenings, he met with the Unionists from the CC or the the Unionists from the CC or the partyparty to try to find the best solution for to try to find the best solution for the course of events. Evthe course of events. Eveerrything was rapidly changing, and they were ything was rapidly changing, and they were developing contingency plans. But a new piece of news would change developing contingency plans. But a new piece of news would change everything. Indeed, everything was changing in an expeditious manner. everything. Indeed, everything was changing in an expeditious manner. The flow of incidents determined the politics and economy between The flow of incidents determined the politics and economy between 1908 and1908 and 11913. 913.

On July 9, 1912, the CC and party representatives decided that

On July 9, 1912, the CC and party representatives decided that Mahmut Şevket Pasha should resign, Mahmut Şevket Pasha should resign, andand if he would not agree to rif he would not agree to reesign, sign, they would find a solution to force him out. However, when they were in they would find a solution to force him out. However, when they were in the meeting, they heard that Mahmut Şevthe meeting, they heard that Mahmut Şevkkeet Pasha t Pasha had already re-had already re-signed. According to Cavid Bey, the resignation was due to the weasigned. According to Cavid Bey, the resignation was due to the weakkness ness of his character, which came to the forefront during difficult times.of his character, which came to the forefront during difficult times.581 His resignation was related to a domestic crisis that covered many folds. His resignation was related to a domestic crisis that covered many folds. At last, he couAt last, he coulldd not hannot handle the situation of both CUP and also its oppo-dle the situation of both CUP and also its oppo-nentsnents..582 The Unionists learned about his resignation as they were offer-The Unionists learned about his resignation as they were offer-ing Hurşit Pasha the position.ing Hurşit Pasha the position.583

The following day, as always, Cavid Bey was extremely busy. First, he

The following day, as always, Cavid Bey was extremely busy. First, he met with Mmet with Mrr. Huguenin, the Chief of Anatolian Railways for the Mersin . Huguenin, the Chief of Anatolian Railways for the Mersin port, Greek border, anport, Greek border, and Ankara, which the Russians had od Ankara, which the Russians had oppposed. Cavid posed. Cavid Bey asked M. Huguenin if there was an article related to Turkey in the Bey asked M. Huguenin if there was an article related to Turkey in the Potsdam Agreement. They were both unaware of whether the agree-Potsdam Agreement. They were both unaware of whether the agree-ment contained an article related to Turkey rather than Iran. M. Hu-ment contained an article related to Turkey rather than Iran. M. Hu-guenin wguenin wrote a letter posing this question to Mr. Gwinner, an arote a letter posing this question to Mr. Gwinner, an addminis-minis-trator at Deutsche Bank, to which the latter later responded that there trator at Deutsche Bank, to which the latter later responded that there was nothing in the agreement related to Turkey. That same day, parlia-was nothing in the agreement related to Turkey. That same day, parlia-

580 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, MeşrutiyMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi et Ruznâmesi II,, 423423--24.24.

581 MMeehhmed Cavid Bey,med Cavid Bey,Meşrutiyet RuzMeşrutiyet Ruznnâmesi âmesi II, 424., 424.

582 Naim TuNaim Turrfan, fan, RRise of the ise of the Young Turks: Politics, the Military and Ottoman Collapse,Young Turks: Politics, the Military and Ottoman Collapse, 182.182.

583 Mehmed Cavid BMehmed Cavid Bey, ey, Meşrutiyet RuMeşrutiyet Ruzznâmesi Inâmesi I, 424, 424--2266..

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ment began negotiations on the war tax, which the

ment began negotiations on the war tax, which the oppooppositionsition strongly strongly opposed. Cavid Bey also criticized the CUP’s stance during these meet-opposed. Cavid Bey also criticized the CUP’s stance during these meet-ings; the bill was applauded in unison at the beginning, but later when ings; the bill was applauded in unison at the beginning, but later when the discussions shifted to the articles, the rhythm and cothe discussions shifted to the articles, the rhythm and colllaboration left laboration left centre stage to the fiercentre stage to the fierce discussions.ce discussions.584

§ 3.6 The Government Crisis, JulyThe Government Crisis, July––August 1912August 1912

After Mah

After Mahmut Şevket Pasha’s resignation on July 9, Nazım Pasha bmut Şevket Pasha’s resignation on July 9, Nazım Pasha beecame came the favored the favored candidatecandidate for war ministerfor war minister who had sympathy and a posi-who had sympathy and a posi-tive reputation in the army. In tive reputation in the army. In effect, the Unionists had already aeffect, the Unionists had already apppealed pealed to him, hoping to find a swift solution to the crisis.to him, hoping to find a swift solution to the crisis. Cavid Bey mentioned Cavid Bey mentioned the conditions put forward by Nazım Pasha to become Mithe conditions put forward by Nazım Pasha to become Minnister of War: ister of War: a general pardon, ending the state of emergency, meeting Albania’s de-a general pardon, ending the state of emergency, meeting Albania’s de-mands, holding powers of supreme military command as well as control mands, holding powers of supreme military command as well as control of the war ministry. The CUPof the war ministry. The CUP supported the punishment of soldiers who supported the punishment of soldiers who had taken to the mountains, keeping the military out of politics, and re-had taken to the mountains, keeping the military out of politics, and re-forming the military. Nazım Pasha’s demands, especially the last named, forming the military. Nazım Pasha’s demands, especially the last named, were unacceptable. Cavid Bey asserted that there was room for ma-were unacceptable. Cavid Bey asserted that there was room for ma-noeuvrnoeuvre. Abdullah Pasha was then considered for the pose. Abdullah Pasha was then considered for the posiition. Mean-tion. Mean-while, the cabinet’s possible resignation was mentioned in political cir-while, the cabinet’s possible resignation was mentioned in political cir-cles.cles.585 If the government could not find a new Minister of War, the If the government could not find a new Minister of War, the cabinet had to resign.cabinet had to resign.

For the month of July, Cavid Bey s

For the month of July, Cavid Bey stayed on Büyükada, as he did every tayed on Büyükada, as he did every summer. Cavid Bey received a message to go to parliament on Sunday, summer. Cavid Bey received a message to go to parliament on Sunday, July 14, 1912, although there had been no session scheduled for that July 14, 1912, although there had been no session scheduled for that day. He realized that Abdullah Pasha had not accepted the goverday. He realized that Abdullah Pasha had not accepted the governnment’s ment’s offer offer —— markimarking the beginning of a cabinet crisis. Although Cavid Bey ng the beginning of a cabinet crisis. Although Cavid Bey wrote that he would not be able to make it because of a lack of transpor-wrote that he would not be able to make it because of a lack of transpor-tation, Talat Bey told him to come no matter what time it was. Both the tation, Talat Bey told him to come no matter what time it was. Both the

584 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, MeşruMeşrutiyet Ruznâtiyet Ruznâmesi Imesi I, 426, 426--27.27.

585 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 429429--31.31.

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Ministers of Interior Affairs and Foreign Affairs sugge

Ministers of Interior Affairs and Foreign Affairs suggested the cabinet’s sted the cabinet’s possible resignation. In parliament, Cavid Bey argued that the impact of possible resignation. In parliament, Cavid Bey argued that the impact of this decision would lead the county into great financial disarray. Tevfik this decision would lead the county into great financial disarray. Tevfik Pasha was the only candidate left for grand vizier, and it was uncertain Pasha was the only candidate left for grand vizier, and it was uncertain as to whether he as to whether he would accept the position. It would take 15 days to would accept the position. It would take 15 days to form a cabinet; although in the meantime government funds would be form a cabinet; although in the meantime government funds would be sufficient, the new cabinet would not have any money left to pay wages. sufficient, the new cabinet would not have any money left to pay wages. Cavid Bey said that he would not continue his position as financeCavid Bey said that he would not continue his position as finance minis-minis-ter, since the poverty of the state would become appater, since the poverty of the state would become apparrent: he did not ent: he did not want his reputation to be tarnished. He stated he had taken on his posi-want his reputation to be tarnished. He stated he had taken on his posi-tion amid very difficult times, and that he had perstion amid very difficult times, and that he had perseevered so that the vered so that the cabinet would not be forced to step docabinet would not be forced to step down. That night, there was a meet-wn. That night, there was a meet-ing at party headquarters. Cavid Bey stated that the first objective was ing at party headquarters. Cavid Bey stated that the first objective was preventing the cabinet’s resignation. Many of his friends agreed with preventing the cabinet’s resignation. Many of his friends agreed with him. While they were in the meeting, good news ahim. While they were in the meeting, good news arrrived: Muhtar Pasha rived: Muhtar Pasha had acceptedhad accepted the position of Minister of War. He wanted to see the CUP the position of Minister of War. He wanted to see the CUP members the following day. This was a positive development as the con-members the following day. This was a positive development as the con-tinuity of the government was now ensured.tinuity of the government was now ensured.

The following day, Cavid Bey went to a meeting at Talat Bey’s house.

The following day, Cavid Bey went to a meeting at Talat Bey’s house. ManastManastıır and Albr and Albania were among the main topics as were ania were among the main topics as were TrablusgarpTrablusgarp and Benghazi and Benghazi —— although the most urgent matter was securing a Minialthough the most urgent matter was securing a Minis-s-ter of War to ensure the survival of the cabinet. However, as mentioned ter of War to ensure the survival of the cabinet. However, as mentioned earlier, things were developing rapidly. Unknown to thearlier, things were developing rapidly. Unknown to thee cabinet, cabinet, MaMahhmut Muhtar Pasha had negotiated with Nazım Pasha and thus mut Muhtar Pasha had negotiated with Nazım Pasha and thus stipstipuulated the same conditions as him. The following day, Cavid Bey was lated the same conditions as him. The following day, Cavid Bey was quite busy and preoccupied all day with an article about keeping the old quite busy and preoccupied all day with an article about keeping the old budget valid until the new one passed tbudget valid until the new one passed thhe Senate.e Senate.586 HuHurşit Pasha stood rşit Pasha stood before the sultan and resigned by saying that he was working as Minibefore the sultan and resigned by saying that he was working as Minis-s-ter of War out of obligation. ter of War out of obligation. Sait PashaSait Pasha was frustrated by this news, and was frustrated by this news, and he resigned that night. The palace accepted his resignation, and by ihe resigned that night. The palace accepted his resignation, and by im-m-perial decreperial decreee, the cabinet, the cabinet remained as a caretaker government. Accorremained as a caretaker government. Accord-d-

586 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, 431, 431--33.33.

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ing to Cavid Bey, Hurşit Pasha and Asım Bey were responsible for the

ing to Cavid Bey, Hurşit Pasha and Asım Bey were responsible for the cabinet’s resignation. Cavid Bey said that they were victims of a bluff: cabinet’s resignation. Cavid Bey said that they were victims of a bluff: we paid the emotional price for not working with the peopwe paid the emotional price for not working with the peoplle who were e who were nonot on the same side as us. t on the same side as us.

On July 15, 1912,

On July 15, 1912, Sait PashaSait Pasha and Asim Bey had given speeches in and Asim Bey had given speeches in parliament on the impact of the turmoil in the country and its consparliament on the impact of the turmoil in the country and its conse-e-quences for the international platforms. Two days later, on July 17, quences for the international platforms. Two days later, on July 17, 1912, parliame1912, parliamennt gave a votet gave a vote of confidence to the of confidence to the Sait PashaSait Pasha govergovern-n-ment, 194 to 4. In spite of this, ment, 194 to 4. In spite of this, Sait PashaSait Pasha resigned. Later, the sultan resigned. Later, the sultan asked him, “they (the Unionists) trusted you, why did you resign?” asked him, “they (the Unionists) trusted you, why did you resign?” Sait Sait PashaPasha replied by saying, “They trust me, but I don’t trustreplied by saying, “They trust me, but I don’t trust them.”them.”587 CavidCavid Bey thought that the resignation had upset parliament; he added that Bey thought that the resignation had upset parliament; he added that the people who had recently given their vote of confidence were the people who had recently given their vote of confidence were spitspiteefulful as they did not know the truth behind the resignation.as they did not know the truth behind the resignation.588 The UnioThe Unionnists’ ists’ conciliatory stance was insuconciliatory stance was insuffficient as thficient as they were unable to fill the most ey were unable to fill the most vital cabinet posts.vital cabinet posts.589

The next day, Cavid Bey refused to participate in the opening cer

The next day, Cavid Bey refused to participate in the opening cere-e-mony for the Kırıkkilise Railway due to the cabinet’s resignation; nevemony for the Kırıkkilise Railway due to the cabinet’s resignation; never-r-theless, he kept on working. He met with M. Huguentheless, he kept on working. He met with M. Huguenin on the matter of in on the matter of the Selanik Central Station. He managed to get the war tax draft bill the Selanik Central Station. He managed to get the war tax draft bill passed at the Senate and brought to a conclupassed at the Senate and brought to a conclusion an issue regarding in-sion an issue regarding in-come tax.come tax.590 The following day, the newspapers wrote that Hurşit PThe following day, the newspapers wrote that Hurşit Paasha, sha, Hadi Pasha, and Nazım PasHadi Pasha, and Nazım Pasha had appeared at the palace.ha had appeared at the palace. Cavid Bey was Cavid Bey was unable to make any sense of it, and he had received no further iunable to make any sense of it, and he had received no further innfor-for-mation since he had bmation since he had been on the island. But the breaking news aeen on the island. But the breaking news arrrived rived quickly: the Italians had launched torpedoes in the quickly: the Italians had launched torpedoes in the ÇanakkaleÇanakkale overnight. overnight. Cavid Bey felt responsible for this and wrote: Cavid Bey felt responsible for this and wrote:

587 Türkgeldi, Türkgeldi, Görüp İşittiGörüp İşittiklerimklerim, 55., 55.

588 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, MMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, eşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 434434--35.35.

589 Turfan, Turfan, RRise of the Younise of the Youngg Turks: Politics, the Military and Ottoman CollapTurks: Politics, the Military and Ottoman Collapssee, 182, 182..

590. . Mehmed CaviMehmed Cavid Bey, d Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 435, 435--36.36.

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“

“They wanted to take advantage of our distraction, domestic coThey wanted to take advantage of our distraction, domestic con-n-flicts, and the disordeflicts, and the disorder of our military.r of our military.” ”

Later, news came that

Later, news came that Hurşit, Nazım, and Hadi Pashas had visited the Hurşit, Nazım, and Hadi Pashas had visited the palace to submit the soldiers’ ppalace to submit the soldiers’ petition concerning the adjournment of etition concerning the adjournment of parliament and punishment of soldiers who contributed to the Albanian parliament and punishment of soldiers who contributed to the Albanian revolt. Cavid Bey wonderedrevolt. Cavid Bey wondered how these three could possibly implement how these three could possibly implement ddiscipline in the army. Furthermore, the government had been stirred iscipline in the army. Furthermore, the government had been stirred by the statby the statement Ismail Fazıl Pasha had sent addressing the Albanian ement Ismail Fazıl Pasha had sent addressing the Albanian community. It was quite difficult to comprehend who was who and who community. It was quite difficult to comprehend who was who and who was against what. was against what.

On July 20 Cavid Bey presented a

On July 20 Cavid Bey presented a letter to the cabinet that addressed letter to the cabinet that addressed the grand vizier including the question othe grand vizier including the question of f his resignation. While his resignation. While Sait Pa-Sait Pa-shasha kept quiet on the matter, Cavid Bey sensed that he would be more kept quiet on the matter, Cavid Bey sensed that he would be more content if he did not resign, so he dropped his resignation threat. Cavid content if he did not resign, so he dropped his resignation threat. Cavid BBeey spoke directly with the grand y spoke directly with the grand vizier sincevizier since the expression “absence the expression “absence of a quaof a qualified Minister of Finance” in the lified Minister of Finance” in the resignationresignation letter led to nu-letter led to nu-merous rumors. merous rumors. Cavid Bey met Talat Bey and Hacı Adil Bey. They were Cavid Bey met Talat Bey and Hacı Adil Bey. They were bothered by the disorder within the ranks bothered by the disorder within the ranks of theof the soldiers and the writ-soldiers and the writ-ten statement. They immediately wanted a new cabinet to be formed, so ten statement. They immediately wanted a new cabinet to be formed, so that they could leave the government.that they could leave the government. The topics at the meetinThe topics at the meetingg were as were as follows:follows:

■ Negotiations between Said Halim Pasha and the Italians: Although Said Negotiations between Said Halim Pasha and the Italians: Although Said Halim Pasha was informed that he could not continue the negotiations, Halim Pasha was informed that he could not continue the negotiations, they could still potentially reach an agreement. they could still potentially reach an agreement.

■ The Albanian issue: The situation was getting wThe Albanian issue: The situation was getting woorse by the day, with rse by the day, with revolting soldiers and helpless commanders. The Albanian people were revolting soldiers and helpless commanders. The Albanian people were concerned, and soldiers were sending telegrams to Istanbul. concerned, and soldiers were sending telegrams to Istanbul. Cavid Bey Cavid Bey said, “This is Mahmut Şevket Pasha’s army.” The commandersaid, “This is Mahmut Şevket Pasha’s army.” The commander--inin--chief chief was irresolute and fearful. was irresolute and fearful. They had wanted to send in more troops; They had wanted to send in more troops; however, none could be found anywhere.however, none could be found anywhere.

■ A coup d’etat: Hurşit Pasha had suspected that there could be a coup A coup d’etat: Hurşit Pasha had suspected that there could be a coup d'éd'état, but there were barely 50tat, but there were barely 50––60 soldiers involved. Hurşit Pasha said 60 soldiers involved. Hurşit Pasha said that he had been wrong. that he had been wrong.

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■ Offering Tevfik Pasha the position of grand vizier Offering Tevfik Pasha the position of grand vizier 591

The sultan’s nominee for grand vizier was Tevfik Pasha, who was then

The sultan’s nominee for grand vizier was Tevfik Pasha, who was then the ambassador to London. But he put fothe ambassador to London. But he put forward some reasons to justify rward some reasons to justify Tevfik Pasha’s rejection. Then, under Kamil Pasha and Hüseyin Hilmi Tevfik Pasha’s rejection. Then, under Kamil Pasha and Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha’s association and contribution, Gazi Ahmet Muthtar Pasha estaPasha’s association and contribution, Gazi Ahmet Muthtar Pasha estab-b-lished a government on July 22, 1912.lished a government on July 22, 1912.592 Cavid Bey was content about Cavid Bey was content about Tevfik Pasha’s rejectioTevfik Pasha’s rejection, because due to his extensive time spent in Eu-n, because due to his extensive time spent in Eu-rope, Tevfik Pasha was utterly ignorant and not at all familiar with the rope, Tevfik Pasha was utterly ignorant and not at all familiar with the Constitution and the constitutional monarchy. He said that it was a Constitution and the constitutional monarchy. He said that it was a shame to have previously put men like this in such important posshame to have previously put men like this in such important posi-i-titions.ons.593 Political events and uncertainty were immediately echoed in Political events and uncertainty were immediately echoed in economic relations and advance payment contracts. Cavid Bey had an economic relations and advance payment contracts. Cavid Bey had an appointment with Mr. Nias from the Ottoman Bank on Monday morappointment with Mr. Nias from the Ottoman Bank on Monday mornning, ing, July 22, 1912, for an advance payment of 250,000 July 22, 1912, for an advance payment of 250,000 LirasLiras. . However, Mr. However, Mr. Nias had already met with Reşid Saffet (Atabinen), a financial coNias had already met with Reşid Saffet (Atabinen), a financial connsultant sultant who was close to Cavid Bey, and told him that the sum would be given in who was close to Cavid Bey, and told him that the sum would be given in tranches due to the current political situation.tranches due to the current political situation.

The opposition’s candidate for grand vizier was Kamil Pasha.

The opposition’s candidate for grand vizier was Kamil Pasha. It turns It turns out that Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha’s intention all along was also to hand out that Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha’s intention all along was also to hand the position over to Kamil Pasha.the position over to Kamil Pasha.594 Cavid Bey declared that the way in Cavid Bey declared that the way in which this was handled would tarnish the country’s name and reputa-which this was handled would tarnish the country’s name and reputa-tion. Ziya Pasha became the new Ministetion. Ziya Pasha became the new Minister of Finance and was ar of Finance and was asssigned signed by the grand vizier for the sole reason that he knew how to keep an ac-by the grand vizier for the sole reason that he knew how to keep an ac-count book. The rest of the ministers were also arbitrarily chosen. Cavid count book. The rest of the ministers were also arbitrarily chosen. Cavid Bey stated that the CUP was heavily defeated, according to public opin-Bey stated that the CUP was heavily defeated, according to public opin-ion. The repion. The representatives were puzzled at and critical of the CUP. Cavid resentatives were puzzled at and critical of the CUP. Cavid

591 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, MeşrMeşruutiyet Ruznâmesitiyet Ruznâmesi II, 437, 437--40.40.

592 Türkgeldi, Türkgeldi, Görüp İGörüp İşittikleşittiklerimrim, 49; and Turfan, , 49; and Turfan, Rise of the Young Turks: Politics, the Rise of the Young Turks: Politics, the MilitaMilitary and Ottoman Collapsery and Ottoman Collapse, 182, 182--83; and Tunaya, 83; and Tunaya, İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Biİttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir r Kuşağın, BiKuşağın, Birr Partinin TarihPartinin Tarihii, 3,, 3, 140; and Akşin, 140; and Akşin, Jön Türkler ve Ittihat TerakJön Türkler ve Ittihat Terakkkii, 325, 325; and ; and Kansu, Kansu, İttihİttihadçılarıadçıların Rejim ve İkn Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908tidar Mücadelesi, 1908--1913,1913, 365.365.

593 Mehmed Cavid BeyMehmed Cavid Bey, , MeMeşrutiyet Ruznşrutiyet Ruznââmesi Imesi I, 440, 440--41.41.

594 Türkgeldi, Türkgeldi, Görüp İşittiklerimGörüp İşittiklerim, 54., 54.

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Bey stated that now with Asım Bey out of office, his efforts amounted to

Bey stated that now with Asım Bey out of office, his efforts amounted to nothing, because according to Cavid Bey the ones responothing, because according to Cavid Bey the ones responnsible for the fall sible for the fall of the cabinet were the ministers of Interior Affof the cabinet were the ministers of Interior Affairs and Foreign Af-airs and Foreign Af-fairs.fairs.595 Cavid Bey made a comparison between that day and the past Cavid Bey made a comparison between that day and the past year on the anniversary of the year on the anniversary of the Revolution. It is possible to see what the Revolution. It is possible to see what the future would bring by looking at his journals. Although martial law was future would bring by looking at his journals. Although martial law was finally abolished on Julyfinally abolished on July 24, 1912 after it had been in force since the 31 24, 1912 after it had been in force since the 31 March Incident, this was somehow not satisfactory.March Incident, this was somehow not satisfactory.596 SuSubbsequently, a sequently, a political campaign against the CUP was carried out by thepolitical campaign against the CUP was carried out by the press. press. The The newspapers that newspapers that praisedpraised Kamil Pasha and CKamil Pasha and Ceemaleddin Molla accused maleddin Molla accused the the CUP of supporting a despotic regime, such as was seen duCUP of supporting a despotic regime, such as was seen durring the ing the Hamidian regime. It was claimed that the CUP oppressed coHamidian regime. It was claimed that the CUP oppressed connscience, science, freedom, and the press. Cavid Bey wrote that when you see such levels freedom, and the press. Cavid Bey wrote that when you see such levels of corruption and injustice, one becomes peof corruption and injustice, one becomes pesssimistic asimistic about the future. bout the future. For him, they were too blind to see that it was the country that was For him, they were too blind to see that it was the country that was shaking, not the CUP.shaking, not the CUP.597 Meanwhile, the CUP was going through finaMeanwhile, the CUP was going through finanncial cial difficulties. With no more than 500 difficulties. With no more than 500 llira in its coffers, Cavid Bey met M. ira in its coffers, Cavid Bey met M. Huguenin to ask for a 20,0Huguenin to ask for a 20,00000--llira loan in eira loan in exxchange for the Unionist (change for the Unionist (Itti-Itti-hadhad) Garden in Selanik. To spite the CUP, the newsp) Garden in Selanik. To spite the CUP, the newspaapers published the pers published the fact that the CUP had withdrawn “100,000 lira.”fact that the CUP had withdrawn “100,000 lira.”

Another rumor working against the CUP was about a potential coup

Another rumor working against the CUP was about a potential coup d'état. When Cavid Bey wed'état. When Cavid Bey went to parliament, the atmosphere was chnt to parliament, the atmosphere was chaaotic. otic. First of all, political and professional resentment of the Savior OffFirst of all, political and professional resentment of the Savior Offiicers cers publicly surfaced as soon as the freedom of the press was restored. For publicly surfaced as soon as the freedom of the press was restored. For the first time the “Program of the Savior Officers,” which had the first time the “Program of the Savior Officers,” which had been circu-been circu-lating secretly prior to the resignation of lating secretly prior to the resignation of Sait PashaSait Pasha, appeared in certain , appeared in certain newspapers. Their immediate demands newspapers. Their immediate demands —— such as the dissolsuch as the dissoluution of tion of parliament and holding new elections parliament and holding new elections —— were intended to intewere intended to intennsify the sify the current anticurrent anti--Unionist trend and werUnionist trend and were put forward to procure “… the ob-e put forward to procure “… the ob-servance of the fundamentals of real constitutionalism in the Govern-servance of the fundamentals of real constitutionalism in the Govern-

595 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, MeşrutiMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesiyet Ruznâmesi I,I, 441441--42.42.

596 Turfan, Turfan, Rise of the Young TurksRise of the Young Turks: Politics, t: Politics, thhe Military and e Military and OOttoman Collapsettoman Collapse, 184., 184.

597 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 442442--43.43.

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ment administration.” The Saviors wanted to turn society against those

ment administration.” The Saviors wanted to turn society against those who had become prominent in restoring the who had become prominent in restoring the cconstitution. The docu-onstitution. The docu-ment implies that wment implies that what this disillusioned group needed was just too dif-hat this disillusioned group needed was just too dif-ficult to obtain under the regime of the Unionists and their main sup-ficult to obtain under the regime of the Unionists and their main sup-porters, the officer corps. On the evening of July 24, 1912, what are porters, the officer corps. On the evening of July 24, 1912, what are known as the “redknown as the “red--sealed letters” signed by the Savior Officers wsealed letters” signed by the Savior Officers were re-ere re-ceived by officials such as the Chief Secretary to the Sultan Halid Ziya ceived by officials such as the Chief Secretary to the Sultan Halid Ziya BeyBey598 and the President of the Chamber Halil Bey. The letter to Halil and the President of the Chamber Halil Bey. The letter to Halil Bey incited important developments. The Saviors threatened the presi-Bey incited important developments. The Saviors threatened the presi-dent’s life as revenge for his “harmful”dent’s life as revenge for his “harmful” and “underhanded” activand “underhanded” activiities. ties. They further warned him not to attempt to obstruct “… the dissolThey further warned him not to attempt to obstruct “… the dissoluution tion of the present Chamber of Deputies or, more accurately, the Club and of the present Chamber of Deputies or, more accurately, the Club and Theatre of Fındıklı, which constitutes the most important (and) just Theatre of Fındıklı, which constitutes the most important (and) just demand of the mildemand of the military…” According to Turfan, itary…” According to Turfan,

“

“TheirTheir derogatory reference to Parliament as a nightclubderogatory reference to Parliament as a nightclub--cumcum--theatre seems to have derived from their resentment of the in-theatre seems to have derived from their resentment of the in-eepptitude and bickering of the politicians and from the soldiers’ titude and bickering of the politicians and from the soldiers’ natural desire for coercive politics.”natural desire for coercive politics.”599

This letter became the reason why everyone was afraid and expected

This letter became the reason why everyone was afraid and expected the soldiers to swarm in to conduct a military coup: but no one athe soldiers to swarm in to conduct a military coup: but no one ar-r-rived.rived.600 Halil Bey responded to the threat by reading the letter out loud Halil Bey responded to the threat by reading the letter out loud on the floor in the chamber. Halil Bey, Talat Beon the floor in the chamber. Halil Bey, Talat Bey, and Seyyit Bey had giv-y, and Seyyit Bey had giv-en speeches underlining that they were ready to die for the Constiten speeches underlining that they were ready to die for the Constitu-u-tion. These talks solidified the government’s legitimacy, especially since tion. These talks solidified the government’s legitimacy, especially since it had been backed by the army.it had been backed by the army.601 Over the next few days, the struggle Over the next few days, the struggle

598 Halid Ziya Bey was dismissed on July 31, 1912 through the pressure of the Halid Ziya Bey was dismissed on July 31, 1912 through the pressure of the govergovern-n-ment. Tment. Thhe sultan accepte sultan accepteed it without grace. Ali Fuat Türgledi was appointd it without grace. Ali Fuat Türgledi was appointeed instd instead of ead of Halid Ziya Halid Ziya as the Cas the Chief Secretary. hief Secretary. Turfan, Turfan, Rise of the Young Turks: Politics, tRise of the Young Turks: Politics, the Milhe Miliitary tary and Ottoman Collapseand Ottoman Collapse, 186; and Uşaklıgil, , 186; and Uşaklıgil, Saray ve Ötesi: AnılarSaray ve Ötesi: Anılar, , 600600--12.12.

599 Turfan, Rise of the YoungTurfan, Rise of the Young Turks: PolitTurks: Politiics, the Militarcs, the Militaryy and Ottoman Collapseand Ottoman Collapse, 184, 184--85; and 85; and Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, 185, 185--886.6.

600 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 444., 444.

601 Kansu,Kansu, İttihadçıların Reİttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908jim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 376., 376.

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to keep the parlia

to keep the parliament open or to dissolve it was the main focus for ment open or to dissolve it was the main focus for both sides. One night, Talat Bey and Cavid Bey paid a visit to Hüseyin both sides. One night, Talat Bey and Cavid Bey paid a visit to Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha to find out whether or not the parliament had been diHilmi Pasha to find out whether or not the parliament had been dis-s-solved. Talat Bey and Cavid Bey suggested a parliamentary recess isolved. Talat Bey and Cavid Bey suggested a parliamentary recess in-n-sstead of its abolition. Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha stated that due to the sevetead of its abolition. Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha stated that due to the severri-i-ty of the news from Albania and the army, the dissolution of the ty of the news from Albania and the army, the dissolution of the chamber was absolutely necessary. As they left the meeting, they reachamber was absolutely necessary. As they left the meeting, they real-l-ized that the decision to dismiss the parliament hized that the decision to dismiss the parliament had already been made. ad already been made. They also learned that Abdurrahman Efendi, who was known as a coThey also learned that Abdurrahman Efendi, who was known as a cor-r-rupt partisan member of the LEP, had become Minister of Finance (he rupt partisan member of the LEP, had become Minister of Finance (he would take on this role again in 1918).would take on this role again in 1918).602 The government’s program, The government’s program, which was prepared and presented bwhich was prepared and presented by Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, was basy Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, was basi-i-cally one giant complaint against the CUP. Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha insisted cally one giant complaint against the CUP. Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha insisted on calling a vote of confidence the same day. Though many deputies on calling a vote of confidence the same day. Though many deputies asked to have a voice and Gazi Muhtar Pasha agreed to postpone the asked to have a voice and Gazi Muhtar Pasha agreed to postpone the vote (after being pvote (after being persuaded by Cavid Bey), Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha put the ersuaded by Cavid Bey), Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha put the government program to a vote. Cavid Bey cast a “red” vote, which meant government program to a vote. Cavid Bey cast a “red” vote, which meant “no” to the government’s program, because he was not given permission “no” to the government’s program, because he was not given permission to take to the floor to voice his opinions. The reason behind tto take to the floor to voice his opinions. The reason behind this rush his rush was the government’s intention to amend Article 7 of the Cowas the government’s intention to amend Article 7 of the Connstitution. stitution. The following day, Cavid Bey personally told Gazi Muhtar PThe following day, Cavid Bey personally told Gazi Muhtar Paasha that sha that they were not on the right track. Thereupon, Gazi Muhtar Pasha took they were not on the right track. Thereupon, Gazi Muhtar Pasha took him to the Chamber of Ministers to talk.him to the Chamber of Ministers to talk. Cavid Bey told him that the cab-Cavid Bey told him that the cab-inet was not objective and mentioned the fact that Nazım Pasha, the inet was not objective and mentioned the fact that Nazım Pasha, the Minister of War, and Kamil Pasha, President of the Council of State, sup-Minister of War, and Kamil Pasha, President of the Council of State, sup-ported his argument. Gazi Muhtar Pasha responded by saying that they ported his argument. Gazi Muhtar Pasha responded by saying that they had appointed Nhad appointed Nazım Pasha because the CUP had called upon him. He azım Pasha because the CUP had called upon him. He added that Tevfik Pasha had been abroad for 25 years, and appaadded that Tevfik Pasha had been abroad for 25 years, and apparrently, ently, he was an appropriate nominee for this position. Cavid Bey suhe was an appropriate nominee for this position. Cavid Bey sugggested gested that there should be a parliamentary recess instead of adjourthat there should be a parliamentary recess instead of adjournning ing it. But it. But Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, who was called there by Gazi Muhtar Pasha, stated Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, who was called there by Gazi Muhtar Pasha, stated

602 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 444444--45; and Turfan, 45; and Turfan, Rise of the YRise of the Young oung Turks: PTurks: Poolitics, the Millitics, the Miliitary and Ottoman Collapsetary and Ottoman Collapse, 186., 186.

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that this was an irreversible decision, and that parliament would be ad-

that this was an irreversible decision, and that parliament would be ad-journed until the new election. The sultan complainedjourned until the new election. The sultan complained603 and asked why and asked why his Chief Secretary (Halit Ziya Bey) his Chief Secretary (Halit Ziya Bey) and Chamberlain (Lütfi Simavi Bey) and Chamberlain (Lütfi Simavi Bey) were being dismissed, indicating that the tide was turning toward an were being dismissed, indicating that the tide was turning toward an antianti--CUP government. CUP government.

On August 3, a group of deputies motioned to

On August 3, a group of deputies motioned to interpellateinterpellate Nazım PNazım Pa-a-sha for his support for the Savior Officers by inviting them to the Susha for his support for the Savior Officers by inviting them to the Sub-b-lime Porte. The motion indicated two things: first, a complex, historical lime Porte. The motion indicated two things: first, a complex, historical process of the government oversight of the miprocess of the government oversight of the military; second, even if the litary; second, even if the Saviors allied themselves witSaviors allied themselves with the Minister of War, there were still suh the Minister of War, there were still sufffi-fi-cient grounds for arguing against their political interference in cient grounds for arguing against their political interference in paparrlia-lia-mentment. However, the interpellation was postponed. This development . However, the interpellation was postponed. This development seems to have beseems to have been a political maneuver designed to gain enough time en a political maneuver designed to gain enough time to dto dissolve parliament through constitutional means.issolve parliament through constitutional means.604

The Senate decided to dissolve the

The Senate decided to dissolve the chamber. Only a few senators chamber. Only a few senators voted against it, including Mahmut Şevket Pasha. Fifteen to twenty pevoted against it, including Mahmut Şevket Pasha. Fifteen to twenty peo-o-ple from the CUP gathered to decide on what to do next. Cavid Bey was ple from the CUP gathered to decide on what to do next. Cavid Bey was tasked with giving a speech to parliament concerning the Senate’s dectasked with giving a speech to parliament concerning the Senate’s deci-i-sion. On August sion. On August 5, he gave a 455, he gave a 45--minute speech that had minute speech that had repercussionsrepercussions in in both political and military circles. The representatives were deeply both political and military circles. The representatives were deeply moved by his emotional speech. While delivering his speech, Cavid Bey moved by his emotional speech. While delivering his speech, Cavid Bey stated, “I could barely hold back my tears.” The imperial decstated, “I could barely hold back my tears.” The imperial decrree for the ee for the adjournment was prepared that night, and the parliament was closed adjournment was prepared that night, and the parliament was closed down.down.605

Cavid Bey offered a

Cavid Bey offered a verbal verbal proposal that described the government’s proposal that described the government’s move as a major blow to the Constitution. He also offered to adjourn the move as a major blow to the Constitution. He also offered to adjourn the parliamentparliament with declaration owith declaration off a noa no--confidence vote and demanded a confidence vote and demanded a new cabinet. He began his speech with a threatening letter to Halil Bey new cabinet. He began his speech with a threatening letter to Halil Bey that not only addressed him but also the whole chamber and sovethat not only addressed him but also the whole chamber and soverreign-eign-ty of the nation. He underlined that the Empire’s legal sovereignty was ty of the nation. He underlined that the Empire’s legal sovereignty was

603 Mehmed Cavid BMehmed Cavid Beey, y, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,I, 445445--46.46.

604 Turfan, Turfan, Rise of the Young Turks: Politics, thRise of the Young Turks: Politics, the Military and Ottoman Collapse Military and Ottoman Collapse, 187.e, 187.

605 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 448., 448.

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under

under tthreat, and for the second time since the March 31 Incident, par-hreat, and for the second time since the March 31 Incident, par-liament had again been threatened. He compared the two incidents and liament had again been threatened. He compared the two incidents and emphasized their similarities. Cavid Bey explained why the CUP had emphasized their similarities. Cavid Bey explained why the CUP had given a vote of confidence to the government: to ensure given a vote of confidence to the government: to ensure tthe atmohe atmossphere phere of security and peace that was lacking throughout the country. From the of security and peace that was lacking throughout the country. From the beginning, the government’s policies had been far from achieving peace, beginning, the government’s policies had been far from achieving peace, justice, equality, and law. If the parliament were dijustice, equality, and law. If the parliament were disssolved, the govern-solved, the govern-ment would have much broament would have much broadder authority to act against the civil serv-er authority to act against the civil serv-ants and military officers who supported the CUP. Cavid Bey criticized ants and military officers who supported the CUP. Cavid Bey criticized the government for immediately changing persothe government for immediately changing personnnel in both the state nel in both the state apparatus and military and awarding people posapparatus and military and awarding people posiitions due to close per-tions due to close per-sonalsonal connections. An example of this is the emeconnections. An example of this is the emerrgence of the Savior Of-gence of the Savior Of-ficers instead of the Unionists. ficers instead of the Unionists.

Cavid Bey stated that though the government had lifted the state of

Cavid Bey stated that though the government had lifted the state of emergency, the new government had reestablished it at the Sublime emergency, the new government had reestablished it at the Sublime Porte. He described thPorte. He described thee cabinet as helpless and obedient. He accused cabinet as helpless and obedient. He accused them of being a group of ministers who obeyed the rules of the Minister them of being a group of ministers who obeyed the rules of the Minister of War without thinking, as they were both under pressure and under of War without thinking, as they were both under pressure and under threat to obey. He warned that the state of emergency would come backthreat to obey. He warned that the state of emergency would come back,, and it would come back stronger than ever. He further claimed that the and it would come back stronger than ever. He further claimed that the members of the cabinet owed their status to the CUP, and it was the members of the cabinet owed their status to the CUP, and it was the CUP’s fault for not punishing people who had committed crimes and CUP’s fault for not punishing people who had committed crimes and murders. The worst punishment was exile to an islmurders. The worst punishment was exile to an islaand (i.e., the earlier nd (i.e., the earlier fate of Kamil Pasha). He continued by saying, fate of Kamil Pasha). He continued by saying, “But the children of the “But the children of the CUP CUP are are never afraid of surveillance and blockade. The children of the never afraid of surveillance and blockade. The children of the CUP are not afraid of fire and thunder… the CUP is never afraid of death, CUP are not afraid of fire and thunder… the CUP is never afraid of death, … honest children… honest children’’s chests are not vulnerable to bullets and arms… We, s chests are not vulnerable to bullets and arms… We, as the CUP, are not to be frightened though they increased their toas the CUP, are not to be frightened though they increased their tor-r-ment.” He underlinedment.” He underlined the fact that the CUP was the prime mover the fact that the CUP was the prime mover thatthat had brought back the had brought back the cconstitution and parliament to the country. Constitution and parliament to the country. Caavid vid Bey criticized the CUP’s propaganda activities. He further warned that Bey criticized the CUP’s propaganda activities. He further warned that the party was condemned to death, and that they were the strongest the party was condemned to death, and that they were the strongest when assumed to be the weakest. The Senate’s decision in a closedwhen assumed to be the weakest. The Senate’s decision in a closed--door door meeting to dissolve parliament was made bymeeting to dissolve parliament was made by those who were most athose who were most ac-c-

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tive in the 1908 period. Cavid Bey criticized them

tive in the 1908 period. Cavid Bey criticized them harshly becauseharshly because they they had not been elected. This was illegal and reminded him of the days bhad not been elected. This was illegal and reminded him of the days be-e-fore the Revolution. Cavid Bey stated that Islamists and Armenians’ afore the Revolution. Cavid Bey stated that Islamists and Armenians’ ac-c-tivities had led to tivities had led to tthe he cconstitutional revolution (onstitutional revolution (inkilâpinkilâp). He also a). He also ad-d-dressed the Ottoman army and asked where the army of the 1908 dressed the Ottoman army and asked where the army of the 1908 Revolution was locatedRevolution was located, likely, likely in the mountains of Rumelia at this point in the mountains of Rumelia at this point in time. According to him, the Ottoman army needed to be neutral. He in time. According to him, the Ottoman army needed to be neutral. He ssttated that if the army wanted to be a savior of the ated that if the army wanted to be a savior of the cconstitutional ronstitutional re-e-gime, then it has to be the army of the entire Ottoman territory, not only gime, then it has to be the army of the entire Ottoman territory, not only the army of some small group. He stated that the rebels were not in Athe army of some small group. He stated that the rebels were not in Al-l-bania but in the Sublime Porte. This illegbania but in the Sublime Porte. This illegaal government was under prel government was under pres-s-sure from the Minister of War sure from the Minister of War —— even the sultan was under even the sultan was under pressure pressure from him.from him.606 The government had changed the first secretary and The government had changed the first secretary and chamberlain without the sultan’s consent through threats. Cavid Bey chamberlain without the sultan’s consent through threats. Cavid Bey stated that the cabinet, the Sstated that the cabinet, the Seennate, and the palace were all under threat. ate, and the palace were all under threat. Only the nation still had free will. He further stated that the Senate’s iOnly the nation still had free will. He further stated that the Senate’s in-n-terpretation of the terpretation of the cconstitution was not valid. At the end of his speech, onstitution was not valid. At the end of his speech, he proposed the dissolution of parliament without delay and tohe proposed the dissolution of parliament without delay and to hhold a old a vote of no confidence in the government. According to Turfan’s work on vote of no confidence in the government. According to Turfan’s work on the supervision and power of the military over politics, Cavid Bey’s ethe supervision and power of the military over politics, Cavid Bey’s em-m-phasis on the army during his speech indicated that Unionist civilians phasis on the army during his speech indicated that Unionist civilians also needed the backing of an armedalso needed the backing of an armed fforce before they could turn orce before they could turn against the existing political regime.against the existing political regime.607

Cavid Bey’s proposal was accepted by the majority.

Cavid Bey’s proposal was accepted by the majority.608 According to According to Kansu, the meeting witnessed intense arguments and Kansu, the meeting witnessed intense arguments and resultedresulted in a vote in a vote

606 AccorAccording to Turfan, the Unionding to Turfan, the Unionists were not alone in their reaction. The pressure of ists were not alone in their reaction. The pressure of the Saviors the Saviors was the catalyst for change in the attitude of the other interested party. In was the catalyst for change in the attitude of the other interested party. In fact, the offfact, the offiicer corps foundcer corps found it necessary openly to repudiate the Saviors. Eviit necessary openly to repudiate the Saviors. Eviddence oence of f this may be found in ththis may be found in the number of clearlye number of clearly--expressed views by officers., expressed views by officers., Turfan,Turfan, RRise of ise of the Young Turks: Politics, the Military and Ottoman Collapsethe Young Turks: Politics, the Military and Ottoman Collapse, 184., 184.

607 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, 317. , 317.

608 MM Zabıt CeridesMM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 2, i, Devre: 2, CCilt:ilt: 2, 23 2, 23 TemmTemmuuzz 1326 (5 August 1912), 1326 (5 August 1912), 648648--654.654.

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of no confidence in the cabinet.

of no confidence in the cabinet.609 According to the According to the ddiiaries of Cavid Bey aries of Cavid Bey and Celal Bayar,and Celal Bayar,610 the cabinet members, and pathe cabinet members, and particularly Nazım Pasha, rticularly Nazım Pasha, grew angry because of Cavid Bey’s speech. The CUP’s situation became grew angry because of Cavid Bey’s speech. The CUP’s situation became even more delicate. Under these circumstances, the Unionists had two even more delicate. Under these circumstances, the Unionists had two tasks ahead. First, Istanbultasks ahead. First, Istanbul was an inappropriate location for carrying was an inappropriate location for carrying out their political acout their political activities. Thus, they had to decide on a new location tivities. Thus, they had to decide on a new location to meet. Second, they had to debate whether or not the CUP would pato meet. Second, they had to debate whether or not the CUP would par-r-ticipate in the elections. The latter issue was to be decided on in the ticipate in the elections. The latter issue was to be decided on in the Congress of the CUP held at the beginning of September 1912. Congress of the CUP held at the beginning of September 1912.

On the night of August 5

On the night of August 5--6, Cavid Bey received a telegram from Talat 6, Cavid Bey received a telegram from Talat Bey about their departure to Selanik very late, and he barely made it to Bey about their departure to Selanik very late, and he barely made it to the train. Their main aim was to establish a chamber in Selanik and car-the train. Their main aim was to establish a chamber in Selanik and car-ry out their political activities against try out their political activities against the government far from Ihe government far from Isstanbul. tanbul. This was the decision taken by the Unionists in the meeting at the CUP This was the decision taken by the Unionists in the meeting at the CUP headquarters located in Nurheadquarters located in Nur--u Osmaniye. According to the fou Osmaniye. According to the forreign press, eign press, including including TheTheTimesTimes, the Unionists aimed to declare Siroz or Selanik as , the Unionists aimed to declare Siroz or Selanik as the Vyborthe Vyborg of Turkey, as the Russians had done for the Duma.g of Turkey, as the Russians had done for the Duma.611 But as But as we will see below, things did not proceed as planned. Their first stop we will see below, things did not proceed as planned. Their first stop was Edirne. They had already been warned on their way by a soldier was Edirne. They had already been warned on their way by a soldier sent by the General Staff and by Ahmed Abuk Pasha, Cosent by the General Staff and by Ahmed Abuk Pasha, Commmandmander of the er of the Corps in Edirne, to be careful of what they said in their speeches in Corps in Edirne, to be careful of what they said in their speeches in Edirne. Ömer Naci’s recent speech criticizing the officers had evoked Edirne. Ömer Naci’s recent speech criticizing the officers had evoked frustration among the army. Cavid Bey was surprised that such a thing frustration among the army. Cavid Bey was surprised that such a thing was said to them on the road insteadwas said to them on the road instead of in Edirne.of in Edirne.612 Hüseyin Kazım, Hüseyin Kazım, the Unionist governor of Selanik, met them at the Sthe Unionist governor of Selanik, met them at the Seelanik train station. lanik train station.

609 The ParliameThe Parliamennt woult would reopen for the first time on Mad reopen for the first time on May 14, 1914. y 14, 1914. Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların İttihadçıların Rejim veRejim ve İktidaİktidar Mücadelesi, 1908r Mücadelesi, 1908--1913,1913, 395.395.

610 Celâl Bayar, Celâl Bayar, Ben de YBen de Yazdım: Millî Mücadeleye Gidiş, vol. 2 azdım: Millî Mücadeleye Gidiş, vol. 2 (Türkiye İş bankası Ya(Türkiye İş bankası Yayınları, yınları, 2018), 753.2018), 753.

611 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--11913,913, 400.400.

612 Mehmed Cavid BeMehmed Cavid Beyy, , MeşrutiyMeşrutiyeet Ruznâmesi I, t Ruznâmesi I, 449.449. According to Kansu, Talat BeAccording to Kansu, Talat Beyy and and CCavid Bey were arrested for a shoravid Bey were arrested for a short period before their journey to Edirne and Selanik, t period before their journey to Edirne and Selanik, but thebut there is no related informationre is no related information about the arrest in Cavid Bey’s journal. about the arrest in Cavid Bey’s journal. Kansu, Kansu, İtti-İtti-hhadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Madçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908ücadelesi, 1908--1913,1913, 401.401.

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The CUP club asked Cavid Bey to give a speech, but he declined, because

The CUP club asked Cavid Bey to give a speech, but he declined, because he wanted to give a conference that was open to the public in a few he wanted to give a conference that was open to the public in a few days.days.613 However, this also tuHowever, this also turned out to be impossrned out to be impossiible, since upon their ble, since upon their arrival, the government declared a state of emearrival, the government declared a state of emerrgency to prevent them gency to prevent them from organizing activities against the goverfrom organizing activities against the governnment. Hüseyin Kment. Hüseyin Kaazım re-zım re-ceived a call from the government to return to Istanbul. According to ceived a call from the government to return to Istanbul. According to CavidCavid Bey, these were the first consequences of their arrival in Selanik. Bey, these were the first consequences of their arrival in Selanik.

As Hanioğlu states, the putsch of July 1912 marked the end of the Ot-

As Hanioğlu states, the putsch of July 1912 marked the end of the Ot-toman parliamentary experiment. The chamber of toman parliamentary experiment. The chamber of deputiesdeputies would not would not meet again until after the elections of 1914. By themeet again until after the elections of 1914. By then, the CUP had estab-n, the CUP had estab-lished a virtual onelished a virtual one--party regime. Short of its most effective politparty regime. Short of its most effective politiical cal weapon, an obedient legislature, and faced with opposition from within weapon, an obedient legislature, and faced with opposition from within its main power base, the army, the CUP had no choice but to cits main power base, the army, the CUP had no choice but to caapitulate. pitulate. Once again, the forcOnce again, the force of the opposition revealed the fragility of the CUP’s e of the opposition revealed the fragility of the CUP’s control, both civilian and military, four years after the revolcontrol, both civilian and military, four years after the revoluution. One of tion. One of the new factors that contributed to the strengthening of domestic oppo-the new factors that contributed to the strengthening of domestic oppo-sition at this juncture was the accumulation of foreisition at this juncture was the accumulation of foreign policy failures. gn policy failures. Although the CUP attempted to capitalize on the heroic role played by Although the CUP attempted to capitalize on the heroic role played by CUP officers in the defense of CUP officers in the defense of TrablusgarpTrablusgarp and Cyrenaica against the and Cyrenaica against the Italians in 1911Italians in 1911––1912, on balance the criticism of the CUP over its role 1912, on balance the criticism of the CUP over its role in the war strengthened in the war strengthened the opposition immensely. For a brief period, the opposition immensely. For a brief period, from August 1912 to January 1913, the CUP, beaten and humiliated, re-from August 1912 to January 1913, the CUP, beaten and humiliated, re-joined the ranks of the opposition. The government of Gazi Ahmed Mu-joined the ranks of the opposition. The government of Gazi Ahmed Mu-htar Pasha, and the succeeding one under Kamil Pasha, worked hard to htar Pasha, and the succeeding one under Kamil Pasha, worked hard to crush crush the Committee. The state of emergency and panic surrounding the the Committee. The state of emergency and panic surrounding the Balkan crisis of late 1912 provided the CUP with an opportunity. As the Balkan crisis of late 1912 provided the CUP with an opportunity. As the crisis reached an allcrisis reached an all--time high, the Committee orgtime high, the Committee orgaanized mass rallies in nized mass rallies in support of the support of the war andwar and launched a largelaunched a large--scale scale ppropaganda campaign ropaganda campaign designed to underscore the government’s lack of determination in the designed to underscore the government’s lack of determination in the

613 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuMeşrutiyet Ruzznâmesinâmesi II, 449., 449.

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face of these threats.

face of these threats. The campaign of the CUP paved the way to the Bal-The campaign of the CUP paved the way to the Bal-kan Wars and supported the government’s policies.kan Wars and supported the government’s policies.614

Cavid Bey’s observations on Selanik during hi

Cavid Bey’s observations on Selanik during hiss stay there are both stay there are both important and interesting: they reflect the condition of the city right bimportant and interesting: they reflect the condition of the city right be-e-fore the Balkan Wars. The city was on edge about these recent devefore the Balkan Wars. The city was on edge about these recent devel-l-opments. Merchants from Selanik, for example, were worried about opments. Merchants from Selanik, for example, were worried about their business, which had altheir business, which had alrready been in decline. Though they had aeady been in decline. Though they had ap-p-pealed to the governor to enact a state of emergency, nothing could be pealed to the governor to enact a state of emergency, nothing could be done. The politics and political conflicts between opposing parties dom-done. The politics and political conflicts between opposing parties dom-inated society. The mood of the city was quite pessimistic and dark. On inated society. The mood of the city was quite pessimistic and dark. On tthhe one hand, the greatest concern in Selanik was the Albanian issue, as e one hand, the greatest concern in Selanik was the Albanian issue, as residents were under the impression that the Albanians could poteresidents were under the impression that the Albanians could potenntial-tial-ly attack the city. On the other hand, the CUP was preoccupied with ly attack the city. On the other hand, the CUP was preoccupied with dealing with dissidents (supporters of the LEPdealing with dissidents (supporters of the LEP)) and local political fiand local political fig-g-ures such as Kara Said and Galip. Some sense of exasperation and deures such as Kara Said and Galip. Some sense of exasperation and des-s-peration about the CUP’s incompetence had bubbled to the surface. The peration about the CUP’s incompetence had bubbled to the surface. The merchants who appealed to the government for the state of emergency merchants who appealed to the government for the state of emergency had found a handful of suhad found a handful of suppporters. There was no unity in the party, no porters. There was no unity in the party, no peace in the army, and no sense of safety and bravery in the community. peace in the army, and no sense of safety and bravery in the community. Talat Bey and Cavid Bey thought that this gloomy atmosphere could be Talat Bey and Cavid Bey thought that this gloomy atmosphere could be turned around through fervent debates, publications, and a couple of turned around through fervent debates, publications, and a couple of cconferences; but the state of emergency destroyed such hopes. Cavid onferences; but the state of emergency destroyed such hopes. Cavid Bey wrote in his journal that since his departure, his relatives and Bey wrote in his journal that since his departure, his relatives and friends had become afraid of him walking alone in the streets and going friends had become afraid of him walking alone in the streets and going out at night. He expressed that he had never feout at night. He expressed that he had never fellt t braver becausebraver because he he knew how “vile” his enemies were. But he said that he had yet to eknew how “vile” his enemies were. But he said that he had yet to en-n-counter a single angry look.counter a single angry look.615 As understood from this quotation, it is As understood from this quotation, it is not difficult to construct a somewhat similar picture of the Unionists’ not difficult to construct a somewhat similar picture of the Unionists’

614 ŞŞükrü. Hanioğlu, "The Secondükrü. Hanioğlu, "The Second Constitutional Period, 1908Constitutional Period, 1908--1918," in 1918," in The CambriThe Cambridge dge History oHistory off TurkeyTurkey, ed. Re, ed. Reşşat Kasaba (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,at Kasaba (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010),2010), 73.73.

615 CCavid Bey, avid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 449, 449--53.53.

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response to the repressi

response to the repressiveve measures of the antimeasures of the anti--Unionists.Unionists.616 Indeed, Indeed, the measures would continue to worsen despite the outbreak of the the measures would continue to worsen despite the outbreak of the Balkan Wars, eventually all but muting the Unionist opposition. Balkan Wars, eventually all but muting the Unionist opposition.

Despite the strict implementation of the state of emergency, CUP

Despite the strict implementation of the state of emergency, CUP headquarters kepheadquarters kept t holding meetings every night at the CUP school. As holding meetings every night at the CUP school. As mentioned mentioned earlier, importantearlier, important discussions were related to whether or discussions were related to whether or not the CUP should participate in the next elections. Cavid Bey, Dr. not the CUP should participate in the next elections. Cavid Bey, Dr. Nazım, and Mithat (Şükrü Bleda) did not want to participate in thNazım, and Mithat (Şükrü Bleda) did not want to participate in the ee elelec-c-tions; Talat, Ziya, and Hayri argued against them. The CUP Congress was tions; Talat, Ziya, and Hayri argued against them. The CUP Congress was scheduled for earlier than usual, since it was an extraordinary congress. scheduled for earlier than usual, since it was an extraordinary congress. The Congress was to be held in Istanbul for the first time. Meanwhile, The Congress was to be held in Istanbul for the first time. Meanwhile, news reached Selanik that Hüseyinnews reached Selanik that Hüseyin CaCahit had shut down hit had shut down TaninTanin. Follo. Follow-w-ing Cavid Bey’s parliamentary speech, the party took a revolutionary ing Cavid Bey’s parliamentary speech, the party took a revolutionary stance that was not in line with Hüseyin Cahit’s views; he shut down the stance that was not in line with Hüseyin Cahit’s views; he shut down the newspaper instead of displaying conflict with the CUP. But he quickly newspaper instead of displaying conflict with the CUP. But he quickly reversed hreversed his is decision. Meanwhile, the main newspaper advocating for decision. Meanwhile, the main newspaper advocating for CUP policies, CUP policies, RumeliRumeli,, was transferred to the opposition. Under these cir-was transferred to the opposition. Under these cir-cumstances, Cavid Bey began publishing the daily cumstances, Cavid Bey began publishing the daily TürkeliTürkeli, which was, which was under his editorial direction for the first twenty days. Aunder his editorial direction for the first twenty days. Accoccording to rding to Cavid Bey, despite mismanagement and a lack of news, there was inteCavid Bey, despite mismanagement and a lack of news, there was inter-r-est in and a high circulation of his newspaper. est in and a high circulation of his newspaper.

The Great Cabinet had a dispute over the level of pressure and

The Great Cabinet had a dispute over the level of pressure and measures implemented against the CUP. Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Paşa andmeasures implemented against the CUP. Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Paşa and Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, Minister of Justice, argued that the measures Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, Minister of Justice, argued that the measures against the CUP should not be severe, while Kamil and Nazim Pagainst the CUP should not be severe, while Kamil and Nazim Pashas ashas defended the implementation of harsh measures against them. The defended the implementation of harsh measures against them. The measures to be implemented against the CUP became a matter for pumeasures to be implemented against the CUP became a matter for pub-b-lic debate. On August 21, Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha resigned under heavy lic debate. On August 21, Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha resigned under heavy pressure due to his role in the Great Cabinet.pressure due to his role in the Great Cabinet.617 Upon Upon his resignation, his resignation, Talat Bey left for Istanbul, and Cavid Bey became busy with two things: Talat Bey left for Istanbul, and Cavid Bey became busy with two things: obtaining funding for the CUP and drafting a statement that would be obtaining funding for the CUP and drafting a statement that would be

616 Turfan, Turfan, Rise ofRise of the Young Turks: Politics, the Military and Ottoman Collapsethe Young Turks: Politics, the Military and Ottoman Collapse, 192., 192.

617 KansuKansu, , İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--1913, 1913, 408408--09.09.

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read at the CUP Congress, which was scheduled to be held in Istanbul at

read at the CUP Congress, which was scheduled to be held in Istanbul at the beginning of Septemberthe beginning of September. M. Huguenin provided some money for the . M. Huguenin provided some money for the party, and since the aboveparty, and since the above--mentioned Garden of mentioned Garden of UnionUnion ((İttihad Bahçesiİttihad Bahçesi) ) was not given as guarantee in return for a loan, he delivered the money was not given as guarantee in return for a loan, he delivered the money in cash directly. Cavid Bey praised his move as a sign of humanity and in cash directly. Cavid Bey praised his move as a sign of humanity and devotion. Cavid Bey prepared and handed over the report of the Central devotion. Cavid Bey prepared and handed over the report of the Central Committee, which would be read in the Congress, to Dr. Nazım, who rCommittee, which would be read in the Congress, to Dr. Nazım, who re-e-turned to Istanbul by train before Cavid Bey. Unfortunately, due to poor turned to Istanbul by train before Cavid Bey. Unfortunately, due to poor weather conditions, the ship that Cavid Bey weather conditions, the ship that Cavid Bey was meant to take back to was meant to take back to Istanbul arrived later than expected, and Cavid Bey missed the first part Istanbul arrived later than expected, and Cavid Bey missed the first part of the Congress, which voted on participation in the upcoming election. of the Congress, which voted on participation in the upcoming election. He also missed the opportunity to deliver the speech he had given to Dr. He also missed the opportunity to deliver the speech he had given to Dr. Nazım. The Nazım. The Unionists decided to go forward with the next elections.Unionists decided to go forward with the next elections.618

According to Tunaya, the CUP Congress was groundbreaking. For the

According to Tunaya, the CUP Congress was groundbreaking. For the first time, it was held openly and in Istanbul, due to the state of emer-first time, it was held openly and in Istanbul, due to the state of emer-gency declared in Selanik. Furthermore, the Congress was helgency declared in Selanik. Furthermore, the Congress was held at an d at an earlier date than usual due to the extraordinary circumstances and earlier date than usual due to the extraordinary circumstances and pressure on the CUP. The Congress was held at the CUP’s headquarters pressure on the CUP. The Congress was held at the CUP’s headquarters at Nurat Nur--u Osmaniye on September 2. It was held in an extraordinary and u Osmaniye on September 2. It was held in an extraordinary and heavy political atmosphere, as a clash beheavy political atmosphere, as a clash between the two groups led by tween the two groups led by Talat Bey and Enver Bey had surfaced. Hacı Adil Bey was president of Talat Bey and Enver Bey had surfaced. Hacı Adil Bey was president of the Congress. the Congress. AllAll the deputies of parliament and the Senate had pathe deputies of parliament and the Senate had parrtici-tici-pated, which was above the quota set for the Congress. Two main issues pated, which was above the quota set for the Congress. Two main issues were discussedwere discussed: t: the situation of the Central Committee moving to Istan-he situation of the Central Committee moving to Istan-bul, and participation in the elections (which would not be held until bul, and participation in the elections (which would not be held until 1914). A group of Unionists supported participation as the CUP needed 1914). A group of Unionists supported participation as the CUP needed to achieve its aims through legal and legitimate means, conto achieve its aims through legal and legitimate means, consisiddering the ering the present state and the interests of the country. The other group present state and the interests of the country. The other group —— which which Cavid Bey supported Cavid Bey supported —— argued that the CUP should relinquish all re-argued that the CUP should relinquish all re-sponsibility to those who wielded power in the country and wait.sponsibility to those who wielded power in the country and wait.619 There were several key takeaways from tThere were several key takeaways from the he conference: first, the ad-conference: first, the ad-

618 CaCavid Bey, vid Bey, MeşMeşrrutiyetutiyet Ruznâmesi I, Ruznâmesi I, 453.453.

619 Bayar,Bayar, Ben de Yazdım: Millî Mücadeleye GBen de Yazdım: Millî Mücadeleye Giidiş, 2diş, 2, , 753.753.

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journment of parliament was not legitimate, and thus, the CUP decided

journment of parliament was not legitimate, and thus, the CUP decided to move forward with elections. Second, the CUP now became a legal to move forward with elections. Second, the CUP now became a legal party not related to secrecy. Third, the CUP insisted that the de facto and party not related to secrecy. Third, the CUP insisted that the de facto and de jure sovereide jure sovereigntgnty of the Ottoman Empire should be upheld in y of the Ottoman Empire should be upheld in Tra-Tra-blusgarpblusgarp and Benghazi. Although the Congress was held during a time of and Benghazi. Although the Congress was held during a time of turmoil, it did not devolve into ideological debates and proturmoil, it did not devolve into ideological debates and probblems. lems. Final-Final-lyly, Sait Halim Pasha was elected as president of the, Sait Halim Pasha was elected as president of the CUP, and CaviCUP, and Cavid Bey d Bey became a member of the CC.became a member of the CC.620

§ 3.7 A Short ImprisonmentA Short Imprisonment

Istanbul’s political scene was mired in conflict. After Hüseyin Hilmi P

Istanbul’s political scene was mired in conflict. After Hüseyin Hilmi Pa-a-sha’s resignation, there was no unified opposition in the cabinet to prsha’s resignation, there was no unified opposition in the cabinet to pre-e-vent sanctions on the Unionists. In additvent sanctions on the Unionists. In addition to the staion to the state of emergency, te of emergency, the Unionists also experienced layoffs of its bureaucrats, as well as pthe Unionists also experienced layoffs of its bureaucrats, as well as po-o-lice surveillance over the CUP’s headquarters and clubs. Martial law had lice surveillance over the CUP’s headquarters and clubs. Martial law had shut down shut down TaninTanin due to an article written by Hüseyin Cahit that stated due to an article written by Hüseyin Cahit that stated that therthat there was no govere was no government in Albania and Macedonia. Instead, Cavid nment in Albania and Macedonia. Instead, Cavid Bey began publishing Bey began publishing CeninCenin newspaper, but it was shut down the fonewspaper, but it was shut down the folllow-low-ing day as well. The military indicted Cavid Bey, Hüseyin Cahit, and ing day as well. The military indicted Cavid Bey, Hüseyin Cahit, and Orhan Talat, editorOrhan Talat, editor--inin--chief of the newspaper. During Cavchief of the newspaper. During Cavid Bey’s inteid Bey’s inter-r-rogation, he was asked why he had allowed Hüseyin Cahit’s article on rogation, he was asked why he had allowed Hüseyin Cahit’s article on the Albanian issue to be published. The judges wanted to know how he the Albanian issue to be published. The judges wanted to know how he could publish this article when this sort of writing was forbidden under could publish this article when this sort of writing was forbidden under the state of emergency. Cavid Bthe state of emergency. Cavid Bey declared they declared that when the piece was at when the piece was published, he was in Selanik; however, he added that he shared the published, he was in Selanik; however, he added that he shared the same opinions with Hüseyin Cahit. He said that he himself had wisame opinions with Hüseyin Cahit. He said that he himself had wit-t-

620 Tunaya, Tunaya, Türkiye’de Siyasal PartTürkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağıiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir n, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Partinin Tarih,Partinin Tarih, 289289--92; and Kansu, 92; and Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim vİttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Müce İktidar Mücaadelesi, 1908delesi, 1908--19191133, 414., 414.

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nessed the absence of government, especially in Rumelia. He said that

nessed the absence of government, especially in Rumelia. He said that there was no goverthere was no governor in Selaniknor in Selanik for four weeks, and that every day for four weeks, and that every day there was news about how many bombs were planted in trains, and there was news about how many bombs were planted in trains, and about the arrival of the gangs at the scene of the incident. There was no about the arrival of the gangs at the scene of the incident. There was no governor in Manastgovernor in Manastıırr. In Üsküp, the governor was afraid to leave his. In Üsküp, the governor was afraid to leave his home. He added that the state had no power and no influence, and that home. He added that the state had no power and no influence, and that the community had no trust and did not feel secure. Cavid Bey said that the community had no trust and did not feel secure. Cavid Bey said that when the civilian government (when the civilian government (hükümethükümet--i i mülkiyemülkiye) was in such ) was in such a a state, state, they did not want to see the decline of thethey did not want to see the decline of the military rule as well. As Cavid military rule as well. As Cavid Bey gave elaborate responses to each question, someone told Hüseyin Bey gave elaborate responses to each question, someone told Hüseyin Cahit, “One question has been asked, and he just keeps on going.” On Cahit, “One question has been asked, and he just keeps on going.” On Saturday, September 7, Cavid Bey wSaturday, September 7, Cavid Bey wasas interrogated, and he thought that interrogated, and he thought that he would be takhe would be taken to court again on the Sunday or Monday. However, he en to court again on the Sunday or Monday. However, he was not summonsed to court until September 11, 1912. Once more, the was not summonsed to court until September 11, 1912. Once more, the chief judge asked Nazım Pasha about an expression he had used in chief judge asked Nazım Pasha about an expression he had used in which he claimedwhich he claimed that “there is no government.” At the end of the trthat “there is no government.” At the end of the trial, ial, the court found all three men guilty: one month in prison for Hüseyin the court found all three men guilty: one month in prison for Hüseyin Cahit and 20 days for Cavid Bey and the editorCahit and 20 days for Cavid Bey and the editor--inin--chief. Cavid Bey, chief. Cavid Bey, Hüseyin Cahit and the editor were taken to Bekirağa Division. They Hüseyin Cahit and the editor were taken to Bekirağa Division. They were welcomed by disheveled soldiers and placewere welcomed by disheveled soldiers and placed in a dirty prison cell. d in a dirty prison cell. The filthiest wards were particularly selected for them, making the situ-The filthiest wards were particularly selected for them, making the situ-ation even gloomier. Cavid Bey was upset that he had to stay thereation even gloomier. Cavid Bey was upset that he had to stay there. T. The he ward was supposed to be the cleanest spot inside the barracks, but he ward was supposed to be the cleanest spot inside the barracks, but he was placed in anwas placed in an extremely small and damp room. Two soldiers oextremely small and damp room. Two soldiers obbject-ject-ed to the prisoners staying under these circumstances, and they were ed to the prisoners staying under these circumstances, and they were transferred to the general prison, where they were given a clean room transferred to the general prison, where they were given a clean room with three separate beds.with three separate beds.

While he was serving time, Cavid Bey had

While he was serving time, Cavid Bey had many visitors. This was many visitors. This was his main form of entertainment while in prison. He even made a list of his main form of entertainment while in prison. He even made a list of all his visitors. In his journal, he wrote that he received more than 1,500 all his visitors. In his journal, he wrote that he received more than 1,500 visitors per day. Among them were students of visitors per day. Among them were students of Dar'ül FünunDar'ül Fünun from the from the faculties of comfaculties of commerce and medicine, merce and medicine, MülkiyeMülkiye, young groups from Anka-, young groups from Anka-ra and Sivas, committees of 40ra and Sivas, committees of 40––50 people, and even members of the 50 people, and even members of the CUP clubs. CUP clubs. MedicalMedical students showed great interest in him. Cavid Bey students showed great interest in him. Cavid Bey

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wrote that some of the things that the visitors said bro

wrote that some of the things that the visitors said brought tears to hught tears to his is eyes. Cavid Bey also had many foreign visitors. He wrote that Sir Adam eyes. Cavid Bey also had many foreign visitors. He wrote that Sir Adam Block was the most courageous of the foreigBlock was the most courageous of the foreignners. He came to see him on ers. He came to see him on the first day of the holidays. M. Pissard and other officers were too the first day of the holidays. M. Pissard and other officers were too afraid to visit him. Concafraid to visit him. Concerning foreign erning foreign dipldiploomats, only Mandelstam, dra-mats, only Mandelstam, dra-goman of the Russian embassy showed up at the prison. However, he goman of the Russian embassy showed up at the prison. However, he was not able to gain access as he had arrived on the day that was re-was not able to gain access as he had arrived on the day that was re-served for female visitors. Count Ostrorog come to see him several served for female visitors. Count Ostrorog come to see him several times.times.621 HHe was astonishee was astonished that d that Sait PashaSait Pasha did not visit him nor ask did not visit him nor ask about how he was doing. He specifically wrote about visits from Rıza about how he was doing. He specifically wrote about visits from Rıza Tevfik, Ebüzziya, and Manizade, who was a fervent member of the Lib-Tevfik, Ebüzziya, and Manizade, who was a fervent member of the Lib-eral and Entente group. Ebüzziya talked about the insolent maeral and Entente group. Ebüzziya talked about the insolent manners of nners of the Lithe Liberal and Entente group. Nevertheless, these visits were not well beral and Entente group. Nevertheless, these visits were not well regardedregarded. Lütfi Fikri wrote a column about this in his paper . Lütfi Fikri wrote a column about this in his paper Tanzimat, Tanzimat, and thereupon, the Ministry of Internal Affairs iand thereupon, the Ministry of Internal Affairs isssued a notice prohibit-sued a notice prohibit-ing both visits from outside aning both visits from outside and Cavid Bey pud Cavid Bey pubbllishing articles from pris-ishing articles from pris-on. on.

Cavid Bey was informed about the CUP’s actions. Talat Bey met with

Cavid Bey was informed about the CUP’s actions. Talat Bey met with Mahmut Muhtar, the son of Gazi Muhtar Pasha, at the Saffetî Apartmanı Mahmut Muhtar, the son of Gazi Muhtar Pasha, at the Saffetî Apartmanı building in Beyoğlu. Nazım Pasha and Kamil Pasha promoted Kamil Pbuilding in Beyoğlu. Nazım Pasha and Kamil Pasha promoted Kamil Pa-a-sha to the position of grand vizier under the pretextsha to the position of grand vizier under the pretext of war, which was of war, which was soon to break out. Now, the government had to ask America for more soon to break out. Now, the government had to ask America for more loans, because they did not have any money, and loans, because they did not have any money, and nono one else was wilone else was willling ing to give them any.to give them any.622 The state’s actions and the situation in which the The state’s actions and the situation in which the members of the government fomembers of the government found themselves made it easier for the und themselves made it easier for the party to gain the upper hand. It was said that the soldiers began display-party to gain the upper hand. It was said that the soldiers began display-ing their discontent with Nazım Pasha’s behavior. ing their discontent with Nazım Pasha’s behavior.

Cavid Bey was released from prison on October 1, 1912. He met the

Cavid Bey was released from prison on October 1, 1912. He met the following day with Sir Adam following day with Sir Adam Block, who was Block, who was deeplydeeply pessimistic about pessimistic about the situation. According to Block, the lack of governance in the prothe situation. According to Block, the lack of governance in the provvinc-inc-

621 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuMeşrutiyet Ruzznâmesi I,nâmesi I, 453453--6600; and Kansu, ; and Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar MücaMücaddelesi,elesi, 19081908--19131913, 416, 416--17.17.

622 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 459459--60.60.

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es, the scarcity of revenues, and their imprisonment by the gover

es, the scarcity of revenues, and their imprisonment by the governnment ment had all made it harder for the state to find money. He complained about had all made it harder for the state to find money. He complained about tthe government’s followhe government’s follow--up with the Régie issue. Upon Gazi Mup with the Régie issue. Upon Gazi Muuhtar Pa-htar Pa-sha’s request to support the Balkan War, the party headquarters agreed sha’s request to support the Balkan War, the party headquarters agreed to publish a common statement. Despite these negative deveto publish a common statement. Despite these negative devellopments, opments, Cavid Bey was quite optimistic about the future.Cavid Bey was quite optimistic about the future.623

The government thought that the Unionists would take a step back

The government thought that the Unionists would take a step back after the imprisonment of their members; however, this was not the after the imprisonment of their members; however, this was not the case. Elections were about to be held, and the cabinet was already trcase. Elections were about to be held, and the cabinet was already tryying ing to manipulate them. First, they started to change to manipulate them. First, they started to change the lists of candthe lists of candiidates dates by applying pressure on the civilian authorities. Second, the dby applying pressure on the civilian authorities. Second, the deetention of tention of the Unionists, simply for carrying out their campaign, indicated the del-the Unionists, simply for carrying out their campaign, indicated the del-icate situation in which the CUP found itself. Though Ottoman foreign icate situation in which the CUP found itself. Though Ottoman foreign policy was facipolicy was facing a deep crisis, domestic politics were ng a deep crisis, domestic politics were in turmoilin turmoil. On . On September 6, 1912, members of both the CUP and the LEP established September 6, 1912, members of both the CUP and the LEP established the National Constitutional Party (the National Constitutional Party (Milli Meşrutiyet PaMilli Meşrutiyet Parrtisitisi) led by Ahmet ) led by Ahmet Ferit (Tek). Soon after, the Balkan states Ferit (Tek). Soon after, the Balkan states —— namely Serbia,namely Serbia, Greece, and Greece, and Bulgaria Bulgaria —— declared the mobilization of arms. declared the mobilization of arms.

§ 3.8 The Balkan Wars (1912The Balkan Wars (1912––1913): The Beginning of the 1913): The Beginning of the EndEnd624

In this section, I will try to demonstrate the events that led to the Ba

In this section, I will try to demonstrate the events that led to the Ballkan kan Wars and Cavid Bey’s perception of the Balkan Wars, including thWars and Cavid Bey’s perception of the Balkan Wars, including the loss e loss of Selanik, his homeland. This chapter covers the First Balkan War, of Selanik, his homeland. This chapter covers the First Balkan War, which started on October 8, 1912. Though the London Agreement, which started on October 8, 1912. Though the London Agreement, which concluded the war, was signed on May 30, 1913, this chapter which concluded the war, was signed on May 30, 1913, this chapter ends with the coup d’etat on January 23, 1913. I wilends with the coup d’etat on January 23, 1913. I will discuss the general l discuss the general

623 Cavid Cavid BBey, ey, Meşrutiyet Meşrutiyet RRuznâmesi I, uznâmesi I, 462.462.

624 Zafer Toprak, "Cihan Harbi’nin Provası: Balkan Harbi," Zafer Toprak, "Cihan Harbi’nin Provası: Balkan Harbi," Toplumsal TarToplumsal Tarih Dergisiih Dergisi 1818,, no. no. 104 (2002)104 (2002):: 4444--51; and "Balkan Harbi, Düşman Algısı ve İkono51; and "Balkan Harbi, Düşman Algısı ve İkonoggrafya,rafya," in " in Savaştan Savaştan Barışa Balkan Savaşları Barışa Balkan Savaşları –– 100. Yılı Ulusararası Sempozyum Bil100. Yılı Ulusararası Sempozyum Bildirleridirleri ((İzmirİzmir: Ko: Konak Mnak Mu-u-nicipality Publications, 2013), 17nicipality Publications, 2013), 17--34.34.

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consequences of the Balkan Wars in terms of politics, ideology, and

consequences of the Balkan Wars in terms of politics, ideology, and economy in the following chapter. economy in the following chapter.

From a wider perspective, the Balkan Wars were the dress rehearsal

From a wider perspective, the Balkan Wars were the dress rehearsal for or the precursor to the First World War. The Balkan Wars werfor or the precursor to the First World War. The Balkan Wars were also e also the beginning of the ‘war period’ for the Ottoman Empire, which started the beginning of the ‘war period’ for the Ottoman Empire, which started in 1912, spanned the Great War (1914in 1912, spanned the Great War (1914––1918), and ended in 1922 with 1918), and ended in 1922 with the victory of the Turkish War of Independence. The war period lasted the victory of the Turkish War of Independence. The war period lasted for nearly a decade for nearly a decade andand included the Empincluded the Empire’s loss of European terrire’s loss of European terriitory tory that it had held for nearly 600 years; the loss of Selanik, the CUP’s heart-that it had held for nearly 600 years; the loss of Selanik, the CUP’s heart-land; the Turkish people’s mass exodus from the Balkans to Anland; the Turkish people’s mass exodus from the Balkans to Anaatolia; tolia; the siege of Edirne and threat to Istanbul; and a deplorable defeat on the siege of Edirne and threat to Istanbul; and a deplorable defeat on land andland and sea.sea.625 The Balkan Wars consisted of two The Balkan Wars consisted of two subsequent wars: the subsequent wars: the First Balkan War, October 8, 1912First Balkan War, October 8, 1912––May 30, 1913; and the Second Balkan May 30, 1913; and the Second Balkan War, June 16, 1913War, June 16, 1913––June 18, 1913. The repercussions of these wars last-June 18, 1913. The repercussions of these wars last-ed well into the posted well into the post--war period, such as the situationwar period, such as the situation of the Aegean is-of the Aegean is-lands, and the debts of the Balkan states under the Ottoman Empire. lands, and the debts of the Balkan states under the Ottoman Empire.

The loss of the Balkans was traumatic for the Ottomans and partic

The loss of the Balkans was traumatic for the Ottomans and particu-u-larly for the ruling class, including the CUP. Before we analyze why it larly for the ruling class, including the CUP. Before we analyze why it was traumatic was traumatic —— including from Cincluding from Caavid Bey’s perspective vid Bey’s perspective —— I would like I would like to emphasize the Balkans’ importance as a region and social enviroto emphasize the Balkans’ importance as a region and social environ-n-ment. From a very early period in the 15ment. From a very early period in the 15thth century, the Ottoman Empire century, the Ottoman Empire was seemingly a Balkan state, was seemingly a Balkan state, because ofbecause of its policies of coits policies of connquest and quest and hhooly war aly war against the West. The Ottoman Empire derived the bulk of its gainst the West. The Ottoman Empire derived the bulk of its economic power and human capital from its Balkan proeconomic power and human capital from its Balkan provvinces. Most Ot-inces. Most Ot-toman intellectuals were from the Balkanstoman intellectuals were from the Balkans..626 The Balkan region raised The Balkan region raised the literacy rate of the entire the literacy rate of the entire EmpireEmpire. As mentione. As mentioned d above, above, the CUP was the CUP was born in the Balkans, as was the ideology of Ottborn in the Balkans, as was the ideology of Ottoomanism, which enabled manism, which enabled the diversification of the Ottoman identity. the diversification of the Ottoman identity.

625 Eyal Ginio, The Ottoman Culture of DefeatEyal Ginio, The Ottoman Culture of Defeat The Balkan WaThe Balkan Warrs and Their Afterms and Their Aftermath ath (London: C.(London: C.HHuurstrst & Co.& Co., 2016), 25, 2016), 25--7171. .

626 ZürcherZürcher,, "" ChildreChildren of the n of the Borderlands?Borderlands?"" 275275--286286..

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The dissolution of the Balkans began with the

The dissolution of the Balkans began with the RussoRusso--Turkish WarTurkish War (1877(1877––1878). The Treaty o1878). The Treaty of Af Ayastyasteefanos and then the Berfanos and then the Berlin Treatlin Treaty y paved the way for conflict to arise bpaved the way for conflict to arise beetween Bulgaria and Serbia over tween Bulgaria and Serbia over sharing Macedonian land. Serbia wanted to expand its territory, Greece sharing Macedonian land. Serbia wanted to expand its territory, Greece wanted to expand toward the north, and Bulgaria wanted to regain what wanted to expand toward the north, and Bulgaria wanted to regain what it hait had ld lost after the treaty. In adost after the treaty. In addition todition to local rivalries, Russia’s support local rivalries, Russia’s support of the Balkan Slavs and Auof the Balkan Slavs and Ausstriatria--Hungary led to increased Russian influ-Hungary led to increased Russian influ-ence in the region (the aence in the region (the annnexation of Bosnianexation of Bosnia--Herzegovina had already Herzegovina had already united the Serbs against the country) despiunited the Serbs against the country) despite te Russian confrontation.Russian confrontation.627 TheThe Balkan WBalkan Wars were fought over land that had for centuries provided ars were fought over land that had for centuries provided the lifeblood of the Othe lifeblood of the Otttoman Empire. Istanbul and the very existence of toman Empire. Istanbul and the very existence of the Empire were threatened, and no territory could be conceded with-the Empire were threatened, and no territory could be conceded with-out a struggle. out a struggle.

The

The 191908 Revolution had seemingly08 Revolution had seemingly paved thpaved the way to win over the e way to win over the hearts of the Balkan states and to recover the state’s strength in the rhearts of the Balkan states and to recover the state’s strength in the re-e-gion through the Constitution, a representative government, and the gion through the Constitution, a representative government, and the modernization of society. modernization of society. However, as Mazover states, However, as Mazover states, thethe Young Turk Young Turk Revolution coulRevolution could not recd not reconcile the separatism in the Balkans; on the oncile the separatism in the Balkans; on the contrary, in a short time, it deepened the conflict between Muslim and contrary, in a short time, it deepened the conflict between Muslim and nonnon--Muslim subjectsMuslim subjects of the Empireof the Empire..628 As mentioned above, these eAs mentioned above, these ef-f-forts to modernize the Ottoman state forts to modernize the Ottoman state alialienated the Albanians, who wenated the Albanians, who were ere the othe one group that had traditionally been loyal to the regime. There ne group that had traditionally been loyal to the regime. There were three revolts in Albania, and the last one occurred in the spring of were three revolts in Albania, and the last one occurred in the spring of 1912, immediately before the Balkan Wars. The Albanian rebellions 1912, immediately before the Balkan Wars. The Albanian rebellions presaged radipresaged radicalcal changes in the balance of changes in the balance of power in power in the Balkans. They the Balkans. They had three important outcomes: first, it showed that armed revolt had three important outcomes: first, it showed that armed revolt against the Turkish authorities could succeed; second, it sounded an against the Turkish authorities could succeed; second, it sounded an alarm for Serbia and Greece, which both claimed territories in Alalarm for Serbia and Greece, which both claimed territories in Albanbanianian--speaking regions where speaking regions where nationalinationalism had risen tremendously; and lastly, sm had risen tremendously; and lastly, it encouraged both Austria and Italy to dream of new footholds in it encouraged both Austria and Italy to dream of new footholds in

627 Toprak, Toprak, "Balkan Harbi, Düşman Algısı ve İkonografya," 17"Balkan Harbi, Düşman Algısı ve İkonografya," 17--34.34.

628 Mark Mazower, Mark Mazower, The Balkans: from the End of Byzantium to the Present DayThe Balkans: from the End of Byzantium to the Present Day, (London: , (London: Weidenfeld&Nicolson, 2000), 108.Weidenfeld&Nicolson, 2000), 108.

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Southeastern Europe, which alarmed the Balkan states even more. As

Southeastern Europe, which alarmed the Balkan states even more. As Mazower quoted from a French diplomat, Mazower quoted from a French diplomat,

“

“ForFor thethe first time in the history first time in the history of the Eaof the Eastern Question, the stern Question, the small states acquired a position of such independence of the small states acquired a position of such independence of the Great Powers that they feel able to act completely without them Great Powers that they feel able to act completely without them and even to take them in tow.”and even to take them in tow.”629

As a matter of fact, a

As a matter of fact, at the end of the t the end of the BalBalkan Wars, Thrace was the onkan Wars, Thrace was the only ly EuropeEuropean land that remained in the Empire. The loss of Selanikan land that remained in the Empire. The loss of Selanik heldheld dis-dis-tinct significance for the future of the Empire. As a multitinct significance for the future of the Empire. As a multi--cultural, indus-cultural, indus-trialized port city, it had established intense reltrialized port city, it had established intense relaations wittions with th the Western he Western capitalist worldcapitalist world and was also the home ofand was also the home of cucullturally diverse communi-turally diverse communi-ties. It was the homeland of the Young Turk movement, and the city was ties. It was the homeland of the Young Turk movement, and the city was identified with the various independence causes. It had an important identified with the various independence causes. It had an important role in Ottoman intellectual life role in Ottoman intellectual life in in terms of education and publterms of education and publications. ications. Ironically, it Ironically, it was also in this multiwas also in this multi--cultural city where the idea of the na-cultural city where the idea of the na-tiontion--state was born in the Ottoman Empire. The loss of the city had a state was born in the Ottoman Empire. The loss of the city had a deep emotional impact on the Young Turks, who both declared the Sec-deep emotional impact on the Young Turks, who both declared the Sec-ondond CoConstitutional Period and founstitutional Period and founded the Republic of Turknded the Republic of Turkey. ey.

Ottoman territory in Europe shrunk from 169,845 km

Ottoman territory in Europe shrunk from 169,845 km22 to 28,282 to 28,282 kmkm22 in less than a year. It changed the map of the country and its popin less than a year. It changed the map of the country and its popu-u-lation and, therefore, also the perceptions of essential conceplation and, therefore, also the perceptions of essential concepts ts such as such as sovereignty, territsovereignty, territory, enemy, identity, andory, enemy, identity, and demography. The Balkan demography. The Balkan Wars were the end of the Ottoman’s “Wars were the end of the Ottoman’s “EuropeanEuropean” identity, which had ” identity, which had consistently been a defining characteristic of the Empire since the 15consistently been a defining characteristic of the Empire since the 15thth century. Different communities in the century. Different communities in the OttOttoman Empire that had recooman Empire that had recon-n-cciled and coexisted for ceiled and coexisted for centuries began to hold conflicting national identuries began to hold conflicting national iden-n-tities after 1912. While immigrants were arriving injured and traumtities after 1912. While immigrants were arriving injured and trauma-a-tized from the Balkans, the multitized from the Balkans, the multi--cultural cultural and multiand multi--national Anatolian national Anatolian land was alsoland was also affaffected. As a consequence, boected. As a consequence, boycotts against the Greeksycotts against the Greeks during the Balkan Wars were followed by the deportation and massduring the Balkan Wars were followed by the deportation and massa-a-

629 Mark Mazower, Mark Mazower, The BalkansThe Balkans, 109, 109--10.10.

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cres of Armenians during the Great War. The notions of revenge, atro

cres of Armenians during the Great War. The notions of revenge, atrocci-i-ty, xenophobia, and otherness became part of the national lexicoty, xenophobia, and otherness became part of the national lexicon, wn, while hile Turkish nationalism waTurkish nationalism was on the rise following ts on the rise following the Balkan Wars. Thus, it he Balkan Wars. Thus, it is possible to mark the Balkan Wars as the beginning of the cois possible to mark the Balkan Wars as the beginning of the connstruction struction of nationalism in Turkeyof nationalism in Turkey..630 Because of the war, the country fought for Because of the war, the country fought for eight more years to defend firsteight more years to defend first the the Empire and then the TurkisEmpire and then the Turkish nation h nation in the Great Warin the Great War and the Turkish Independence War, which ended with and the Turkish Independence War, which ended with the construction of a new Turkish identity.the construction of a new Turkish identity.631 As As Şevket Süreyya Ay-Şevket Süreyya Ay-demir indicates, the people of the Ottoman Empire entered the Balkan demir indicates, the people of the Ottoman Empire entered the Balkan Wars as OttomaWars as Ottomans buns but exited as Turks.t exited as Turks.632

The war transformed the policies of the Unionists, especially when it

The war transformed the policies of the Unionists, especially when it came to Ottomanism. It caused the political regime to adopt acame to Ottomanism. It caused the political regime to adopt an authorn authori-i-tarian character with the establishment of the single party era, begitarian character with the establishment of the single party era, begin-n-ning with the coup d’etat in 1913. The ideology of Ottomanism, which ning with the coup d’etat in 1913. The ideology of Ottomanism, which had been rooted mainly in the Balkans, was replaced by had been rooted mainly in the Balkans, was replaced by nationalismnationalism, , while economic liberalism was replaced wwhile economic liberalism was replaced with the concept of the nith the concept of the naational tional economy. According to the generation of Young Turks, who were in-economy. According to the generation of Young Turks, who were in-spired by the French Revolution, the nationspired by the French Revolution, the nation--state could still exist ustate could still exist unnder der the umbrella of an empire. The idea of the nationthe umbrella of an empire. The idea of the nation--state emerged state emerged along-along-side the conceptsside the concepts of sovereignty and territorial integrity.of sovereignty and territorial integrity.633

As Clark states, the war broke out in the Balkans in October 1912

As Clark states, the war broke out in the Balkans in October 1912 and was foreseen by nearly all political observers. The only unexpected and was foreseen by nearly all political observers. The only unexpected thing about it was the swiftness of a decisive victory of the Balkan thing about it was the swiftness of a decisive victory of the Balkan statestates.s.634 As meAs menntioned earlier, the Tripolitanian War had an impact on tioned earlier, the Tripolitanian War had an impact on Bulgaria, Serbia, and Greece, who had seen their alliance as an oppor-Bulgaria, Serbia, and Greece, who had seen their alliance as an oppor-

630 RRamazaamazan n Hakkı Öztan, Hakkı Öztan, ““Point of NoPoint of No Return? PReturn? Prospects of Empire After the Orospects of Empire After the Otttoman toman Defeat Defeat in tin the he Balkan Wars (1912Balkan Wars (1912--1913)1913),,”” IntInternational ernational JJournal ofournal of Middle East StuMiddle East Studiesdies 5050 ((2018), 652018), 65--84. 84.

631 Zafer Zafer Toprak, "CihaToprak, "Cihan Han Harrbi’nin Provası: Balkan Habi’nin Provası: Balkan Harbi," rbi," Toplumsal TaToplumsal Tarihrih 101044, (Aug, (August ust 2002), 442002), 44--51.51.

632 Şevket SŞevket Süreyya Aydemir, üreyya Aydemir, SuyuSuyu Arayan AdamArayan Adam (Istanbul: R(Istanbul: Remziemzi Kitapevi, 2013), 44.Kitapevi, 2013), 44.

633 Ahmad, "GAhmad, "Great Britain's Relations reat Britain's Relations withwith the Young Turks 1908the Young Turks 1908––19141914," 302," 302--29.29.

634 Clark, Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914, 252., 252.

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tuunity to capturenity to capture Macedonia.Macedonia.635 For these reasons, in March 1912, Ser-For these reasons, in March 1912, Ser-bia and Bulgaria agreed to unite in opposition to any abia and Bulgaria agreed to unite in opposition to any attempt by a Great ttempt by a Great Power to invade the Balkan territories of the Ottoman Empire. Around Power to invade the Balkan territories of the Ottoman Empire. Around the Serbothe Serbo--Bulgarian alliance, a secret Balkan League Bulgarian alliance, a secret Balkan League was founded with a was founded with a clear taclear tarrget. It was the expulsionof Turks from Europeget. It was the expulsionof Turks from Europe..636 On May 29, On May 29, 1912, the negotiations betwee1912, the negotiations between Greece and Bulgaria concluded. In May, n Greece and Bulgaria concluded. In May, an agreement between Greece and Montenegro, and in August 1912, an an agreement between Greece and Montenegro, and in August 1912, an agreement between Montenegro and Bulgaria were signed. However, agreement between Montenegro and Bulgaria were signed. However, Bulgaria Bulgaria —— which was the most ambitious state regarding hopes for ter-which was the most ambitious state regarding hopes for ter-ritorial gains ritorial gains —— was a pivotal actor in the Balkan Alliance. In August was a pivotal actor in the Balkan Alliance. In August 1912, conflict arose and spread among the Muslim communities. When 1912, conflict arose and spread among the Muslim communities. When the Turks responded, the Bulgarians reacted harshly. The Greek bands the Turks responded, the Bulgarians reacted harshly. The Greek bands also accelerated their efforts. Montenegro was more fervent thanalso accelerated their efforts. Montenegro was more fervent than the the others. In September 1912, relations between Montenegro and the Oothers. In September 1912, relations between Montenegro and the Ot-t-toman Empire toman Empire deteriorated.deteriorated.637 As Hall states, oAs Hall states, on September 24, the On September 24, the Ot-t-tomans mobilized their European forces, 115,000 men in Thrace and tomans mobilized their European forces, 115,000 men in Thrace and another 175,000 in Macedonia. The following day, thanother 175,000 in Macedonia. The following day, thee Bulgarians mobBulgarians mobi-i-lized their forces, lized their forces, amounted ofamounted of 599,878 soldiers.599,878 soldiers.638

As mentioned above, armed conflict had started long before the war.

As mentioned above, armed conflict had started long before the war. Three revolts had broken out in Albania since the Three revolts had broken out in Albania since the RevolutionRevolution. The Alb. The Alba-a-nian issue was the Ottoman Empire’s Achilles heel nian issue was the Ottoman Empire’s Achilles heel iin the first part of the n the first part of the

635 The main interest was to capture the land of Macedonia: For Serbs it The main interest was to capture the land of Macedonia: For Serbs it was the gateway was the gateway to tto the Aegean Sea. On the othhe Aegean Sea. On the other her haand, Austria was on its wand, Austria was on its way to the Aegean Sey to the Aegean Sea rea regigioon n throthrough Selanik. Serbia made an alliance with the Bulgarians to block Austria. For the ugh Selanik. Serbia made an alliance with the Bulgarians to block Austria. For the Bulgarians, in terms of religion (the Bulgarian exarchate was dominBulgarians, in terms of religion (the Bulgarian exarchate was dominant in Macant in Maceedonia) donia) anand territory, the Bulgariad territory, the Bulgarians ans allso wanted to expand towarso wanted to expand toward Macedonia. Bud Macedonia. Bullgagarianrian bbaands wends were very active and powerful in the region. Bulgaria, Serbia, and Greece had re very active and powerful in the region. Bulgaria, Serbia, and Greece had their own plans for Macedonia, and Russia supported and provoked them to utheir own plans for Macedonia, and Russia supported and provoked them to unite nite against the Ottagainst the Ottoman State to force it tooman State to force it to dradraww its frontier back to theits frontier back to the Meriç river (MariMeriç river (Marit-t-sa)sa). . Armaoğlu, Armaoğlu, Siyasi Tarih, 1789Siyasi Tarih, 1789--19141914, 634, 634--35.35.

636 ClarkClark,, The Sleepwalkers: How EThe Sleepwalkers: How Europuropee Went to War in 1914Went to War in 1914, 252, 252..

637 Armaoğlu, SArmaoğlu, Siyasi Tarih, 1789iyasi Tarih, 1789--19141914, 641., 641.

638 Richard C. Hall,Richard C. Hall, The Balkan wars 1The Balkan wars 1912912--1913: Prelude to1913: Prelude to the First World Warthe First World War (Lon(London:don: Routledge, 2010), 22Routledge, 2010), 22--24.24.

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Second Constitutional Period. As mentioned in previous chapters, re-

Second Constitutional Period. As mentioned in previous chapters, re-sisisstance and guerilla movements were also very widespread in the Batance and guerilla movements were also very widespread in the Bal-l-kans, which also inspired the Young Turks before the Revolution. Armed kans, which also inspired the Young Turks before the Revolution. Armed exchanges had already staexchanges had already starrted in the region in the summer of 1912, and ted in the region in the summer of 1912, and assaults on Muslim people had begun in August and Septeassaults on Muslim people had begun in August and Septemmber. The Ot-ber. The Ot-toman government responded to this in a very harsh matoman government responded to this in a very harsh mannner. The Great ner. The Great Powers tried to intervene in the situation, only to be met with massive Powers tried to intervene in the situation, only to be met with massive prprootests in both Sofia and Athens. The Great Powers asked the Ottoman tests in both Sofia and Athens. The Great Powers asked the Ottoman Empire to initiate a reform process in the region. Empire to initiate a reform process in the region.

On the eve of the First Balkan War, tensions were high in Istanbul.

On the eve of the First Balkan War, tensions were high in Istanbul. Cavid Bey explained people’s mentality by saying: “We had guests in Cavid Bey explained people’s mentality by saying: “We had guests in tthe he evening… A big group swarmed in with torches and flags in their hands. evening… A big group swarmed in with torches and flags in their hands. They came and took me to the club… The club was full of people. They They came and took me to the club… The club was full of people. They overflowed into the streets... I found out that the ones who came to my overflowed into the streets... I found out that the ones who came to my door were actually from the opposition. door were actually from the opposition. EEveryone was thrilled. If it coveryone was thrilled. If it con-n-tinues like that, it will be very difficult to get ahead of the community’s tinues like that, it will be very difficult to get ahead of the community’s fervor for war.”fervor for war.”639 The LEP and the CUP continued to organize rallies in The LEP and the CUP continued to organize rallies in favor of war. Cavid Bey followed headquarters’ decision not to address favor of war. Cavid Bey followed headquarters’ decision not to address crowdscrowds in squares when there was a lack of effective governance, and he in squares when there was a lack of effective governance, and he avoided rallies. He said that demonstrations were something “gigaavoided rallies. He said that demonstrations were something “gigan-n-tesque”. During these days, Cavid Bey met with M. Weil from Régie and tesque”. During these days, Cavid Bey met with M. Weil from Régie and Mr. Nias from the Ottoman Bank. They both complained aMr. Nias from the Ottoman Bank. They both complained abbout the nout the na-a-tion’s current state. They both appreciated the CUP’s position, and Nias tion’s current state. They both appreciated the CUP’s position, and Nias lamented that they wished Cavid Bey was in charge. He also complained lamented that they wished Cavid Bey was in charge. He also complained about the Minister of Finance.about the Minister of Finance.640 During those days, the news about the During those days, the news about the Bill of 1880Bill of 1880641 circulated. Gabriecirculated. Gabriell Noradunkyan the minister of foreign Noradunkyan the minister of foreign

639 Cavid BeCavid Bey, y, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 453.453.

640 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,mesi I, 463463--64.64.

641 The Bill of 1880 was a laThe Bill of 1880 was a law prw preepared concering all Rumeli provinces acpared concering all Rumeli provinces accordcording ing toto ArticlArticle 23 of the Berlin Treaty. The Bill contained the reforms to be implemented in e 23 of the Berlin Treaty. The Bill contained the reforms to be implemented in Rumelia. The Ottoman government prepared the reform program itself to pRumelia. The Ottoman government prepared the reform program itself to prevent the revent the foreign iforeign intervention to the local ntervention to the local confconfllicts. The Bill aimed to establish localicts. The Bill aimed to establish local coucouncilncils s iin n RumeRumelia. lia. Bayur, TürkBayur, Türk Inkilâbı Tarihi, IIInkilâbı Tarihi, II/I, 401/I, 401--02.02.

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affairs had declared to Mr. Pallavicini, ambassador to Austria

affairs had declared to Mr. Pallavicini, ambassador to Austria--Hungary, Hungary, that the Ottoman government would implement the Bill of 1880.that the Ottoman government would implement the Bill of 1880.642 The The Unionists immediately called a meeting at CUP headquarters and coUnionists immediately called a meeting at CUP headquarters and con-n-sulted with sulted with SSaait Pashait Pasha about the Bill of 1880. However, he did not have about the Bill of 1880. However, he did not have the original text to hand. They were able to obtain a copy from Sir Adam the original text to hand. They were able to obtain a copy from Sir Adam Block.Block.

Cavid Bey wrote that from the beginning, he did not think that war

Cavid Bey wrote that from the beginning, he did not think that war was probable and that he was even more assured of was probable and that he was even more assured of hhis opinion on that is opinion on that day.day.643 Despite his optimism, the voices on the streets presented aDespite his optimism, the voices on the streets presented annoth-oth-er view. The demonstrations of students from the er view. The demonstrations of students from the Dar'ül FünunDar'ül Fünun (Univer-(Univer-sity) accompanied by soldiers had a startling effect on the gosity) accompanied by soldiers had a startling effect on the govvernment. ernment. The demonstrators shouted,The demonstrators shouted, “We want war!” Gazi Ahmet M“We want war!” Gazi Ahmet Muuhtar Pasha htar Pasha was afraid of these protests, because the government had already lost was afraid of these protests, because the government had already lost its power to initiate a war, and they were also aware that the youth its power to initiate a war, and they were also aware that the youth trusted the CUP wholeheartedly.trusted the CUP wholeheartedly.644 Approximately 1,000 stApproximately 1,000 stuudents and a dents and a group of group of ppeople that included Unionists such as Dr. Nazım Bey, Muhittin eople that included Unionists such as Dr. Nazım Bey, Muhittin Birgen, and Aka Gündüz had gathered at the gate of the Sublime Porte Birgen, and Aka Gündüz had gathered at the gate of the Sublime Porte and asked the grand vizier to give a speech to enlighten the public. and asked the grand vizier to give a speech to enlighten the public. Though the protest was nonThough the protest was non--violent, it deeply impacted violent, it deeply impacted tthe govern-he govern-ment. Nazım Pasha failed to show up at his office, and he was nowhere ment. Nazım Pasha failed to show up at his office, and he was nowhere to be found. Following that, a state of emergency was declared all to be found. Following that, a state of emergency was declared all around Rumelia. Cavid Bey explained that the government was traround Rumelia. Cavid Bey explained that the government was tryying to ing to oppress the voice of truth and drown thoppress the voice of truth and drown thee dissidence of its oppdissidence of its oppoonents. nents. The The Dar'ül FünunDar'ül Fünun demonstration further aggravated the situdemonstration further aggravated the situaation. All tion. All the CUP supporters who participated in the demonstration were inter-the CUP supporters who participated in the demonstration were inter-rogated, including Dr. Nazım, Gani, and Salim. The goverrogated, including Dr. Nazım, Gani, and Salim. The governnment believed ment believed that the rally wasthat the rally was organized by the CUP in order to take down the gov-organized by the CUP in order to take down the gov-ernment.ernment.645 CUP supporters were taken from the streets, like in the old CUP supporters were taken from the streets, like in the old

642 Bayur, Bayur, Türk Inkilâbı Tarihi,Türk Inkilâbı Tarihi, II/I, 394II/I, 394--95.95.

643 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 464464--66.66.

644 Bayur, Bayur, Türk Inkilâbı Tarihi, II/I,Türk Inkilâbı Tarihi, II/I, 409409--10.10.

645 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 466, 466--67; and Kansu, 67; and Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908Mücadelesi, 1908--1913, 1913, 424.424.

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days of Abdülhamid’s rule. Cavid Bey stated that their a

days of Abdülhamid’s rule. Cavid Bey stated that their annger had not ger had not faded.faded.

The financial committee had a meeting at party headquarters

The financial committee had a meeting at party headquarters,, where where they stated that they needed money and loans for the CUP’s operations. they stated that they needed money and loans for the CUP’s operations. Cavid Bey did not think that the current situation allowed for this, but Cavid Bey did not think that the current situation allowed for this, but he said that he would talk to the financiers.he said that he would talk to the financiers.646 Ibrahim Bey, the IstaIbrahim Bey, the Istannbul bul governor, paid Cavid Bey a visigovernor, paid Cavid Bey a visitt. He expressed the opinion that Nazım . He expressed the opinion that Nazım Pasha was furious with him due to the speech he gave in parliPasha was furious with him due to the speech he gave in parliaament. In ment. In fact, he was so angry that he said he could slap Cavid Bey when he ran fact, he was so angry that he said he could slap Cavid Bey when he ran into him. İbrahim Bey essentially explained to him that Istanbul’s finan-into him. İbrahim Bey essentially explained to him that Istanbul’s finan-ciaciall situation was in a shambles and that they needed 130,000 situation was in a shambles and that they needed 130,000 LLiiras. He ras. He added that in Rumelia, they were unable to pay wages and eadded that in Rumelia, they were unable to pay wages and exxpenditures. penditures.

In the meantime, there were several other ongoing issues related to

In the meantime, there were several other ongoing issues related to the war. Talat Bey had enlisted in the army volthe war. Talat Bey had enlisted in the army voluuntarily. His main aim ntarily. His main aim was to check the circumstances and situation of the army and to give was to check the circumstances and situation of the army and to give support to them. He was assigned to his homeland, Edirne. In turn, the support to them. He was assigned to his homeland, Edirne. In turn, the press claimed that Talat Bey’s aim was to provoke the army to start a press claimed that Talat Bey’s aim was to provoke the army to start a mutiny against the govemutiny against the goverrnment. Concerning Greece, Cavid Bey stated nment. Concerning Greece, Cavid Bey stated that annexing Crete would clearly be a pretext for war, but the goverthat annexing Crete would clearly be a pretext for war, but the govern-n-ment would see this as a fait accompli.ment would see this as a fait accompli.647 In In casecase of a war with Greece, of a war with Greece, Abdülhamid II’s return from Selanik to Istanbul was on the table.Abdülhamid II’s return from Selanik to Istanbul was on the table. AAc-c-cocorrdding to the account of ing to the account of Mecit Efendi, heir to the throne, it was the Mecit Efendi, heir to the throne, it was the Senate which had asked for this; he said that even though the sultan did Senate which had asked for this; he said that even though the sultan did not agree to it, he could not do anything because he was dependent on not agree to it, he could not do anything because he was dependent on the government’s opinion. The CUP, incthe government’s opinion. The CUP, includinludingg CCavid Bey, was worried avid Bey, was worried about the possibility of Abdülhamid II’s return to Istanbul and to power. about the possibility of Abdülhamid II’s return to Istanbul and to power.

The Balkan states mobilized on September 30, with the Ottoman

The Balkan states mobilized on September 30, with the Ottoman Empire following suit on October 1, 1912. The next day, the allied BaEmpire following suit on October 1, 1912. The next day, the allied Bal-l-kan states kan states —— BulgarBulgaria, Sia, Seerbrbia, Montenegro, and Greece ia, Montenegro, and Greece —— issued a joint issued a joint ultimatum to the Porte demanding farultimatum to the Porte demanding far--reaching reforms under foreign reaching reforms under foreign control in Macedonia, Crete, and Albania. The Ottoman government dcontrol in Macedonia, Crete, and Albania. The Ottoman government de-e-

646 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 467.467.

647 CaviCavid d BBey, ey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 467., 467.

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clared itself ready to implement all the reforms it had agreed on ear

clared itself ready to implement all the reforms it had agreed on earlier;lier; hohowever, it refused to renounce its sovereignty. On October 4, 1912, a wever, it refused to renounce its sovereignty. On October 4, 1912, a massive demonstration was held in Sultanahmet by approximately massive demonstration was held in Sultanahmet by approximately 20,000 people who supported the war. All of the prominent Unionists 20,000 people who supported the war. All of the prominent Unionists joined the protest. Protests were also organizedjoined the protest. Protests were also organized in Kin Koonynya and a and İzmirİzmir. . Though public opinion was against the ultimatum, the government Though public opinion was against the ultimatum, the government seemed willing to surrender under foreign pressure. On October 7, the seemed willing to surrender under foreign pressure. On October 7, the Dar'ül FünunDar'ül Fünun demonstration was held in Istanbul.demonstration was held in Istanbul.648 The next dayThe next day, on , on October 8, October 8, Montenegro declared warMontenegro declared war on ton thhe e OttomaOttoman Empirn Empire.e. On OctOn Octo-o-ber 10, an ultimatum concerning a reform program in the region that ber 10, an ultimatum concerning a reform program in the region that was prepared by the ambassadors of the Great Powers to Istanbul (Auwas prepared by the ambassadors of the Great Powers to Istanbul (Aus-s-triatria--Hungary, Britain, France, Russia, and Germany) was presented to Hungary, Britain, France, Russia, and Germany) was presented to the Ottoman governmethe Ottoman government. Tnt. Thhe e OttomaOttoman government officially accepted n government officially accepted the proposal to make and implement reforms in the region. However, the proposal to make and implement reforms in the region. However, the Bulgarian, Serb, and Greek governments asked for autonomy in the Bulgarian, Serb, and Greek governments asked for autonomy in MMaacedonia. As a result, in the following days, the Ottoman Empire went cedonia. As a result, in the following days, the Ottoman Empire went to warto war withwith alall the l the partners of the Balkan alliancepartners of the Balkan alliance. .

When the First Balkan War broke out, the

When the First Balkan War broke out, the TripolitanianTripolitanian War was War was continuingcontinuing. The army was not ready for a war that had such a broad . The army was not ready for a war that had such a broad scope and some of the best officers such as Enver Bey, Mustafa Kemal scope and some of the best officers such as Enver Bey, Mustafa Kemal BeBey and Fy and Fethi Bethi Beyey were were in in TrablusgarpTrablusgarp. Concluding the . Concluding the Tripolitanian Tripolitanian War was one of the first things that needed to be done. In October 1912, War was one of the first things that needed to be done. In October 1912, the Italian government threatened to launch a naval attack in the Athe Italian government threatened to launch a naval attack in the Aeege-ge-an if the Ottoman government did not agree to aan if the Ottoman government did not agree to a peace peace treatytreaty. . Under Under pressure from the Great Powers pressure from the Great Powers —— particularly Russia and Austria, particularly Russia and Austria, which were concerned by the disruption to shipping and the growing which were concerned by the disruption to shipping and the growing danger of the Balkans, respectively danger of the Balkans, respectively —— the Turks finally caved in and the Turks finally caved in and signed a secret peace treaty. On signed a secret peace treaty. On OctoberOctober 18, 118, 191912, the2, the Ouchy (Lausanne) Ouchy (Lausanne) agreement was signed between the Italian and Ottoman governments in agreement was signed between the Italian and Ottoman governments in Switzerland. The Ottoman Empire accepted to pull back its military Switzerland. The Ottoman Empire accepted to pull back its military forces. Italy retained forces. Italy retained TrablusgarpTrablusgarp but allowed the Porte to save face by but allowed the Porte to save face by

648 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 420, 420--23.23.

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permittin

permitting the sg the sultan/ultan/cacaliph tliph to retain the right to appoint the Qadi of o retain the right to appoint the Qadi of TrablusgarpTrablusgarp. His representative in . His representative in TrablusgarpTrablusgarp was also permitted to was also permitted to act as religious liaison between the caliph and his Libyan followers. Italy act as religious liaison between the caliph and his Libyan followers. Italy agreed to pull back its forces from the Dodecaneagreed to pull back its forces from the Dodecanese aftese after the r the OtOttoman toman military had left military had left TrablusgarpTrablusgarp. This remained a major issue until the end . This remained a major issue until the end of the Great War. The situation of the islands had deteriof the Great War. The situation of the islands had deterioorated from the rated from the Balkan Wars until the Great War, and it remained at the top of the Sub-Balkan Wars until the Great War, and it remained at the top of the Sub-lime Porte’s foreiglime Porte’s foreign policn policy ageny agendada. The . The next chapter will address this next chapter will address this issue in detail, as it related to Cavid Bey’s workload. issue in detail, as it related to Cavid Bey’s workload.

On October 19, 1912, Greece declared war against the Ottomans.

On October 19, 1912, Greece declared war against the Ottomans. The Ottoman government preferred to keep theThe Ottoman government preferred to keep the Dodecanese under ItaDodecanese under Ital-l-ian governance temian governance temporarilporarily duriy duringng the Bthe Balkan Wars due to Greece’s alkan Wars due to Greece’s persistence. During the period before the Balkan Wars, the Ottoman persistence. During the period before the Balkan Wars, the Ottoman Empire claimed its sovereignty over the Dodecanese. This would be one Empire claimed its sovereignty over the Dodecanese. This would be one of the most significant issues before the Great War. of the most significant issues before the Great War. FinallyFinally, accor, according to ding to Article 8Article 8 oof the f the agreement, Italy would help the Ottoman Empire abolish agreement, Italy would help the Ottoman Empire abolish capitulations.capitulations.649 In terms of the Ottoman forces, Cavid Bey’s meeting In terms of the Ottoman forces, Cavid Bey’s meeting with Adnan Adıvar a prominent political figure and dowith Adnan Adıvar a prominent political figure and docctor sheds light tor sheds light on the issue. Adnan Adıvar had on the issue. Adnan Adıvar had recentlrecently returned from y returned from TTrarablusgablusgarprp with with the latest news from the front. The the latest news from the front. The military military officers officers in in TraTrabblusgarplusgarp were were more than ready to strike a truce, which was why they were furious more than ready to strike a truce, which was why they were furious about about TaninTanin publishing articles in favor of extending the war. According publishing articles in favor of extending the war. According to Adnan Bto Adnan Bey, the ey, the war couwar could ld have bhave been ended earlier with a Unionist in-een ended earlier with a Unionist in-tervention, as the Italians were scared, and the Arabs were against the tervention, as the Italians were scared, and the Arabs were against the Turks. He mentioned that Fethi OkyarTurks. He mentioned that Fethi Okyar foundfound it disturbing that the war it disturbing that the war had not been concluded earlier, and hehad not been concluded earlier, and he disapprdisapproved ofoved of the CUP’s ac-the CUP’s ac-tions.tions.650

The

The Thrace became the main war zone between the Ottoman EThrace became the main war zone between the Ottoman Emmpire pire and and BulgariaBulgaria. Bulgarians mobilized approximately . Bulgarians mobilized approximately 300,000 men 300,000 men —— aroundaround 15% of the country’s total male population15% of the country’s total male population to this war zoneto this war zone..651

649 ArmaoArmaoğlu,ğlu, Siyasi TarihSiyasi Tarih, 624, 624--25.25.

650 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 482.482.

651 Clark, Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How EuThe Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in rope Went to War in 19141914, 252., 252.

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It was very

It was very criticalfcriticalfroro the Ethe Empire’smpire’s future in the region. future in the region. HoHowweveever, prior r, prior to this the most fundamental and arduous battles for the Oto this the most fundamental and arduous battles for the Otttoman Em-toman Em-pire had already taken place. The bitter loss of the Balkans was evident pire had already taken place. The bitter loss of the Balkans was evident in about three weeks.in about three weeks.652 On October 29, 1912, the BulgaOn October 29, 1912, the Bulgarrian and Oian and Otto-tto-man aman armies wrmies were positioned on eitheere positioned on either sider side of the Çatalca line between of the Çatalca line between the lakes of Terkos and Büyükçekmece, which were 40 km away from the lakes of Terkos and Büyükçekmece, which were 40 km away from Istanbul.Istanbul.653 Meanwhile, Thrace became the main combat zone due to Meanwhile, Thrace became the main combat zone due to the siege of Edirne and its proximity to Istanbul. Howthe siege of Edirne and its proximity to Istanbul. However, afever, after theter the war war had begun, devastahad begun, devastating nting news began coming from the front lines. The ews began coming from the front lines. The news pointed to the army’s weakness and the soldiers’ lack of motiva-news pointed to the army’s weakness and the soldiers’ lack of motiva-tion. On his return from Edirne, Talat Beytion. On his return from Edirne, Talat Bey announced that the soldiers announced that the soldiers were doing fine both physicalwere doing fine both physically and mly and mentallyentally..654 The news from Mace-The news from Mace-dondonia repia reported that many important locations on the Serbian, Buorted that many important locations on the Serbian, Bullgari-gari-an, and Greek borders had fallen. It was particularly shocking to lose an, and Greek borders had fallen. It was particularly shocking to lose Kırcaali. Cavid Bey mentioned that what was most concerning was the Kırcaali. Cavid Bey mentioned that what was most concerning was the lack of trooplack of troops in crus in crucial spcial spots, insufficient suppliots, insufficient supplies of es of food and fuel, and food and fuel, and the absence of necessary strategies.the absence of necessary strategies. He added that no one was eHe added that no one was enntirely tirely sure sure whetherwhether the midthe mid--ranking commanders possessed enough compe-ranking commanders possessed enough compe-tency in military matters. He wrote that many of thetency in military matters. He wrote that many of the offoffiicercers were s were

652 “The Ottom“The Ottoman pan pllan of operations in the event of an attack an of operations in the event of an attack suchsuch aass had ohad occured now ccured now envisagenvisaged a defensive war, with the army withdrawing to eastern Thrace in the east ed a defensive war, with the army withdrawing to eastern Thrace in the east and Greater Albania in the west,while the troops in the and Greater Albania in the west,while the troops in the Asiatic provinces weAsiatic provinces were being re being mobilized. The nmobilized. The new Wew Waar Minister Nazım Pasha was unfamiliar with r Minister Nazım Pasha was unfamiliar with the the plplaans, whns, while ile the former chithe former chief of staff who had drawn them up, Ahmet Izzet Pasha, was now serving ef of staff who had drawn them up, Ahmet Izzet Pasha, was now serving in the Yemen. The new plan envisioned a defensive posture in ein the Yemen. The new plan envisioned a defensive posture in eastern Thrace until astern Thrace until reinforcements from Anatoreinforcements from Anatolia lia ccould arrive. The German advisor to the Ottoould arrive. The German advisor to the Ottomansmans, , GGeen-n-eraleral Colmar Von der GoColmar Von der Goltz, had also urged a defensive strategy that envisioned a battle ltz, had also urged a defensive strategy that envisioned a battle along the upper Ergene River in northern Thrace where the battle oalong the upper Ergene River in northern Thrace where the battle of Lüleburgazf Lüleburgaz--Hisar Hisar OOnu would be fought. Instenu would be fought. Instead, ad, NNazım Pasha pressurized his commanders into azım Pasha pressurized his commanders into begibegin-n-nniing an ng an offensive. As a reoffensive. As a result, the Ottoman army did not withdraw but fought the Sesult, the Ottoman army did not withdraw but fought the Ser-r-bians and the Bulgarians simultaneously and with disastrous results.” bians and the Bulgarians simultaneously and with disastrous results.” Hall, Hall, The BThe Balkaalkann wars 1912wars 1912--19131913: : Prelude to the First WorldPrelude to the First World WarWar,, 225; and5; and Zürcher, Zürcher, Turkey: Turkey: A Modern A Modern HistoryHistory, 106, 106--07.07.

653 Armaoğlu, Armaoğlu, SiyasiSiyasi Tarih, 1789Tarih, 1789--19141914, 6, 649.49.

654 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmesMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,i I, 474.474.

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strolling around Istanbul while

strolling around Istanbul while theirtheir troops were on the batroops were on the batttlefield. tlefield. Nazım Pasha wasNazım Pasha was not conducting himself properly as Minister of War; not conducting himself properly as Minister of War; whenever there was an emergency, he could not be found, pawhenever there was an emergency, he could not be found, parrticularly ticularly at night. It was said that he spent his days with Panciri at at night. It was said that he spent his days with Panciri at TTookatlıyan katlıyan in in BeyoğluBeyoğlu and his nights at “Henrietand his nights at “Henriettte’s brothel”. It was alse’s brothel”. It was also said that Gazi o said that Gazi Pasha did not receive telegrams until the morning so as not to interrupt Pasha did not receive telegrams until the morning so as not to interrupt his sleep. The party decided not to do anything about these issues or his sleep. The party decided not to do anything about these issues or about Abdülhamid’s return from Selanik to Istanbul.about Abdülhamid’s return from Selanik to Istanbul.655 One of the main One of the main tuturrning points of the war wning points of the war was the battle at Kırklareli (Kırk Kilise), which as the battle at Kırklareli (Kırk Kilise), which lasted for three days along a 58lasted for three days along a 58--km front stretching eastward from the km front stretching eastward from the Ottoman fortress of Edirne. At the end of the battle, Kırklareli fell, and Ottoman fortress of Edirne. At the end of the battle, Kırklareli fell, and the Turkish army was forced to retrethe Turkish army was forced to retreaat toward Lült toward Lüleeburgaz. Theburgaz. The Bulgari-Bulgari-an victory was completely unexpected. Meanwhile, the Greek army was an victory was completely unexpected. Meanwhile, the Greek army was advancing toward Selanik. Üsküp surrendered to the Serbs on October advancing toward Selanik. Üsküp surrendered to the Serbs on October 26.26.656

M. Piquard, after just returning from Paris, painted a picture of how

M. Piquard, after just returning from Paris, painted a picture of how France perceiFrance perceived the Ottoman state. Aved the Ottoman state. According to him, France did not ccording to him, France did not think that the Ottomans had any chance of winning the war, and they think that the Ottomans had any chance of winning the war, and they criticized the Young Turks for not doing what they were supposed to do. criticized the Young Turks for not doing what they were supposed to do. It seemed very difficult to find money at that moment; howevIt seemed very difficult to find money at that moment; however, if the er, if the Turkish, GermTurkish, German, and British could reach an agreement, there was a an, and British could reach an agreement, there was a chance the Ottomans could obtain credit from foreign governments.chance the Ottomans could obtain credit from foreign governments.657 Bad news came from the front lines. After losing the battles of Kırklareli Bad news came from the front lines. After losing the battles of Kırklareli (Kırklareli(Kırklareli--Lozengrad) and LüleburgaLozengrad) and Lüleburgaz to the Bulgarians and z to the Bulgarians and Kumanovo Kumanovo to the Serbians, the army had to withdraw to the Çatalca lines just outo the Serbians, the army had to withdraw to the Çatalca lines just out-t-side Istanbul. To the west, only a few fortress towns still held out: Yanya side Istanbul. To the west, only a few fortress towns still held out: Yanya (Ioannina), (Ioannina), İşkodİşkodrara (Scuttari (Scuttari --SkhodërSkhodër), and Edirne.), and Edirne.658 Cavid Bey wrote Cavid Bey wrote the fothe following in his journal:llowing in his journal: “The inner resources have been drained; “The inner resources have been drained; the soldiers are running away from the enemy; it is the first time in our the soldiers are running away from the enemy; it is the first time in our

655 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 476.476.

656 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 432, 432--34.34.

657 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, MeMeşrutşrutiiyet Ruznâmesi I,yet Ruznâmesi I, 477.477.

658 Zürcher, Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History, Turkey: A Modern History, 107.107.

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glorious history that we see desertion.” The party decided that Hakkı

glorious history that we see desertion.” The party decided that Hakkı Bey should meet with Mahmut Şevket Pasha and thaBey should meet with Mahmut Şevket Pasha and that Cavid Bey needed t Cavid Bey needed to mto meeet with the heir to the throne.et with the heir to the throne.659 Meanwhile, the Russians were Meanwhile, the Russians were making an odd political maneuver. Count Ostrorog told Hüseyin Cahit making an odd political maneuver. Count Ostrorog told Hüseyin Cahit that the Russian ambassador stated that there was no power in the that the Russian ambassador stated that there was no power in the country other than the CUP, that thecountry other than the CUP, that the Ottomans should not thOttomans should not thiink ill of nk ill of them, and that the Russians preferred to see the Turks rather than the them, and that the Russians preferred to see the Turks rather than the Bulgarians in Istanbul. Bulgarians in Istanbul.

A meeting was held by members of the Senate and parliament under

A meeting was held by members of the Senate and parliament under the leadership of Grand Vizier Gazi Muhtar Pasha to discuss tthe leadership of Grand Vizier Gazi Muhtar Pasha to discuss the perils of he perils of the currenthe currentt circumstances. Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha thought that there circumstances. Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha thought that there were four reasons for the Empire’s defeatwere four reasons for the Empire’s defeat. They were as follows. They were as follows:: ssince ince the military officers had been closely involved in politics for the last the military officers had been closely involved in politics for the last decade, they did not have enodecade, they did not have enough time for military ugh time for military trtraining;aining; tthere was here was an an insufficientinsufficient number of officers in the field;number of officers in the field; tthe distribution of food he distribution of food and supplies was largely ineffective; and supplies was largely ineffective; tthere had been failings in the selehere had been failings in the selec-c-tion of the high rank of commanders. Cavid Bey notedtion of the high rank of commanders. Cavid Bey noted660 that the armthat the army’s y’s failures on the Grfailures on the Greeeek and Serbian borders, as well as the flood of refk and Serbian borders, as well as the flood of refu-u-gees into Istanbul every day, had allowed people to get a picture of gees into Istanbul every day, had allowed people to get a picture of the the reality of the situation. Meanwhile, the government failed to make any reality of the situation. Meanwhile, the government failed to make any official statements. The news that wofficial statements. The news that was coming in at night as coming in at night frfroom the front m the front lines caused the most despair. Kumanova, and Koçana had fallen; Ali Pa-lines caused the most despair. Kumanova, and Koçana had fallen; Ali Pa-sha’s army had been left on the battlefield, Üsküp was about to susha’s army had been left on the battlefield, Üsküp was about to surrren-ren-der; and Kozana and Serfice had both fallen. The Bulgarians reached der; and Kozana and Serfice had both fallen. The Bulgarians reached İskeçe and İskeçe and Gümülcine. People despaired that the glorious Empire was Gümülcine. People despaired that the glorious Empire was coming to an end, and they still had not heard about it from the gocoming to an end, and they still had not heard about it from the gov-v-ernment, as they were simply preoccupied with figernment, as they were simply preoccupied with fighting their political hting their political

659 Cavid BeCavid Bey, y, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 467467..

660 On On October 24/25, 1912, Kırkkilise (Lozengrad) haOctober 24/25, 1912, Kırkkilise (Lozengrad) had fallen. The army was illd fallen. The army was ill--disciplined, and heavy rains added to the army’s difficulties and low morale.disciplined, and heavy rains added to the army’s difficulties and low morale. The OThe Ot-t-toman losses toman losses were twice those of the Bwere twice those of the Bulgaulgarrians. ians. Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, MeşMeşruruttiyet Riyet Ruznâmesi Iuznâmesi I, , 478.478.

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rivals. The masses were stagnant and lifeless.

rivals. The masses were stagnant and lifeless.661 This was one of the rare This was one of the rare moments in Cavid Bey’s life in which he was in the depths of dmoments in Cavid Bey’s life in which he was in the depths of deespair, as spair, as opposed to being his normal optimistic self. opposed to being his normal optimistic self.

During these days, the only news from the

During these days, the only news from the government was that the government was that the elections might be postponed. Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha was assigned as the elections might be postponed. Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha was assigned as the ambassador to Vienna, which indicated that the conflict between the ambassador to Vienna, which indicated that the conflict between the moderate conservatives and the monarchists had intensified. On Octmoderate conservatives and the monarchists had intensified. On Octo-o-ber 29, Gazi Ahmet Muhtar ber 29, Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha resigned, and Kamil Pasha established Pasha resigned, and Kamil Pasha established a government. Hüseyin Cahit severely criticized this change of cabinet in a government. Hüseyin Cahit severely criticized this change of cabinet in his column in his column in HakHak, which had begun publication after the closure of , which had begun publication after the closure of TaninTanin. Kamil Pasha declared that the upcoming elections were officiall. Kamil Pasha declared that the upcoming elections were officially y postponed for an indefinite period of time. This did not come as a supostponed for an indefinite period of time. This did not come as a sur-r-prise to anyone in politics.prise to anyone in politics.662 Cavid Bey ran into Hafız Hakkı Pasha and Cavid Bey ran into Hafız Hakkı Pasha and found out that the sultan had appointed as grand vizier Kamil Pasha, found out that the sultan had appointed as grand vizier Kamil Pasha, whom the sultan had considered to be the onlwhom the sultan had considered to be the only person who could save y person who could save the Empire and bring peace to the country. This meeting took place bthe Empire and bring peace to the country. This meeting took place be-e-fore Kamifore Kamil Pasha’s official assignment. Hafız Hakkı attempted to warn l Pasha’s official assignment. Hafız Hakkı attempted to warn the sultan that Kamil Pasha was not the personthe sultan that Kamil Pasha was not the person as he antias he anticipatedcipated. . He He was was open toopen to SultanSultan,, “the government will give Rumelia away and even “the government will give Rumelia away and even you won't realize that it's gone.”you won't realize that it's gone.”663

On the samen the same day, whenday, when Cavid Bey was returning home in the evening, he Cavid Bey was returning home in the evening, he noticed empty royalnoticed empty royal horse horse –– carriages carriages on the Galata Bridge. He aon the Galata Bridge. He asssumed sumed that it was Kamil Pasha being assigned as grand vizier.that it was Kamil Pasha being assigned as grand vizier.664 Then, he saw a Then, he saw a crowd gathered in front of the Sublime Porte. He statecrowd gathered in front of the Sublime Porte. He statedd that “afthat “after four ter four years of work, they managed to make Kamil Pasha the grand vizier. The years of work, they managed to make Kamil Pasha the grand vizier. The

661 CavidCavid Bey, Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,479479--81.81.

662 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 427, 427--30; and Bayur,30; and Bayur, Türk Türk Inkilâbı TaInkilâbı Tarihi, II/II,rihi, II/II, 36. 36.

663 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 481.481.

664 Kamil Pasha was assigned aKamil Pasha was assigned as the Grand Vizier on October 29, 1912. s the Grand Vizier on October 29, 1912. Bayur, Bayur, Türk Türk Inkilâbı Tarihi, vol. II /II Inkilâbı Tarihi, vol. II /II , 36, 36..

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poor and gullible Sultan who admitted Kamil Pasha’s tre

poor and gullible Sultan who admitted Kamil Pasha’s treaason, appointed son, appointed him as grand vizier.”him as grand vizier.”665

The Balkan Wars’ impact was also very vivid and apparent in Ista

The Balkan Wars’ impact was also very vivid and apparent in Istan-n-bul. Thebul. The capital wcapital was hit very hard by the effects of the war. Under the as hit very hard by the effects of the war. Under the threat of Bulgarian occupation, the city dwellers witnessed thousands of threat of Bulgarian occupation, the city dwellers witnessed thousands of downtrodden refugees pouring into Istanbul without possessionsdowntrodden refugees pouring into Istanbul without possessions. It . It was possible for them to take shelter only in mosquwas possible for them to take shelter only in mosquees. Meanwhis. Meanwhile, the le, the outbreak of a cholera epidemic exacerbated the situation for the refoutbreak of a cholera epidemic exacerbated the situation for the refu-u-gees, as well as for the soldiers who became ill during the war. The Ogees, as well as for the soldiers who became ill during the war. The Ot-t-toman army’s return to Istanbul, hungry, thirsty, and shaking from toman army’s return to Istanbul, hungry, thirsty, and shaking from shock was a nightmare. As Halishock was a nightmare. As Halidde Edip stae Edip states, misery and poverty were tes, misery and poverty were more palpable in Istanbul than ever in the winter of 1912/1913.more palpable in Istanbul than ever in the winter of 1912/1913.666 In In addition to the Ottoman Empire, another power wondered about the addition to the Ottoman Empire, another power wondered about the Bulgarian advance: Bulgarian advance: Russia.Russia.

The Russian foreign minister, Mr. Sazanov, stated to Si

The Russian foreign minister, Mr. Sazanov, stated to Sirr George George BuBuchanan, British ambassador to St. Petersburg that, “Russia chanan, British ambassador to St. Petersburg that, “Russia would be obliged to warn them off, though Russia had no desire would be obliged to warn them off, though Russia had no desire to establish herself at Istanbul, she could not allow any other to establish herself at Istanbul, she could not allow any other power to take possession of it.”power to take possession of it.”667

Unsavory news arrived fro

Unsavory news arrived fromm Üsküp andÜsküp and Selanik. Üsküp surrendered Selanik. Üsküp surrendered without a fight, and Selanik was about to fall.without a fight, and Selanik was about to fall.668 M. Bompard, the French M. Bompard, the French

665 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,uznâmesi I, 485485--86.86.

666 Halide Edib Adıvar Halide Edib Adıvar Mor Salkımlı Ev,Mor Salkımlı Ev, (Istanbul: Can, 2017), 197, 201.(Istanbul: Can, 2017), 197, 201.

667 Clark, Clark, TheThe SleSleeepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914pwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914, 2, 264.64.

668 MehmedMehmed Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 485485--86.86. While the Bulgarians pushed intWhile the Bulgarians pushed into o Thrace, the SerbiaThrace, the Serbian Army advanced south intn Army advanced south into noo norrthern Macedonia with around thern Macedonia with around 132,000 men. On132,000 men. On OctOctobobeer 22, r 22, Kumanovo had fallen. OKumanovo had fallen. On November 8, the Serbian Army n November 8, the Serbian Army advanced to Moadvanced to Monastır. On Nonastır. On November 17, the battle turned decisively in the Serbs’ fvember 17, the battle turned decisively in the Serbs’ faavor. vor. From the From the beginning of the warbeginning of the war, the Greeks had focused , the Greeks had focused theitheirr attention singleattention single--mindedly mindedly on securing Selaon securing Selanik.nik. TThhe Greee Greek Army of Thessaly mark Army of Thessaly marched to the northeast, overrun-ched to the northeast, overrun-ning Ottoman poning Ottoman positions on thsitions on the Sarantaporos Pass and Yannitsa on October 22 and No-e Sarantaporos Pass and Yannitsa on October 22 and No-vember 2. The roavember 2. The road to Selanik was nowd to Selanik was now open. The Bulgaropen. The Bulgariians senans sent tht theeir 7ir 7thth Division Division when they understood that when they understood that the the GrGreeeks haeks had surrounded the city.d surrounded the city. As they aAs they appproached proached

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ambassador, told Cavid Bey that the Young Turks refused the interve

ambassador, told Cavid Bey that the Young Turks refused the interven-n-tion “par conviction”; and the government refused because they were tion “par conviction”; and the government refused because they were afraid ofafraid of the Young the Young Turks. Cavid Bey stated that the situation in MacTurks. Cavid Bey stated that the situation in Mace-e-donia was caused by the encouragement and provocation of the Great donia was caused by the encouragement and provocation of the Great Powers, rather than the CUP and its inadequate policies. Bompard told Powers, rather than the CUP and its inadequate policies. Bompard told him that the current situation was even worse than during him that the current situation was even worse than during tthe Russohe Russo--TTurkish War. While back then there was a strong, capable government, urkish War. While back then there was a strong, capable government, now there was no governmental presence at all.now there was no governmental presence at all.669 Cavid Bey grew quite Cavid Bey grew quite frustrated with events of the Balkan Wars. He said, “The invasion of frustrated with events of the Balkan Wars. He said, “The invasion of MMaacedonia in so little time, the case ocedonia in so little time, the case off KırklarelKırklareli (Kırkkilise) immediate-i (Kırkkilise) immediate-ly turned Europe against us. They don’t mention the maintenance of the ly turned Europe against us. They don’t mention the maintenance of the status quo any more.”status quo any more.”670

Cavid Bey was still engaged in teaching. He was giving lectures at

Cavid Bey was still engaged in teaching. He was giving lectures at MektebMekteb--i Nüvvabi Nüvvab, but he then wanted to send Hasan there as a p, but he then wanted to send Hasan there as a proferofesssor.sor. At that time, the students of At that time, the students of MektebMekteb--i Nüvvabi Nüvvab signed a petition and de-signed a petition and de-livered it to the dean in order to remove this course from the curriclivered it to the dean in order to remove this course from the curricuulum lum -- and the dean accepted the demands. It annoyed Cavid Bey that his and the dean accepted the demands. It annoyed Cavid Bey that his course was canceled because of the course was canceled because of the demands odemands of the students.f the students.671

Azmi Bey, Governor of

Azmi Bey, Governor of KırkKırklarelilareli, paid a visit to Cavid Bey. According , paid a visit to Cavid Bey. According to him, the desertion rates in the army were unimaginable. Such a high to him, the desertion rates in the army were unimaginable. Such a high number of deserters was a new matter for the statesmen. The foreignumber of deserters was a new matter for the statesmen. The foreign-n-ers shared this view as well. Meanwhile, Cavid Bey wrote in his journers shared this view as well. Meanwhile, Cavid Bey wrote in his journal al about an incident he was working on related to a corruption case inside about an incident he was working on related to a corruption case inside the government. He wrote that the corruption and fraud from the government. He wrote that the corruption and fraud from AbdüAbdüllhamid’s time had returned; Shaykh alhamid’s time had returned; Shaykh al--Islam Muhtar Bey, Ismail Islam Muhtar Bey, Ismail from Gümülcine, and even some highfrom Gümülcine, and even some high--ranking officials hranking officials had all commit-ad all commit-

the city, they sent messe

the city, they sent messengers to the ngers to the Ottoman commander to surrender the city to the Ottoman commander to surrender the city to the Bulgarians. The answer Bulgarians. The answer of the Ottoman coof the Ottoman commmamander was: “I have only onnder was: “I have only one See Sellanik, anik, which I have already surrendered.” Thwhich I have already surrendered.” The Gre Greeeekks had s had arrived there first. arrived there first. Clark, Clark, The The SleepwalkSleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914ers: How Europe Went to War in 1914, 253, 253--55.55.

669 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,, 488488--9911..

670 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 486, 486--87.87.

671 CCavid Bey, avid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,, 487487--88.88.

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ted a crime regarding the Metropolitan Affair. Cavid Bey touched upon

ted a crime regarding the Metropolitan Affair. Cavid Bey touched upon this issue from time to time and stated that during the CUP’s rule, such this issue from time to time and stated that during the CUP’s rule, such incinciidents had not occurred. He also included the foreigners he worked dents had not occurred. He also included the foreigners he worked with in this statement. Cavid with in this statement. Cavid Bey was a strong advocate of the “rule of Bey was a strong advocate of the “rule of law,” particularly when it came to essential matters such as corruption law,” particularly when it came to essential matters such as corruption and debt services. and debt services.

The fall of Lüleburgaz resonated in Europe. It also overlapped with

The fall of Lüleburgaz resonated in Europe. It also overlapped with Kamil Pasha’s appointment. On November 3, the Ottoman Kamil Pasha’s appointment. On November 3, the Ottoman government government sent a diplomatic note to its sent a diplomatic note to its ambassadorsambassadors that the government wanted that the government wanted the Great Powers to intervene. Cavid Bey grew angry about the gothe Great Powers to intervene. Cavid Bey grew angry about the govvern-ern-ment’s move, because the government was asking for help from the ment’s move, because the government was asking for help from the Great Powers who had already declared that Great Powers who had already declared that they would not intervene. they would not intervene. He complained that the government did not ask for any preconditions. He complained that the government did not ask for any preconditions. He wrote, “This massive Empire remained silent. Rumelia, which was He wrote, “This massive Empire remained silent. Rumelia, which was conquered through quite a lot of sacrifice, is now left with its fine fires conquered through quite a lot of sacrifice, is now left with its fine fires and martyrs. Neithand martyrs. Neither excitement nor signs of life in the country. A dead er excitement nor signs of life in the country. A dead government is dominated by a dead tribe in a dead country.”government is dominated by a dead tribe in a dead country.”672

Cavid Bey also wrote that the police were watching his house. Me

Cavid Bey also wrote that the police were watching his house. Mer-r-chants from Selanik visited Cavid Bey to discuss the general political chants from Selanik visited Cavid Bey to discuss the general political and and economic situation. On their way out, Cavid Bey was questioned economic situation. On their way out, Cavid Bey was questioned about his guests’ identity. The proabout his guests’ identity. The pro--government government AlemdarAlemdar newspaper newspaper wrote that Cavid Bey donated 10,000 wrote that Cavid Bey donated 10,000 LLiras to the Red Crescent (iras to the Red Crescent (HilalHilal--i i AhmerAhmer). But in fact, he had no income and depended on onl). But in fact, he had no income and depended on only a few liras y a few liras he got from here and there. He said that this slander and suspicion he got from here and there. He said that this slander and suspicion caused him to give up hope not only for today, but also for tomocaused him to give up hope not only for today, but also for tomorrrow.row.673 TaninTanin claimed that Mahmut Şevket Pasha was going to be aclaimed that Mahmut Şevket Pasha was going to be asssigned the signed the position of Inspector General. Things began to heat up in the Sublime position of Inspector General. Things began to heat up in the Sublime Porte following this incident. The headlines aimed to serve the CUP’s Porte following this incident. The headlines aimed to serve the CUP’s efforts to reconcile with the government over the Balefforts to reconcile with the government over the Balkan Wars, but kan Wars, but nothing seemed to work. The purpose here was to enable mutual sup-nothing seemed to work. The purpose here was to enable mutual sup-port between the two parties during the war and to get Mahmut Şevket port between the two parties during the war and to get Mahmut Şevket

672 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, MeşruMeşrutiyetiyett Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, , 492.492.

673 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 492, 492--94.94.

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Pasha to visit the army as Inspector General. However, none of these

Pasha to visit the army as Inspector General. However, none of these goals was realized. Both the governmentgoals was realized. Both the government and LEP were afraid that Pasha and LEP were afraid that Pasha would come to Istanbul with his army and punish them for their mis-would come to Istanbul with his army and punish them for their mis-deeds, as in the March 31 incident. Cavid Bey was among the decdeeds, as in the March 31 incident. Cavid Bey was among the deciisionsion--makers behind this process.makers behind this process.674

On November 9, 1912, Cavid Bey wrote that the decision to sh

On November 9, 1912, Cavid Bey wrote that the decision to shut ut down down TaninTanin had been made and that he would not open another newhad been made and that he would not open another news-s-paper. Cavid Bey proposed that Talat Bey and Haci Adil should go to the paper. Cavid Bey proposed that Talat Bey and Haci Adil should go to the Sublime Porte to meet Kamil Pasha. During their meeting, Kamil Pasha Sublime Porte to meet Kamil Pasha. During their meeting, Kamil Pasha stated that he had met stated that he had met Mahmut Şevket Pasha very Mahmut Şevket Pasha very recently and did not recently and did not think he was a better candidate than Nazım Pasha. Talat Bey told Kamil think he was a better candidate than Nazım Pasha. Talat Bey told Kamil Pasha that he would pay him a visit from time to time. Kamil Pasha Pasha that he would pay him a visit from time to time. Kamil Pasha sneered at him and asked, “for your own interest and benefit?” Cavid sneered at him and asked, “for your own interest and benefit?” Cavid BeyBey anticipated that these meetings would not be a complete success; anticipated that these meetings would not be a complete success; however, he had not “expected such revengeful responses and animohowever, he had not “expected such revengeful responses and animossi-i-ty.”ty.”

Cavid Bey was working on the Metropolitan Affair, which had i

Cavid Bey was working on the Metropolitan Affair, which had in-n-volved a case of governmental bribery. He wrote that altvolved a case of governmental bribery. He wrote that although everhough everyyone one at the State Council and the Ministry of Public Works took money, this at the State Council and the Ministry of Public Works took money, this case of bribery involved delaying work processes. Meanwhile, case of bribery involved delaying work processes. Meanwhile, Sadık Bey, Sadık Bey, now Vice President of the LEP, published a declaration stating that the now Vice President of the LEP, published a declaration stating that the party’s institutions mightparty’s institutions might be shut down. Cavid Bey wrote that he felt be shut down. Cavid Bey wrote that he felt that the CUP may also be closed by the government.that the CUP may also be closed by the government. Meanwhile, the Meanwhile, the government finally mentioned the posgovernment finally mentioned the posssibility of defeat in Çatalca. Cavid ibility of defeat in Çatalca. Cavid Bey met with the journalist Jean Rhodes from Bey met with the journalist Jean Rhodes from Le TempsLe Temps. Cavid Bey told . Cavid Bey told the paper that the CUP was in favor of the defense of Çatalca and that the paper that the CUP was in favor of the defense of Çatalca and that they wanted to maintain their honor. Rhodes responded by saying, they wanted to maintain their honor. Rhodes responded by saying, “Your honor h“Your honor haas been saved; the soldiers couldn't have fought more s been saved; the soldiers couldn't have fought more than that despite hunger and exhaustion.” During this conversation, than that despite hunger and exhaustion.” During this conversation, Cavid Bey told Jean Rhodes that if Rumelia was lost, then Ottomanism Cavid Bey told Jean Rhodes that if Rumelia was lost, then Ottomanism ((İttihadİttihad--ı Anasırı Anasır) would become insignificant and that they would have ) would become insignificant and that they would have

674 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmeMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,si I, 500500--03.03.

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to change their policy. Rhodes told him that even if Rumelia was lost,

to change their policy. Rhodes told him that even if Rumelia was lost, there would still be many Greeks in Anatolia. Cavid Bey responded by there would still be many Greeks in Anatolia. Cavid Bey responded by telling him that they were safe. Cavid Bey’s rtelling him that they were safe. Cavid Bey’s responses indicate that a esponses indicate that a consensus and discourse had been established in the party meetings consensus and discourse had been established in the party meetings and the meetings at his residence. From then on, Cavid Bey’s discourse and the meetings at his residence. From then on, Cavid Bey’s discourse and politics during such meetings, especially with foreign representand politics during such meetings, especially with foreign representa-a-tives, was always in acctives, was always in accordance with the CUP and the continuity of the ordance with the CUP and the continuity of the state. state.

On November 8, 1912,

On November 8, 1912, TaninTanin published an article about Mahmut published an article about Mahmut Şevket Pasha’s visit to Çatalca to inspect the army. The day after, Şevket Pasha’s visit to Çatalca to inspect the army. The day after, İkdamİkdam, , supporter of the LEP, refuted this newssupporter of the LEP, refuted this news. Tanin. Tanin asserted that only asserted that only MaMahhmut Şevket Pasha, as the Inspector General of the army, could save mut Şevket Pasha, as the Inspector General of the army, could save TuTurrkey. Thkey. The same day, the publication ban was imposed on the newspa-e same day, the publication ban was imposed on the newspa-per, and all of the copies of the newspaper were confiscated. There was per, and all of the copies of the newspaper were confiscated. There was also a ban put in place on newspapers being published with all also a ban put in place on newspapers being published with all articlesarticles wriwrittten under pen names, which was something that Hüseyten under pen names, which was something that Hüseyin Cahit had in Cahit had done in the past. The only newspapers that remained in print at that done in the past. The only newspapers that remained in print at that time, including time, including İkdam,İkdam, AlemdarAlemdar, and , and SabahSabah, supported the government. , supported the government. The Kamil Pasha government was in a deep crisis due to pressure from The Kamil Pasha government was in a deep crisis due to pressure from the Unionists and Mahmut Şevket Pasha, who had supported the cothe Unionists and Mahmut Şevket Pasha, who had supported the com-m-manders who wanted to resist. As an Anglophile, Kamil Pasha was imanders who wanted to resist. As an Anglophile, Kamil Pasha was in-n-clinclineed to make peace as soon as possible. On November 10, the god to make peace as soon as possible. On November 10, the govvern-ern-ment strengthened its measures against the CUP and gave the party a ment strengthened its measures against the CUP and gave the party a deadline by which the CUP had to close its branches. On November 11, deadline by which the CUP had to close its branches. On November 11, Sadık Bey announced that the LEP had Sadık Bey announced that the LEP had committed itself tcommitted itself too adjouradjournn to to support the government until the opening of the parliament once support the government until the opening of the parliament once again.again.675

Last but not least, the financing of the Balkan Wars was another i

Last but not least, the financing of the Balkan Wars was another is-s-sue during the war. First of all, the Ottoman government did not take sue during the war. First of all, the Ottoman government did not take out any new loans during the war. out any new loans during the war. TThe Ottoman government he Ottoman government receivedreceived an an advance from the National Bank of Turkey that amounted to 33,000 advance from the National Bank of Turkey that amounted to 33,000 Li-Li-

675 Kansu,Kansu, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--11913913, 443, 443--44.44.

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ras

ras, which had been finalized before the outbreak of the war. After the , which had been finalized before the outbreak of the war. After the war had broken out, the banks agreed not to give loans to both the Owar had broken out, the banks agreed not to give loans to both the Ot-t-toman and thetoman and the Balkan states. The banks criticized the Ottoman goverBalkan states. The banks criticized the Ottoman govern-n-ment for not repaying its debts during the war. As a result, the duration ment for not repaying its debts during the war. As a result, the duration of the advance payments was renewed, while the interest rates iof the advance payments was renewed, while the interest rates in-n-creased.creased.676 In sum, both the Ottoman Bank and the OPDA closed itsIn sum, both the Ottoman Bank and the OPDA closed its doors on the Ottoman government. doors on the Ottoman government.

§ 3.9 Once Again in Exile… Once Again in Exile…

In addition to the Balkan Wars, domestic politics in the Empire had

In addition to the Balkan Wars, domestic politics in the Empire had been upended. The Unionists’ efforts to both change Kamil Pasha’s ar-been upended. The Unionists’ efforts to both change Kamil Pasha’s ar-my’s position and shuffle the cabinet were inconclusive. Moreomy’s position and shuffle the cabinet were inconclusive. Moreovver, the er, the commander of the First Army had given an order to arrest Talat Pcommander of the First Army had given an order to arrest Talat Paasha. sha. The government’s main aim was to get rid of the Unionists, particThe government’s main aim was to get rid of the Unionists, particuularly larly the leaders of the CUP, in order to eliminate any kind of opposition to the leaders of the CUP, in order to eliminate any kind of opposition to the upcoming negotiations. The gothe upcoming negotiations. The govvernment had no choice but to turn a ernment had no choice but to turn a blind eye to members of the CUP fleeing the country. On Noveblind eye to members of the CUP fleeing the country. On Novemmber 12, ber 12, Kamil Pasha asked for the conditions of an armistice with the Balkan Kamil Pasha asked for the conditions of an armistice with the Balkan states. Though the guns had not been silenced, states. Though the guns had not been silenced, Nazım Pasha, who would Nazım Pasha, who would be in chargbe in chargee of negotiations, declared that the army could endure at of negotiations, declared that the army could endure at most four days. While conflicting voices could be heard around Istanbul, most four days. While conflicting voices could be heard around Istanbul, a new wave of arrests had begun against the Unionists and members of a new wave of arrests had begun against the Unionists and members of the military on Novembthe military on November 13. Meanwhile, on the afteer 13. Meanwhile, on the afterrnoon of November noon of November 17, the navy disembarked from its ships to protect the embassies, 17, the navy disembarked from its ships to protect the embassies, schools, and hospitalsschools, and hospitals..677

Hüseyin Cahit met with Cavid Bey and tol

Hüseyin Cahit met with Cavid Bey and toldd him that he wanted to go him that he wanted to go to Europe with his family but that he did not want to Europe with his family but that he did not want to leave Cavid Bey to leave Cavid Bey

676 Parvus EfenParvus Efendi, di, Cihan Harbine doğru TürkiyeCihan Harbine doğru Türkiye, 82, 82--6.6.

677 Kansu,Kansu, İİttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesittihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908, 1908--19131913, 445, 445--46 46 and 61and 61--63.63.

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behind. Cavid Bey was unable to decide immediately and asked for some

behind. Cavid Bey was unable to decide immediately and asked for some time to consider it.time to consider it.678 According to his notes dated November 12, 1912, According to his notes dated November 12, 1912, when Cavid Bey met when Cavid Bey met wwith Talat Bey and Mithat Şükrü, they oith Talat Bey and Mithat Şükrü, they obbjected to jected to Hüseyin Cahit’s decision to leave. Cavid Bey told them about his hesita-Hüseyin Cahit’s decision to leave. Cavid Bey told them about his hesita-tion and that as a precaution he would not stay at his home at night and tion and that as a precaution he would not stay at his home at night and that he would act accordingly. Cavid Bey accompanied Hüseyin Cthat he would act accordingly. Cavid Bey accompanied Hüseyin Caahit to hit to get on a boat to Romania, and he left despite the opiget on a boat to Romania, and he left despite the opinnions of his friends. ions of his friends. When Hüseyin Cahit got on, the coast guard did not ask him anything, When Hüseyin Cahit got on, the coast guard did not ask him anything, stating there was no need for passport control. Fostating there was no need for passport control. Folllowing this farewell, lowing this farewell, Cavid Bey went home and while cCavid Bey went home and while chhatting with Batting with Baabanzade Hakkı and banzade Hakkı and Rahmi, first Kibar Fazıl, then Şükrü Bey stopped by and told him that Rahmi, first Kibar Fazıl, then Şükrü Bey stopped by and told him that Kamil Pasha had ordered that Cavid Bey and Hüseyin Cahit be arrested. Kamil Pasha had ordered that Cavid Bey and Hüseyin Cahit be arrested. He also ordered every EuropeHe also ordered every Europe--bound ship to be stopped to search for bound ship to be stopped to search for fugitives. Cavifugitives. Cavidd Bey left his Bey left his house looking for a safe place to hide. He house looking for a safe place to hide. He ended up at Count Ostrorog’s house in John’s Apartment behind the ended up at Count Ostrorog’s house in John’s Apartment behind the German Hospital on Sıraselviler. Ostrorog asked his secretary Mr. Pech German Hospital on Sıraselviler. Ostrorog asked his secretary Mr. Pech and Head Translator of the French Embassy M. Ledoux to help with and Head Translator of the French Embassy M. Ledoux to help with Cavid Bey’sCavid Bey’s departure, especially in preparing his papers. departure, especially in preparing his papers. LaterLater, M. Le-, M. Le-doux came to the Count’s house in person and told him that he had two doux came to the Count’s house in person and told him that he had two spare rooms at the embassy and that the next day they would move spare rooms at the embassy and that the next day they would move Cavid Bey there and then get him on a boat to Odessa or MaCavid Bey there and then get him on a boat to Odessa or Marserseille. ille.

In his journals, Cavid Bey wrote statements that reflected his anger

In his journals, Cavid Bey wrote statements that reflected his anger and hurt and hurt ——although his moments of sadness are not although his moments of sadness are not easyeasy to discern. He to discern. He wrote that when he was alone with Ostrorog, he cried; this is a rare pewrote that when he was alone with Ostrorog, he cried; this is a rare per-r-sonal moment outlined in his journasonal moment outlined in his journal. l. He found it hard to grasp leaving He found it hard to grasp leaving his country behind, even despite the miserable circumstances and to his country behind, even despite the miserable circumstances and to ask for help from those who wanted to divide and destroy Rumelia. ask for help from those who wanted to divide and destroy Rumelia. When he went to bed, he thought: “Is this why we have worked so hard When he went to bed, he thought: “Is this why we have worked so hard to get rid of foto get rid of foreireign domination? And is this the result we wanted when gn domination? And is this the result we wanted when we declared constitutionalism? We declared constitutionalism in order we declared constitutionalism? We declared constitutionalism in order to save to save Rumelia andRumelia and look at how it ended up when it is passed onto look at how it ended up when it is passed onto

678 CaviCavid Bed Beyy, , Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 509, 509--13.13.

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greedy, disloyal hands. How unbelievable and unbearable it sou

greedy, disloyal hands. How unbelievable and unbearable it sounds nds to to me, the idea of Turkey without Rumelia, the Ottoman state without Sme, the idea of Turkey without Rumelia, the Ottoman state without Se-e-lanik!”lanik!”

On 14 November, 1912, Cavid Bey and Babanzade Hakkı Bey board-

On 14 November, 1912, Cavid Bey and Babanzade Hakkı Bey board-ed a boat bound for Marseille at 11:00 with the help of Count Oed a boat bound for Marseille at 11:00 with the help of Count Osstrorog trorog and the French. They were asked to remainand the French. They were asked to remain hidhidden until the boat passed den until the boat passed Çanakkale (the Çanakkale (the Dardanelles?Dardanelles?). Sarım and Fazıl had accompanied them to ). Sarım and Fazıl had accompanied them to the boat and informed them that 200 people had been arrested. Cavid the boat and informed them that 200 people had been arrested. Cavid Bey said that while the French had certainly done him a favor, they were Bey said that while the French had certainly done him a favor, they were now benow behaving lihaving like ke tthey had done something unimaginable. He added, hey had done something unimaginable. He added, “We will persevere!”“We will persevere!”679

Cavid Bey wrote that he found himself on a “second March 31 trip,”

Cavid Bey wrote that he found himself on a “second March 31 trip,” escaping a feeling of catastrophe in the country. He hoped that they escaping a feeling of catastrophe in the country. He hoped that they would be fixing their eyes on places fwould be fixing their eyes on places from whererom where ththeey would be rescued, y would be rescued, since now these places of hope were crushed under the enemy’s boots. since now these places of hope were crushed under the enemy’s boots. Babanzade Hakkı had 50 Babanzade Hakkı had 50 LLiras in his pocket, and Cavid Bey had 100 iras in his pocket, and Cavid Bey had 100 LLi-i-ras he had borrowed from Arif, in addition to a 50 ras he had borrowed from Arif, in addition to a 50 LirasLiras check from check from Hüseyin Cahit, bouHüseyin Cahit, bound for the Banque Nationale. He had exchanged the nd for the Banque Nationale. He had exchanged the check forcheck for money from money from Sarım sSarım sinceince he had no time tohe had no time to ccash the check. ash the check. Cavid Bey said that at that point he was much more indebted compared Cavid Bey said that at that point he was much more indebted compared to before the Revolution. Despite his financial situation, he complato before the Revolution. Despite his financial situation, he complained ined that the dissidents referred to his colleagues and himself as “thieves”, that the dissidents referred to his colleagues and himself as “thieves”, and claimed that they aland claimed that they alll had farms in Romania, hotels in Selanik, and had farms in Romania, hotels in Selanik, and houses in Switzerland. Cavid Bey arrived in Marseille with anxiety and houses in Switzerland. Cavid Bey arrived in Marseille with anxiety and worrisome thoughts. Most of the passworrisome thoughts. Most of the passengers that were on board were engers that were on board were Levantines who had left Istanbul due to political reasons. They arrivedLevantines who had left Istanbul due to political reasons. They arrived iin Marseille on n Marseille on November 20, 1912 andNovember 20, 1912 and settled at the Grand Hotel. Cavid settled at the Grand Hotel. Cavid Bey found Marseille to be much bigger than he had imagined, and he Bey found Marseille to be much bigger than he had imagined, and he became emotionbecame emotional when he realized that the city’s streets and the har-al when he realized that the city’s streets and the har-bor were bor were likelike Selanik. They received a leSelanik. They received a lettter froter from the promm the promiinent Union-nent Union-ist Ahmet Rıza, inviting them to Paris to have interviews with French ist Ahmet Rıza, inviting them to Paris to have interviews with French

679 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 517517--23.23.

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politicians and journalists. Finally, they decided to g

politicians and journalists. Finally, they decided to go to either Genoa or o to either Genoa or Brussels; Cavid Bey would stay a few days in Lyon first, Babanzade Brussels; Cavid Bey would stay a few days in Lyon first, Babanzade Hakkı would goHakkı would go to Paris directly to Paris directly to get information from Ahmet Rıza to get information from Ahmet Rıza and Rifat Pasha.and Rifat Pasha.

The news coming from Istanbul confirmed the news

The news coming from Istanbul confirmed the news theythey received as received as they boarded the they boarded the ship: many of their friends had been arrested. Strange-ship: many of their friends had been arrested. Strange-ly, they did not hear anything about Talat Pasha. They found out thly, they did not hear anything about Talat Pasha. They found out that the at the official reason for their arrest was the official reason for their arrest was the Dar'ul FünunDar'ul Fünun demonstrdemonstraation, tion, which the government claimed was designed to throw them outwhich the government claimed was designed to throw them out of pow-of pow-er. The government declared that the sole responsibility for the demon-er. The government declared that the sole responsibility for the demon-stration belonged to the CUP, which was saidstration belonged to the CUP, which was said to have developed a pro-to have developed a pro-gram to unseat the government. Cavid Bey said that he was quite upset gram to unseat the government. Cavid Bey said that he was quite upset by this statement, because there was no tby this statement, because there was no truth in any of it. Ali Kruth in any of it. Ali Keemal and mal and Diran Kelekyan, both journalists and antagonists of the CUP were the Diran Kelekyan, both journalists and antagonists of the CUP were the ones behind the demones behind the demonstration. Cavid Bey and his friends penned a let-onstration. Cavid Bey and his friends penned a let-ter to ter to Le TempsLe Temps, and Andre Tardieu published an edited version of it., and Andre Tardieu published an edited version of it.680 From the EuropFrom the European perspective, the situation had the potential to lead ean perspective, the situation had the potential to lead to a Russianto a Russian--Austrian conflagration, which could easily set the Austrian conflagration, which could easily set the entire entire continent ablaze. The Great Powers, accordingly, focused on forcing a continent ablaze. The Great Powers, accordingly, focused on forcing a ceasefire and convening a conference to discuss the futureceasefire and convening a conference to discuss the future of the Bal-of the Bal-kans.kans.681 While Cavid Bey was in Marseille, an armistice was declared on While Cavid Bey was in Marseille, an armistice was declared on December 3.December 3.682 The following day, Cavid BeThe following day, Cavid Bey and Babay and Babannzade Hakkı Bey zade Hakkı Bey caught a train early in the morning. While Hakkı Bey went on to Paris, caught a train early in the morning. While Hakkı Bey went on to Paris, Cavid Bey got off the train in Lyon. CCavid Bey got off the train in Lyon. Cavid Bey was closely followed by avid Bey was closely followed by the press on his trips in Europe. In Marseille, a hotel employee informed the press on his trips in Europe. In Marseille, a hotel employee informed

680 CCavid Bey, avid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesâmesii I,I, 523523--30.30.

681 “The Armistice of 3 Decembe“The Armistice of 3 December par pavevedd the wthe way for two parallel conferences in London. ay for two parallel conferences in London. At the first, Ottoman and Balkan delegates met to discuss the future of European TuAt the first, Ottoman and Balkan delegates met to discuss the future of European Tur-r-keykey and the Northern Aeand the Northern Aegean islands. At thegean islands. At the second, ambassadors of tsecond, ambassadors of the Ghe Grreat Powers eat Powers debated a general settlement in debated a general settlement in the the BaBallkans.”kans.” Hanioğlu, "The Second Constitutional Hanioğlu, "The Second Constitutional PeriodPeriod, 19, 190808--1918,"1918," 89.89.

682 On December 3, 1912, when an armistice was signed, the only points of continuing On December 3, 1912, when an armistice was signed, the only points of continuing Ottoman resistance west of the Çatalca Ottoman resistance west of the Çatalca line were Edirne, Yaline were Edirne, Yanya, and Uskup, all nya, and Uskup, all of of which were still underwhich were still under siesiegge. e.

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the newspapers

the newspapers, so a photographer was there when they arrived at the , so a photographer was there when they arrived at the train station. An acquaintance stopped the phototrain station. An acquaintance stopped the photoggrapher. The next day, rapher. The next day, they saw they saw a cinematograph installed in front of the hotel on their way a cinematograph installed in front of the hotel on their way out. In this photo, he was seen with a hat on. He asked out. In this photo, he was seen with a hat on. He asked the the papers papers not not to to send it to Istanbul. Despite his request this photo appeared in send it to Istanbul. Despite his request this photo appeared in L’IllustrationL’Illustration with his hat on. He then asked Pawith his hat on. He then asked Pathé that another photo of thé that another photo of him be taken with a “fez” on. They accepted his request.him be taken with a “fez” on. They accepted his request.683

He left Lyon for Brussels on the morn

He left Lyon for Brussels on the morninging of Deof December 11, 1912, and cember 11, 1912, and arrived at the Palace Hotel in Brussels that night. Hüseyin Cahit was arrived at the Palace Hotel in Brussels that night. Hüseyin Cahit was staying in Vienna, where he invitedstaying in Vienna, where he invited Cavid Bey. He wrote that he was diCavid Bey. He wrote that he was dis-s-turbed by statements made by Raymond Poincaré, then Prime Minister turbed by statements made by Raymond Poincaré, then Prime Minister of France, that clof France, that claimaimed thaed that the United Kingdom was not interested in t the United Kingdom was not interested in Lebanon and Syria and that emphasized French interests in these rLebanon and Syria and that emphasized French interests in these re-e-gions. Cavid Bey gions. Cavid Bey said that the British press was not against Turkey, at said that the British press was not against Turkey, at least not as much as the French. Cavid Bey was quite taken by Brusleast not as much as the French. Cavid Bey was quite taken by Brusselsels, s, he he even said that it was possible for him to live there, while he was in even said that it was possible for him to live there, while he was in Europe. They began looking for apartments, as staying atEurope. They began looking for apartments, as staying at hotels was too hotels was too cost prohibitive; however, they were unable to find anything. He was cost prohibitive; however, they were unable to find anything. He was fond of the city, suburbia, and thefond of the city, suburbia, and the grgreen fieen fields. He wrote to Gülbenkyan, elds. He wrote to Gülbenkyan, a financial consultant of the Ottoman government while he was in Brua financial consultant of the Ottoman government while he was in Brus-s-sels and asked that they hesels and asked that they help lp Reşid Saffet (Atabinen), who would later Reşid Saffet (Atabinen), who would later be employed as a financial consultant at the London Conference.be employed as a financial consultant at the London Conference.684 Gü-Gü-llbenkyan responded that he had left his position. He added that all of benkyan responded that he had left his position. He added that all of the Ottoman institutions had fallen into disrepute, except for the the Ottoman institutions had fallen into disrepute, except for the OPDA.OPDA.685

683 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 530530--33.33.

684 The London Conference started at St. James’s Palace on DecemThe London Conference started at St. James’s Palace on December 16. The pber 16. The president of resident of the Ottothe Ottoman delegation was Reşit man delegation was Reşit PashPashaa. Reşit Saffet Atabinen, a ver. Reşit Saffet Atabinen, a very close felloy close fellow w woworkrkeer of Cr of Cavid Bey, was the legal advisor of the committee. Sir Edward Grey had giv-avid Bey, was the legal advisor of the committee. Sir Edward Grey had giv-en an opening speech emphasizing the importance of Edirne and then an opening speech emphasizing the importance of Edirne and the border be border beetwtween een Turkey and BulgaTurkey and Bulgaria. ria. Kansu,Kansu, İttihadçılaİttihadçıların Rejim ve rın Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, İktidar Mücadelesi, 19081908--1913,1913, 483,84, and 86483,84, and 86..

685 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 533, 533--37.37.

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On December 17, Cavid Bey gave an interview to December 17, Cavid Bey gave an interview to Frankfurter Zeitung Frankfurter Zeitung und Handelsblattund Handelsblatt. According to his statement in the newspaper, the . According to his statement in the newspaper, the worst thing the government had done was to make changes in the army worst thing the government had done was to make changes in the army right before the war. From then on, they needed a neutralright before the war. From then on, they needed a neutral government government and a wise and brave general to command the army while the Bulgarian and a wise and brave general to command the army while the Bulgarian army was tired. On December 27, army was tired. On December 27, CavidCavid Bey provided a statement to Bey provided a statement to Neue Freie Presse.Neue Freie Presse. He stated that it was unacceptable to surrender Edir-He stated that it was unacceptable to surrender Edir-ne and that Kamil Pasha had become verne and that Kamil Pasha had become very old and was finished with y old and was finished with politics. In addition, he pointed out that their task that had begun in politics. In addition, he pointed out that their task that had begun in 1908 1908 —— i.e., establishing the constitutional parliamentary regime and i.e., establishing the constitutional parliamentary regime and the modernization of the country the modernization of the country ——had remained unfinished. They had had remained unfinished. They had to face and addresto face and address various crises and still had a lot to do in power.s various crises and still had a lot to do in power.686

Cavid Bey arrived in Vienna on December 23, 1912 to meet with

Cavid Bey arrived in Vienna on December 23, 1912 to meet with Hüseyin Cahit. In a letter from Talat Bey that addressed the two of them, Hüseyin Cahit. In a letter from Talat Bey that addressed the two of them, there were three optionsthere were three options as tas takakinging down the government with a milidown the government with a military tary coup; coup; mmaintainaintaininging the current situation; or the current situation; or sstriktrikinging an agrean agreeement with ment with the government. The first option was not practical as it was both dan-the government. The first option was not practical as it was both dan-gerous and would need to be done immediately. The second option was gerous and would need to be done immediately. The second option was rejected, because it would lead to the natirejected, because it would lead to the nation’s demise. The third, how-on’s demise. The third, how-ever, was possible. Talat Bey wrote to Cavid Bey that there was no dan-ever, was possible. Talat Bey wrote to Cavid Bey that there was no dan-ger in Istanbul and that he should come back. As mentioned before, Ta-ger in Istanbul and that he should come back. As mentioned before, Ta-lat Bey had been in politics, at least in the CUP, with Cavid Bey for a very lat Bey had been in politics, at least in the CUP, with Cavid Bey for a very long time. Thlong time. Their relationship went back many years, long beir relationship went back many years, long beefore the fore the Revolution. While Talat Bey left the financial issues to Cavid, in politics, Revolution. While Talat Bey left the financial issues to Cavid, in politics, he usually involved him as well. Although we see that Cavid Bey some-he usually involved him as well. Although we see that Cavid Bey some-times complained about finding out about developments latimes complained about finding out about developments later than eve-ter than eve-rybody else, he was nevertheless quite involved in what was going on. rybody else, he was nevertheless quite involved in what was going on. Moreover, he became the target of the dissidents alongside Talat Bey. He Moreover, he became the target of the dissidents alongside Talat Bey. He and Hüseyn Cahit were quite close to Talat Bey and Hüseyn Cahit were quite close to Talat Bey —— so much so that he so much so that he could ask them to return to Istancould ask them to return to Istanbul if he needed their friendship and bul if he needed their friendship and companionship, and they would oblige. companionship, and they would oblige.

686 KanKansu, su, İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908İttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 505, 505--06.06.

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Following the correspondence, two more cards arrived from Talat

Following the correspondence, two more cards arrived from Talat Bey for Cavid Bey and Hüseyin Cahit. On Hüseyin Cahit’s card, Talat Bey Bey for Cavid Bey and Hüseyin Cahit. On Hüseyin Cahit’s card, Talat Bey wrote that Nazım Pasha and Said Halim Pashawrote that Nazım Pasha and Said Halim Pasha had met and had agreed had met and had agreed in principle. He said Enver, Cemal, Fethi, and the other members of the in principle. He said Enver, Cemal, Fethi, and the other members of the CUP were in favor of going to war. They agreed that if the pashas could CUP were in favor of going to war. They agreed that if the pashas could not reach an agreement, the cabinet would be changed by force. He told not reach an agreement, the cabinet would be changed by force. He told them not to wastethem not to waste time on their dreams and to come back. On Cavid time on their dreams and to come back. On Cavid Bey’s card, Talat Bey wrote, “what you think (about doing from) over Bey’s card, Talat Bey wrote, “what you think (about doing from) over there is not possible to do here. Come to Istanbul for a few days, then there is not possible to do here. Come to Istanbul for a few days, then you can go back again.” He again stated that there was no danger iyou can go back again.” He again stated that there was no danger in In Is-s-tanbul. It seemed that Cavid Bey’s arrival in Istanbul would uplift his tanbul. It seemed that Cavid Bey’s arrival in Istanbul would uplift his friend’s mood. Though Talat Bey asked both Cavid Bey and Hüseyin Cfriend’s mood. Though Talat Bey asked both Cavid Bey and Hüseyin Ca-a-hit to return, he preferred that Hüseyin Cahit arrive at a later date as hit to return, he preferred that Hüseyin Cahit arrive at a later date as they did not want they did not want TaninTanin to begin publicato begin publication soon after his arrival. After tion soon after his arrival. After Talat Bey’s letter, Cavid Bey received a letter from Talat Bey’s letter, Cavid Bey received a letter from Kemal Bey. There is Kemal Bey. There is no information about the identity of Kemal Bey. no information about the identity of Kemal Bey. He mentioned the fact He mentioned the fact that Talat and the others were in a hurry for him to return to Istanbul. that Talat and the others were in a hurry for him to return to Istanbul. AccorAccording to his letter, a coup was being planned, and unless it was suding to his letter, a coup was being planned, and unless it was suc-c-cessfully carried out, they needed to remain in Europe for their own cessfully carried out, they needed to remain in Europe for their own sake and the sake of the party. He added that Talat Bey had had a meesake and the sake of the party. He added that Talat Bey had had a meet-t-ing with Nazım Pasha ing with Nazım Pasha —— it is likely that the Unionit is likely that the Unionists had an offer for ists had an offer for Nazım Pasha. Hüseyin Cahit replied to Talat Bey’s letter. According to Nazım Pasha. Hüseyin Cahit replied to Talat Bey’s letter. According to him, the CUP and the young politicians should either come into power him, the CUP and the young politicians should either come into power via a putsch or remain neutral. Afterwards, Hüseyin Cahit and Cavid Bey via a putsch or remain neutral. Afterwards, Hüseyin Cahit and Cavid Bey received two differentreceived two different letters from Talat Bey. In the letter to Hüseyin letters from Talat Bey. In the letter to Hüseyin Cahit, Talat Bey mentioned two things. First was that Nazım Pasha and Cahit, Talat Bey mentioned two things. First was that Nazım Pasha and Said Halim Pasha had agreed on essential conditions, including Fethi Said Halim Pasha had agreed on essential conditions, including Fethi Bey’s condition to see Enver Bey become Chief of Staff. According tBey’s condition to see Enver Bey become Chief of Staff. According to To Ta-a-lat Bey, the army would not approve of this: Enver Bey, Fethi Bey, and lat Bey, the army would not approve of this: Enver Bey, Fethi Bey, and Cemal Bey were all in support of the war. They would try to agree with Cemal Bey were all in support of the war. They would try to agree with Nazım Pasha and Izzet Pasha, or they would take up arms. At last, Talat Nazım Pasha and Izzet Pasha, or they would take up arms. At last, Talat Bey warned them both: “Do not fall intBey warned them both: “Do not fall into reverie and come back to Io reverie and come back to Isstan-tan-bul.” In his letter to Cavid Bey, he had asked “What you are envisabul.” In his letter to Cavid Bey, he had asked “What you are envisagging in ing in Europe is impossible to realize here. There is no such dangerous situa-Europe is impossible to realize here. There is no such dangerous situa-

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tion here. If you were to come, it would have a very positive impact

tion here. If you were to come, it would have a very positive impact among our among our brothers.” Talat Bey also stated that brothers.” Talat Bey also stated that Mahmut Şevket Pasha Mahmut Şevket Pasha had agreed with Nazım Pasha to overthrow the government. In his rhad agreed with Nazım Pasha to overthrow the government. In his re-e-sponse to Talat Bey, Cavid Bey said that if they could not organize a sponse to Talat Bey, Cavid Bey said that if they could not organize a mass movement, they would not be successful and that the incidents of mass movement, they would not be successful and that the incidents of the last four years would contthe last four years would continue. He argued that striking an agreinue. He argued that striking an agree-e-ment with Nazım Pasha was betraying the CUP. He further added that he ment with Nazım Pasha was betraying the CUP. He further added that he would agree with this plan, and if they were to follow through with it, he would agree with this plan, and if they were to follow through with it, he would leave politics. His second letter was to Kelekyan. He asked his ad-would leave politics. His second letter was to Kelekyan. He asked his ad-vvice about looking for a job in Europe if he could not reach an uice about looking for a job in Europe if he could not reach an unnder-der-standing with his colleagues. He decided that he would stay in Europe standing with his colleagues. He decided that he would stay in Europe after leaving politics.after leaving politics.

It should be noted that these letters were of great significance in o

It should be noted that these letters were of great significance in ob-b-serving the distributionserving the distribution of power within the CUP. In fact, before leaving of power within the CUP. In fact, before leaving Istanbul, Cavid Bey had been part of the decisionIstanbul, Cavid Bey had been part of the decision--making group that dmaking group that de-e-termined the political direction. He took part in the discussions alontermined the political direction. He took part in the discussions along-g-side Talat Bey between July 24, 1908 and November 1912, when the side Talat Bey between July 24, 1908 and November 1912, when the CUP was not the sole party in power. However, after Cavid Bey fled ICUP was not the sole party in power. However, after Cavid Bey fled Is-s-tanbul, we see from his journals that Talat Bey was not content with this tanbul, we see from his journals that Talat Bey was not content with this situation and asked Cavid Bey to return, at least for a little while. How-situation and asked Cavid Bey to return, at least for a little while. How-ever, Cavid Bey preferred to stay in Eurever, Cavid Bey preferred to stay in Europe and even considered leaving ope and even considered leaving politics. When it came to armed political action, it was more logical that politics. When it came to armed political action, it was more logical that military officers be involved. Thus, Enver Bey was the leader of the military officers be involved. Thus, Enver Bey was the leader of the plannedplanned coup along with Talat Bey. Following the coup, the civilian fig-coup along with Talat Bey. Following the coup, the civilian fig-ures in ures in tthe CUP, he CUP, especially those in Europe, kept out of the decisionespecially those in Europe, kept out of the decision--making process of the Committee.making process of the Committee.687

Just before the coup, the government removed Hüseyin Cahit from

Just before the coup, the government removed Hüseyin Cahit from the position of Ottoman Deputy at the OPDA. This position was vital for the position of Ottoman Deputy at the OPDA. This position was vital for several reasons: as lonseveral reasons: as longg as someoas someone from the CUP was in the institution, ne from the CUP was in the institution, he was able to help out other people he was able to help out other people —— including Cavid Bey including Cavid Bey —— finafinanncial-cial-

687 Erik Jan Zürcher,Erik Jan Zürcher, Young Turk GovernanYoung Turk Governance ce in the Otin the Ottoman Empire during thtoman Empire during thee FirstFirst World War, World War, Middle Eastern StudieMiddle Eastern Studiess 55, no. 655, no. 6 (2019), 897(2019), 897--913. 913.

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ly because of the large salary he received.

ly because of the large salary he received.688 Cavid Bey returned to Cavid Bey returned to Brussels, where he published two articles: one on the OPDA for Brussels, where he published two articles: one on the OPDA for DeutscDeutschhe Revuee Revue iin Stuttgart, and the other one on “our financial situn Stuttgart, and the other one on “our financial situa-a-tion in general.” He wrote them to counter the rumors that Turkey was tion in general.” He wrote them to counter the rumors that Turkey was soon to be bankrupt.soon to be bankrupt.

The first set of peace negotiations on the Balkan War broke down on

The first set of peace negotiations on the Balkan War broke down on January 6, 1913. The second resulJanuary 6, 1913. The second resultted in a ned in a note to the Ottoman goverote to the Ottoman govern-n-ment warning it to sign a peace treaty or face the consequences alone. ment warning it to sign a peace treaty or face the consequences alone. All the while, Edirne was under siege.All the while, Edirne was under siege.689 On January 17, Gabriel Nor-On January 17, Gabriel Nor-adunkyan received the Great Powers’ proposal from Mr. Pallavicini, the adunkyan received the Great Powers’ proposal from Mr. Pallavicini, the longestlongest--serviservinng ambassag ambassador among the ambassadors of the Great Pow-dor among the ambassadors of the Great Pow-ers. The note included the Great Powers’ demands: handing over Edirne ers. The note included the Great Powers’ demands: handing over Edirne to the Bulgarians and allowing the Great Powers to resolve the conflict to the Bulgarians and allowing the Great Powers to resolve the conflict over the Aegean Islands. The note declared that if the Ottomanover the Aegean Islands. The note declared that if the Ottoman govern-govern-menment was unable to accept these demands, then the war would be reig-t was unable to accept these demands, then the war would be reig-nited, and the Ottoman Empire would not be able to appeal to the Great nited, and the Ottoman Empire would not be able to appeal to the Great Powers for any kind of assistance. Meanwhile, on January 13, another Powers for any kind of assistance. Meanwhile, on January 13, another governmental crisis had emerged. Even Lütfgovernmental crisis had emerged. Even Lütfii Fikri anFikri and Mahir Said d Mahir Said -- the the fiercest dissidents of the CUP fiercest dissidents of the CUP -- offered to appoint a minister from the offered to appoint a minister from the Unionists.Unionists.690 Kamil PaKamil Pasha wisely decided to convene the Cousha wisely decided to convene the Counncil of State cil of State in order to share the responsibility for approving the terms laid out in in order to share the responsibility for approving the terms laid out in the diplomathe diplomattic note sic note sent by the Great Powers. Luckily for him, in the ent by the Great Powers. Luckily for him, in the meeting, the Council of State decided to approve the terms.meeting, the Council of State decided to approve the terms.691

While Cavid BeyWhile Cavid Bey was having dinner at Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha’s house was having dinner at Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha’s house on the evening of January 23, 1912, one of the secretaries stormed in on the evening of January 23, 1912, one of the secretaries stormed in aand cried, nd cried, “There’s been a coup in Istanbul! The CUP has raided Babıali “There’s been a coup in Istanbul! The CUP has raided Babıali (the Sublime Porte), and the cabinet has stepped aside!” Cavid Bey and (the Sublime Porte), and the cabinet has stepped aside!” Cavid Bey and Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha looked at each other. Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha was uHüseyin Hilmi Pasha looked at each other. Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha was un-n-settled by the news. The real news started tosettled by the news. The real news started to stream in stream in the following the following

688 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, MeşrutiyMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,et Ruznâmesi I, 537537--44.44.

689 Hanioğlu, "The Second ConstitHanioğlu, "The Second Constitutional Period, 1908utional Period, 1908--1918," 81918," 899..

690 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçılİttihadçıların Rejimarın Rejim ve İktidar Mücadelve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908esi, 1908--19131913, 504., 504.

691 Ahmad, Ahmad, ItIttihat ve Terakktihat ve Terakki,i,11908908--191914 (J14 (Jöön Türkler)n Türkler), 165, 165--66.66.

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day. They heard about the murder of Nazım Pasha.

day. They heard about the murder of Nazım Pasha. Berliner Presse Berliner Presse TageblattTageblatt declared that Nazım Pasha had got what was coming to him, declared that Nazım Pasha had got what was coming to him, whereas the French press fiercely condemned the incident and the CUP. whereas the French press fiercely condemned the incident and the CUP. For Cavid Bey, Nazım Pasha wFor Cavid Bey, Nazım Pasha waas responsis responsible, both directly and indble, both directly and indiirect-rect-ly, for the chaos that was unfolding across the nation. Cavid Bey waited ly, for the chaos that was unfolding across the nation. Cavid Bey waited for a couple of days in Europe, since he thought that they might ask him for a couple of days in Europe, since he thought that they might ask him to sort out his financial affairs. Meanwhile, he penned an article fto sort out his financial affairs. Meanwhile, he penned an article foor r Neue Neue FreFreie Presseie Presse arguing that the government could not be in favor of war arguing that the government could not be in favor of war but their main purpose was to save Edirne, and the honor of the peo-but their main purpose was to save Edirne, and the honor of the peo-ple.ple.692 His stance and message was quite conciliatory rather than con-His stance and message was quite conciliatory rather than con-flictual on the Edirne issue. He also statedflictual on the Edirne issue. He also stated that Turkethat Turkey could find fiy could find fisscal cal resources for public investments inside the domestic market if they resources for public investments inside the domestic market if they could not secure funds from foreign sources. He added that the could not secure funds from foreign sources. He added that the Baghdad Baghdad RailwayRailway would be completed very soon, and afterward, they would would be completed very soon, and afterward, they would bbeegin construction on gin construction on aa new railwnew railway line from Ankara to Sivas. His key ay line from Ankara to Sivas. His key points were that they were focused on reconciliation and peace, but that points were that they were focused on reconciliation and peace, but that this could not be achieved without Edirne.this could not be achieved without Edirne.693 Following the coup d’état, Following the coup d’état, Mahmut Şevket Pasha formed a new government. He became both Mahmut Şevket Pasha formed a new government. He became both gragrand vizier and vizier and minister. Menemenlizade Rnd minister. Menemenlizade Rııfat Bey became ffat Bey became fiinance nance minister, and Cavid Bey had no position in the cabinet. minister, and Cavid Bey had no position in the cabinet.

Cavid Bey returned to Istanbul on the morning

Cavid Bey returned to Istanbul on the morning of February 3, 1913. of February 3, 1913. Something had changed, he wrote down to his journal: there was hope Something had changed, he wrote down to his journal: there was hope iin the air. After all this time, young and brave soldiers could finally do n the air. After all this time, young and brave soldiers could finally do something for their country.something for their country.694

692 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmesiMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,I, 537537--44.44.

693 Kansu, Kansu, İttihadçıların Reİttihadçıların Rejim ve İktidajim ve İktidar Mücadelesi, 1908r Mücadelesi, 1908--19131913, 534., 534.

694 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, MeşMeşrutiyet Ruznâmerutiyet Ruznâmesisi II, 549, 549..

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§ 3.10 Chapter Summary Chapter Summary

Why was the period from 1911 to the beginni

Why was the period from 1911 to the beginning of 1913 of particular ng of 1913 of particular importance in Cavid Bey’s life? Cavid Bey addresses two vital issuimportance in Cavid Bey’s life? Cavid Bey addresses two vital issues es within this twowithin this two--year period: first, at the beginning of the period, Cavid year period: first, at the beginning of the period, Cavid Bey began negotiations to increase the customs duty rate in return for Bey began negotiations to increase the customs duty rate in return for the reorganizatiothe reorganization of the n of the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway. Though he made progress . Though he made progress on this issue on this issue —— which was difficult enougwhich was difficult enough due to its multiple, moving h due to its multiple, moving parts parts —— both the Italoboth the Italo--Turkish and the Balkan Wars interrupted these Turkish and the Balkan Wars interrupted these negotiations until 1913. Second, Cavid Bey’s political career and negotiations until 1913. Second, Cavid Bey’s political career and admiadmin-n-istrative reforms were interrupted due to increased opposition to the istrative reforms were interrupted due to increased opposition to the CUP in civilian CUP in civilian politics and the military. Because of this, Cavid Bey was politics and the military. Because of this, Cavid Bey was forced to resign from the ministry in 1911 after he had started internforced to resign from the ministry in 1911 after he had started interna-a-tional negotiations. He was personaltional negotiations. He was personally attacked by the dissidents, who ly attacked by the dissidents, who were backed by military officers. These conservatives were backed by military officers. These conservatives —— who had bwho had be-e-come annoyed with the revolution’s liberal values come annoyed with the revolution’s liberal values —— targeted his idetargeted his idennti-ti-ty. In the new era after the 1908 Revolution, these conservatives ety. In the new era after the 1908 Revolution, these conservatives eiither ther had lost thhad lost their economic privileges or were unable to benefit as they eir economic privileges or were unable to benefit as they wished. When Cavid Bey resigned fwished. When Cavid Bey resigned from the ministry in the spring of rom the ministry in the spring of 1911, thousands of people demonstrated in both Istanbul and 1911, thousands of people demonstrated in both Istanbul and İzmirİzmir. . However, this However, this periodperiod also showed that he was always the also showed that he was always the peperrson wson whom hom both domestic and international economic actors preferred to contact both domestic and international economic actors preferred to contact —— regardleregardless of whether he was in office. After he left his pss of whether he was in office. After he left his poosition, he sition, he put his work behind him and set off toput his work behind him and set off to the Balkans and the Eastern the Balkans and the Eastern Provinces for political purposes aProvinces for political purposes as a CUP s a CUP deputy. deputy. At the end of 1911, he At the end of 1911, he became a minister once again; however, this time, he became the Minis-became a minister once again; however, this time, he became the Minis-ter of Public Works. Cavid Bey’s wter of Public Works. Cavid Bey’s woork as a financier encompassed public rk as a financier encompassed public work issues awork issues and allocations for them. Hence, apart frnd allocations for them. Hence, apart from the ministry’s om the ministry’s disorganizatidisorganization, he was familiar with the problems and issues of public on, he was familiar with the problems and issues of public works. As a prworks. As a proofessor endowed with reason and scientific methodology, fessor endowed with reason and scientific methodology, he suhe succcessfully organized the ministry. My guess is thatcessfully organized the ministry. My guess is that he was quite he was quite adept at putting things inadept at putting things in order and felt good when he diorder and felt good when he did so. During d so. During this period, he also struck an agreement with the Ministry of Finance to this period, he also struck an agreement with the Ministry of Finance to start an internship program in Paris for young Ostart an internship program in Paris for young Otttoman officers. Occu-toman officers. Occu-

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pational training skills were

pational training skills were always his priority. As an administratoralways his priority. As an administrator, , another of his goals was gettanother of his goals was getting the finance school to send some stu-ing the finance school to send some stu-dents or interns to Europe. During this period, he presented two budg-dents or interns to Europe. During this period, he presented two budg-ets in the chamber. Most iets in the chamber. Most immportantly, here he was able to see that all his portantly, here he was able to see that all his hahard work from 1908 had paid off. The statrd work from 1908 had paid off. The state’s revenue had increased e’s revenue had increased drastdrastically. Meaically. Meannwhile, he struck a deal with while, he struck a deal with Mahmut Şevket Pasha re-Mahmut Şevket Pasha re-garding the audit issue. Though he only accepted an auditor from the garding the audit issue. Though he only accepted an auditor from the mimillitary, Cavid Bey was able to establish a modern syitary, Cavid Bey was able to establish a modern system of checks and stem of checks and balances. balances.

Mahmut Şevket Pasha resigned due to the crisis related to the Alb

Mahmut Şevket Pasha resigned due to the crisis related to the Alba-a-nian riot and thnian riot and the rise of the opposition in the army. The CUP was unable e rise of the opposition in the army. The CUP was unable to convince any commanders to replace him, and the cabinet had to step to convince any commanders to replace him, and the cabinet had to step aside despite thaside despite the vote of confidence it had won a few days prior. This e vote of confidence it had won a few days prior. This was the beginning of a sixwas the beginning of a six--month struggle between the govmonth struggle between the government and ernment and the CUP that was full of oppression, new waves of arrests, and abortive the CUP that was full of oppression, new waves of arrests, and abortive negotiations in the shadow of the Balkan Wars. negotiations in the shadow of the Balkan Wars.

Both the Ita

Both the Italolo--Turkish and the Balkan Wars were extremely signifTurkish and the Balkan Wars were extremely signifi-i-cant cant milestonesmilestones for the future of the Ottoman Empire. As Cafor the future of the Ottoman Empire. As Cavid Bey had vid Bey had underlined, losing underlined, losing TrablusgarpTrablusgarp and Benghazi would mean losing the and Benghazi would mean losing the other regions of the Empire. Perhaps he perceived that the bitter other regions of the Empire. Perhaps he perceived that the bitter loss of loss of his homeland was right around the corner. Despite this, he was very ohis homeland was right around the corner. Despite this, he was very op-p-timistic on the eve of the Balkan timistic on the eve of the Balkan Wars. During the outbreak of the BaWars. During the outbreak of the Bal-l-kan Wars, the Great Cabinet and Kamil Pasha were in the power. kan Wars, the Great Cabinet and Kamil Pasha were in the power. BothBoth pursued rigid policies against the Unionpursued rigid policies against the Unionists. The Unionists first tried to ists. The Unionists first tried to reconcile with the government. But after the waves of arrest had starreconcile with the government. But after the waves of arrest had start-t-eded,, thethey fell apart without with each other. y fell apart without with each other. Some stayed in Istanbul as Some stayed in Istanbul as Talat Bey, some escaped from Istanbul. Talat Bey, some escaped from Istanbul. Cavid Bey and Hüseyin Cavid Bey and Hüseyin CahitCahit had had to flee,to flee, as did Babaas did Babannzade Ismail Hakkı, Ahmet Rıza, and many others. zade Ismail Hakkı, Ahmet Rıza, and many others. Only Talat Bey stayed without bOnly Talat Bey stayed without beeing arresteing arrested. d.

The

The defeat of the Ottoman Army was horrific. In addition to the loss defeat of the Ottoman Army was horrific. In addition to the loss of Macedonia, the Bulgarian armies had reached Çatalca, 40 km from of Macedonia, the Bulgarian armies had reached Çatalca, 40 km from Istanbul. ThIstanbul. The army was battered, thousands of e army was battered, thousands of OttomanOttoman citizens had citizens had fled from the Balkans to Anatolia, the cholera epfled from the Balkans to Anatolia, the cholera epidemic widemic was widespread as widespread among the people and soldiers, Edirne was besieged, the among the people and soldiers, Edirne was besieged, the ttreasury was reasury was

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empty, the government had no room to maneuver, and the politi

empty, the government had no room to maneuver, and the political are-cal are-na was polarized into two camps. The defeat of the Balkan Wars and the na was polarized into two camps. The defeat of the Balkan Wars and the siege of Edirne raised dousiege of Edirne raised doubts aboubts about the current government among the t the current government among the soldiers in the army. soldiers in the army.

After the fall of the Unionist

After the fall of the Unionist--backed cabinet led by backed cabinet led by Sait PashaSait Pasha on Au-on Au-gust 4, Cavid Beygust 4, Cavid Bey delivered a fervent speech in the Chamber against the delivered a fervent speech in the Chamber against the adjournment of parliament. His speech captivated adjournment of parliament. His speech captivated the civithe civilian and mili-lian and mili-tary officers. The Committee had chosen him to make the speech, be-tary officers. The Committee had chosen him to make the speech, be-cause he was already well known for his talent and enthusiasm forcause he was already well known for his talent and enthusiasm for rhetoric. His highly politicized and critical discourse contained remarks rhetoric. His highly politicized and critical discourse contained remarks about heroism and patriotism.about heroism and patriotism. The texThe text did not seem to belong to a lit did not seem to belong to a lib-b-eral politician. On the contrary, it represented the traditional values of eral politician. On the contrary, it represented the traditional values of the CUP such as patriotism, soldierythe CUP such as patriotism, soldiery, heroism, et cetera. He traveled , heroism, et cetera. He traveled with Talat Bey to Selanik after the chamber was adjourned. They awith Talat Bey to Selanik after the chamber was adjourned. They at-t-temptempted to eted to establish an alternative chamber, but they could not do so stablish an alternative chamber, but they could not do so due to the government’s rigid measures against them, including the dedue to the government’s rigid measures against them, including the dec-c-laration of the laration of the state of emergency in Selanik. Cavid Bey’s close friends state of emergency in Selanik. Cavid Bey’s close friends and family members were worried about him. Undeand family members were worried about him. Under these r these circucircum-m-stances, the CUP held its annual congress in Istanbul, where they dstances, the CUP held its annual congress in Istanbul, where they deecid-cid-ed whether or not they would participate in the next elections. Caved whether or not they would participate in the next elections. Cavid id Bey was in favor of not participating in the elections, but the party dBey was in favor of not participating in the elections, but the party de-e-cided they would participate cided they would participate after alafter all. After a while, because of an article l. After a while, because of an article he he published in published in TaninTanin, he was sentenced to a short term in prison with , he was sentenced to a short term in prison with Hüseyin Hüseyin CahitCahit Bey. Thousands of pBey. Thousands of people from various places and insteople from various places and instiitu-tu-tions visited him. The inclusive and warm attitude that people etions visited him. The inclusive and warm attitude that people ex-x-prpressed maessed made him extremely happy. He also kept a list of people who de him extremely happy. He also kept a list of people who did not visit or send him a message. It should again be emphasized that did not visit or send him a message. It should again be emphasized that this was a verthis was a very polarized period in terms of politics, which in this case y polarized period in terms of politics, which in this case meant that many people abstained from visitimeant that many people abstained from visiting frienng friends or colleagues in ds or colleagues in prison. It is also important to mention that as a spokesperson, Cavid Bey prison. It is also important to mention that as a spokesperson, Cavid Bey was quite close to mass politics. He was not untouwas quite close to mass politics. He was not untouchable, though he was chable, though he was still known for his arrogance among the political and diplomatic milieu. still known for his arrogance among the political and diplomatic milieu.

Due to t

Due to the goverhe government’s rigid policies, particularly those of Kamil nment’s rigid policies, particularly those of Kamil Pasha, who came to power on October 29, a wave of arrests had begun Pasha, who came to power on October 29, a wave of arrests had begun

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in Istanbul. Hundreds of

in Istanbul. Hundreds of people were arrested as they were trying to people were arrested as they were trying to leave the city. This time, the French embassy and Count Ostleave the city. This time, the French embassy and Count Ostrorog herorog helped lped Cavid Bey, who found himself on a ship to Marseille. He then went to Cavid Bey, who found himself on a ship to Marseille. He then went to Vi-Vi-ennaenna, first stopping in Lyon and Brussels for a short period. He was, first stopping in Lyon and Brussels for a short period. He was con-con-stantly in contact with his contemporaries about the current situation. stantly in contact with his contemporaries about the current situation. He also gave interviews to tHe also gave interviews to the foreihe foreign press about the First Balkan War gn press about the First Balkan War and domestic politics. and domestic politics.

Cavid Bey stayed in Europe until the coup d’etat held on January 23,

Cavid Bey stayed in Europe until the coup d’etat held on January 23, 1913. Despite T1913. Despite Talat Bey’s letters that insisted he return to Istanbul, he alat Bey’s letters that insisted he return to Istanbul, he stayed in Vienna. He supported a radical and stayed in Vienna. He supported a radical and strong mstrong move to prevent the ove to prevent the CUP from repeating the same mistakes it had made since 1908. Howev-CUP from repeating the same mistakes it had made since 1908. Howev-er, as Talat Bey warned him, what he thought was possible ier, as Talat Bey warned him, what he thought was possible in European n European capitals was impossible for the Ottomans to implement in Icapitals was impossible for the Ottomans to implement in Isstanbul. The tanbul. The implications of the coimplications of the coup resonup resonated with Cavid Bey. When he returned to ated with Cavid Bey. When he returned to Istanbul, he was content with the psychology of the people in the Istanbul, he was content with the psychology of the people in the streets: relaxed and refreshed. As westreets: relaxed and refreshed. As we will see in the next chapter, Cavid will see in the next chapter, Cavid Bey was ready to finish the work he had already started: increaBey was ready to finish the work he had already started: increassinging the the cuscustoms duties, organizing the concessions of the Great Powers, and ob-toms duties, organizing the concessions of the Great Powers, and ob-taining a consolidated loan. He was determined to free the state’s in-taining a consolidated loan. He was determined to free the state’s in-comes frcomes from the economic burden of infrastructure investments and es-om the economic burden of infrastructure investments and es-tablish a railway network that would connect tablish a railway network that would connect the portthe ports to the s to the produproducction areas. Until entering the Great War, he would spend most of tion areas. Until entering the Great War, he would spend most of his time undertaking negotiations abroad, mainly in Paris and Behis time undertaking negotiations abroad, mainly in Paris and Berlin. He rlin. He would become would become the fthe finance inance mminister once again in the spring of 1914. inister once again in the spring of 1914.

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The Negotiator he Negotiator 19119133––19119144

In thethe global ocean all states were sharks, and all global ocean all states were sharks, and all the statesmen knew it.”the statesmen knew it.”

–

– Eric Eric HobsbawmHobsbawm, , The Age of EmpireThe Age of Empire695

his chapter tries to understand Cavi

his chapter tries to understand Cavid Beyd Bey’s role in the critical ne-’s role in the critical ne-gotiations on the eve of the Great War (1914gotiations on the eve of the Great War (1914––1918) and evaluates 1918) and evaluates his workhis work in the in the finance ministry as well as his other key roles during the finance ministry as well as his other key roles during the developments prior to the Ottoman Empire’s entrance into the war.developments prior to the Ottoman Empire’s entrance into the war.

695 Hobsbawm, E. 19Hobsbawm, E. 198989. The Age of Empire 1875. The Age of Empire 1875--19141914. New York: Vintage Books, p: 318.. New York: Vintage Books, p: 318.

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Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey lived to lived to see the great competition between the imperial see the great competition between the imperial states throughoutstates throughout La Belle ÉpoqueLa Belle Époque (1880(1880––1914). Contrary t1914). Contrary to its meo its mean-an-ing in French, the period refers to the European empires' bloody glory ing in French, the period refers to the European empires' bloody glory over the other ancients, including the Chinese, Indian, and Ottoman over the other ancients, including the Chinese, Indian, and Ottoman EmpEmpires, reflecting the 'beauty' of the age for the European industrial ires, reflecting the 'beauty' of the age for the European industrial empires. The majesty and grandeur oempires. The majesty and grandeur of these f these empires had reached their empires had reached their peak through the rising up of industry, capital, science, culture, and col-peak through the rising up of industry, capital, science, culture, and col-onies spread throughout the world. As Mehta onies spread throughout the world. As Mehta summarizes, empires summarizes, empires cannot be projected by the limits of perception: they extend the hori-cannot be projected by the limits of perception: they extend the hori-zon.zon.696 During thDuring this periois period, empires defined themselves through their d, empires defined themselves through their frontiers rather than the gravity of their center. Colonies, spheres of in-frontiers rather than the gravity of their center. Colonies, spheres of in-fluence, and economic zonefluence, and economic zones were vital for modern empires, the strong-s were vital for modern empires, the strong-est of which could govern the areas farthest from their capitest of which could govern the areas farthest from their capital citieal cities. s. During the same era, nationalism, socialism, and social movements had During the same era, nationalism, socialism, and social movements had emerged in the heart of Europe and spread to other parts of the world emerged in the heart of Europe and spread to other parts of the world ffollowing the French Revolution in 1789. Inevitably, these movements ollowing the French Revolution in 1789. Inevitably, these movements spread throughout the Ottoman lands spread throughout the Ottoman lands and wereand were mixed and compared mixed and compared with the Sublime Porte's governance (in)capacities. The Balkan states with the Sublime Porte's governance (in)capacities. The Balkan states were the first to detach from the Empire in the were the first to detach from the Empire in the ninetenineteenthenth century, and century, and the Balkan Wars were the last and the most catastrophic showcase of the Balkan Wars were the last and the most catastrophic showcase of the rise of nationthe rise of nationalism bealism before the Great War.fore the Great War. After the coup d’état of After the coup d’état of 1913, the Unionists, at last, grasped the power and control of the state. 1913, the Unionists, at last, grasped the power and control of the state. However, their power was However, their power was not absolute. Until the assassination of not absolute. Until the assassination of Mahmud Mahmud ŞŞevket Pasha on June 11, 1913evket Pasha on June 11, 1913,, the opposition to the CUPthe opposition to the CUP re-re-mainemained as a strong actor within the Ottoman state. Although the opposi-d as a strong actor within the Ottoman state. Although the opposi-tion lost power after the putsch, they still had an organization in which tion lost power after the putsch, they still had an organization in which to rato raise their voice or possibly organize a counterise their voice or possibly organize a counter--revolution.revolution.697 In addi-In addi-tion, the Ottoman army and society wetion, the Ottoman army and society werre in nee in near ruins after losing the ar ruins after losing the

696 Matthew PMatthew P. Fitzpatrick. Fitzpatrick, Uday Singh Mehta, and Jennif, Uday Singh Mehta, and Jennifer Pitts, “Liberalier Pitts, “Liberalissmm and Empand Empire ire Reconsidered: A Dialogue,Reconsidered: A Dialogue,”” in in Liberal Imperialism in EuropLiberal Imperialism in Europee, ed. Matthew , ed. Matthew P.P. FitFitzzpapatricktrick, , (New York: Pa(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 249lgrave Macmillan, 2012), 249--250.250.

697 Ahmad, F. 1971, Ahmad, F. 1971, İttihat ve Terakki 1908İttihat ve Terakki 1908--191914 (Jön Türkl14 (Jön Türklerer)),, 184. 184.

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Balkan Wars. For this reason, the future of the CUP was bound up in the

Balkan Wars. For this reason, the future of the CUP was bound up in the future and salvation of Edirne. The Unionists future and salvation of Edirne. The Unionists had to pursue the Balkan had to pursue the Balkan Wars and recapture Edirne to legitimize the putsch and their rule. In Wars and recapture Edirne to legitimize the putsch and their rule. In their opitheir opinnion, thion, there was no greater need than the need for one resource: ere was no greater need than the need for one resource: money. The treasury was empty, and the army was in disarray, desper-money. The treasury was empty, and the army was in disarray, desper-ate. To strengthen thate. To strengthen the Çatalca line, and the army as a whole, the Union-e Çatalca line, and the army as a whole, the Union-ists had to find more money. Cavid Beyists had to find more money. Cavid Bey appeared in Istappeared in Istaanbul afnbul after the ter the putsch as the shadow minister of finance. A month later, the govern-putsch as the shadow minister of finance. A month later, the govern-ment asked him to leave for Europe. He packed his bags for an extendement asked him to leave for Europe. He packed his bags for an extended d business trip to various cities in Europe: Vienna, Berlin, London, and business trip to various cities in Europe: Vienna, Berlin, London, and Paris. In February, the former Paris. In February, the former GGrand Virand Vizier Hakkı Pasha was sent to zier Hakkı Pasha was sent to London with the Ottoman delegation for the peace talks. His main task London with the Ottoman delegation for the peace talks. His main task was to begin talks on the Baghdad Railway andwas to begin talks on the Baghdad Railway and other issues related to other issues related to Britain. Both Hakkı Pasha in London and Cavid BeyBritain. Both Hakkı Pasha in London and Cavid Bey, mainly in Paris and , mainly in Paris and Berlin, Berlin, hheld offeld official talks with the statesmen, diplomats, financiers, and icial talks with the statesmen, diplomats, financiers, and bankers of Britain, France, Germany, and Russia. Their goal was to make bankers of Britain, France, Germany, and Russia. Their goal was to make new agreements on several complex, intertwined issues. Firstly, and new agreements on several complex, intertwined issues. Firstly, and more generally, this included raising customs dutmore generally, this included raising customs dutiies, estes, establishing mo-ablishing mo-nopolies of goods, and easing the capitulations procedure. Secondly, in nopolies of goods, and easing the capitulations procedure. Secondly, in relation to France, this also entailed obtaining a considerable loan from relation to France, this also entailed obtaining a considerable loan from the Paris stock market to pay the debt incurred during the Italothe Paris stock market to pay the debt incurred during the Italo--Ottoman and Balkan Wars, Ottoman and Balkan Wars, aas well s well as other payments, including the as other payments, including the budget deficit, and asking for help on issues like customs, monopolies, budget deficit, and asking for help on issues like customs, monopolies, capitulations, and mediation related to the planned railways in Eastern capitulations, and mediation related to the planned railways in Eastern Anatolia between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Thirdly, in relation toAnatolia between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Thirdly, in relation to BritainBritain, this involved solving problems related to the Baghdad Railway’s , this involved solving problems related to the Baghdad Railway’s terminal point and the legal situation in the Persian Gulf, navigation terminal point and the legal situation in the Persian Gulf, navigation rights on the Tigris and Euphrates, oil concessions, and concessions on rights on the Tigris and Euphrates, oil concessions, and concessions on postal services. Fourthly, in relation postal services. Fourthly, in relation tto Germao Germany, this included resolving ny, this included resolving tough topicstough topics such as the Baghdad Railway, building other railway lines such as the Baghdad Railway, building other railway lines in Syria and Anatolia alongside the new ports, as well as Deutsche in Syria and Anatolia alongside the new ports, as well as Deutsche Bank’s heavy demands. Cavid BeyBank’s heavy demands. Cavid Bey was very busy during his trip, with was very busy during his trip, with dayday--long meetilong meetinngs, lungs, luncheons, and dinner invitations, where he met his cheons, and dinner invitations, where he met his counterparts and stakeholders. While negotiating with the most pres-counterparts and stakeholders. While negotiating with the most pres-

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tigious politicians, diplomats, and financiers of Europe, he was also try-

tigious politicians, diplomats, and financiers of Europe, he was also try-ing to find instant solutions to the Empire's urgent financing to find instant solutions to the Empire's urgent financiial probal problems. lems. To say that the loans and concessions negotiations on his agenda were To say that the loans and concessions negotiations on his agenda were intertwined with one another is an understatement. His work was criti-intertwined with one another is an understatement. His work was criti-cal for securing the future of the Ottoman Empire. Though the Great cal for securing the future of the Ottoman Empire. Though the Great Powers' various interests clashed bPowers' various interests clashed beehind thhind the closed doors of different e closed doors of different ministries or banks, one thing was for sure: the Great Powers collective-ministries or banks, one thing was for sure: the Great Powers collective-ly supported the integration of the Ottoman Empire ly supported the integration of the Ottoman Empire —— for now. Many for now. Many agreements between the Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire were agreements between the Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire were signed in 1913 ansigned in 1913 andd 1914, 1914, though some could not be ratified due to the though some could not be ratified due to the outbreak of the Great War. It is important to note that the main aim of outbreak of the Great War. It is important to note that the main aim of the Great Powers was not to cause the disintegration of the Ottoman the Great Powers was not to cause the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. In order for the Great Powers to maintain the imperial Empire. In order for the Great Powers to maintain the imperial sstatus tatus qquo, the Ottoman Empire had to survive. Britain and France were skep-uo, the Ottoman Empire had to survive. Britain and France were skep-tical of both Russia and Germany and their potential to dominate the tical of both Russia and Germany and their potential to dominate the Eastern Mediterranean, which is situated en route to India and China. Eastern Mediterranean, which is situated en route to India and China. Germany was also avoiding repayment of theGermany was also avoiding repayment of the vast amvast amount it had spent ount it had spent on the colossal Baghdad Railway. Russia was still lacking a navy to dom-on the colossal Baghdad Railway. Russia was still lacking a navy to dom-inate the Black Sea, Istanbul, and the straits. While the survival of the inate the Black Sea, Istanbul, and the straits. While the survival of the Ottoman Empire was favorable for all of the Great Powers, they believed Ottoman Empire was favorable for all of the Great Powers, they believed that sooner othat sooner orr later later the Empire would collapse. For this reason, they felt the Empire would collapse. For this reason, they felt the need to intervene in the complex issues regarding the Empire and the need to intervene in the complex issues regarding the Empire and determine their areas and fields of influence.determine their areas and fields of influence.698 The Unionists were The Unionists were helpless in preventing the Great Powers from making enormohelpless in preventing the Great Powers from making enormouus in-s in-vesvestments, such as in ports and railways, which were necessary for the tments, such as in ports and railways, which were necessary for the country's development. The Empire’s primary goal was to raise reve-country's development. The Empire’s primary goal was to raise reve-nues through customs duties or monopolies, in addition to seeking ur-nues through customs duties or monopolies, in addition to seeking ur-gent treasury loans. The meetings held in 1913gent treasury loans. The meetings held in 1913 and 191and 1914 were the last 4 were the last chance to settle the controversial topics with the Great Powers and fo-chance to settle the controversial topics with the Great Powers and fo-cus on the seemingly bright future of the Empire after the trauma of the cus on the seemingly bright future of the Empire after the trauma of the Balkan Wars. These agreements created spheres of influence in the Ot-Balkan Wars. These agreements created spheres of influence in the Ot-

698 Bayur, Bayur, Türk İnkîTürk İnkîlâbı Tarilâbı Tarihi II/IIIhi II/III, 4, 4--15.15.

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toman Empire in diffe

toman Empire in differrent regent regions, including Anatolia. It is crucial to ions, including Anatolia. It is crucial to understand understand whetherwhether Cavid BeyCavid Bey questioned these agreements within questioned these agreements within their imperial context and, secondly, to understand whether or not they their imperial context and, secondly, to understand whether or not they impacted the decision of the Unionist government to enter the impacted the decision of the Unionist government to enter the GGreat reat War.War.

Whi

While Cavid Beyle Cavid Bey was trying to obtain a consolidated loan from was trying to obtain a consolidated loan from France, he was simultaneously working toward the Great Powers' ap-France, he was simultaneously working toward the Great Powers' ap-proval of a rise in the customs duties of the Ottoman Empire; in return, proval of a rise in the customs duties of the Ottoman Empire; in return, he was approving the Great Powers’ concessiohe was approving the Great Powers’ concessionn demands that demands that he he thought would cause the least amount of damage to the Empire. These thought would cause the least amount of damage to the Empire. These demands covered complex and various networks of interests such as demands covered complex and various networks of interests such as merging the railways of different groups, oil concessions, or even con-merging the railways of different groups, oil concessions, or even con-cessions for future projects. As Ccessions for future projects. As Caavid Beyvid Bey statesstates, these demands were , these demands were meant to partition the country into different spheres. Meanwhile, these meant to partition the country into different spheres. Meanwhile, these negotiations involved substantial side issues such as the Armenian negotiations involved substantial side issues such as the Armenian question, the Aegean islands, the dreadnoughts, the Italian demands, a question, the Aegean islands, the dreadnoughts, the Italian demands, a race betwerace betweeen the Great Pon the Great Powers for the new military, and financial con-wers for the new military, and financial con-trol over loans, among other issues. The worst problem for the Empire trol over loans, among other issues. The worst problem for the Empire was perhaps the pressing need for money in Istanbul. When he finished was perhaps the pressing need for money in Istanbul. When he finished his work in Europe, Cavid Beyhis work in Europe, Cavid Bey returned to Istanbul. He wareturned to Istanbul. He wass greeted with greeted with enthusiasm as he arrived at the station in the official finance minister's enthusiasm as he arrived at the station in the official finance minister's train. He presented the budget of 1914 to the parliament. He was hope-train. He presented the budget of 1914 to the parliament. He was hope-ful, as always, for the Ottoman Empire's future and was optimistic about ful, as always, for the Ottoman Empire's future and was optimistic about initiating new reforms tinitiating new reforms too bring about tbring about the development of the country. he development of the country. Nevertheless, one gunshot changed everything for every individual on Nevertheless, one gunshot changed everything for every individual on earth. earth.

As Archduke Franz Ferdinand's assassination on June 28 led to the

As Archduke Franz Ferdinand's assassination on June 28 led to the July Crisis across Europe, Cavid BeyJuly Crisis across Europe, Cavid Bey insisted that the Ottoman Empinsisted that the Ottoman Empiire re should stayshould stay neutral in a possible war. The French loan to the Ottoman neutral in a possible war. The French loan to the Ottoman Empire had one essential condition: it should not be spent on war. Be-Empire had one essential condition: it should not be spent on war. Be-tween August 2, 1914, the date of the secret agreement between some tween August 2, 1914, the date of the secret agreement between some prominent Unionists prominent Unionists —— excluding Cavid Beyexcluding Cavid Bey —— aannd Germany, andd Germany, and Octo-Octo-ber 29, 1914, the Ottoman Empire's entrance into the Great War, Cavid ber 29, 1914, the Ottoman Empire's entrance into the Great War, Cavid BeyBey maintained his position in the cabinet as the finance minister. He maintained his position in the cabinet as the finance minister. He

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led the antiwar group in the cabinet and tried to convince the ministers

led the antiwar group in the cabinet and tried to convince the ministers to keep the Ottoman Emto keep the Ottoman Emppire neutral inire neutral in the war. According to Cavid Beythe war. According to Cavid Bey, , the financial and military capacity of the Empire was inadequate to par-the financial and military capacity of the Empire was inadequate to par-ticipate in another war; he underlined many times that the state did not ticipate in another war; he underlined many times that the state did not have enough economic resources. Within this short period, Cavidhave enough economic resources. Within this short period, Cavid BeyBey carried oucarried out shuttle diplomacy for the abolition of the capitulations. t shuttle diplomacy for the abolition of the capitulations. However, when the CUP decided to enter the war, Cavid BeyHowever, when the CUP decided to enter the war, Cavid Bey resigned resigned from his official duties. This was due, firstly, to Cavid Beyfrom his official duties. This was due, firstly, to Cavid Bey's belief that 's belief that the Ottoman Empire's secret entrance ithe Ottoman Empire's secret entrance innto the war, whto the war, which Enver Bey ich Enver Bey and Talat Bey orchestrated, was counter to the motto of Unionism (and Talat Bey orchestrated, was counter to the motto of Unionism (İtti-İtti-hatçılık şiarıhatçılık şiarı); secondly, Cavid Bey); secondly, Cavid Bey strongly believed that the Ottoman strongly believed that the Ottoman Empire had to stay neutral to protect its territorial integrity, which was Empire had to stay neutral to protect its territorial integrity, which was in a more in a more fragile position due to the lack of financial resources. The Un-fragile position due to the lack of financial resources. The Un-ionists reacted negatively to hiionists reacted negatively to his resignation, and some even threatened s resignation, and some even threatened him. However, as a man known for his stubbornness, Cavid Beyhim. However, as a man known for his stubbornness, Cavid Bey did not did not step back from his duties but remained a shadow finastep back from his duties but remained a shadow finance minister until nce minister until he accepted the office again in 1917.he accepted the office again in 1917.

With each passing day in 1913 and 191

With each passing day in 1913 and 1914, the European concert that 4, the European concert that was established in 1815 was becoming more and more vulnerable. The was established in 1815 was becoming more and more vulnerable. The Baghdad Railway issue was one of the most challenging issues for Baghdad Railway issue was one of the most challenging issues for the the Great Powers outside of Europe. The Potsdam Agreement between Great Powers outside of Europe. The Potsdam Agreement between Germany and Russia in 1910 beGermany and Russia in 1910 became the cornerstone that paved the came the cornerstone that paved the way for reconciliation on the Great Powers' interests in Anatolia and way for reconciliation on the Great Powers' interests in Anatolia and Mesopotamia. Although the Great War rivals had solved tMesopotamia. Although the Great War rivals had solved the problems he problems regarding the Near East, this was not enough to prevent the war it-regarding the Near East, this was not enough to prevent the war it-self.self. As a resultAs a result of the Balkan Wars, the Ottoman homeland had shrunk of the Balkan Wars, the Ottoman homeland had shrunk to Eastern Thrace, Anatolia, and the Arab provinces. Although the Em-to Eastern Thrace, Anatolia, and the Arab provinces. Although the Em-pire had pire had enteredentered a brief period of a brief period of peace, it was still not safe from the peace, it was still not safe from the threat of war. The responsibility for protecting the intethreat of war. The responsibility for protecting the integritygrity of the state of the state rested on the Unionists' shoulders, including those of Cavid Beyrested on the Unionists' shoulders, including those of Cavid Bey. In the . In the context of the Empire’s relations with the Great Powers in the leadcontext of the Empire’s relations with the Great Powers in the lead--uup to p to the Great War, this chapter seeks to understand whether Cavid Beythe Great War, this chapter seeks to understand whether Cavid Bey was, was, in the words of Hobin the words of Hobsbawmsbawm, the shark or the bait in an ocean full of , the shark or the bait in an ocean full of sharks.sharks.

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§ 4.1 Waiting for the Storm, 1913Waiting for the Storm, 1913––19141914

From the beginning of 1913 until the assa

From the beginning of 1913 until the assasssination of Archiduke sination of Archiduke Franz FeFranz Ferdinand on June 28, the countdown to the First World War had rdinand on June 28, the countdown to the First World War had begun: a period of waiting for thbegun: a period of waiting for thee stostorrm. This period is aptly depicted by m. This period is aptly depicted by contemporary French novelist Jean Echenoz, whose satirical war novel-contemporary French novelist Jean Echenoz, whose satirical war novel-la, la, 19141914, depicts the Great War through the eyes of , depicts the Great War through the eyes of a French soldiera French soldier. . The The novella begins with a call for the mobilization of the French army. The novella begins with a call for the mobilization of the French army. The ccall all iis made using an unusual tune from the bells of a church s made using an unusual tune from the bells of a church —— a tune a tune that people instantly understand as a terrible omen of what is to come. that people instantly understand as a terrible omen of what is to come. Although everybody Although everybody in that French village has been waiting for the bells in that French village has been waiting for the bells to ring, they still do not want to belieto ring, they still do not want to believve the thaat their predictions have come t their predictions have come true.true.699 The possibility of a war was deliberated upon throughout the The possibility of a war was deliberated upon throughout the foreign offices and ministries of war in Europe. However, foreign offices and ministries of war in Europe. However, international international diplomacy could not prevent it. The voices of imperialism, nationalism, diplomacy could not prevent it. The voices of imperialism, nationalism, and miliand milittarisarismm were so loud that it was hard to hear the voice of peace. I were so loud that it was hard to hear the voice of peace. I firstly suggest going back to before 1913 to understand how the winds firstly suggest going back to before 1913 to understand how the winds of war were blowing in Euof war were blowing in Europe and in the Ottoman Empire. rope and in the Ottoman Empire.

In the 1900s, the idea of war appeared as something impossibl

In the 1900s, the idea of war appeared as something impossiblee af-af-tteer a long period of peace in Europe. But, by the 1910s r a long period of peace in Europe. But, by the 1910s —— with the Great with the Great Powers clearly defined between two blocs; the accumulation of finance Powers clearly defined between two blocs; the accumulation of finance capital; risingcapital; rising industrial sectors such as electricity, the railways, chemis-industrial sectors such as electricity, the railways, chemis-try, aviation, and services; accetry, aviation, and services; accellerateratiion of the defense industry, inter-on of the defense industry, inter-twined with other industries and government interests; and rising na-twined with other industries and government interests; and rising na-tionalism tionalism —— the world was competing in a global race ththe world was competing in a global race that brought it at brought it closer to the idea of war. As Lenin states, who observed the circum-closer to the idea of war. As Lenin states, who observed the circum-stances at fistances at firrst hst haand, “the race between these opposite blocs ornd, “the race between these opposite blocs oriiginated ginated from the state’s passion for excessive growth, rising nationalism, and from the state’s passion for excessive growth, rising nationalism, and fixing social inequalities in Eufixing social inequalities in European countries, which led to the coloni-ropean countries, which led to the coloni-zation process in order to support the empires’ need zation process in order to support the empires’ need tto go gatather speed, her speed,

699 JJean Echenoz ean Echenoz 1914, 1914, ((Istanbul: Istanbul: KKitap Yayınevi, 2015), 7.itap Yayınevi, 2015), 7.

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export finances and industries, and import raw materials.”

export finances and industries, and import raw materials.”700 At the be-At the be-ginning of the twentieth century, the world was dominated by Britain ginning of the twentieth century, the world was dominated by Britain and Fraand France and, to a lesser extent, Germany and Italy, which were the nce and, to a lesser extent, Germany and Italy, which were the latecomers to the idea of the nlatecomers to the idea of the neew iw indndustrialized nationustrialized nation--states dominat-states dominat-ing world politics. Of these Great Powers, the United Kingdom was the ing world politics. Of these Great Powers, the United Kingdom was the clear hegemonic power of the ‘long’ nineteenth centurclear hegemonic power of the ‘long’ nineteenth century, though its su-y, though its su-premacy was challenged just before the war. At the height of its power, premacy was challenged just before the war. At the height of its power, BritaiBritainn cocontntrolled approximately 40% of global exports, which was the rolled approximately 40% of global exports, which was the one third of the Western Europe’s exports.one third of the Western Europe’s exports.701 On the eve of the Great On the eve of the Great War, the growing economies of War, the growing economies of Germany and Denmark had joined the Germany and Denmark had joined the ranks of the wealthiest states of Europe, ranks of the wealthiest states of Europe, including Britainincluding Britain, Be, Bellggium, Hol-ium, Hol-land, Switzerland, and France. In some of these countries such as Brit-land, Switzerland, and France. In some of these countries such as Brit-ain, most of the population was working in the field of industry. In con-ain, most of the population was working in the field of industry. In con-trasttrast to these countries, more than 80% of the Ottoman population was to these countries, more than 80% of the Ottoman population was working in the agriculture seworking in the agriculture secctor.tor.702 These developments in turn trig-These developments in turn trig-gered competition and the expansion of colonialism. British economist gered competition and the expansion of colonialism. British economist and social scientist J.A. Hobson dubbed this process “and social scientist J.A. Hobson dubbed this process “imperialism,” imperialism,” which soon became a near synonym for colonialism. Alongside Hobson, which soon became a near synonym for colonialism. Alongside Hobson, Nikolai BukhNikolai Bukhaarin,rin, RRudolf Hilferding, Karl Kautsky, Joseph Schumpeter, udolf Hilferding, Karl Kautsky, Joseph Schumpeter, and Rosa Luxemburg also indicated that the monopolization of markets and Rosa Luxemburg also indicated that the monopolization of markets required the desperate need for newrequired the desperate need for new colonies and their raw materials colonies and their raw materials and human resources.and human resources.703 Latecomers such as Belgium, Germany, aLatecomers such as Belgium, Germany, annd d ItItaally, for example, were thus eager to establish their own colonies and y, for example, were thus eager to establish their own colonies and spheres of influence in the early spheres of influence in the early twentiethtwentieth century. century.

700 VladiVladimir Lenin, mir Lenin, ImpeImpeririaalism, lism, the Hthe Highest Stage ofighest Stage of Capitalism.Capitalism. Lenin Internet Archive, Lenin Internet Archive, accesed August accesed August 2, 2021. 2, 2021. https://https://www.marxists.org/archive/leniwww.marxists.org/archive/leninn/works/1916/imp/works/1916/imp--hsc/index.htmhsc/index.htm

701 Ivan Berend Ivan Berend AnAn EEconomiconomic Histc History of ory of TwentietTwentieth Century Europeh Century Europe. Economic Regimes from . Economic Regimes from LaissezLaissez--FaiFairre to Globalization (e to Globalization (CambriCambridge: Cambridgdge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 11e University Press, 2017), 11..

702 Berend, Berend, An Economic HistoAn Economic History of Twentiethry of Twentieth--Century EuropCentury Europee, 21, 21--2, Quaatert, D.2017. 2, Quaatert, D.2017. Şevket Şevket Pamuk Pamuk Osmanlı DOsmanlı Deevvleti’nleti’nde Avrde Avrupai İktisadi Yupai İktisadi Yayılımı ve Direniş 1881ayılımı ve Direniş 1881--19081908, Is-, Is-tanbul: İletişim Yayınları, p: 29. See also, Ştanbul: İletişim Yayınları, p: 29. See also, Şevket Pamuk evket Pamuk Osmanlı Ekonomisinde Osmanlı Ekonomisinde Bağımlılık ve BüyümeBağımlılık ve Büyüme, (Istanbul: İş Ba, (Istanbul: İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2017)nkası Kültür Yayınları, 2017)..

703 Berend, Berend, An Economic History ofAn Economic History of TwentiethTwentieth--CentCentuurry Euroy Europepe,21,,21, 22.22.

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Europe gradually found itself div

Europe gradually found itself divided into two opposing blocs of ided into two opposing blocs of Great Powers at the turn of the century. The Triple Alliance cGreat Powers at the turn of the century. The Triple Alliance coomposmposeedd of of Germany, AustriaGermany, Austria--Hungary, and Italy was shaped in 1882 (although Italy Hungary, and Italy was shaped in 1882 (although Italy would eventually join the Entente Cordiale camp in 1915). By the same would eventually join the Entente Cordiale camp in 1915). By the same token, Britoken, Britain and France had already established ties in 1860 through tain and France had already established ties in 1860 through the Cobdenthe Cobden--Chevalier Agreement, wChevalier Agreement, whhich ich eesstablished the first free trade tablished the first free trade zone in Europe.zone in Europe.704 In the late 1880s, France and Russia had formed an In the late 1880s, France and Russia had formed an informal alliance. International blocs were emerging againformal alliance. International blocs were emerging against the rise of inst the rise of Germany. By the 1890s, the two blocs had been more or less formed, Germany. By the 1890s, the two blocs had been more or less formed, and betweeand betweenn 19019033 and 1907, Britain decided to join the antiand 1907, Britain decided to join the anti--German German camp. At the turn of the century, both the actors and the rules of inter-camp. At the turn of the century, both the actors and the rules of inter-national diplomacy had started tonational diplomacy had started to change. First of all, as seen in the Ot-change. First of all, as seen in the Ot-toman case, the rivalry between these two blocs had extoman case, the rivalry between these two blocs had exppandeandedd and tak-and tak-en on a more global and imperial character. With the exception of the en on a more global and imperial character. With the exception of the United States and its famous Monroe Doctrine, the main tenet of which United States and its famous Monroe Doctrine, the main tenet of which was isolwas isolationism, international rivalries expanded across the globe, ationism, international rivalries expanded across the globe, from Africa to China. This new sifrom Africa to China. This new sittuatiuatioonn challenged the Great Powers, challenged the Great Powers, especially the hegemony of Britain. By the end of the especially the hegemony of Britain. By the end of the nineteenthnineteenth centu-centu-ry, Britain’s navy was no longer the largest in the worry, Britain’s navy was no longer the largest in the world. ld.

The concept of war had become the biggest driver of economic rival-

The concept of war had become the biggest driver of economic rival-ry and competition. As ry and competition. As HHobsbobsbaawwm underlined, m underlined, “the shift from monopoly “the shift from monopoly to competition was probably the most important factor that led to the to competition was probably the most important factor that led to the endless competition between European enterprisendless competition between European enterprises, which served to es, which served to separate the strong from the weak, and to give courage to the young, separate the strong from the weak, and to give courage to the young, hungrhungryy natnatiioons at the expense of the old empiresns at the expense of the old empires”.”.705 In 1913 Britain’s In 1913 Britain’s allocated £77 million to military compared to £32 million in 1887. It is allocated £77 million to military compared to £32 million in 1887. It is

704 As BerenAs Berend argues, before the First World War, the laissez faire economy based on the d argues, before the First World War, the laissez faire economy based on the ggold standard was prevalent in the European economic system. This economold standard was prevalent in the European economic system. This economic system ic system had connections withad connections withh ideological and political concepideological and political concepts such as persts such as persoonnal libal liberty aerty and nd democracy, wdemocracy, which became expressions of universal interests and guarantors of univer-hich became expressions of universal interests and guarantors of univer-sal libsal liberty and harmony unless the national economy was endangered. Ivan Bereerty and harmony unless the national economy was endangered. Ivan Berend, nd, An EconomicAn Economic History of TwHistory of Tweentiethntieth--Century Europe Economic ReCentury Europe Economic Regimes from Laisgimes from Laissseezz--FairFaire e to Gto Globalizlobalizaationtion (C(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 11.ambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 11.

705 Hobsbawm, Hobsbawm, The Age of EmpireThe Age of Empire, 311, 311--316.316.

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more or less the same fo

more or less the same for the Germany, especially in the field of navy. r the Germany, especially in the field of navy. The arms industry and the development of the sThe arms industry and the development of the sttate ate bbeecame so inter-came so inter-twined that we can liken it to the common “chicken or the egg?” dilem-twined that we can liken it to the common “chicken or the egg?” dilem-ma. Armaments firms became an integral part of giant industries such ma. Armaments firms became an integral part of giant industries such as Kas Krupp in Germany, rupp in Germany, Armstrong,Armstrong, or Whitworth in Britain, and, eventu-or Whitworth in Britain, and, eventu-ally, the “militaryally, the “military--industrial industrial ccompomplelexx” in the United States. The arms in-” in the United States. The arms in-dustry was directly supported by state subsidies and shaped by states’ dustry was directly supported by state subsidies and shaped by states’ political aims. Another factor of this imperial dpolitical aims. Another factor of this imperial development was very evelopment was very much related to the Ottoman Empire: redistributing accumulated finan-much related to the Ottoman Empire: redistributing accumulated finan-cial ccial caapitpitalal from the center to periphery countries via loans or giant from the center to periphery countries via loans or giant projects such as the construction of railways, ports, or urban services projects such as the construction of railways, ports, or urban services like gas and electricity like gas and electricity networks.networks.706 During the 1910s, imperialism was During the 1910s, imperialism was accepted as the monopoly stage of capitalism, andaccepted as the monopoly stage of capitalism, and iit t wawass identifed identifed through the hegemony of financial capital by leftthrough the hegemony of financial capital by left--wing intellectuals.wing intellectuals.707 The system of financial capital exported finance instead of industry The system of financial capital exported finance instead of industry throuthrough the banks. gh the banks.

As Hilfeding sums up, “finance capital is capital controlled by

As Hilfeding sums up, “finance capital is capital controlled by banks and emplbanks and emplooyyeded bbyy industrialists”.industrialists”.708

Over a very short period, the monopolies of financial capital had

Over a very short period, the monopolies of financial capital had emerged in developed countries, which were often intertwined with the emerged in developed countries, which were often intertwined with the foreign offices of the states. Whether or not the financial capital of foreign offices of the states. Whether or not the financial capital of banks and industries hbanks and industries haadd ffulullly merged with states’ foreign policy during y merged with states’ foreign policy during the ‘long’ the ‘long’ nineteenthnineteenth century or on the brink of the century or on the brink of the twentiethtwentieth century is century is still an open subject for debate. On tstill an open subject for debate. On the one side, Britain, even in 1914, he one side, Britain, even in 1914, did not give up its did not give up its laissezlaissez--fairefaire principle in the field principle in the field ooff bbususiiness. The ness. The Foreign Secretary was not involved in business negotiations unless it Foreign Secretary was not involved in business negotiations unless it

706 Berend, Berend, An Economic History of TwentiethAn Economic History of Twentieth--Century EuropeCentury Europe, 1, 11.1.

707 On the other hand, this On the other hand, this pperiod overlapped with new developeriod overlapped with new developments that chalments that challleenged nged EEuropeauropean hegemony, sucn hegemony, such as the rise of the United States in the fields of industry and h as the rise of the United States in the fields of industry and finance; incrfinance; increasing social movements and rising ideologies such as coeasing social movements and rising ideologies such as commmunism and munism and socsocialism; and the rise of natioialism; and the rise of nationnalism and challenges to colonial alism and challenges to colonial rule in Aurule in Ausstraltraliiaa, New , New ZealanZealand, Ireland, andd, Ireland, and in the Balkans. Berend, in the Balkans. Berend, An Economic History of TweAn Economic History of Twenntiethtieth--Century Century Europe,Europe, 3939--442.2.

708 Lenin, Lenin, Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, 33.Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, 33.

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was absolutely necessary. On the other hand, France, which had provid-

was absolutely necessary. On the other hand, France, which had provid-ed the ed the majority of the Ottoman loans, had already became a usury state majority of the Ottoman loans, had already became a usury state during this period through exduring this period through exppoortrtiningg its financial capital to its periph-its financial capital to its periph-ery, including to Russia and the Ottoman Empire. In France, the monop-ery, including to Russia and the Ottoman Empire. In France, the monop-oly of four very powerful banks was much stronger aoly of four very powerful banks was much stronger and more developed nd more developed than the financial oligarchy in the country. The monopolies had ensured than the financial oligarchy in the country. The monopolies had ensured thetheiirr pproroffits through bonds and through ensuring that borrowing coun-its through bonds and through ensuring that borrowing coun-tries could only get around 90 percent of the sum of their loans. The tries could only get around 90 percent of the sum of their loans. The French had contested their pFrench had contested their perception as a “usury state” and demanded erception as a “usury state” and demanded full financial control over Ottoman finances in 191full financial control over Ottoman finances in 19100.. IIn n tthe same year, he same year, Great Britain, the United States, France, and Germany were the wealthi-Great Britain, the United States, France, and Germany were the wealthi-est capitalist countries, with the United States and Germany as the est capitalist countries, with the United States and Germany as the younyoungest players. During this period, these countries together made up gest players. During this period, these countries together made up nearly 80 percent of the wnearly 80 percent of the woorrldld’s’s financial capital. The rest of the world financial capital. The rest of the world was, more or less, a debtor to these four countries. The ‘long’was, more or less, a debtor to these four countries. The ‘long’ nineteenthnineteenth century witnessed a peculiar epoch of wocentury witnessed a peculiar epoch of world colonial policy connected rld colonial policy connected to the “latest stage in the development of capitalism” with theto the “latest stage in the development of capitalism” with the ddeveveleloop-p-ment of financial capital. Eventually, the more developed and aggressive ment of financial capital. Eventually, the more developed and aggressive capitalist states brought on the wild hunt for colonies. The rise of finan-capitalist states brought on the wild hunt for colonies. The rise of finan-cial capcial capital had created a foreign policy based on various new depend-ital had created a foreign policy based on various new depend-ency models. As in the cases as ency models. As in the cases as AArrgegentntiina and the Ottoman Empire, na and the Ottoman Empire, there were some examples in which territories could remain politically there were some examples in which territories could remain politically and formally independent but financially and diplomaticalland formally independent but financially and diplomatically bound or y bound or dependent. The movement of financial capital from the center to pe-dependent. The movement of financial capital from the center to pe-riphery countrieriphery countriess susuchch as Russia, Turkey, India, Persia, China, et cetera, as Russia, Turkey, India, Persia, China, et cetera, was in the form of international loans or foreign direct investments as was in the form of international loans or foreign direct investments as loans.loans.709 Particularly, the railwaParticularly, the railways were one of the key tools of spreading ys were one of the key tools of spreading capital among the colonies or throughout independencapital among the colonies or throughout independentt oror sseemimi--independent states. Inspired by Rosa Luxembourg, Ülker underlines independent states. Inspired by Rosa Luxembourg, Ülker underlines that investing in infrastructure facilities from railways to electricity was that investing in infrastructure facilities from railways to electricity was

709 Rosa LuRosa Luxemburg xemburg The Accumulation of CThe Accumulation of Caapitalpital, (, (London: Routledge amd KegLondon: Routledge amd Kegan Paul an Paul Ltd, 19Ltd, 19551), 411), 419. 9. https://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1913/accumulationhttps://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1913/accumulation--capitalcapital/accumulation.pdf/accumulation.pdf

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a form of

a form of colonization, both directly and indirectly. As part of this pro-colonization, both directly and indirectly. As part of this pro-cess, the Ottoman state was mocess, the Ottoman state was morree oor r lless economically subordinate to ess economically subordinate to European capital.European capital.710 It became a gradually deteriorating international It became a gradually deteriorating international situation that had increasingly escaped from the governsituation that had increasingly escaped from the government’s control. ment’s control. The power of the press and public opinion leaders, who were the main The power of the press and public opinion leaders, who were the main influencinfluenceerrs s bebehhind nationalist ideologies, often left no room to maneu-ind nationalist ideologies, often left no room to maneu-ver for the government officers.ver for the government officers.

The developments in the European continent had repercussions in

The developments in the European continent had repercussions in the the Ottoman territories. While the Ottoman Empire had occupied a huge Ottoman territories. While the Ottoman Empire had occupied a huge territory, governing it, esterritory, governing it, esppeecicialallly while facing subsequent military de-y while facing subsequent military de-feats, proved difficult. The ‘long’ feats, proved difficult. The ‘long’ nineteenthnineteenth century had pushed the Ot-century had pushed the Ot-toman Empire into a state of exhaustion, for whtoman Empire into a state of exhaustion, for which there was no medi-ich there was no medi-cation. As of 1839, the Tanzimat Act and the implementation of steady cation. As of 1839, the Tanzimat Act and the implementation of steady rereffoormrms s aafterward, moved the Ottoman state toward centralization and fterward, moved the Ottoman state toward centralization and modernization of the state apparatus and military. It also included the modernization of the state apparatus and military. It also included the modernization of educatimodernization of education, the press, et cetera. By the on, the press, et cetera. By the nineteenthnineteenth cen-cen-tury, the Ottoman Empire had been incorporatedtury, the Ottoman Empire had been incorporated iintnto o tthe international he international capitalist economy via international land deals and foreign direct in-capitalist economy via international land deals and foreign direct in-vestments such as railways. The impact of imperialism on the Ottoman vestments such as railways. The impact of imperialism on the Ottoman EEmpire has been widely recorded by many prominent scholars. The pi-mpire has been widely recorded by many prominent scholars. The pi-oneer scholar in this field oneer scholar in this field wwaas s ththee German economist Andre Gunder German economist Andre Gunder Frank,Frank,711 who pointed out the imperialist links of dependence and ex-who pointed out the imperialist links of dependence and ex-ploitation between the metropolis and its satellites. The mploitation between the metropolis and its satellites. The main contribu-ain contribu-tion to this field that widened the discussion and can be applied to the tion to this field that widened the discussion and can be applied to the case of case of TTuurkrkeyey came from American sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein came from American sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein

710 Ülker, EÜlker, E.. 2019.2019. “Ottoman Empire and Imperia“Ottoman Empire and Imperialism,” in lism,” in the Pthe Paalgravelgrave EncyclEncyclopedia of opedia of ImperImperialism and Antiialism and Anti--ImperialismImperialism, ed. I. Ness, Z. Cope, (London: The Springer Inter, ed. I. Ness, Z. Cope, (London: The Springer Internna-a-tional Publishing, 2.d. 2019), tional Publishing, 2.d. 2019), https://link.springer.com/referencewohttps://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978rkentry/10.1007%2F978--33--319319--9911220606--6_1636_163--1#howtocite .1#howtocite .

711 AndreAndre--GüGünder Frank, “Thnder Frank, “Thee develdevelopment opment of underdevelopof underdevelopment,” ment,” Monthly ReviewMonthly Review 18, no. 18, no. 4 (4 (SeptemberSeptember 1966), 17 1966), 17 –– 31. 31.

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and his masterpiece,

and his masterpiece, World SystemsWorld Systems (1974).(1974).712 According to Immanuel According to Immanuel Wallerstein, the modern capitalist worWallerstein, the modern capitalist world economy, born in Europe, and ld economy, born in Europe, and which existed before the sixteenth century, rested on the divwhich existed before the sixteenth century, rested on the diviissioion n bbe-e-tween the core, peripheral, and semitween the core, peripheral, and semi--peripheral empires. These empires peripheral empires. These empires expanded until the expanded until the twentiethtwentieth century, by incorporating world empires century, by incorporating world empires and miniand mini--systemsystems as peripheral or semis as peripheral or semi--peripheral areas, where pro-peripheral areas, where pro-duction processes were restructured in accduction processes were restructured in accoorrdadancncee with the necessities with the necessities of capital accumulation. Wallerstein’s theory has been applied by aca-of capital accumulation. Wallerstein’s theory has been applied by aca-demics such as Donald Quataert, Huricihan Islamoğlu, Çağlar Keydedemics such as Donald Quataert, Huricihan Islamoğlu, Çağlar Keyder, r, and Şevket Pamuk’s early works,and Şevket Pamuk’s early works,713 which approach the Ottoman econ-which approach the Ottoman econ-omy from a wider perspectiomy from a wider perspectivvee. . ThThee main works in this field have identi-main works in this field have identi-fied the Ottoman peripheralization process as one of the Empire’s fied the Ottoman peripheralization process as one of the Empire’s markers of the transition from a world empire dominatmarkers of the transition from a world empire dominated by the Asiatic ed by the Asiatic mode of production to a peripheral empire incorporated into the capi-mode of production to a peripheral empire incorporated into the capi-talist talist wwoorlrld d eeconomy. The current studies underline that the Empire’s conomy. The current studies underline that the Empire’s incorincorporation began with the Balta Limanı Treaty (1838) concluded be-poration began with the Balta Limanı Treaty (1838) concluded be-tween the Ottoman and Britain Emtween the Ottoman and Britain Empires. This treaty prohibited all pub-pires. This treaty prohibited all pub-lic trade monopolies from imposing local surcharges througlic trade monopolies from imposing local surcharges through specifying h specifying the rate and manner of collection of imports, transitthe rate and manner of collection of imports, transit, and local duties. , and local duties. These provisions were applied uniformly around the Empire and were These provisions were applied uniformly around the Empire and were to coverto cover all its subjects. Though some high bureaucrats questioned the all its subjects. Though some high bureaucrats questioned the treaty, none of the ports were excluded from it, and no commodity or treaty, none of the ports were excluded from it, and no commodity or

712 Wallerstein, ImmWallerstein, Immanuel. 1974. anuel. 1974. The Modern WorldThe Modern World--System I: Capitalist Agriculture and System I: Capitalist Agriculture and ThThe Origins of the European Wore Origins of the European Worlldd--Economy in the Sixteenth Century.Economy in the Sixteenth Century. New New York: Aca-York: Aca-demicdemic PrPress.ess.

713 Huricihan İslamHuricihan İslamoğlu, Çağlar Keyder, oğlu, Çağlar Keyder, Agenda for Ottoman historyAgenda for Ottoman history, in The Ottoman , in The Ottoman Empire and theEmpire and the worldworld--economy, ed. Huricihan İslamoğlueconomy, ed. Huricihan İslamoğlu--İnan, (New York: Cambridge İnan, (New York: Cambridge UniUniveverrsity Press, 2004), 42sity Press, 2004), 42--62; 62; ÇÇaağlar Keyder ğlar Keyder Türkiye’de Devlet ve Türkiye’de Devlet ve SınıflarSınıflar, (Ista, (Istannbul: bul: İİletişiletişimm YayıYayınları, 200nları, 2005); Şevket Pamuk 5); Şevket Pamuk OsmanlıOsmanlı--TürkiyeTürkiye--İktisadi Tarihi 1500İktisadi Tarihi 1500--19141914, (Is-, (Is-tanbul: İletişitanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2007); Donald Quataert m Yayınları, 2007); Donald Quataert Osmanlı Devleti’nde Avrupa İkOsmanlı Devleti’nde Avrupa İk--tisatisadî dî Yayılımı ve Direnişi (1881Yayılımı ve Direnişi (1881--11908)908),(Ankara: Yurt Yayınevi 1987),(Ankara: Yurt Yayınevi 1987); Zafer Toprak ; Zafer Toprak TTürkiyeürkiye’de ’de MiMillli İktisat 1909li İktisat 1909--1918, (1918, (Istanbul: Yurt Yayınları, 1982).Istanbul: Yurt Yayınları, 1982).

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trading group was exempted fr

trading group was exempted from its provisions.om its provisions.714 As of the implemen-As of the implemen-tation of the tation of the Balta Limanı Treaty, liberal economic policBalta Limanı Treaty, liberal economic policies started to ies started to dominate the Ottoman economy as it was incorporated with the modern dominate the Ottoman economy as it was incorporated with the modern capitalist world. The Balta Limanı Treaty sealed the change in the char-capitalist world. The Balta Limanı Treaty sealed the change in the char-acter oacter of capitulations, and these changes extended to otherf capitulations, and these changes extended to other European European powers through similar treaties opowers through similar treaties over the next few years. During the ver the next few years. During the ‘long’ nineteenth century (1789‘long’ nineteenth century (1789--1914) the Ottoman Empire was incor-1914) the Ottoman Empire was incor-porated into the European economy and its classical economic system, porated into the European economy and its classical economic system, and its closed economy started to dissolve.and its closed economy started to dissolve. However, some regions ad-However, some regions ad-justed to this projusted to this process faster than otherscess faster than others715 due to various reasons such due to various reasons such as geography, transportation networks, et cetera. as geography, transportation networks, et cetera.

The Ottoman Empire was incorporated into the world economy

The Ottoman Empire was incorporated into the world economy primarily through two systems: public debts and fiprimarily through two systems: public debts and financial capital flows nancial capital flows to the Ottoman marketto the Ottoman markets, such as in public projects like the railways. The s, such as in public projects like the railways. The Ottoman Empire acquired its first foreign public debt in 1854 during Ottoman Empire acquired its first foreign public debt in 1854 during the Crimean War.the Crimean War.716 The amount of Ottoman public debts between 188The amount of Ottoman public debts between 18822

714 Reşat Kasaba “Treaties and FriendshReşat Kasaba “Treaties and Friendships: British Imperialism, the Ottoman Empire, and ips: British Imperialism, the Ottoman Empire, and China in the NineteeChina in the Nineteenth Century.” nth Century.” Journal of WorlJournal of Worldd HistoryHistory, Vol. 4, No. 2 (Fall, 199, Vol. 4, No. 2 (Fall, 1993), 3), 215215--41. 41.

715 QuataeQuataert,rt, DoDonnald. “Selanikteald. “Selanikteki İşçiler 1850 ki İşçiler 1850 –– 1912,” 1912,” in Osmanlı’dan Cumhuriyet in Osmanlı’dan Cumhuriyet Türkiye’ne İşçiler 1839Türkiye’ne İşçiler 1839--19519500, 27., 27.

716 Edhem Eldem, “Ottoman financial integration with Europe: foreEdhem Eldem, “Ottoman financial integration with Europe: foreign loans, the Ottoman ign loans, the Ottoman Bank aBank anndd the Ottoman public debt,” the Ottoman public debt,” EuropeEuropean Reviewan Review, Vol., Vol. 13, No13, No. 3,(J. 3,(Juuly 2005), 431ly 2005), 431--445. 5.

The Empire obtained loans mainly from London, Paris, Vienna, and FrankfuThe Empire obtained loans mainly from London, Paris, Vienna, and Frankfurrt, t, primarily to cover budget deficits and mprimarily to cover budget deficits and military expenses. Until the 1870s, the Empire’s ilitary expenses. Until the 1870s, the Empire’s public depublic debt increased. After the stock marbt increased. After the stock market crash in 18ket crash in 1873 in Europe, 73 in Europe, interest rates interest rates increased dramatically and created a solvency crisis in many countries such asincreased dramatically and created a solvency crisis in many countries such as Greece, Greece, and Egypt, where the Caisse de la Dand Egypt, where the Caisse de la Dette Publique (Public Debt Commission) was estab-ette Publique (Public Debt Commission) was estab-lished aslished as an international supervision coman international supervision committee over themittee over the Egyptian FinaEgyptian Finances in 1876. nces in 1876. DDue to the heavy burden of wars and high interest rate on accumulated debts, inue to the heavy burden of wars and high interest rate on accumulated debts, in 1876 1876 the Empire declared bankruptcy. After the Empire declared bankruptcy. After the Russothe Russo--Turkish War of 1877Turkish War of 1877––1878, the Ot-1878, the Ot-toman Public Detoman Public Debt Administration (OPDA) was founbt Administration (OPDA) was founded in 1881, ded in 1881, anand thed the OPDA OPDA oveover-r-sawsaw collectingcollecting at least 30% of revenues and payments of public debt.at least 30% of revenues and payments of public debt. The OPDA be-The OPDA be-camcame a statee a state within a state and functioned as within a state and functioned as the heart ofthe heart of the Ottoman fiscal system. the Ottoman fiscal system. Meanwhile, the Ottoman miniMeanwhile, the Ottoman ministry of finance and other local istry of finance and other local institutions adonstitutions adopted new pted new

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and 1914 under the superv

and 1914 under the supervision of the OPDAision of the OPDA totaled 83.5 million Liras. totaled 83.5 million Liras. In comparison, the amount of money in the treasury totaled 70 million In comparison, the amount of money in the treasury totaled 70 million Liras, and the amount of money paid out as a principal and on interest Liras, and the amount of money paid out as a principal and on interest rates was 113 million Ottoman Liras. Durinrates was 113 million Ottoman Liras. Duringg this period, the net fundthis period, the net fund outflow was 44.5outflow was 44.5 million Liras.million Liras.717 In 1914, the total foreign debt of the In 1914, the total foreign debt of the Empire was calculated at 162.1 million Liras, and half of these loans had Empire was calculated at 162.1 million Liras, and half of these loans had come from France.come from France.718

Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) such as railways, ports, or el

Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) such as railways, ports, or eleectrici-ctrici-ty networks were anoty networks were another important chther important channel of financial capital enter-annel of financial capital enter-ing the Ottoman Empire. FDI poured into the Ottoman Empire after the ing the Ottoman Empire. FDI poured into the Ottoman Empire after the establishment of the OPDA. As Birdal states, the estimated total net cap-establishment of the OPDA. As Birdal states, the estimated total net cap-ital inflow arising from FDI (after theital inflow arising from FDI (after the deduction of repatriated cdeduction of repatriated capital) apital) from 1882from 1882 to 1913 was amounted to 63,684 million sterling, averaging to 1913 was amounted to 63,684 million sterling, averaging around 1,996 million sterling annually. Between 1890 and 1914, FDI around 1,996 million sterling annually. Between 1890 and 1914, FDI had increased threefold compared to the previous period from the had increased threefold compared to the previous period from the 1860s to 1880s. The 1860s to 1880s. The mmost important part of thesost important part of these investments wase investments was the the railways, 63% of all FDI. Between 1888 and 1914, Ottoman loans were railways, 63% of all FDI. Between 1888 and 1914, Ottoman loans were consistently higher than FDI, but in the same period, FDI grew faster consistently higher than FDI, but in the same period, FDI grew faster than loans. In 1914, only 5% of FDI went to industries: the rest wentthan loans. In 1914, only 5% of FDI went to industries: the rest went to to railways, ports, bankinrailways, ports, banking, insurance, etcg, insurance, etc..719

taxes

taxes and modern fisand modern fiscal methods from the OPDA. The OPDA radically changed finan-cal methods from the OPDA. The OPDA radically changed finan-cial relacial relattions betwions between the Ottoman Empire and the Weseen the Ottoman Empire and the West; while the Ottoman Empire t; while the Ottoman Empire gained financial stability and credibilgained financial stability and credibility, Western financial institutioity, Western financial institutions started to pns started to pene-ene-trate the Otrate the Ottoman market attoman market at an increasing rate.t an increasing rate. Ülker,” Ottoman Empire and Imperial-Ülker,” Ottoman Empire and Imperial-ism”, 4ism”, 4--5.5.

717 Between Between 1854 to 1914, the total amount of the Empire’s debt was 280 million sterling, 1854 to 1914, the total amount of the Empire’s debt was 280 million sterling, and the and the amount that entamount that entered the treasered the treasuury was surprisinglry was surprisingly 181 miy 181 milllion slion sterling. The terling. The aamomouunt usent used to md to make payments on the debt, the principle, and inteake payments on the debt, the principle, and interrest rates was 196 est rates was 196 million stmillion sterling, and the net fund outflow was 15 million steerling, and the net fund outflow was 15 million sterrling. Emine Kıray ling. Emine Kıray Os-Os-manlı’da Ekonomanlı’da Ekonomik Yapı ve Dışmik Yapı ve Dış Borçlar,Borçlar, (Ist(Istaanbul: İletişim Yaynbul: İletişim Yayınları, 1993), ınları, 1993), 37.37.

718 Necla V.Necla V. GGeeyikdağyikdağı, “Frı, “French İnvestments in the Ottoman Empire Before World War I,” ench İnvestments in the Ottoman Empire Before World War I,” Enterprise & SocieEnterprise & Societyty, 12, no. 3 (September, 2011), 527. , 12, no. 3 (September, 2011), 527.

719 Murat BirdMurat Birdal al The Political Economy of OttomaThe Political Economy of Ottoman Public Debt. n Public Debt. Insolvency andInsolvency and European European FinancialFinancial Control in theControl in the Late NineteenLate Nineteenthth CenturCenturyy, (Ne, (New York: I.B. Taurus, 2010), 92w York: I.B. Taurus, 2010), 92--6. 6.

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Britain was the first European power to attempt to obtain railway

Britain was the first European power to attempt to obtain railway concessions from the Ottoman Empire. In 1863, first the Smyrnaconcessions from the Ottoman Empire. In 1863, first the Smyrna--Kasaba Railway was established passing through the fertile agricultural Kasaba Railway was established passing through the fertile agricultural areas beareas bettween ween İzmirİzmir and Aydın. The and Aydın. The second group conssecond group consisted of French isted of French companies, which played an important role in the Chemins de fer Orien-companies, which played an important role in the Chemins de fer Orien-taux (railway line in the Balkans). The third group was the Germans, taux (railway line in the Balkans). The third group was the Germans, who entered the market by establishing Anatolian railways who entered the market by establishing Anatolian railways ffrom Hay-rom Hay-darpaşa to Konya widarpaşa to Konya with extensions to Ankara; Bth extensions to Ankara; Bagdadbahn agdadbahn –– the Bagh-the Bagh-dad Railways from Konya to Baghdad with extensions to Mersin, Şam, dad Railways from Konya to Baghdad with extensions to Mersin, Şam, and Iskenderun and investing in the Hicaz railway from Şam to Medina. and Iskenderun and investing in the Hicaz railway from Şam to Medina. The Deutsche Bank was the main financial instiThe Deutsche Bank was the main financial instittution supplied re-ution supplied re-sources fsources for these projects.or these projects.720 In 1903, the Baghdad Railway agreement In 1903, the Baghdad Railway agreement was signed, much to the annoyance of Britain. The route passed through was signed, much to the annoyance of Britain. The route passed through Mesopotamia, reaching the Gulf region. Several French companies also Mesopotamia, reaching the Gulf region. Several French companies also had shares in the Baghdad Railhad shares in the Baghdad Railwway Company; however, it waay Company; however, it was forbidden s forbidden to buy or sell them on the Paris stock exchange. This problem would be to buy or sell them on the Paris stock exchange. This problem would be solved during the agreements of 1913/1914. In 1908, the company had solved during the agreements of 1913/1914. In 1908, the company had obtained the right to extend the Konya railway to Baghdad and the Per-obtained the right to extend the Konya railway to Baghdad and the Per-sian Gulfsian Gulf in return for a certain amin return for a certain amount of guaranteed revenue. ount of guaranteed revenue.

These railway lines had a positive impact on the Empire’s economy.

These railway lines had a positive impact on the Empire’s economy. Between the 1840s and 1914, the foreign trade of the Empire’s core re-Between the 1840s and 1914, the foreign trade of the Empire’s core re-gions had increased tenfold. The agricultural markets of Macedongions had increased tenfold. The agricultural markets of Macedoniia, a, Western Anatolia, and tWestern Anatolia, and the Syrian coasts were opened to the world mar-he Syrian coasts were opened to the world mar-kets for both vendors and consumers.kets for both vendors and consumers.721 According to figures from the According to figures from the Anatolian and Baghdad Railway companies, the amount of the agricul-Anatolian and Baghdad Railway companies, the amount of the agricul-tural products carried by the railway increased ratural products carried by the railway increased rappidly after 1893.idly after 1893.722

Donald Quataert, “Selanikteki İşçiler 1850

Donald Quataert, “Selanikteki İşçiler 1850 –– 1912,” 28. See also, Blaisdell, 1912,” 28. See also, Blaisdell, European European Financial Financial Control in the Ottoman EmpireControl in the Ottoman Empire..

720 LLuxemburg, uxemburg, The AThe Accumulation ofccumulation of CapitalCapital. 439.. 439.

721 ŞŞevket Pamuk, “Oevket Pamuk, “Osmanlı İmparatsmanlı İmparatororlluğu’nduğu’nda Paraa Para 13261326--1914”1914”, , in in Osmanlı İmparator-Osmanlı İmparator-luğu’nun Ekonomik ve Sosyal Tarihiluğu’nun Ekonomik ve Sosyal Tarihi, ed. Halil, ed. Halil İnalcık, Donald Quataert, (Istaİnalcık, Donald Quataert, (Istannbul: Eren bul: Eren YayıncılıYayıncılık, 2004), 1083.k, 2004), 1083.

722 Issawi, Issawi, The EconThe Economic History ofomic History of Turkey 1800Turkey 1800--11991414, 192., 192.

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This dev

This development was enough to pay the bills for the railways, including elopment was enough to pay the bills for the railways, including the kilometer guarantees, which were one of the highest prices in the the kilometer guarantees, which were one of the highest prices in the world. Ottoman governments evaluated these investments as the key world. Ottoman governments evaluated these investments as the key tools to raise income and emtools to raise income and emaanicapate the Empire from tnicapate the Empire from the European he European economic domination.economic domination. 723 Meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire continued to Meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire continued to take out loans to pay its debts and construct the Baghdad Railway. The take out loans to pay its debts and construct the Baghdad Railway. The income of of tithe income of of tithe of theof the provinces of Aydın, Baghdad, Mosul, Diyarbakır, provinces of Aydın, Baghdad, Mosul, Diyarbakır, Urfa,Urfa, and Halep and sheep taxes in the provinces of Konya, Adana, and and Halep and sheep taxes in the provinces of Konya, Adana, and Halep were given as collotaral in return of the debts.Halep were given as collotaral in return of the debts.724

As the Great Powers constructed the railways, they started to estab-

As the Great Powers constructed the railways, they started to estab-lish their relish their resspective spheres of influence on the routes they built.pective spheres of influence on the routes they built. This This situation caused conflict between the Powers as the number of railway situation caused conflict between the Powers as the number of railway lines increased. It was also one of the topics of the negotiations of 1913lines increased. It was also one of the topics of the negotiations of 1913––1914. As Pamuk underlines, the European railway co1914. As Pamuk underlines, the European railway commpanies had initi-panies had initi-ated new investments in their regions ated new investments in their regions and created monopolies in the and created monopolies in the regions in which they were establishing railway lines. As Britain began regions in which they were establishing railway lines. As Britain began to establish the railway lines in the Aegean region in the 1850s, this re-to establish the railway lines in the Aegean region in the 1850s, this re-gion became part of its spgion became part of its sphhere of influence. ere of influence. LaterLater, Germany established , Germany established the lithe lines between İzmitnes between İzmit--Ankara (1892), EskişehirAnkara (1892), Eskişehir--Konya (1896), and Konya (1896), and then in Southeastern Turkey in order to reach Baghdad. Germany had then in Southeastern Turkey in order to reach Baghdad. Germany had envisaged the regions of Ankara, Konya, and Adana as potential sources envisaged the regions of Ankara, Konya, and Adana as potential sources ofof gragrain and cotton to satisfy its needs.in and cotton to satisfy its needs.725As seen in prevAs seen in previous chapters, ious chapters, though Cavid Beythough Cavid Bey had revived Ottoman fiscal policy through modern had revived Ottoman fiscal policy through modern methods after the Second Constitutional Period, the situation of the methods after the Second Constitutional Period, the situation of the budget deficit and the amount of the loans was overbudget deficit and the amount of the loans was overwhelwhelming. However, ming. However, by the beginning of 1910, the Ottomaby the beginning of 1910, the Ottoman ministry of finance was able pay n ministry of finance was able pay its debts its debts —— the principal and the interest the principal and the interest —— only by receiving new only by receiving new loans. The situation resembled the period in the 1870s when the Otto-loans. The situation resembled the period in the 1870s when the Otto-

723 Earle, Earle, Turkey, The GreTurkey, The Great Powers, andat Powers, and TThhe Baghe Baghdad Radad Railway. A Study in ilway. A Study in ImperialismImperialism,, 267.267.

724 Luxemburg, Luxemburg, The Accumulation of CapitalThe Accumulation of Capital. . 441.441.

725 Şevket Pamuk Şevket Pamuk OsmanlıOsmanlı--Türkiye İktisadî TarihiTürkiye İktisadî Tarihi 15001500--19141914, (Istanbul: Iletişim Ya, (Istanbul: Iletişim Yayınları, yınları, 2007), 2007), 236236--237.237.

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man Empire declared bankruptcy.

man Empire declared bankruptcy. PamPamuk suggests that the Ottomans’ uk suggests that the Ottomans’ entrance into the Grentrance into the Great War saved the Empire from bankruptcy.eat War saved the Empire from bankruptcy.726

Finally

Finally, before continuing to concentrate on Cavid Bey, before continuing to concentrate on Cavid Bey’s biography, I ’s biography, I would like to mention the position of the European states viswould like to mention the position of the European states vis--àà--vis the vis the OttomOttoman Empire, becaan Empire, because it is necessary to understand this iuse it is necessary to understand this in order to n order to fully grasp the gravity of the negotiations of 1913fully grasp the gravity of the negotiations of 1913––1914.1914.727 For this rea-For this rea-son, I would like to summarize the political background related to Cavid son, I would like to summarize the political background related to Cavid BeyBey’s story. The grand schemes and battles bet’s story. The grand schemes and battles between the large ween the large European European companies backed by their respecompanies backed by their respective governments in Persia, China, and ctive governments in Persia, China, and the Ottoman Empire were indicative of the deepening political conflicts the Ottoman Empire were indicative of the deepening political conflicts developing through economic rivalries. Cavid Beydeveloping through economic rivalries. Cavid Bey watched these con-watched these con-flicts unfold from the flicts unfold from the center.center.

However

However, France was financially the most powerf, France was financially the most powerful European state ul European state in the Ottoman Empire between 1898 and 1914. In terms of numbers, in the Ottoman Empire between 1898 and 1914. In terms of numbers, the importance of France is apparent. French investments accelerated the importance of France is apparent. French investments accelerated after the 1890s enormously. French investments iafter the 1890s enormously. French investments in Istanbul and n Istanbul and Anato-Anato-lia had increased sixfold between 1lia had increased sixfold between 1881 and 1909. In 1909, 45% of for-881 and 1909. In 1909, 45% of for-eign investments in Istanbul and Anatolia belonged to France. France eign investments in Istanbul and Anatolia belonged to France. France had also established the closest financial relations of any Great Power had also established the closest financial relations of any Great Power with the Middle East. In 19with the Middle East. In 1914, the French 14, the French owned more than half of the owned more than half of the shares in thshares in the docks' renewal throughout the Empire. In the same year, e docks' renewal throughout the Empire. In the same year, France was financing 70% of mining, and especially coal mining with France was financing 70% of mining, and especially coal mining with

726 AsAs Pamuk states, “longPamuk states, “long--term price moterm price movements affectevements affectedd the dethe debt burdbt burden of the Ottoman en of the Ottoman Empire. Between 1896Empire. Between 1896--1913, as an exception, prices for Ottom1913, as an exception, prices for Ottoman exports to Central an exports to Central countries increased by 27%. Tcountries increased by 27%. The global prices of the manufacturhe global prices of the manufactured goods were aled goods were also so increased increased dduring this period. uring this period. ConsequentlyConsequently, , the period 1the period 1887676--1911913 was the o3 was the only subnly sub--period in which the actual value of the Ottoman external debt burden dperiod in which the actual value of the Ottoman external debt burden decreased due to ecreased due to price movements.” Şevket Pamuk price movements.” Şevket Pamuk Osmanlı Ekonomisinde Bağımlılık veOsmanlı Ekonomisinde Bağımlılık ve Büyüme (1829Büyüme (1829--1913)1913),, (Istanbu(Istanbull: Türkiye İş Bankası Ya: Türkiye İş Bankası Yayınları, 2018)yınları, 2018), 63, 63--64.64.

727 SSeee e alsoalso: Mustafa A: Mustafa Aksakal. ksakal. HarbHarb--i Umumi Eşiğinde Osmanlı Devleti Son Savaşına Nasıl i Umumi Eşiğinde Osmanlı Devleti Son Savaşına Nasıl Girdi?Girdi? (Ista(Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 20nbul: Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2010); Reynolds, M. 10); Reynolds, M. Shattering Shattering EmpirEmpires. The Clash and Coes. The Clash and Collapse ofllapse of the Ottoman and Russianthe Ottoman and Russian Empire, 1908Empire, 1908--19181918. (Ca. (Cam-m-brbriidgdge: Ce: Cambridge Uniambridge University Press, 2011); Clark, versity Press, 2011); Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914to War in 1914..

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85%.

85%.728 French businessmen focused on the Black Sea region French businessmen focused on the Black Sea region —— espe-espe-cially Ereğlcially Ereğli, which is a town welli, which is a town well--known for its rich coal resources known for its rich coal resources —— as as well as on various new railway lines that would link Anatolian cities. well as on various new railway lines that would link Anatolian cities. Lighthouses, and gas and water supply of the big cities such as Istanbul Lighthouses, and gas and water supply of the big cities such as Istanbul and Beirut were administered by Frencand Beirut were administered by French companies. Among these in-h companies. Among these in-vestments, Syria had become a special sphere of influence for the vestments, Syria had become a special sphere of influence for the French at the end of the French at the end of the nineteenthnineteenth century in terms of its territory and century in terms of its territory and French naval expeditions French naval expeditions —— although Germany had risen as a direct although Germany had risen as a direct threat to France’s intethreat to France’s interests in the Mediterranean and Near East by the rests in the Mediterranean and Near East by the beginning of the beginning of the twentiethtwentieth century. The territorial integrity of the Otto-century. The territorial integrity of the Otto-man Empire also gained importance due to France’s interests in its Mus-man Empire also gained importance due to France’s interests in its Mus-lim colonies in North Africa. France also noticed that aggressivelim colonies in North Africa. France also noticed that aggressive policies policies towards the Ottoman Empire (as a financial treasury) as they tried to towards the Ottoman Empire (as a financial treasury) as they tried to implement them in 1910 were not beneficial to their interests.implement them in 1910 were not beneficial to their interests.729 In In 1913, France changed its foreign policy priorities under the presidency 1913, France changed its foreign policy priorities under the presidency of Raymond Poincaré (President of Fraof Raymond Poincaré (President of France, 1913nce, 1913––1920) and focused on 1920) and focused on regaining concessions from the railways in Northern Syria. To achieve regaining concessions from the railways in Northern Syria. To achieve this, France was ready to sacrifice the whole or a part of the railways in this, France was ready to sacrifice the whole or a part of the railways in the Black Sea region. In terms of Frenchthe Black Sea region. In terms of French--Ottoman relations, the main Ottoman relations, the main problem wasproblem was due to the loss of the Balkans, as the Empire had lost an due to the loss of the Balkans, as the Empire had lost an important part of its income. This was especially concerning since these important part of its income. This was especially concerning since these funds were needed funds were needed toto subsidize the construction of the Baghdad Rail-subsidize the construction of the Baghdad Rail-way. After the loss of the Balkan territories, Fway. After the loss of the Balkan territories, French starench statesmen briefly tesmen briefly reconsidered pursuing investments in the Ottoman Empire. However, reconsidered pursuing investments in the Ottoman Empire. However, France’s investments in Syria, in addition to its new investment oppor-France’s investments in Syria, in addition to its new investment oppor-tunities in the Black Sea Region due to the area’s rich mining reserves, tunities in the Black Sea Region due to the area’s rich mining reserves, balanced the scale and balanced the scale and kept up Fkept up French investments in the Empire. rench investments in the Empire. French financial support was very critical for the Ottoman government.French financial support was very critical for the Ottoman government.

On the eve of the Great War, Britain prioritized two objectives: first,

On the eve of the Great War, Britain prioritized two objectives: first, its interests in Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf, which were threat-its interests in Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf, which were threat-

728 Quataert, “Quataert, “Selanikteki İşçiler 1850 Selanikteki İşçiler 1850 –– 19121912,” 28,” 28--29.29.

729 Earle, Turkey, Earle, Turkey, The GreThe Great Powers, and The Baat Powers, and The Baghdad Raghdad Raiilway. A Study in Imperilway. A Study in Imperialismalism 244, 244, ÖzyÖzyüksel, üksel, The BThe Beerlirlinn--BBaghdad Railwaaghdad Railway and the Ottoman Empirey and the Ottoman Empire 148148--153.153.

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ene

ened by the d by the construction of the Baghdad Railway; second, its adherence construction of the Baghdad Railway; second, its adherence to the Entente Cordiale with France and Russia. In 1913 and 1914, the to the Entente Cordiale with France and Russia. In 1913 and 1914, the greatest concerns of British statesmen were the German threat against greatest concerns of British statesmen were the German threat against European peace and the status quo and Britain’s European peace and the status quo and Britain’s strength strength in Mesopota-in Mesopota-mia, it being close to India. Such concerns directly affected the Ottoman mia, it being close to India. Such concerns directly affected the Ottoman Empire, aiming to prevent any further disintegration that would result Empire, aiming to prevent any further disintegration that would result in war, such as in the Balkan Wars. Britain’s share in the Ottoman public in war, such as in the Balkan Wars. Britain’s share in the Ottoman public debt was only 15%debt was only 15%, and its, and its share of investment in private enterprise share of investment in private enterprise was 14%, behind both Germany and France. Of all the Empire’s loans, was 14%, behind both Germany and France. Of all the Empire’s loans, British financial institutions had facilitated only the Istanbul municipali-British financial institutions had facilitated only the Istanbul municipali-ty loan of 1909 with the National Bank of Turkey, and the loaty loan of 1909 with the National Bank of Turkey, and the loan of 1913n of 1913 with the National Bank and Armstrong Vickers for the construction of a with the National Bank and Armstrong Vickers for the construction of a naval base. British financiers were not eager to invest in or give loans to naval base. British financiers were not eager to invest in or give loans to the Ottoman Empire, whose finances, they thought, were unstable. De-the Ottoman Empire, whose finances, they thought, were unstable. De-spite its heavy interest in the spite its heavy interest in the region, Bregion, British trade in the Persian Gulf ritish trade in the Persian Gulf region was low compared with other countries. British trade in the Gulf region was low compared with other countries. British trade in the Gulf was 2.250 million pounds annually in 1906, which was not a significant was 2.250 million pounds annually in 1906, which was not a significant proportion of British trade. However, the German threat was rising at proportion of British trade. However, the German threat was rising at tthe beginnhe beginning of the new century. While German importing of the new century. While German import--export trade export trade was increasing, Britain’s share was steadily declining until 1914. Eco-was increasing, Britain’s share was steadily declining until 1914. Eco-nomic life in Mesopotamia and the Gulf were crucial, especially the nomic life in Mesopotamia and the Gulf were crucial, especially the shipping lanes for the Manchester trading companies.shipping lanes for the Manchester trading companies. The mainThe mainland land communications route from Basra to Baghdad and navigation rights on communications route from Basra to Baghdad and navigation rights on the Euphrates and Tigris rivers were also very important, alongside the Euphrates and Tigris rivers were also very important, alongside concessions on postal services in the region. The only shortcoming was concessions on postal services in the region. The only shortcoming was the lack of a British bank in the Othe lack of a British bank in the Ottoman Emttoman Empirepire. To remedy this, Britain . To remedy this, Britain had been at the forefront in the establishment of the National Bank of had been at the forefront in the establishment of the National Bank of Turkey in 1909. However, this bank would never become as important Turkey in 1909. However, this bank would never become as important as the Ottoman Bank. In sum, the key points for the British were the as the Ottoman Bank. In sum, the key points for the British were the BaghdadBaghdad--BBaasra tradesra trade route, shipping entering Basra, mail trade from route, shipping entering Basra, mail trade from India, carrying trade on the Mesopotamian rivers, and Indian pilgrim India, carrying trade on the Mesopotamian rivers, and Indian pilgrim traffic to religious shrines. In terms of the alliance between the Sublime traffic to religious shrines. In terms of the alliance between the Sublime Porte and London, though Britain had been sympatheticPorte and London, though Britain had been sympathetic and encouand encourag-rag-ing in the eyes of the Young Turks in 1908, it lost its esteem soon af-ing in the eyes of the Young Turks in 1908, it lost its esteem soon af-

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ter

ter730 and had been replaced by Germany in 1914. In Mesopotamia in and had been replaced by Germany in 1914. In Mesopotamia in particular, the British were forced out by German businessman, who, particular, the British were forced out by German businessman, who, contrary to the British, were supported contrary to the British, were supported bby the Gery the German government. man government.

In 1909 and 1910, Britain refused to agree to the Ottoman govern-

In 1909 and 1910, Britain refused to agree to the Ottoman govern-ment’s request to raise customs duties by 4%. Britain’s main argument ment’s request to raise customs duties by 4%. Britain’s main argument was that the income obtained from this increase would be ‘used,’ was that the income obtained from this increase would be ‘used,’ whether directly or by liberatwhether directly or by liberatiing other ng other revenues, to facilitate the pro-revenues, to facilitate the pro-longation of a railway which must, under present control, have a preju-longation of a railway which must, under present control, have a preju-dicial effect on established trade interests in Mesopotamia. The key dicial effect on established trade interests in Mesopotamia. The key point was that 65% of this trade belonged to the British. Britain de-point was that 65% of this trade belonged to the British. Britain de-manded amanded ann alternatalternative railway line through the Tigris valley. Britain of-ive railway line through the Tigris valley. Britain of-ficially asked for the modification of the Baghdad Railway agreement ficially asked for the modification of the Baghdad Railway agreement concerning trade in Mesopotamia and the political situation in the Per-concerning trade in Mesopotamia and the political situation in the Per-sian Gulf. After long negotiations, an agreement betwsian Gulf. After long negotiations, an agreement betweeen Britaien Britain and the n and the

730 After the Revolution of 1908, the UnionisAfter the Revolution of 1908, the Unionists looked to Britain as the new anchor of the ts looked to Britain as the new anchor of the international system rather than Ginternational system rather than Germany. Even prominenermany. Even prominent figuret figuress like Ahmet Rıza like Ahmet Rıza and Drand Dr. Nazım had vi. Nazım had visited Londonsited London to to buibuild up good reld up good relations with British goverlations with British governnments. ments. But things had not progressed as anticipateBut things had not progressed as anticipated. Though the Foreign Office was much d. Though the Foreign Office was much more posmore positive, the British Embassy in Istaitive, the British Embassy in Istanbul was much more skeptical nbul was much more skeptical aabout the new bout the new actors in actors in Ottoman politiOttoman politics. Particulcs. Particulaarlyrly, t, the suspicion he suspicion over the British eover the British emmbassy’s role in bassy’s role in the 31 March Incident had strained the relthe 31 March Incident had strained the relations between the CUP and Britain. The ations between the CUP and Britain. The new amnew ambassador, Sir Gerard Lowther, who bassador, Sir Gerard Lowther, who was assigned the role during was assigned the role during tthe days of the he days of the revolutirevolution, had promoton, had promoted “antied “anti--TurTurkkishish” p” policies in tholicies in the embassy, which was a great e embassy, which was a great disappointment for the Young Turks who were eagedisappointment for the Young Turks who were eager to get close to Brir to get close to Brittain. The Chief ain. The Chief Dragoman Dragoman at the embassy, Gerald Fitzmauriceat the embassy, Gerald Fitzmaurice, was well known for his prej, was well known for his prejuudice dice against the Unioniagainst the Unionists and particsts and particularly Cavidularly Cavid BeyBey dudue to two rease to two reasons: he was ons: he was DönmeDönme and a freemason. Furthermore, the Unionists failed to work and a freemason. Furthermore, the Unionists failed to work as eas exxpected with British pected with British supporter Grand Viziesupporter Grand Vizier Kamil Pasha. There was duality ir Kamil Pasha. There was duality in the British policy toward tn the British policy toward thhe e CUP: the Foreign OffiCUP: the Foreign Office and Sublimece and Sublime Porte had dPorte had diiffefferenrent views. Dut views. Durriing the 1910 loan ng the 1910 loan operation, Britain had supported its ally France and its poloperation, Britain had supported its ally France and its policy of financial control over icy of financial control over the return on ththe return on the loan requested by the Sue loan requested by the Subblime Polime Porte. Britain had closed its drte. Britain had closed its dooors on ors on Cavid Bey while Cavid Bey while he sought an ahe sought an alternative dlternative duurinring ng negotiations iegotiations in London. At a very des-n London. At a very des-perate moment, while the government risked falling if perate moment, while the government risked falling if Cavid Bey lost his ministerial Cavid Bey lost his ministerial seat, a consortseat, a consortium emerged of German and Austrianium emerged of German and Austrian bankers who prbankers who proovided their avided their aiid d without asking anythiwithout asking anything that was cong that was contrary to thntrary to thee hohonornor of the goverof the governnment.ment.

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Ottoman Empire was initialled on August 12, 1913.

Ottoman Empire was initialled on August 12, 1913.731 Last but not least, Last but not least, Britain had control of only one short railway line compared to the many Britain had control of only one short railway line compared to the many owned by rival powers in the Ottoman Empire. The only British compa-owned by rival powers in the Ottoman Empire. The only British compa-ny was the Ottomanny was the Ottoman--SmyrnaSmyrna--AAydydıın railn railway company located in the Ae-way company located in the Ae-gean region between gean region between İzmirİzmir and Aydın. This came under threat in Sep-and Aydın. This came under threat in Sep-tember 1913, when the Ottoman government granted an Italian tember 1913, when the Ottoman government granted an Italian syndicate the right to survey possible concessions for a line from Bur-syndicate the right to survey possible concessions for a line from Bur-dur to Adana, which is sdur to Adana, which is south ofouth of the the İzmirİzmir--Aydın railway. Italy, which had Aydın railway. Italy, which had leveraged its control of the Dodacenese that it had invaded during the leveraged its control of the Dodacenese that it had invaded during the Tripolitanian War, was also eager to obtain concessions to establish an Tripolitanian War, was also eager to obtain concessions to establish an economic sphere in Anatolia, as the other European powers had. economic sphere in Anatolia, as the other European powers had. This This puput Italy in conflict with the British, who had also asked to extend the t Italy in conflict with the British, who had also asked to extend the SmyrnaSmyrna--Aydın railway toward the east and obtain navigation rights on Aydın railway toward the east and obtain navigation rights on the Lakes Eğirdir and Beyşehir. With the British government’s interven-the Lakes Eğirdir and Beyşehir. With the British government’s interven-tion and help in the long negotiation ption and help in the long negotiation process,rocess, the problem was solved the problem was solved according to Britain’s demands, and two agreements were signed be-according to Britain’s demands, and two agreements were signed be-tween the Turkish delegation, Britain, the Italian syndicate, and the tween the Turkish delegation, Britain, the Italian syndicate, and the SmyrnaSmyrna--AydAydıın railway company on May 7 and May 19, 1913. Following n railway company on May 7 and May 19, 1913. Following this, the conflict betwethis, the conflict between Briten Britain and Italy also became a new subject in ain and Italy also became a new subject in Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s negotiations.’s negotiations.732

Germany, despite being one of the youngest European states, was in-

Germany, despite being one of the youngest European states, was in-credibly eager to catch up with its older European siblings. The German credibly eager to catch up with its older European siblings. The German Reich had become one of the most powerfulReich had become one of the most powerful statesstates in the world militari-in the world militari-ly, economically, and technologically in a very short period of time. ly, economically, and technologically in a very short period of time. When Kaiser Wilhelm II took the throne in 1888, he adopted a new for-When Kaiser Wilhelm II took the throne in 1888, he adopted a new for-eign policy focusing on global expansion. This development overlapped eign policy focusing on global expansion. This development overlapped with the period of with the period of dissocidissociation of powers in Europe: an alliance be-ation of powers in Europe: an alliance be-tween France and Russia and the alienation of Germany from Britain. tween France and Russia and the alienation of Germany from Britain.

731 Marian Marian Kent, “Kent, “Great Britain and the End of the Ottoman Empire 1900Great Britain and the End of the Ottoman Empire 1900--223,” in 3,” in the Great the Great Powers and the End of the OtPowers and the End of the Ottoman Empiretoman Empire, ed. Marian Kent, (, ed. Marian Kent, (LLondon: Frank ondon: Frank Cass,2005Cass,2005), 165), 165--17176.6.

732 D. McLean. “BritiD. McLean. “British Finance andsh Finance and Foreign PoForeign Pollicy iicy inn Turkey: The SmyTurkey: The Smyrnarna--Aidin Railway Aidin Railway Settlement 1913Settlement 1913--1914,” 1914,” The Historical JournalThe Historical Journal, 19, no. 2 (, 19, no. 2 (Jun.Jun. 1976): 5211976): 521--530.530.

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Relations between Germany and the Ottoman Empire began to deepen

Relations between Germany and the Ottoman Empire began to deepen with the first visit of the Kaiser to Istanbul in 1898. As mentioned earli-with the first visit of the Kaiser to Istanbul in 1898. As mentioned earli-eer, the r, the Baghdad Railway project came soon after this meeting, and Ger-Baghdad Railway project came soon after this meeting, and Ger-man influence became a strong point of leverage for Sultan Abdülhamid man influence became a strong point of leverage for Sultan Abdülhamid II in applying his own foreign policy. II in applying his own foreign policy.

Germany’s economic expansion into the Ottoman Empire was

Germany’s economic expansion into the Ottoman Empire was spearheaded by Deutscspearheaded by Deutsche Bankhe Bank at the turn of the century. The Istanbulat the turn of the century. The Istanbul--Ankara and AnkaraAnkara and Ankara--Konya railway lines built in 1892 and 1896, respec-Konya railway lines built in 1892 and 1896, respec-tively, were led by M. Huguenin from the Anatolian Railway Company. tively, were led by M. Huguenin from the Anatolian Railway Company. Germany had obtained new concessions between 1899 and 1903 and Germany had obtained new concessions between 1899 and 1903 and secured secured the rigthe right to build and operate an extension line running south-ht to build and operate an extension line running south-east from Konya through Adana, Mosul, Baghdad, and Basra. However, east from Konya through Adana, Mosul, Baghdad, and Basra. However, the construction of the new line was delayed due to economic downturn the construction of the new line was delayed due to economic downturn and the Great Powers’ political objections. In 1911, as dand the Great Powers’ political objections. In 1911, as discusseiscussed in the d in the previous chapter, the concession agreement was modified, and Basra previous chapter, the concession agreement was modified, and Basra became, at least temporarily, the terminus of the line. Through this became, at least temporarily, the terminus of the line. Through this agreement, Germany had extended an olive branch to Britain. It also had agreement, Germany had extended an olive branch to Britain. It also had no other choice due to the econono other choice due to the economic difmic difficulties in building the Baghdad ficulties in building the Baghdad Railway, and the fact that the Ottoman Empire needed to raise customs Railway, and the fact that the Ottoman Empire needed to raise customs duties in order to take in more revenue. However, due to the difficult duties in order to take in more revenue. However, due to the difficult topography of the land, the construction was stuck in the Taurus and topography of the land, the construction was stuck in the Taurus and AmanuAmanus mounts mountains. But, beyond these mountains, the railway contin-ains. But, beyond these mountains, the railway contin-ued. In 1914, trains ran to Halep and on to the almost finished Euphra-ued. In 1914, trains ran to Halep and on to the almost finished Euphra-tes bridges at Jarablus and Tall Abyad. The Baghdad Railway carried ap-tes bridges at Jarablus and Tall Abyad. The Baghdad Railway carried ap-proximately 600,000 passengers and 116,000 tons of freigproximately 600,000 passengers and 116,000 tons of freight annuht annually. ally. In addition to the railway and banking businesses, some other German In addition to the railway and banking businesses, some other German companies such as Krupp were trying to enter the Ottoman market. companies such as Krupp were trying to enter the Ottoman market. However, German shares in Ottoman defense spending, as well as the oil However, German shares in Ottoman defense spending, as well as the oil business, remained much lower than Bribusiness, remained much lower than British antish and French shares. Yet, d French shares. Yet, against all odds, Germany had concluded against all odds, Germany had concluded severalseveral agreements with agreements with France and Germany on the Baghdad Railways, increases in customs du-France and Germany on the Baghdad Railways, increases in customs du-

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ties, et cetera, while solving other issues such as the role of the German

ties, et cetera, while solving other issues such as the role of the German military mission.military mission.733

In additi

In addition to the Baghdad Railway issue, the arrival of the German on to the Baghdad Railway issue, the arrival of the German military mission commanded by General Otto Liman von Sanders military mission commanded by General Otto Liman von Sanders caused a huge crisis between Germany, the Ottoman Empire, and Russia. caused a huge crisis between Germany, the Ottoman Empire, and Russia. Military cooperation between Germany and the Ottoman EmMilitary cooperation between Germany and the Ottoman Empire dated pire dated back to the 1890s, and back to the 1890s, and soliderssoliders from the highest ranks such as Ahmet from the highest ranks such as Ahmet İzzet Pasha and Mahmud Şevket Pasha had spent many years training in İzzet Pasha and Mahmud Şevket Pasha had spent many years training in Germany. It had been Mahmud Şevket Pasha’s idea to invite the German Germany. It had been Mahmud Şevket Pasha’s idea to invite the German military staff to Istanbul to developmilitary staff to Istanbul to develop and profesand professionalize the army, in or-sionalize the army, in or-der to distance it from politics. However, this project was not realized der to distance it from politics. However, this project was not realized until after the assassination of Mahmud Şevket Pasha and was thus car-until after the assassination of Mahmud Şevket Pasha and was thus car-ried forward by Ahmet Izzet Pasha, the new minister of war. The ap-ried forward by Ahmet Izzet Pasha, the new minister of war. The ap-pearance of pearance of dozens of Gdozens of German military officers in Istanbul and in the erman military officers in Istanbul and in the Straits had led to heightened Russian anxiety. However, to some extent, Straits had led to heightened Russian anxiety. However, to some extent, Russia’s fears were unfounded as a British admiral had been leading the Russia’s fears were unfounded as a British admiral had been leading the Ottoman army, while French and Italian commanders wereOttoman army, while French and Italian commanders were administer-administer-ing the Ottoman gendarmarie. Nevertheless, the position of the German ing the Ottoman gendarmarie. Nevertheless, the position of the German military team was criticial for Russia, which would later become a criti-military team was criticial for Russia, which would later become a criti-cal issue in Cavid Beycal issue in Cavid Bey’s negotiations. ’s negotiations.

Last but not least, it is important to discuss the Empire’s rel

Last but not least, it is important to discuss the Empire’s relations ations withwith Russia due to its capacity to block negotiations on railways or cus-Russia due to its capacity to block negotiations on railways or cus-toms duties, as well as its control of the response to the Eastern Ques-toms duties, as well as its control of the response to the Eastern Ques-tion. Russia was a part of the Triple Entente following an alliance with tion. Russia was a part of the Triple Entente following an alliance with France in the 1890s and the AngloFrance in the 1890s and the Anglo--Russian raRussian rapprochement of 1907. pprochement of 1907. Russia’s main policies focused on control of the Straits and domination Russia’s main policies focused on control of the Straits and domination over the Balkan region. The Frenchover the Balkan region. The French--Russian alliance was strengthened Russian alliance was strengthened in 1913 and 1914 due to French foreign policy’s reliance on a strong ally in 1913 and 1914 due to French foreign policy’s reliance on a strong ally to the eato the east of Germast of Germany. This new paradigm also affected the negotia-ny. This new paradigm also affected the negotia-tions brokered by Cavid Beytions brokered by Cavid Bey. During the negotiations in 1913 and 1914, . During the negotiations in 1913 and 1914,

733 Ulrich Trumpener, “GUlrich Trumpener, “Germany and the End of the Ottoman ermany and the End of the Ottoman Empire,” inEmpire,” in The Great PowThe Great Poweers rs and the End of the Ottand the End of the Ottoman Empireoman Empire, e, ed. Marian d. Marian KKent, (ent, (London: Frank Cass, 2London: Frank Cass, 2005), 107005), 107--136136

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France gave priority to the interests of its ally Russia, which squeezed

France gave priority to the interests of its ally Russia, which squeezed the Ottoman Empire and Cavid Beythe Ottoman Empire and Cavid Bey from time to time. Brfrom time to time. Britain’s allitain’s alliance iance with Russia made things even more difficult for the Sublime Porte. with Russia made things even more difficult for the Sublime Porte.

Following the Young Turk Revolution, Turco

Following the Young Turk Revolution, Turco--Persian border clashes, Persian border clashes, the Austrian annexation of Bosnia, and then the closure of the Straits the Austrian annexation of Bosnia, and then the closure of the Straits due to the wars of 1911 and 1912,due to the wars of 1911 and 1912, Russia wasRussia was increasingly vulnerable increasingly vulnerable both economically and militarily. Of these, Russia’s most serious prob-both economically and militarily. Of these, Russia’s most serious prob-lem was the closure of the Straits, which the Sublime Porte had closed lem was the closure of the Straits, which the Sublime Porte had closed during the Tripolitanian War due to the Italian bombardment of the Ae-during the Tripolitanian War due to the Italian bombardment of the Ae-gean coastgean coast. In 1911, . In 1911, the Russian ambassador to Istanbul tried to imple-the Russian ambassador to Istanbul tried to imple-ment a rapprochement plan with the Sublime Porte on the Straits, but ment a rapprochement plan with the Sublime Porte on the Straits, but this effort did not work. As a consequence, the ambassador lost his posi-this effort did not work. As a consequence, the ambassador lost his posi-tion and was replaced by Mr. M. N. de Giers. In terms otion and was replaced by Mr. M. N. de Giers. In terms of commerce,f commerce, more more than half of all Russian grains went through the Straits. Extractive and than half of all Russian grains went through the Straits. Extractive and metallurgical (coal, manganese, oil) exports also travelled through metallurgical (coal, manganese, oil) exports also travelled through them. The Black Sea area was vital for the Russian population, and for them. The Black Sea area was vital for the Russian population, and for this reason, the closure ofthis reason, the closure of the Straitthe Straits had a very negative impact on the s had a very negative impact on the Russian economy.Russian economy.734 Additionally, Russia’s interests in the Caucasus Additionally, Russia’s interests in the Caucasus —— an ethnically and religiously mixed region including Abkhazians, Arme-an ethnically and religiously mixed region including Abkhazians, Arme-nians, Azeris, Circassians, Georgians, Russians, and others nians, Azeris, Circassians, Georgians, Russians, and others —— and in and in Persia on thePersia on the Empire’Empire’ss borders were essential for its foreign policy borders were essential for its foreign policy strategy. The Russianstrategy. The Russian--Persian border was on top of Russia’s economic Persian border was on top of Russia’s economic and security list. and security list.

Though Russia did not support the construction of the Baghdad

Though Russia did not support the construction of the Baghdad Railway, the only tool it had against the railwayRailway, the only tool it had against the railway was thewas the 1900 railway 1900 railway agreement made during the Hamidian Era. This agreement prevented agreement made during the Hamidian Era. This agreement prevented the construction of railways close to Russia’s sphere of influence, par-the construction of railways close to Russia’s sphere of influence, par-

734 In 1911, prices fell by 15In 1911, prices fell by 15––20% in Russia’s ports; in 1920% in Russia’s ports; in 1912, the situation became much 12, the situation became much more serious and led to a 1more serious and led to a 1––1.5% increase in interest rates. Furthermore, it was1.5% increase in interest rates. Furthermore, it was not not until 1913 that Runtil 1913 that Russiaussia launchedlaunched its navy programits navy program. Thus, throughout th. Thus, throughout the crisis, the e crisis, the Russian navy was still too weak to intervene in Istanbul dRussian navy was still too weak to intervene in Istanbul directlyirectly. Russia’s dread-. Russia’s dread-noughts would not be delivered until after the delivery of the Empire’s (1913noughts would not be delivered until after the delivery of the Empire’s (1913––1915). 1915). InIn 1913, the armaments r1913, the armaments race,ace, especiallespecially within the navyy within the navy, had accelerated., had accelerated.

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ticularly east of Van Province, without Russian approval and capital. The

ticularly east of Van Province, without Russian approval and capital. The Potsdam Agreement had brPotsdam Agreement had brought neought neww life into relations between Ger-life into relations between Ger-many and Russia, which gave Russia confidence in the safety of its trade many and Russia, which gave Russia confidence in the safety of its trade with Persia. Meanwhile, the American Chester Company appeared on with Persia. Meanwhile, the American Chester Company appeared on the stage, eager to build railways in Anatolia in the “forbidden zone” of the stage, eager to build railways in Anatolia in the “forbidden zone” of SivSivas, Trabas, Trabzzon, and Erzurum Provinces. Russia was determined not to on, and Erzurum Provinces. Russia was determined not to let any foreign power build a railway reaching Erzurum. Russia thus let any foreign power build a railway reaching Erzurum. Russia thus forced the French to get involved in the construction of this railway in forced the French to get involved in the construction of this railway in return for removing Russian forces from the Westerreturn for removing Russian forces from the Western n —— i.e.i.e.,, German German —— front. As a result, in June 1911, the Chester Company was disqualified, front. As a result, in June 1911, the Chester Company was disqualified, and the concession was obtained by the French Régie Générale de and the concession was obtained by the French Régie Générale de Chemins de Fer, which would cover the railway lines in Eastern Anatolia. Chemins de Fer, which would cover the railway lines in Eastern Anatolia. In September 1913, Russia siIn September 1913, Russia signed an gned an aagreement greement to construct more rail-to construct more rail-way lines in Anatolia. Accordingly, the French syndicate obtained con-way lines in Anatolia. Accordingly, the French syndicate obtained con-cessions for the Samsuncessions for the Samsun--BafraBafra--SivasSivas--HarputHarput--Diyarbakır line, including a Diyarbakır line, including a branch line to Pekeriç in the direction of Erzurum. However, the agree-branch line to Pekeriç in the direction of Erzurum. However, the agree-ment ment stipulatstipulateed that ond that only a Russian company could build the lines to ly a Russian company could build the lines to Erzurum, Trabzon, and the frontier. In October 1913, a general Otto-Erzurum, Trabzon, and the frontier. In October 1913, a general Otto-manman--Russian agreement was signed on economic issues.Russian agreement was signed on economic issues.

As aforementioned, Russia was chiefly concerned with the arrival of

As aforementioned, Russia was chiefly concerned with the arrival of the German military mithe German military mission to Istanbul. The assignment of General Ot-ssion to Istanbul. The assignment of General Ot-to Liman von Sanders as commander of the Turkish First Army Corps at to Liman von Sanders as commander of the Turkish First Army Corps at the end of 1913, was perceived as a direct threat to Russia that endan-the end of 1913, was perceived as a direct threat to Russia that endan-gered the Straits and Istanbul. After weathering the near conquest of gered the Straits and Istanbul. After weathering the near conquest of Istanbul by the Bulgarians, Russia was once again on the alert. Russia Istanbul by the Bulgarians, Russia was once again on the alert. Russia preferred the Ottoman Empire not to be too strong but not to be too preferred the Ottoman Empire not to be too strong but not to be too weak so that it would keep both Istanbul and the Straits under control. weak so that it would keep both Istanbul and the Straits under control. However, the issue of the German military misHowever, the issue of the German military mission’s position was solved sion’s position was solved under high pressure from Russia, which was supported by its ally under high pressure from Russia, which was supported by its ally France, in a special conference on December 31, 1913. Kaiser Wilhelm II France, in a special conference on December 31, 1913. Kaiser Wilhelm II had modified General von Sanders’s appointment, and he was assigned had modified General von Sanders’s appointment, and he was assigned as the inspectoras the inspector--generalgeneral of the Turkish army. of the Turkish army.

The final issue concerning Russia

The final issue concerning Russia--Ottoman relations was the Arme-Ottoman relations was the Arme-nian Question. Russia’s intervention in this issue heralded the incidents nian Question. Russia’s intervention in this issue heralded the incidents

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in 1915 that began the deportation of Armenians from the Empire. In

in 1915 that began the deportation of Armenians from the Empire. In addition to the Russian raiaddition to the Russian railway agreement, the convention between the lway agreement, the convention between the Ottoman Empire and Russia on February 8, 1914 covered reforms in the Ottoman Empire and Russia on February 8, 1914 covered reforms in the six provinces in the Eastern region in which the Armenian population six provinces in the Eastern region in which the Armenian population was a significant minority. The first draft agreement was drawn up by A. was a significant minority. The first draft agreement was drawn up by A. MaMannddelstam, the dragoman of the Russian Embassy in Istanbul. The elstam, the dragoman of the Russian Embassy in Istanbul. The Germans had intervened in the negotiations and after these talks the Germans had intervened in the negotiations and after these talks the Russian plan was changed in favor of the Ottoman Empire. In the final Russian plan was changed in favor of the Ottoman Empire. In the final agreement, it was decided that two inspectoragreement, it was decided that two inspector--generals generals ffrom neutral rom neutral countries such as the Netherlands and Norway would be assigned to the countries such as the Netherlands and Norway would be assigned to the region.region.735

In addition to the aforementioned issues that most affected the

In addition to the aforementioned issues that most affected the Great Powers, there were other major issues affecting the Ottoman Em-Great Powers, there were other major issues affecting the Ottoman Em-pire and its international relatpire and its international relatiions that were discussed under Cavid ons that were discussed under Cavid BeyBey’s negotiations. First, the invasion of the Docadanese by Italy in 1911 ’s negotiations. First, the invasion of the Docadanese by Italy in 1911 had become a much greater issue after the invasion of the Aegean is-had become a much greater issue after the invasion of the Aegean is-lands by the Greeks in the First Balkan War. According to the Ouchy lands by the Greeks in the First Balkan War. According to the Ouchy Treaty, tTreaty, thhe islands would be given back to the Ottoman Empire after its e islands would be given back to the Ottoman Empire after its troops had evacuated Trablusgarp. However, although Italy did not give troops had evacuated Trablusgarp. However, although Italy did not give back the Dodecanese, the Ottomans prefered that the Italians keep them back the Dodecanese, the Ottomans prefered that the Italians keep them rather than the Greeks, at least in the short term.rather than the Greeks, at least in the short term. The Unionists thought The Unionists thought that they might one day have the chance to take back the islands from that they might one day have the chance to take back the islands from Italy but not from Greece. Meanwhile, the Unionist government was has-Italy but not from Greece. Meanwhile, the Unionist government was has-tening the purchase of dreadnoughts to help take back the islands. The tening the purchase of dreadnoughts to help take back the islands. The northern islands in parnorthern islands in partticular, such as Chios or Lesbos, were geograph-icular, such as Chios or Lesbos, were geograph-ically part of the Anatolian land and close to the Çanakkale. However, ically part of the Anatolian land and close to the Çanakkale. However, the ethnic and religious population of the islands was Greek. As the Ot-the ethnic and religious population of the islands was Greek. As the Ot-tomans waited for the Great Powers to give their final decision on tomans waited for the Great Powers to give their final decision on tthe he

735 Alan Bodger, “Russia and the End of the Ottoman Empire.”, The Great PoweAlan Bodger, “Russia and the End of the Ottoman Empire.”, The Great Powers and the rs and the End of the OttomEnd of the Ottoman Empire, ed. Marian Kent (Londonan Empire, ed. Marian Kent (London: Frank Cass, 2005), 73: Frank Cass, 2005), 73--90. S90. Seee e also: Bayur, Türkalso: Bayur, Türk İnkılâbı Tarihi, II/Iİnkılâbı Tarihi, II/II, II/III, II/IIII. Bay. Bayuur’s huge volume r’s huge volume of Türk Inkılâbı Tari-of Türk Inkılâbı Tari-hi gives detailed information about financial relations and foreign relahi gives detailed information about financial relations and foreign relations. It should tions. It should be read cabe read carefully through a critical and anarefully through a critical and analytical lens. lytical lens.

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issue, meanwhile, the Unionists had carried out a large wave of purges

issue, meanwhile, the Unionists had carried out a large wave of purges and boycotts against the Anatolian Greeks in Thrace and the Aegean re-and boycotts against the Anatolian Greeks in Thrace and the Aegean re-gion. These developments forced hundreds of thousands of Anatolian gion. These developments forced hundreds of thousands of Anatolian Greeks to leave Anatolia.Greeks to leave Anatolia.736 The dreadnoughts iThe dreadnoughts isssue also had a financial sue also had a financial aspect. aspect. In the international arena, the Aegean Islands' legal situation In the international arena, the Aegean Islands' legal situation remained ambiguous for a long time and was used as a weapon against remained ambiguous for a long time and was used as a weapon against the Ottoman Empire in the loan negotiations, as will be seen below. The the Ottoman Empire in the loan negotiations, as will be seen below. The Ottoman governmentOttoman government''s attitude and especially that of Talat Bey, to reoc-s attitude and especially that of Talat Bey, to reoc-cupy the islands sooner or later, led them to purchase new battleships. cupy the islands sooner or later, led them to purchase new battleships. This issue was one of Cavid BeyThis issue was one of Cavid Bey and Talat Bey's main disaccords reflect-and Talat Bey's main disaccords reflect-ed in Cavid Beyed in Cavid Bey's diaries. 's diaries. Cavid BeyCavid Bey was against the operatiwas against the operatioon of buying n of buying the dreadnoughts. According to him, purchasing every battleship on sale the dreadnoughts. According to him, purchasing every battleship on sale was accepting the defeat against Greece. was accepting the defeat against Greece. Just Just aas he used tos he used to do,do, he facili-he facili-tated Talat Bey's work and helped him when it came to questions of du-tated Talat Bey's work and helped him when it came to questions of du-ty and the CUP. For Talat Beyty and the CUP. For Talat Bey,, the only way to reoccupy the islands was the only way to reoccupy the islands was to modernize the Ottoman army, which was a timeto modernize the Ottoman army, which was a time--consuming and vast-consuming and vast-ly expensive operation. Nonethelessly expensive operation. Nonetheless,, the Unionists, mainly Talat Bey, did the Unionists, mainly Talat Bey, did not give up and ordered two new battleships from Britain. Talat Bey had not give up and ordered two new battleships from Britain. Talat Bey had ttoo convince Rconvince Rııfat Bey to purchase the ships because the government did fat Bey to purchase the ships because the government did not have enough money in the treasury. In the end, the Society of the not have enough money in the treasury. In the end, the Society of the Navy bought the ships with money allocated from Ottoman citizens. The Navy bought the ships with money allocated from Ottoman citizens. The government ordered what would be called the government ordered what would be called the Sultan V. ReşaSultan V. Reşadd at a cost at a cost of 2,304,712 Liras from the British Vickers Company. Then, the Otto-of 2,304,712 Liras from the British Vickers Company. Then, the Otto-mans gave a second order, for what would be known as the mans gave a second order, for what would be known as the Sultan Os-Sultan Os-manman--ı Evvelı Evvel, from Britain. At the beginning of 1914, the Ottoman gov-, from Britain. At the beginning of 1914, the Ottoman gov-ernment ordered the third battleship from Vernment ordered the third battleship from Vickers. Britain would ickers. Britain would deliver these battleships at the beginning of July 1914deliver these battleships at the beginning of July 1914737 —— at the same at the same

736 R.J. B. BoswR.J. B. Boswoorth, “Italy and therth, “Italy and the End of the Ottoman EmEnd of the Ottoman Empire,” ipire,” inn The The GGreat Powers and reat Powers and the End of the Ottomathe End of the Ottoman Empire, ed. Marian Kent (London: Frank Cass, 2005), 61. See n Empire, ed. Marian Kent (London: Frank Cass, 2005), 61. See also: Doğaalso: Doğan Y. Çetinkaya n Y. Çetinkaya Osmanlı’yı MOsmanlı’yı Müslümanlaştıüslümanlaştırmak. Kitle Siyaseti, rmak. Kitle Siyaseti, Toplumsal Toplumsal Sınıflar Boykotlar Sınıflar Boykotlar vve Milli İktisat (19e Milli İktisat (190909--1914), (1914), (Istanbul: İIstanbul: İletişim letişim YYayınlayınlaarı, 2003).rı, 2003).

737 Şükrü M. HanioŞükrü M. Hanioğlu ğlu A Brief History oA Brief History of the late Ottoman Empire,f the late Ottoman Empire, (Princeton, N.J.: (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,Princeton University Press, 2008)2008),170, Toprak, ,170, Toprak, Milli Milli İktisat (1908İktisat (1908--1918),1918),160160--172, Zafer172, Zafer

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time as the secret agreement of the Ottoman government with Germany.

time as the secret agreement of the Ottoman government with Germany. Cavid BeyCavid Bey was shocked by this secret agreement, but he was not sur-was shocked by this secret agreement, but he was not sur-prised by Britain's behaviorprised by Britain's behavior. .

Last but not least, due to its increasing importance especially as fuel

Last but not least, due to its increasing importance especially as fuel for the navy, oil became a significant issue in the Middle East. However, for the navy, oil became a significant issue in the Middle East. However, the Foreign Office prioritized the protection of oil sources from the the Foreign Office prioritized the protection of oil sources from the Germans besides the navigation rightsGermans besides the navigation rights..738 In fact, the first step was tak-In fact, the first step was tak-en by Mahmud Şevket Pasha on the oil business. He offered Britain a en by Mahmud Şevket Pasha on the oil business. He offered Britain a predominant share in a joint Anglopredominant share in a joint Anglo--German company for dividing Mes-German company for dividing Mes-opotamian oil in April 1913. Meanwhile, an Angloopotamian oil in April 1913. Meanwhile, an Anglo--Persian company had Persian company had started talks with started talks with the German company. In March 1914, the Sublime the German company. In March 1914, the Sublime Porte formed an Ottoman group for the exploitation of oil in the prov-Porte formed an Ottoman group for the exploitation of oil in the prov-inces of Mosul, Baghdad, and Basra. Finally, an agreement was signed inces of Mosul, Baghdad, and Basra. Finally, an agreement was signed which divided up the shares which divided up the shares —— 50 percent for D’Arcy and 25 percent 50 percent for D’Arcy and 25 percent eacheach for Deutsche Bank and the Anglofor Deutsche Bank and the Anglo--Persian Petroleum Company. Persian Petroleum Company. Later on, Mr. Mallet and Mr. Wangenheim submitted to the Porte for the Later on, Mr. Mallet and Mr. Wangenheim submitted to the Porte for the oil concessions in Mosul and Baghdad provinces, but the outbreak of the oil concessions in Mosul and Baghdad provinces, but the outbreak of the Great War broke off the negotiations.Great War broke off the negotiations.739

Separate from

Separate from the international developments and negotiations led the international developments and negotiations led by Cavid Beyby Cavid Bey in Europe, the Ottoman government had taken some addi-in Europe, the Ottoman government had taken some addi-tional financial measures to secure the Empire’s welfare. The govern-tional financial measures to secure the Empire’s welfare. The govern-ment made two loan agreements in 1913. The first loan was for the irri-ment made two loan agreements in 1913. The first loan was for the irri-

Toprak, “Osmanlı Donanması,

Toprak, “Osmanlı Donanması, AAverof Zırhlısı ve Ulusal Kimlik,” verof Zırhlısı ve Ulusal Kimlik,” ToplumsToplumsal Tarihal Tarih,, No: No: 111313, May 2003, 10, May 2003, 10--19. 2003. Çetinkaya,19. 2003. Çetinkaya, Osmanlı’yı Müslümanlaştırmak. Kitle Siyaseti, Osmanlı’yı Müslümanlaştırmak. Kitle Siyaseti, Toplumsal Sınıflar BoykotToplumsal Sınıflar Boykotlar ve Milli İktisat (1909lar ve Milli İktisat (1909--1914)1914), 227, 227--262. See also: Y. Doğan262. See also: Y. Doğan ÇetinkayaÇetinkaya, 1908 Osmanlı Boyk, 1908 Osmanlı Boykootajı. tajı. Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları,Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2004.2004.

738 For For ffurtheurtherr iinformation basnformation based on a biography seeed on a biography see: Johnathan Conlin : Johnathan Conlin Mr Five Percent. Mr Five Percent. The Many Lives of Calouste GulbenkiaThe Many Lives of Calouste GulbenkianThe World’s Richest MannThe World’s Richest Man, (, (London: Profile Books London: Profile Books Ltd., 2019)Ltd., 2019). The book is the biography o. The book is the biography off Calouste Gulbenkian, the Ottoman ArmenianCalouste Gulbenkian, the Ottoman Armenian who wowho worrked wiked withth Cavid Bey veryCavid Bey very closely and also repclosely and also represented the Ottoman goverresented the Ottoman govern-n-ment during the financial negotiations in Lonment during the financial negotiations in London and Paris between 1910don and Paris between 1910 and 1914, and 1914, though not consistentlythough not consistently. He is also known as “Mr. Fi. He is also known as “Mr. Fivve Percent” for his shares in the e Percent” for his shares in the Middle EaMiddle East oil.st oil.

739 HelHellelerr, , British PoliBritish Policy Towards cy Towards thethe OttomaOttoman Empire 1908n Empire 1908--19141914, 92. , 92.

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gation of the Konya plain and the second one was for the docks. In keep-

gation of the Konya plain and the second one was for the docks. In keep-ing with their policy of improving agriculture, the Young Turks intro-ing with their policy of improving agriculture, the Young Turks intro-duced a scheme to irrigate the plain of Konya under the direction of duced a scheme to irrigate the plain of Konya under the direction of Deutsche Bank. The contract was related to the Deutsche Bank. The contract was related to the contract with the Anato-contract with the Anato-lian Railway Company, which received the excess income from the irri-lian Railway Company, which received the excess income from the irri-gated land and other excess incomes in return for its loan. The main aim gated land and other excess incomes in return for its loan. The main aim of the Unionists was to transform Adana into a second Egypt.of the Unionists was to transform Adana into a second Egypt.740 Another Another loan agreement was extloan agreement was extended from the company to develop the docks. ended from the company to develop the docks. The government had borrowed 1,485,000 Liras from W.G. Armstrong The government had borrowed 1,485,000 Liras from W.G. Armstrong Whitworth and Company in return for bonds. However, these agree-Whitworth and Company in return for bonds. However, these agree-ments were not enough to meet the Empire’s needs. The Ottoman gov-ments were not enough to meet the Empire’s needs. The Ottoman gov-ernment needed moreernment needed more money for its development, urgent needs, and money for its development, urgent needs, and the arms race. After a long period of negotiations, Cavid Beythe arms race. After a long period of negotiations, Cavid Bey finally finally managed to acquire a loan from the Paris stock market amounting to 22 managed to acquire a loan from the Paris stock market amounting to 22 million Liras. The new loans meant new, large compromises, which this million Liras. The new loans meant new, large compromises, which this chapter will try to cover later on. The revenues from the ports of Istan-chapter will try to cover later on. The revenues from the ports of Istan-bul and Trabzon were the main guarantees of the loan.bul and Trabzon were the main guarantees of the loan.741 The Ottoman The Ottoman government was able to take the first part of this loan just before the government was able to take the first part of this loan just before the Great War. Great War. Despite his early success in negotDespite his early success in negotiating these loans, a very iating these loans, a very long and complicated process of negotiating was ahead of Cavid Beylong and complicated process of negotiating was ahead of Cavid Bey. .

740 Ahmad, “Vanguard of a Nascent Bourgeoise”, 37Ahmad, “Vanguard of a Nascent Bourgeoise”, 37. .

741 Özdemir, Özdemir, Osmanlı DevlOsmanlı Devleti Dış Borçları: 1854eti Dış Borçları: 1854--1954Dönemin1954Döneminde Yüzyıl Süren Cenderede Yüzyıl Süren Cendere, 123, 123--1124. 24.

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§ 4.2 Preparing for the Negotiations, IstanbulPreparing for the Negotiations, Istanbul

In September 1913,

In September 1913, Mark Sykes, the British diplomat who Mark Sykes, the British diplomat who was one was one of the coof the co--authors of the Sauthors of the Sykesykes--PiPicot agreementcot agreement, trave, travelled with ed with his wife his wife Edith to Istanbul. According to the biography of Mark Sykes written by Edith to Istanbul. According to the biography of Mark Sykes written by his grandson,his grandson,742 he came to Istanbul in 1913 and found that the city he came to Istanbul in 1913 and found that the city "was still the old one with the same cluster of shipping, the same glory "was still the old one with the same cluster of shipping, the same glory of outline and colof outline and coloror, the s, the saame perspective of villas, redme perspective of villas, red--tiled roofs, ash-tiled roofs, ash-enen--grey wooden houses, and masses of vast yellow barracks…the old grey wooden houses, and masses of vast yellow barracks…the old noisiness and bustle." The last time he visited Istanbul had been during noisiness and bustle." The last time he visited Istanbul had been during the reign of Abdülhamid II. However, though the city's physicthe reign of Abdülhamid II. However, though the city's physicalal appear-appear-aance remained the same, Sykes notes that the mood and the city's politi-nce remained the same, Sykes notes that the mood and the city's politi-cal climate were not: "there is at the root of things a great change. In cal climate were not: "there is at the root of things a great change. In place of theocracy, imperial prestige, and tradition came atheism, Jaco-place of theocracy, imperial prestige, and tradition came atheism, Jaco-binism, materialism, and licensebinism, materialism, and license. . Every bEvery beeastly thought that the exiles of astly thought that the exiles of Abdülhamid II had picked up in the gutters of the slums and ghettos of Abdülhamid II had picked up in the gutters of the slums and ghettos of the capitals of Europe burst forth in foul luxuriance. Cinema shows the capitals of Europe burst forth in foul luxuriance. Cinema shows -- vile, obscene and blasphemous vile, obscene and blasphemous --brothers filled to overflowing clubs brothers filled to overflowing clubs wherwhere e vice anvice andd politics rubbed elbows, scurrilous prints and indecent politics rubbed elbows, scurrilous prints and indecent pictures flooded the city."pictures flooded the city."743

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey arrived in Istanbul on February 3, 1913, six months earli-arrived in Istanbul on February 3, 1913, six months earli-er than Sykes. He too noted in his diary that something had changed in er than Sykes. He too noted in his diary that something had changed in Istanbul. "Hope is inIstanbul. "Hope is in thethe air," air," hhe wrote. He was hopeful that the young e wrote. He was hopeful that the young and brave soldiers, along with the Unionists, could do something fruitful and brave soldiers, along with the Unionists, could do something fruitful to save the country.to save the country.744 He was also hopeful about the days He was also hopeful about the days ahead.ahead.745 Meanwhile, on the day of his arrival, the truce between the Meanwhile, on the day of his arrival, the truce between the BulgarBulgariansians and thand thee Ottomans had expired, and the bombardment of Ottomans had expired, and the bombardment of

742 Christopher Simon Sykes Christopher Simon Sykes TThehe Man WhoMan Who CreateCreatedd the Mthe Mididddle Eastle East, (Lond, (London: Harper on: Harper Collins PuCollins Publisher, 2016)blisher, 2016)

743 Sykes, Sykes, The Man Who Created the Middle EastThe Man Who Created the Middle East, 201, 201--211. 211.

744 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 549.549.

745 See also, Keiser, See also, Keiser, Talaat PashTalaat Pashaa, 132. , 132.

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Edirne began. In contrast to Cavid Bey

Edirne began. In contrast to Cavid Bey, the prominent American news-, the prominent American news-paperpaper The The New York Times New York Times depicted a far more pessimistic portrait of depicted a far more pessimistic portrait of the Empire just two days later. According to the newspaper, ththe Empire just two days later. According to the newspaper, the Ote Ottoman toman ttrreasury was empty, and since December, the government could not pay easury was empty, and since December, the government could not pay its employees’ salaries.its employees’ salaries.746 Although Cavid BeyAlthough Cavid Bey's tasks upon returning to 's tasks upon returning to Istanbul were far from easy, he was at least full of energy and hope.Istanbul were far from easy, he was at least full of energy and hope.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey stayed in Istanbul more tstayed in Istanbul more than han a montha month before departing in before departing in the middle of March to tour the European capitals of Vienna, Berlin, the middle of March to tour the European capitals of Vienna, Berlin, London, and Paris. His aim was primarily to investigate the European London, and Paris. His aim was primarily to investigate the European capitals' sentiments on the colossal amount of loans they had provided capitals' sentiments on the colossal amount of loans they had provided the Empire. Whethe Empire. When Can Cavid Beyvid Bey arrived in Istanbul, the Unionists had al-arrived in Istanbul, the Unionists had al-ready established the new government. Mahmud Şevket Pasha was both ready established the new government. Mahmud Şevket Pasha was both the grand vizier and the war minister. Only three Unionists in the cabi-the grand vizier and the war minister. Only three Unionists in the cabi-net were not partisans: Said Halim Pasha, Hacı Adil Bey, and Hayrnet were not partisans: Said Halim Pasha, Hacı Adil Bey, and Hayri Bei Bey. y. RifaRifatt Bey was the minister of finance, while CBey was the minister of finance, while Cavid Beyavid Bey was the shadow was the shadow finance minister, as a financier trusted by the Unionists on every issue finance minister, as a financier trusted by the Unionists on every issue in this field. The purpose of this modest government was to unite the in this field. The purpose of this modest government was to unite the people around the flag and to end party politicpeople around the flag and to end party politicss. On the other hand, . On the other hand, Mahmud Şevket Pasha Mahmud Şevket Pasha and the Unionists and the Unionists understoodunderstood the troops fighting the troops fighting in Edirne consisted of soldiers who were supporters of Nâzım Pasha in Edirne consisted of soldiers who were supporters of Nâzım Pasha and Halaskâr Zabitan, who were the opponents of the CUP.and Halaskâr Zabitan, who were the opponents of the CUP.

The new government had inherited big prob

The new government had inherited big probllems: an empty treas-ems: an empty treas-ury, a demorury, a demoralized army, and isolation in the international arena. After alized army, and isolation in the international arena. After the putsch, the situation at the London Conference worsened,the putsch, the situation at the London Conference worsened,747 and at and at last, on January 29, 1913, the Sublime Porte had received a note inform-last, on January 29, 1913, the Sublime Porte had received a note inform-ing the government thating the government that negotiations had broken down. Tnegotiations had broken down. This incident his incident was the first impact of the putsch on the foreign relations of the new was the first impact of the putsch on the foreign relations of the new government. On January 30, the Bulgarian embassy informed the Otto-government. On January 30, the Bulgarian embassy informed the Otto-man governmeman government that the armistice had expired. On the same day, nt that the armistice had expired. On the same day,

746 New York Times, February 5, 1913. New York Times, February 5, 1913.

747 The The British EmbassBritish Embassy ey evaluatvaluateed the cd the coup as almost “seismic.” Accoup as almost “seismic.” According to the ording to the BBritishritish, , the CUP, which had a German character, wouthe CUP, which had a German character, would renew the war. Hld renew the war. Heller, eller, British Policy TBritish Policy To-o-wards wards thethe Ottoman Empire 1908Ottoman Empire 1908--19141914, 7, 78. 8.

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Mahmud Şev

Mahmud Şevket Pasha’s government submittedket Pasha’s government submitted a note to Sir Edward a note to Sir Edward Grey, who were mainly conducting the talks between the Ottoman Em-Grey, who were mainly conducting the talks between the Ottoman Em-pire and the Balkan States. Indeed, the peace talks were held in London pire and the Balkan States. Indeed, the peace talks were held in London by by the ambassadors. Anyway, Mahmud Şevket Pasha claimed that the the ambassadors. Anyway, Mahmud Şevket Pasha claimed that the Ottoman government could not surrender Edirne. The city had indissol-Ottoman government could not surrender Edirne. The city had indissol-uble ties with the Empire. However, the Ottoman government could uble ties with the Empire. However, the Ottoman government could cede the territory on the Meriç (Maritza) river's right side cede the territory on the Meriç (Maritza) river's right side to the Great to the Great Powers. Powers.

The Ottoman government claimed that it could not compromise the

The Ottoman government claimed that it could not compromise the Aegean islands, especially those risking the Çanakkale’ and Anatolian Aegean islands, especially those risking the Çanakkale’ and Anatolian coast’s security.coast’s security. Furthermore, the note declared the abolishment of ca-Furthermore, the note declared the abolishment of ca-pitulations and the rise of cupitulations and the rise of customs duties by 4%.stoms duties by 4%.748 This clause also This clause also hinted at the new period's economic policies and hopes of establishing hinted at the new period's economic policies and hopes of establishing an independent economy.an independent economy.

On February 19, 1913, the new government adopted a significant le-

On February 19, 1913, the new government adopted a significant le-gal code, “Provisional law on the legal entitiesgal code, “Provisional law on the legal entities’ ownersh’ ownershipip ofof the real es-the real es-tates”, related to the field commerce.tates”, related to the field commerce.749 According to this new legal code, According to this new legal code, the institutions as official institutions, municipalities, or private compa-the institutions as official institutions, municipalities, or private compa-nies obtained the right to purchase real estate. This legal code was a nies obtained the right to purchase real estate. This legal code was a step to revive thestep to revive the commercial field. The modern legal and institutional commercial field. The modern legal and institutional aspects of commerce were lack in the traditional Ottoman context. The aspects of commerce were lack in the traditional Ottoman context. The Second Constitutional Period had changed this approach. Cavid BeySecond Constitutional Period had changed this approach. Cavid Bey’s ’s vision was also crucial in achieving it. He promoted the legal cvision was also crucial in achieving it. He promoted the legal caapability pability of both companies of both companies andand individuals. As mentioned in this dissertation individuals. As mentioned in this dissertation several times, he couraged the individuals to be involved in the com-several times, he couraged the individuals to be involved in the com-mercial field. However, one of the ways to achieve this aim was to estab-mercial field. However, one of the ways to achieve this aim was to estab-lish jointlish joint--stock corporations. Astock corporations. As a res a result of his and the governments’ ef-sult of his and the governments’ ef-

748 Armaoğlu, Armaoğlu, Siyasi Tarih, 1789Siyasi Tarih, 1789--19141914, 657, , 657, Ahmad,Ahmad, Ittihat ve TeIttihat ve Terakrakki, 19ki, 190088--19141914 (Jön (Jön TürklerTürkler), 186), 186;; Bayur, Bayur, TTürk İnkîlâbı ürk İnkîlâbı TTarihi arihi II/IIII/II, p: 273, 280, p: 273, 280--281.281.

749 “Eşhas“Eşhas--ı Hükmiyeniı Hükmiyenin Emvaln Emval--i Gayrimeni Gayrimenkuleye Tasarruflarına Mahsus Kanunkuleye Tasarruflarına Mahsus Kanun--ı ı MMuvakkat”, Toprak, Türkiye’deuvakkat”, Toprak, Türkiye’de Milli İktisat 1908 Milli İktisat 1908 –– 1918, 125 1918, 125 --185. Ali185. Ali AkyıldAkyıldız, ız, Os-Os-manlı Dömanlı Dönemnemi Tahi Tahvvil ve Hiil ve Hisse Senetleri “Ottoman Secursse Senetleri “Ottoman Securtities”tities”, (Ist, (Istaanbul: nbul: Tarih Vakfı Tarih Vakfı –– Türk Ekonomi Bankası, 2001), 36Türk Ekonomi Bankası, 2001), 36--7, 81. 7, 81.

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forts, the number of these companies increased considerably. During

forts, the number of these companies increased considerably. During the first period of the Second Constitutional Period, 113 jointthe first period of the Second Constitutional Period, 113 joint--stock stock companies were founded. The noncompanies were founded. The non--Muslims were also engaged in the Muslims were also engaged in the jointjoint--stock stock compancompanies. They also had an advantageous position because ies. They also had an advantageous position because they could establish these companies with foreign companies via longthey could establish these companies with foreign companies via long--lasting connections. Moreover, they also had an advantageous position lasting connections. Moreover, they also had an advantageous position inin terms of capital accumulation. However, during 1914terms of capital accumulation. However, during 1914--19181918, unde, under the r the Great War circumstances, 123 companies were established, and they Great War circumstances, 123 companies were established, and they were found mainly by Muslim citizens. were found mainly by Muslim citizens.

It was possible to cover a distance in the institutionalization of the com-mercial area only in the Second Constitutional Period. Cavid Bey was a pio-neer, and both liberal and Islamist circles adopted his approach. The field of commerce was beyond the ideological differences among the Ottoman citi-zens. Cavid Bey was boosting that the commerce should have an institution-alized character, the government should open schools of commerces and promote new newspapers targeting the commercial area. He was supporting the group of merchants rather than the artisans. The government embraced his attempts, and although they evolved to a more nationalistic way, Cavid Bey drew the main road map in terms of codification and institutionaliza-tion. Last but not least, as in February 1913, he did not had to be in the Cab-inet to imply these policies. He used to be influential in economic policies even when he was out of the Cabinet.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey was quite preoccupied with the Ottoman Empire's finan-was quite preoccupied with the Ottoman Empire's finan-cial issues including obtaining cial issues including obtaining a loan from the Ottoman Bank (IOB), se-a loan from the Ottoman Bank (IOB), se-curing a loan for the empty treasury to fund the looming war, and ex-curing a loan for the empty treasury to fund the looming war, and ex-tending the terms of the Régie. In rtending the terms of the Régie. In reelationlation to loans, Cavid Beyto loans, Cavid Bey met Mr. met Mr. Nias from the Ottoman Bank to secure a loan for the empty treasury. Nias from the Ottoman Bank to secure a loan for the empty treasury. During the First Balkan War, none of the Great Powers had provided During the First Balkan War, none of the Great Powers had provided loans or advances to the Empire due to their neutrality declaration. loans or advances to the Empire due to their neutrality declaration. They had also hiThey had also hinndered dered the Ottoman Bank from doing so. At the begin-the Ottoman Bank from doing so. At the begin-ning of the war, the Great Powers declared that they would not permit ning of the war, the Great Powers declared that they would not permit any change in Macedonia's status quo, which created disappointment any change in Macedonia's status quo, which created disappointment among the Unionists. Against all odds, Cavid Beyamong the Unionists. Against all odds, Cavid Bey asked for support fasked for support frrom om thethe Ottoman Bank on February 4. However, Mr. Nias responded that the Ottoman Bank on February 4. However, Mr. Nias responded that the

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bank could not provide any loans since they still had to pay off signifi-

bank could not provide any loans since they still had to pay off signifi-cant advances. Cavid Beycant advances. Cavid Bey claimed that this situation was related to the claimed that this situation was related to the French and British influence, because tFrench and British influence, because thhe IOB e IOB had recently provided had recently provided loans for Serbs and Bulgarians but not to the Ottoman government. This loans for Serbs and Bulgarians but not to the Ottoman government. This case also shows the discriminative policies of the Ottoman Bank.case also shows the discriminative policies of the Ottoman Bank.

During his time in Istanbul in early 1913, Cavid Bey

During his time in Istanbul in early 1913, Cavid Bey often visited often visited Mahmud Şevket Pasha to dMahmud Şevket Pasha to diiscuss financial and political issues. Although scuss financial and political issues. Although they had butted heads many times when they were together in the cabi-they had butted heads many times when they were together in the cabi-net in 1910 and 1911, they worked harmoniously fonet in 1910 and 1911, they worked harmoniously for the first and last r the first and last time. During their first meetintime. During their first meeting on February 4, Cavid Beyg on February 4, Cavid Bey told Mahmud told Mahmud Şevket Pasha that he was ready to take on official duties, internally or Şevket Pasha that he was ready to take on official duties, internally or externally. Then, they discussed the current topics plaguing the gov-externally. Then, they discussed the current topics plaguing the gov-ernment. Cavid Beyernment. Cavid Bey claimclaimed that if they were to lose Edirne, this would ed that if they were to lose Edirne, this would causcause an existential crisis for the government. He also added that if the e an existential crisis for the government. He also added that if the war continued, he would personally find the money for the war. Cavid war continued, he would personally find the money for the war. Cavid BeyBey advised the Pasha to remain discreet, cautious, brave, and readvised the Pasha to remain discreet, cautious, brave, and resilient silient and told him not to let the European ambassaand told him not to let the European ambassadors know of the Empire’s dors know of the Empire’s financial hafinancial hardships. However, Cavid Beyrdships. However, Cavid Bey did not feel content with did not feel content with Mahmud Şevket Pasha’s overtly pessimistic discourse; he believed that Mahmud Şevket Pasha’s overtly pessimistic discourse; he believed that thethe Pasha probably reflected hisPasha probably reflected his pessimism onto the Ambassadors of pessimism onto the Ambassadors of the Great Powers whom he met very often. Cavid Beythe Great Powers whom he met very often. Cavid Bey wwas as afraid thaafraid that t hehe might reveal his fraudmight reveal his fraud in front of the foreign representatives. Though in front of the foreign representatives. Though the Great Powers were well aware of the economic and financial situa-the Great Powers were well aware of the economic and financial situa-tion of the Empire, Cavid Beytion of the Empire, Cavid Bey preferred to seem strong in the negotia-preferred to seem strong in the negotia-tions. Around this titions. Around this time, Mme, Mahmud Şevket Pashahmud Şevket Pasha also asked for an exten-a also asked for an exten-sision of the Régie agreement, in order to find money, which Cavid Beyon of the Régie agreement, in order to find money, which Cavid Bey initially opposed because he planned to nationalize the tobacco busi-initially opposed because he planned to nationalize the tobacco busi-ness to raise income.ness to raise income.750

During his visit to Istanbul, Cavid Bey

During his visit to Istanbul, Cavid Bey met the new Gemet the new German ambas-rman ambas-sador, sador, Baron Hans von Wangenheim. Baron Hans von Wangenheim. He was to fill the position of Baron He was to fill the position of Baron Adolf Marschall von Bieberstein, the former ambassador of Germany Adolf Marschall von Bieberstein, the former ambassador of Germany

750 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 549., 549.

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who stayed in Istanbul from 1897 to 1912 and built up relations be-

who stayed in Istanbul from 1897 to 1912 and built up relations be-tween the two countries, including enormoustween the two countries, including enormous financial projecfinancial projects. During ts. During their meeting, Vtheir meeting, Von Wangenheim asked Cavid Beyon Wangenheim asked Cavid Bey several questions re-several questions re-lated to the financing of the war, including the Baghdad Railway. Con-lated to the financing of the war, including the Baghdad Railway. Con-cerning international politics, Cavid Beycerning international politics, Cavid Bey criticized France’s overt sup-criticized France’s overt sup-port for Russia. Poincport for Russia. Poincaré's policy prioaré's policy prioritizing the Russian allianritizing the Russian alliance with ce with France drew an adverse reaction from the Ottoman Empire. Wangen-France drew an adverse reaction from the Ottoman Empire. Wangen-heim asked Cavid Beyheim asked Cavid Bey if his hostility toward France was something tan-if his hostility toward France was something tan-gible or not. He also asked about the Unionists' favoritism toward Brit-gible or not. He also asked about the Unionists' favoritism toward Brit-aain after the Julyin after the July revolution. Cavid Beyrevolution. Cavid Bey respresponded that “during the first onded that “during the first days of the Revolution, they were inexperienced. However, today, who-days of the Revolution, they were inexperienced. However, today, who-ever may see and think elaborately are aware of the reality: The Otto-ever may see and think elaborately are aware of the reality: The Otto-man Empire should be aligned with Germany.” Alman Empire should be aligned with Germany.” Although Cavid Beythough Cavid Bey im-im-pliepliedd with this statementwith this statement that the Ottoman government should draw that the Ottoman government should draw closer to Germany, he notecloser to Germany, he notedd that, in his meetings with Helfferich and that, in his meetings with Helfferich and Gwinner, the Germans had been hesitant to align with the Ottoman gov-Gwinner, the Germans had been hesitant to align with the Ottoman gov-ernment due to Germany's politiernment due to Germany's politicacal, financial, andl, financial, and social interests and social interests and aims.aims. During their meeting, Wangenheim asked Cavid BeyDuring their meeting, Wangenheim asked Cavid Bey how much how much money the Ottoman Empire needed. Cavid Beymoney the Ottoman Empire needed. Cavid Bey responded that although responded that although the government urgently needed 3,000,000 Liras, borrowing 1,500,000 the government urgently needed 3,000,000 Liras, borrowing 1,500,000 Liras from GermaLiras from Germanyny would be sufficiwould be sufficient.ent.751 Wangenheim also askedWangenheim also asked about the situation in Anatolia about the situation in Anatolia —— as by the beginning of 1913, the Great as by the beginning of 1913, the Great Powers had all realized that Anatolia would become the new homeland Powers had all realized that Anatolia would become the new homeland of the Empire of the Empire —— and he committed the Germans to helping the Ottoman and he committed the Germans to helping the Ottoman gogovernment financiavernment financially and politically after tlly and politically after the First Balkan War. he First Balkan War. WanWangenheim also asked about the Ottoman government’s plans if Edir-genheim also asked about the Ottoman government’s plans if Edir-ne would fall. Cavid Beyne would fall. Cavid Bey stated that even if Edirne fell, they would not stated that even if Edirne fell, they would not end the war. Even if Mahmud Şevket Pasha wanted toend the war. Even if Mahmud Şevket Pasha wanted to eend it, the Union-nd it, the Union-iists would assign a new gransts would assign a new grand vizier in favor of ward vizier in favor of war. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey evaluated evaluated the new ambassador as young and energetic but lacking information the new ambassador as young and energetic but lacking information about the Empire.about the Empire.

751 1.5 million Liras was t1.5 million Liras was the amount of money needed to pursue the whe amount of money needed to pursue the war and ar and recapture recapture EdirEdirne.ne.

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A deal with an Italian bank for a loan was also on the table during

A deal with an Italian bank for a loan was also on the table during Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s time in Istanbul i’s time in Istanbul in 1913. Though the Tripolitn 1913. Though the Tripolitanian War anian War (1911(1911––1912) ha1912) had ended only a few months earlier, the Ottoman gov-d ended only a few months earlier, the Ottoman gov-ernment was desperate for financial resources from any country. Karasu ernment was desperate for financial resources from any country. Karasu Efendi, Mr. Nogara, representing the Ottoman PDA, and Mr. Rupolo, rep-Efendi, Mr. Nogara, representing the Ottoman PDA, and Mr. Rupolo, rep-resentative of resentative of various Italian banks, paidvarious Italian banks, paid a visit to Cavid Beya visit to Cavid Bey. S. Several everal Italian banks wanted to give a loan to the Ottoman Empire to establish Italian banks wanted to give a loan to the Ottoman Empire to establish an Ottoman Incorporated Company that would operate in the Empire. It an Ottoman Incorporated Company that would operate in the Empire. It was an offer admissible to Cavid Beywas an offer admissible to Cavid Bey; due to the Empire’s ; due to the Empire’s grave financial grave financial problems, Cproblems, Cavid Beyavid Bey considered therconsidered there was no harm in doing business e was no harm in doing business with the Italians despite the war with Italy having been just one year with the Italians despite the war with Italy having been just one year before. Afterward, Cavid Beybefore. Afterward, Cavid Bey visited Mr. Crawford, the British undersec-visited Mr. Crawford, the British undersec-retary at the ministry of finanretary at the ministry of finance, to discuss new options ce, to discuss new options for loans.for loans.752 Mr. Mr. CrawfordCrawford stated that he was looking for a loan via the Ottoman Bank stated that he was looking for a loan via the Ottoman Bank and the National Bank of England, but that he had also encountered ob-and the National Bank of England, but that he had also encountered ob-stacles either from the French government or French banks. One of the stacles either from the French government or French banks. One of the biggesbiggest obstacles was the extensit obstacles was the extension of the situation of ton of the situation of the Régie.he Régie.753

On February 9, the Ottoman defeat at Bola

On February 9, the Ottoman defeat at Bolayır,yır,754 which was largely which was largely due to the army's mismanagement, had caused grave concerns over the due to the army's mismanagement, had caused grave concerns over the future of the Ottoman military. The incident also exposed the friction future of the Ottoman military. The incident also exposed the friction inside the army between Fethi Bey, Mustafa Kemal Bey, and inside the army between Fethi Bey, Mustafa Kemal Bey, and Enver Bey, Enver Bey,

752 CaCavid Bey, vid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, ,552,552--557557..

753 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 558558--5559.59.

754 On February On February 4, 1913, armed conflict had restarted at the Çatalca line. Mustafa4, 1913, armed conflict had restarted at the Çatalca line. Mustafa Kemal Kemal Bey, Ali Fethi Okyar, and Enver BeBey, Ali Fethi Okyar, and Enver Bey had jy had just returned fust returned fromrom TrabTrabllusgarp ausgarp and were put nd were put in charge of the Bolayır clasin charge of the Bolayır clashh ((MüreMüretttep Kolordutep Kolordu) on February 8. Envisioned by En) on February 8. Envisioned by Enver ver Bey as both a Bey as both a strong military and political victory that would legitimize the nestrong military and political victory that would legitimize the new Ottw Otto-o-man government, the operation's maiman government, the operation's main aim wn aim was to organizeas to organize anan attaattacck from bk from both land oth land and sea, which battalions from Şand sea, which battalions from Şaarköy wrköy woould support. However, the troops in Bolayır,uld support. However, the troops in Bolayır, led by Fahri Pashled by Fahri Pasha and Fethi Bey (with Mustafa Kemal Bey as a staff officer), dia and Fethi Bey (with Mustafa Kemal Bey as a staff officer), did nd not ot wait for Enver Bey's brigade to arrivewait for Enver Bey's brigade to arrive. They . They mounted an attmounted an attackack on ton thhe Bulgare Bulgarian army. ian army. The Bolayır defeat was one of tThe Bolayır defeat was one of thhe bigge biggeest disappointments for the Ottoman army. Thest disappointments for the Ottoman army. The grave mismanagemegrave mismanagement and miscommunication between the two commanders caused nt and miscommunication between the two commanders caused this faithis failure. The impact of the defeat was a shoclure. The impact of the defeat was a shock for tk for the Unionists, he Unionists, whowho had had bbeen eeen ex-x-pepecting both political and military successcting both political and military success storiestoriess after the putsch.after the putsch.

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which extended throughout the coming years. On February 9, 1913,

which extended throughout the coming years. On February 9, 1913, Cavid BeyCavid Bey heard of the defeat at Bolayır while at Rifat Bey's house, heard of the defeat at Bolayır while at Rifat Bey's house, where he had gone with Talat Bey. Both Cavid Beywhere he had gone with Talat Bey. Both Cavid Bey and Talat Bey were and Talat Bey were shocked. Cavid Beyshocked. Cavid Bey assessed that the incideassessed that the incident might have occurred due nt might have occurred due to internal competition between the soldiers. Talat Bey stated that Fethi to internal competition between the soldiers. Talat Bey stated that Fethi Bey was considering withdrawing from his military duties and working Bey was considering withdrawing from his military duties and working with the Committee after the war.with the Committee after the war.755

The Balkan Wars had accelerated the militarization

The Balkan Wars had accelerated the militarization of the politics of the politics and mobilization of the society. The Balkan Wars were like a rehearsal and mobilization of the society. The Balkan Wars were like a rehearsal for the First World War. The CUP ruling cadre discerned that the home for the First World War. The CUP ruling cadre discerned that the home front was as crucial as the front itself. However, they adopted a social front was as crucial as the front itself. However, they adopted a social mobilization policy right mobilization policy right after the putsch and implemented it over-after the putsch and implemented it over-whelmingly from then on. As a first step, The Society of National De-whelmingly from then on. As a first step, The Society of National De-fense (SND) (fense (SND) (MüdafaaMüdafaa--i Milliyei Milliye), founded by Talat Bey on February 1, is ), founded by Talat Bey on February 1, is regarded as the beginning of the Unionists’ social mobilization poli-regarded as the beginning of the Unionists’ social mobilization poli-cy.cy.756 In In addition to the Society of National Defense, CUP Clubs became addition to the Society of National Defense, CUP Clubs became more critical for implementing social mobilization. The clubs became a more critical for implementing social mobilization. The clubs became a meeting point for young people’s socialization and education. The CUP meeting point for young people’s socialization and education. The CUP increased the number of clubs, not only in Istanbul bincreased the number of clubs, not only in Istanbul but also in Anatolia. ut also in Anatolia. Both the clubs and SNDs became tools to build up the CUP’s capacities. Both the clubs and SNDs became tools to build up the CUP’s capacities. However, this policy’s success would take time to implement fully. As However, this policy’s success would take time to implement fully. As Mahmud Şevket Pasha would complain to Cavid BeyMahmud Şevket Pasha would complain to Cavid Bey, the fundraising did , the fundraising did not go as expected. He asnot go as expected. He assessed that wealthy people lacked patriotism. sessed that wealthy people lacked patriotism. Only the middle and lower classes contributed to the fundraising activi-Only the middle and lower classes contributed to the fundraising activi-ties, which was not enough to fill the club’s coffers.ties, which was not enough to fill the club’s coffers.

On February 11, the IOB headquarters in Paris informed Rifat Bey,

On February 11, the IOB headquarters in Paris informed Rifat Bey, the minister of fthe minister of finance, that the French government would not allow the inance, that the French government would not allow the Ottoman Bank to make any transactions due to its neutrality in the Bal-Ottoman Bank to make any transactions due to its neutrality in the Bal-

755 Due to this dispute, FeDue to this dispute, Fethi Bey resigned fthi Bey resigned from his duty in the army and was assigned as rom his duty in the army and was assigned as the military attaché the military attaché to Sofia. His close friend from Manastır to Sofia. His close friend from Manastır MilitarMilitary High School,y High School, MuMus-s-tafatafa Kemal BeKemal Bey, joined him in 1913. y, joined him in 1913.

756 Akın, Akın, When When tthe he WWar Camar Camee Home. The Ottomans’ Great War and the DevasHome. The Ottomans’ Great War and the Devastation of an tation of an EmpireEmpire, 25. Ahmad, 25. Ahmad, İttihat ve Terakki (1908, İttihat ve Terakki (1908--1914)1914), 187., 187.

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kan Wars. The French government had hoped that the German govern-

kan Wars. The French government had hoped that the German govern-ment would support this policy. According to Cavid Beyment would support this policy. According to Cavid Bey’s assessment’s assessment, , the French government had hindered both the British and the German the French government had hindered both the British and the German governments from implementing their policies in the Ottoman Empire. governments from implementing their policies in the Ottoman Empire.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey complained, “last year the banks were competing with complained, “last year the banks were competing with each other to give loans to us, but now, they put very each other to give loans to us, but now, they put very hard and hard and harsh conditions for only a small loanharsh conditions for only a small loan.”.”757

To find a solution, Cavid Bey

To find a solution, Cavid Bey visited Mr. Nias, director of the Imperial visited Mr. Nias, director of the Imperial Ottoman Bank's Istanbul branch. Nias disclosed that he was dismayed at Ottoman Bank's Istanbul branch. Nias disclosed that he was dismayed at Paris's decision. According to Nias, Paris acted like a "usurParis's decision. According to Nias, Paris acted like a "usurer" and solely er" and solely determined the loans' timing and conditions. Though Nias was disap-determined the loans' timing and conditions. Though Nias was disap-pointed with these conditions, including those surrounding the Régie pointed with these conditions, including those surrounding the Régie issue, he could not influence the Paris office to favor the Ottoman gov-issue, he could not influence the Paris office to favor the Ottoman gov-ernment. A new team was assembled aernment. A new team was assembled after all hope of receiving a loan fter all hope of receiving a loan from the French had disappeared. M. Huguenin, Mr. Witall, Mr. Black, Mr. from the French had disappeared. M. Huguenin, Mr. Witall, Mr. Black, Mr. Crawford, and the National Bank of Turkey manager, Mr. Kingham, ap-Crawford, and the National Bank of Turkey manager, Mr. Kingham, ap-plied to the British embassy to resolve the Ottoman loan dilemma. They plied to the British embassy to resolve the Ottoman loan dilemma. They claimed thatclaimed that casting the Ottomans adrift was also averse to their inter-casting the Ottomans adrift was also averse to their inter-ests. They ask the British ambassador and then the Foreign Office for a ests. They ask the British ambassador and then the Foreign Office for a loan from the Banque Nationale and Germany.loan from the Banque Nationale and Germany.758 But French diplomacy But French diplomacy had frozen British and German policies, which was a common had frozen British and German policies, which was a common occur-occur-rence in those days. However, the Unionists thought that Britain was rence in those days. However, the Unionists thought that Britain was taking sides with its ally France instead. It was a huge disappointment taking sides with its ally France instead. It was a huge disappointment for the Unionists after Germany sided with France and turned down the for the Unionists after Germany sided with France and turned down the Ottoman government's demands.Ottoman government's demands.

On Februar

On February 13, 1913, the prominent figures of the CUP gathered at y 13, 1913, the prominent figures of the CUP gathered at Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s house to discuss the war. Though Mahmud Şevket Pasha ’s house to discuss the war. Though Mahmud Şevket Pasha predicted that Edirne might fall at the beginning of March, CUP leaders, predicted that Edirne might fall at the beginning of March, CUP leaders, particularly Hacı Adil Bey, insisted that the city might resiparticularly Hacı Adil Bey, insisted that the city might resist until the st until the middle or even the end of March. They decided to start peace negotia-middle or even the end of March. They decided to start peace negotia-

757 Feroz Ahmad Feroz Ahmad JJön Türkler Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nu Kurtaön Türkler Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nu Kurtarma Mücrma Mücadelesi 1914adelesi 1914--11918918, , (Is(Isttanbul: Tanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2020)ürkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2020),, 42. 42.

758 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 556464--568.568.

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tions only after the fall of Edirne and sent Talat Bey and Halil Bey to bol-

tions only after the fall of Edirne and sent Talat Bey and Halil Bey to bol-ster Mahmud Şevket Pasha's morale. During the meeting, Cemal Pasha ster Mahmud Şevket Pasha's morale. During the meeting, Cemal Pasha insisted that they should continuinsisted that they should continue the war. To realize this aim, however, e the war. To realize this aim, however, they first had to fill the treasury as soon as possible. Cavid Beythey first had to fill the treasury as soon as possible. Cavid Bey informed informed the men about the current situation of the treasury. He argued that the the men about the current situation of the treasury. He argued that the ministers' council should not postpone the approval of constructionministers' council should not postpone the approval of construction projects, which would help them take in money. According to Cavid Beyprojects, which would help them take in money. According to Cavid Bey, , the Empire could not afford to lose these projects.the Empire could not afford to lose these projects.759 He pointed He pointed out out that these projects consisted of concessions for 20 mining projects and that these projects consisted of concessions for 20 mining projects and a tunnel project between Beyazıt and Şişli ia tunnel project between Beyazıt and Şişli in Istanbul. The primary aim n Istanbul. The primary aim of the previous governments in prolonging the contract period was to of the previous governments in prolonging the contract period was to ask for bribes, and thus they should beask for bribes, and thus they should be delayed no longer. It is impossi-delayed no longer. It is impossi-ble to tell if Cavid Beyble to tell if Cavid Bey's warning was effective, but the cabinet proceed-'s warning was effective, but the cabinet proceed-ed to approve the concessions. Thus, this is another example of coopera-ed to approve the concessions. Thus, this is another example of coopera-tion between Mahmud Şevket Pasha and Cavid Beytion between Mahmud Şevket Pasha and Cavid Bey during this during this period.period.760

At this tim

At this time, Cavid Beye, Cavid Bey was also involved in the negotiations with was also involved in the negotiations with Régie Tobacco. The Régie's concessions, meaning that the Ottoman gov-Régie Tobacco. The Régie's concessions, meaning that the Ottoman gov-ernment had granted the tobacco monopoly to them in 1883, would ex-ernment had granted the tobacco monopoly to them in 1883, would ex-pire in 1913.pire in 1913.761 However, the Régie had developed tobacco productionHowever, the Régie had developed tobacco production very rapidly and had profited much more than its loan share. In the Sec-very rapidly and had profited much more than its loan share. In the Sec-ond Constitutional Period, the Unionists tried to abolish the Régie and ond Constitutional Period, the Unionists tried to abolish the Régie and end its privileges. Cavid Beyend its privileges. Cavid Bey also tried to nationalize the tobacco issue also tried to nationalize the tobacco issue to raise income. Nevertheless, in 1913to raise income. Nevertheless, in 1913, the Ottoman government was in , the Ottoman government was in desperate need of money to recapture Edirne. Cavid Beydesperate need of money to recapture Edirne. Cavid Bey, who had pre-, who had pre-viously opposed the extension of the Régie monopoly, reversed his viously opposed the extension of the Régie monopoly, reversed his stance on the issue as he found the extension necessary to receive 1.5 stance on the issue as he found the extension necessary to receive 1.5

759 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 567., 567.

760 MMaahhmmuud Şevket Paşa d Şevket Paşa SadrazSadrazam ve Harbiye Nazırı Mahmud Şevket Paşa’nam ve Harbiye Nazırı Mahmud Şevket Paşa’nın Günlın Günlüğüüğü, , (Istanbul(Istanbul: A: Arba Yrba Yaayınları,yınları, 1988), 16. 1988), 16.

761 Nacar, Can. (2014). The RéNacar, Can. (2014). The Réggie Monie Monopoly and Tobacopoly and Tobacco Workers in Late Ottoman co Workers in Late Ottoman IstIstanbul. anbul. Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle EastComparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 34. 20634. 206--219, 219, htthttpps://doi.s://doi.org/10.1215/1089201Xorg/10.1215/1089201X--26486682648668

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million Liras worth

million Liras worth of advance payments from the French. Talat Bey was of advance payments from the French. Talat Bey was also an incredibly close follower of this issue. During his visit, Cavid Beyalso an incredibly close follower of this issue. During his visit, Cavid Bey met with M. La Boulinière and M. Pissard to extend the duration of the met with M. La Boulinière and M. Pissard to extend the duration of the Régie. The French delegation declared that they would notRégie. The French delegation declared that they would not accept a pe-accept a pe-riod of less than ten years. Cavid Beyriod of less than ten years. Cavid Bey countered that the government countered that the government and OPDA would only agree on a fiveand OPDA would only agree on a five--year extension, with the possibil-year extension, with the possibil-ity of a tenity of a ten--year extension later on. Further, the selling of local products year extension later on. Further, the selling of local products should not be blocked. While should not be blocked. While the French agreed to the fivethe French agreed to the five--year exten-year exten-sion, the Régie issue would come back on the agenda once again in 1918 sion, the Régie issue would come back on the agenda once again in 1918 with the Decree on Monopoly of Tobacco, which became an issue of con-with the Decree on Monopoly of Tobacco, which became an issue of con-flict between Cavid Beyflict between Cavid Bey and Fethi Bey (Okyar).and Fethi Bey (Okyar).762

On February 22, 1913, while C

On February 22, 1913, while Cavid Beyavid Bey was on his way to dinner in was on his way to dinner in Beyoğlu, his plans changed suddenly due to an unprecedented call for a Beyoğlu, his plans changed suddenly due to an unprecedented call for a meeting from his Unionist fellows. He found himself in the middle of a meeting from his Unionist fellows. He found himself in the middle of a government crisis. Said Halim Pasha, İbrahim Hakkı Pasha, Haci Adil, government crisis. Said Halim Pasha, İbrahim Hakkı Pasha, Haci Adil, Talat, aTalat, and Mithat Şükrü were at the meeting. Mahmud Şevket Pasha nd Mithat Şükrü were at the meeting. Mahmud Şevket Pasha threatened to resign over the government's opposition to securing a threatened to resign over the government's opposition to securing a peace deal before Edirne's fall. He favored making a deal with the Bul-peace deal before Edirne's fall. He favored making a deal with the Bul-garians and leaving Edirne, because the cost of nongarians and leaving Edirne, because the cost of non--delivery delivery of the city of the city was too high. The Unionists were waiting for the city to fall to make was too high. The Unionists were waiting for the city to fall to make peace; otherwise, they would risk their position and legitimacy. Accord-peace; otherwise, they would risk their position and legitimacy. Accord-ing to Mahmud Şevket Pasha, postponing peace would be worse for the ing to Mahmud Şevket Pasha, postponing peace would be worse for the CUP. He had argued with Şükrü Bey, CUP. He had argued with Şükrü Bey, the minister of education, at the the minister of education, at the cabinet meeting earlier that day before threatening to resign.cabinet meeting earlier that day before threatening to resign.763 Cavid Cavid BeyBey visited Mahmud Şevket Pasha the next day, on February 23, and visited Mahmud Şevket Pasha the next day, on February 23, and found that the grand vizier had already backed out of the idea of resig-found that the grand vizier had already backed out of the idea of resig-

762 ParvusParvus EfendiEfendi, “Tütün Tekeli, “Tütün Tekeli ve Tütün Rejisi Birinci Sonuçve Tütün Rejisi Birinci Sonuç: Mısır Piyasasının : Mısır Piyasasının Kaybedilmesi”, 164. Tunaya,Kaybedilmesi”, 164. Tunaya,Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler İttihat vTürkiye’de Siyasal Partiler İttihat ve Terakki, Vol. 3, Bir e Terakki, Vol. 3, Bir çağın, Bir Kuşçağın, Bir Kuşağınağın, Bir P, Bir Partinin Tarihiartinin Tarihi, 7, 77, 407, 4033--431. St431. Stefanos Yerasimos. efanos Yerasimos. Az Gelişmişlik Az Gelişmişlik SürecindSürecindee TürkiTürkiye 2 ye 2 -- TanzimatTanzimattan I. Salt Dünya Savaşınatan I. Salt Dünya Savaşına, (I, (Istanbul: Gözlem Yayınları, stanbul: Gözlem Yayınları, 1977), 10971977), 1097--1099.1099.

763 Mahmud Şevket Paşa, Mahmud Şevket Paşa, Mahmut Şevket PaşMahmut Şevket Paşa’nın Günlüğüa’nın Günlüğü, 29, 29--30. 30.

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nation.

nation.764 The PaThe Pasha insisted that there was no way to rescue Edirne, sha insisted that there was no way to rescue Edirne, especially since there was not enough food there. On the contrary, Cavid especially since there was not enough food there. On the contrary, Cavid BeyBey asserted that Edirne was still not suffering the miseries of a be-asserted that Edirne was still not suffering the miseries of a be-sieged city. The city still has lambs to eat, and the turn ofsieged city. The city still has lambs to eat, and the turn of dogs, cats, and dogs, cats, and horses had not yet come. Mahmud Şevket Pasha claimed that if they left horses had not yet come. Mahmud Şevket Pasha claimed that if they left Edirne now, the military budget would decrease by 1.5 million Liras. Edirne now, the military budget would decrease by 1.5 million Liras. For the first time, Mahmud Şevket Pasha mentioned saving money, and For the first time, Mahmud Şevket Pasha mentioned saving money, and Cavid BeyCavid Bey opposed it to defendopposed it to defend continuing the war. Mahmud Şevket Pa-continuing the war. Mahmud Şevket Pa-sha also expressed his concerns over a growing conflict between Enver sha also expressed his concerns over a growing conflict between Enver Bey and Fethi Bey.Bey and Fethi Bey.765

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey began to prepare for his visit to Vienna, Berlin, London, began to prepare for his visit to Vienna, Berlin, London, and Paris in March 1913.and Paris in March 1913.766 His main aim was to investigate thHis main aim was to investigate the condi-e condi-tions for receiving a loan of 1 million Liras from Vienna and then to tions for receiving a loan of 1 million Liras from Vienna and then to meet French, German, and British politicians and financiers, to negoti-meet French, German, and British politicians and financiers, to negoti-ate a new loan of 25ate a new loan of 25––30 million Liras.30 million Liras.767 His only worry concerning this His only worry concerning this trip was that it would be the first titrip was that it would be the first time he had been to Paris after the me he had been to Paris after the loan operation in 1910. Hence, he talked to both the French ambassador, loan operation in 1910. Hence, he talked to both the French ambassador, M. Bompard, and Mr. Nias from the Ottoman Bank about how he would M. Bompard, and Mr. Nias from the Ottoman Bank about how he would be welcomed in Paris. They both told him not to worry and that the be welcomed in Paris. They both told him not to worry and that the 1910 loan issue w1910 loan issue was buried in the past.as buried in the past.768 Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s concern also indi-’s concern also indi-cates how the 1910 operation was something meaningful in his life and cates how the 1910 operation was something meaningful in his life and political circles. Usually, as a very selfpolitical circles. Usually, as a very self--confident person, Cavid Beyconfident person, Cavid Bey be-be-haved much cooler during such events. The Ottoman governmenthaved much cooler during such events. The Ottoman government fully fully supported Cavid Beysupported Cavid Bey’s trip to Europe. Although Mahmud Şevket Pasha ’s trip to Europe. Although Mahmud Şevket Pasha continued to underline the fact that the Ottoman government did not continued to underline the fact that the Ottoman government did not need money straight away in meetings with Cavid Beyneed money straight away in meetings with Cavid Bey, he was eager for , he was eager for Cavid BeyCavid Bey to secure future loans. In terms oto secure future loans. In terms of the Balkan states’ sharef the Balkan states’ share of of the Ottoman debts, Cavid Beythe Ottoman debts, Cavid Bey argued that they should pay their share, argued that they should pay their share,

764 CaCavidvid BeBey, y, MeşrMeşrutiyet Ruznâmeutiyet Ruznâmesi si I,I, 585822--584.584.

765 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I,, 586586--5588.88.

766 Mehmed Cavid Bey, Mehmed Cavid Bey, MeşruMeşrutiyet Ruznâmesi tiyet Ruznâmesi I, I, 590590--595.595.

767 Mahmud Şevket Paşa, Mahmud Şevket Paşa, Mahmut Şevket Paşa’nın GünlüğüMahmut Şevket Paşa’nın Günlüğü, 33. , 33.

768 Mehmed CaviMehmed Cavid Bey, d Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 595595--601.601.

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and hence the Ottoman Empire could allocate money for future reforms

and hence the Ottoman Empire could allocate money for future reforms and investments in Anatolia.and investments in Anatolia.

Before departing from Istanbul, Cavid Bey

Before departing from Istanbul, Cavid Bey first went to tfirst went to the ministry he ministry of finance to of finance to receive his salary for two months. He had not taken his sal-receive his salary for two months. He had not taken his sal-ary since the Kamil Pasha government was formed. He was the only ary since the Kamil Pasha government was formed. He was the only person left who had not taken his salary. He lamented, “I signed the pa-person left who had not taken his salary. He lamented, “I signed the pa-pers as the ‘deputy for Selanik’ fopers as the ‘deputy for Selanik’ for the last time. Six monthr the last time. Six months ago, who s ago, who could envisage a disaster like this?” His solemn demeanor indicates just could envisage a disaster like this?” His solemn demeanor indicates just how sad he must have felt about the loss of Selanik.how sad he must have felt about the loss of Selanik.769 As usual, Cavid As usual, Cavid BeyBey made several courtesy visits to senior officials, ambassadors, the made several courtesy visits to senior officials, ambassadors, the grangrand vizier, and the sultan bd vizier, and the sultan before his trip. During his visits to the am-efore his trip. During his visits to the am-bassadors of Germany, France, Britain, Italy, and the presidents of the bassadors of Germany, France, Britain, Italy, and the presidents of the Ottoman PDA and the Ottoman Bank, he discussed information about Ottoman PDA and the Ottoman Bank, he discussed information about his trip to Europe, his main projects, and the curhis trip to Europe, his main projects, and the current political and eco-rent political and eco-nominomic situation of the Empire after the Balkan Wars.c situation of the Empire after the Balkan Wars.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey's meeting with de Giers, the Russian ambassador, is quite 's meeting with de Giers, the Russian ambassador, is quite interesting, especially as the Empire’s issues related to Russia would interesting, especially as the Empire’s issues related to Russia would occupy a large portion of Cavid Beyoccupy a large portion of Cavid Bey's talk's talks in Europe, including thes in Europe, including the Ar-Ar-menian issue, the facts about a Russian delegate to the OPDA, and the menian issue, the facts about a Russian delegate to the OPDA, and the railways in Eastern Anatolia. De Giers began the meeting by discussing railways in Eastern Anatolia. De Giers began the meeting by discussing the Edirne issue. Cavid Beythe Edirne issue. Cavid Bey strongly emphasized that Edirne’s fate was strongly emphasized that Edirne’s fate was beyond the govebeyond the government's control, and it wrnment's control, and it was a matter of politics. Cavid as a matter of politics. Cavid BeyBey complained about the injustice in Europe. Giers told Cavid Beycomplained about the injustice in Europe. Giers told Cavid Bey, "you , "you (Cavid Bey(Cavid Bey) are a person who stands for his convictions. No one can ) are a person who stands for his convictions. No one can change your thoughts, and that kind of an extreme feeling change your thoughts, and that kind of an extreme feeling of Turkism of Turkism deserves respecdeserves respect." Cavid Beyt." Cavid Bey also told de Giersalso told de Giers, with, with wellwell--placed fore-placed fore-sight,sight, that the Macedonia issue was still that the Macedonia issue was still unfinished,unfinished, and he predicted and he predicted that the Balkan states would fight against each other very soon. Then, that the Balkan states would fight against each other very soon. Then, they started to discuss the railwthey started to discuss the railwaays. Could railway lines rys. Could railway lines reacheach Van and Van and Bitlis? Would Russia allow this to happen? Interestingly, Van's railway Bitlis? Would Russia allow this to happen? Interestingly, Van's railway construction is still a problematic issue in contemporary Turkey due to construction is still a problematic issue in contemporary Turkey due to

769 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmeRuznâmesi Isi I, 588. , 588.

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almost the same concerns. Russia claimed that it would break the 1900

almost the same concerns. Russia claimed that it would break the 1900 conconvvention, which gave Russiaention, which gave Russia autauthority to build a railway in the region. hority to build a railway in the region. However, in return no railway line to Erzurum could be built for the However, in return no railway line to Erzurum could be built for the next fifteen years. Under these conditions, however, a railway to Erzin-next fifteen years. Under these conditions, however, a railway to Erzin-can was acceptable. According to Cavid Beycan was acceptable. According to Cavid Bey, t, thhe 1900 convention did e 1900 convention did notnot hinhinder the Van and Bitlis railways' construction. He added that new der the Van and Bitlis railways' construction. He added that new lines must also be built between Baghdad and Van. De Giers's response lines must also be built between Baghdad and Van. De Giers's response is interesting: "Do not mention the Baghdad Railway, which cost you a is interesting: "Do not mention the Baghdad Railway, which cost you a lot!" After that, thelot!" After that, the ambassador foreshadowed tambassador foreshadowed the ehe events to come: "af-vents to come: "af-ter the resolution of railways and Iranian issues, there would be no ter the resolution of railways and Iranian issues, there would be no more conflict in between Russia and the Ottoman Empire unless you more conflict in between Russia and the Ottoman Empire unless you massacre Armenians!" Though Cavid Beymassacre Armenians!" Though Cavid Bey could not respond to Giers, he could not respond to Giers, he wrotwrotee his thoughts in his diarhis thoughts in his diary: "y: "what can we do if Russian provocateurs what can we do if Russian provocateurs work for it!" Cavid Beywork for it!" Cavid Bey would encounter more conversations of this na-would encounter more conversations of this na-ture very shortly afterward. Indeed, the events surrounding the Arme-ture very shortly afterward. Indeed, the events surrounding the Arme-nian issue in 1915 were not a surprise to anyone wnian issue in 1915 were not a surprise to anyone woorking in Near East rking in Near East diplomdiplomacy.acy. More important than this, it was essential to see that already More important than this, it was essential to see that already in 1913, the Armenians' future would be a serious issue of negotiation in 1913, the Armenians' future would be a serious issue of negotiation between the states, which were primarily concerned with their own in-between the states, which were primarily concerned with their own in-terests.terests.770 Cavid BeyCavid Bey's d's diiaries would demonstrate taries would demonstrate this his to us very clearly.to us very clearly.

During his visit to Sir Adam Block, president of the Ottoman PDA,

During his visit to Sir Adam Block, president of the Ottoman PDA, Block warned Cavid BeyBlock warned Cavid Bey that he might encounter the issue ofthat he might encounter the issue of contrôleur contrôleur financierfinancier of Ottoman finances in return for the loans. This issue wof Ottoman finances in return for the loans. This issue waas dis-s dis-cussed up until the cussed up until the lastlast phase of the agreements in April 1914. Ottoman phase of the agreements in April 1914. Ottoman investments in the military field were the primary concern of the investments in the military field were the primary concern of the French government. As will be discussed below, the main apprehension French government. As will be discussed below, the main apprehension was rooted in the Ottoman navy's revitalizawas rooted in the Ottoman navy's revitalizattion in hope of recapturinion in hope of recapturing g ththe islands from Greece. France forced Cavid Beye islands from Greece. France forced Cavid Bey and the Ottoman gov-and the Ottoman gov-ernment to purchase military equipment from France when they failed ernment to purchase military equipment from France when they failed to submit to financial control.to submit to financial control.

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Finally, before leaving for Europe, Cavid Bey

Finally, before leaving for Europe, Cavid Bey went to the pwent to the paalace, lace, thinking that it wothinking that it would uld be inappropriate not to visit the sultan as he be inappropriate not to visit the sultan as he would always pay a courtesy visit to him while he was formally in would always pay a courtesy visit to him while he was formally in charge of affairs. According to Cavid Beycharge of affairs. According to Cavid Bey, Sultan Mehmed Reşad looked , Sultan Mehmed Reşad looked weary and exhausted, and he had already forweary and exhausted, and he had already forggotten what had happened otten what had happened sincesince the last summer with the fall of the Mehmet Sait Pasha govern-the last summer with the fall of the Mehmet Sait Pasha govern-ment, the closure of parliament, and the events of both the Ahmet Mu-ment, the closure of parliament, and the events of both the Ahmet Mu-htar Pasha and Kamil Pashtar Pasha and Kamil Pasha governments. Mehmed Reşad askha governments. Mehmed Reşad askeded Cavid Cavid BeyBey what would happen to Edirne and Selanik. Cavid Beywhat would happen to Edirne and Selanik. Cavid Bey writewritess in his in his journal that he is “not a sultan, but a caricature.”journal that he is “not a sultan, but a caricature.”771

Cavid BeyCavid Bey received his allowance for his trip received his allowance for his trip —— 250 Liras and 11 Li-250 Liras and 11 Li-ras per diem, the same aras per diem, the same amount paid to delegates assigned for peace mount paid to delegates assigned for peace talks. On March 3, 1913, he arrived in Vienna. talks. On March 3, 1913, he arrived in Vienna.

§ 4.3 The NegotiThe Negotiaattor or

4.3.1 A Smooth Beginning to Negotiations, Berlin, March 1913A Smooth Beginning to Negotiations, Berlin, March 1913

In March 1913, Cavid Bey

In March 1913, Cavid Bey stopped by in Vienna to meet Hüseyin Hilmi stopped by in Vienna to meet Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha and some Austrian fPasha and some Austrian financiers and politicians. Though they asked inanciers and politicians. Though they asked questions about whether the putsch was necessary, Cavid questions about whether the putsch was necessary, Cavid BBeeyy mainly mainly discussed investment opportunities in Anatolia. Such meetings also in-discussed investment opportunities in Anatolia. Such meetings also in-dicate how the Young Turks and Cavid Beydicate how the Young Turks and Cavid Bey had quickly embraced Anato-had quickly embraced Anato-lia as tlia as the new homeland of the Empire after the First Balkan War. After he new homeland of the Empire after the First Balkan War. After the war, Cavid Beythe war, Cavid Bey aimed to leave theaimed to leave the BBalkan states’ share of the Otto-alkan states’ share of the Otto-man loans for them to pay in order to save money for the development man loans for them to pay in order to save money for the development of Anatolia. After a short period in Vienna, Cavid Beof Anatolia. After a short period in Vienna, Cavid Beyy arrived in Berlin arrived in Berlin on the evening of March 5.on the evening of March 5.772 Osman Nizâmi Pasha welcomed him at the Osman Nizâmi Pasha welcomed him at the train station.train station. CCavid Beyavid Bey gave two interviews togave two interviews to Berliner Berliner TageblattTageblatt andand Vossitche ZeitungVossitche Zeitung as soon as he arrived. Cavid Beyas soon as he arrived. Cavid Bey’s first ’s first business meeting in Berlin was with Mr.business meeting in Berlin was with Mr. Helfferich and Mr. Gwinner Helfferich and Mr. Gwinner

771 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznRuznâmesi I,âmesi I, 595595--601.601.

772 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâmesi I,uznâmesi I, 603603--607.607.

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from Deutsche Bank, who were assigned by the German ministry of for-

from Deutsche Bank, who were assigned by the German ministry of for-eign aeign affffairs to participate in the international talks about the Ottoman airs to participate in the international talks about the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, the Germans also carried out negotiations with the Empire. Meanwhile, the Germans also carried out negotiations with the French and BritishFrench and British on the Baghdad Railways. Cavid Beyon the Baghdad Railways. Cavid Bey would become a would become a mediator in the Francomediator in the Franco--German talks. These German talks. These talks talks ccoovered several com-vered several com-plicated issues. First of all, the two countries were hostile enemies. Sec-plicated issues. First of all, the two countries were hostile enemies. Sec-ondly, though the Potsdam Agreement had annihilated Russian objondly, though the Potsdam Agreement had annihilated Russian objec-ec-tions to the Baghdad Railway, the Anatolian Railways were still an open tions to the Baghdad Railway, the Anatolian Railways were still an open question for the Russians.question for the Russians. FFrance’s priority was to solve the issues rance’s priority was to solve the issues without betraying its ally, Russia. Nevertheless, Russia was putting new without betraying its ally, Russia. Nevertheless, Russia was putting new subjects forward on the table. Thereforesubjects forward on the table. Therefore, the Franco, the Franco--German negotia-German negotia-tions lasted for almost a year.tions lasted for almost a year.773

The day after he arrived in Berlin, Cavi

The day after he arrived in Berlin, Cavidd BeyBey heard about the fall of heard about the fall of Yanya (Ioannina). He noted down in his journal that although everyone Yanya (Ioannina). He noted down in his journal that although everyone had expected the city to fall, it was still excruciatinghad expected the city to fall, it was still excruciating to hear the news. to hear the news. He added that the fall of Yanya would harm the peace talks.He added that the fall of Yanya would harm the peace talks.774 While While Cavid BeyCavid Bey was was hhaaving negotiations with German and French politicians ving negotiations with German and French politicians and financiers in Berlin, parallel talks were carried out in London by and financiers in Berlin, parallel talks were carried out in London by Hakkı Pasha and in Istanbul byHakkı Pasha and in Istanbul by Mahmud Şevket Pasha. During the nego-Mahmud Şevket Pasha. During the nego-tiations in Istanbul, Mahmud Şevket Pasha was ignorant about thtiations in Istanbul, Mahmud Şevket Pasha was ignorant about the e issue issue of oil. He considered Kuwait and Qatar as unimportant regions that of oil. He considered Kuwait and Qatar as unimportant regions that could be given up for a deal with Britain as soon as possible. Thus, could be given up for a deal with Britain as soon as possible. Thus, Mahmud ŞevkeMahmud Şevket Pasha approved British rights in the Persian Gulf, cov-t Pasha approved British rights in the Persian Gulf, cov-ering Qatar, Bahrain, and Kuwait. He saw no otering Qatar, Bahrain, and Kuwait. He saw no other alternative but to her alternative but to leave these lands to British domination. leave these lands to British domination. Sait PashaSait Pasha, president of the , president of the Council of State, rightly objected to this, because giving upCouncil of State, rightly objected to this, because giving up the sover-the sover-eignty of territory required the parliament's approval. Mahmud Şevket eignty of territory required the parliament's approval. Mahmud Şevket Pasha insisted that thPasha insisted that they could not risk any dispute with Britain over ey could not risk any dispute with Britain over these desert provinces. He decided to leave Qatar and Kuwait to Britain these desert provinces. He decided to leave Qatar and Kuwait to Britain and focus on the province of Iraq,and focus on the province of Iraq, which was full of rich natural re-which was full of rich natural re-sources. The next day, the cabinet decided to permit Egypt to receivsources. The next day, the cabinet decided to permit Egypt to receive e

773 Bayur, Bayur, Türk İnkîlâbı Tarihi, II/IITürk İnkîlâbı Tarihi, II/II, 295., 295.

774 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, 607, 607--610.610.

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loans from Europe without the Ottoman Empire's permission. This con-

loans from Europe without the Ottoman Empire's permission. This con-dition was one of Britain's top requirements for a deal.dition was one of Britain's top requirements for a deal.775

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met Goltz Pasha imet Goltz Pasha in Berlin. Goltz Pasha told him that after n Berlin. Goltz Pasha told him that after the coup d’état in January, the impression of a Turkish awakthe coup d’état in January, the impression of a Turkish awakening was ening was increasingly discussed in Europe. He warned Cavid Beyincreasingly discussed in Europe. He warned Cavid Bey that the Union-that the Union-ists should keep up a certain image in Europe. Goltz Pasha had heard ists should keep up a certain image in Europe. Goltz Pasha had heard from a from a German officer in Istanbul that Nazım Pasha had changed the German officer in Istanbul that Nazım Pasha had changed the war plans during the Balkan Wars. Goltz Pawar plans during the Balkan Wars. Goltz Pasha asked about the military sha asked about the military budget, and he commented on the changing of the capitalbudget, and he commented on the changing of the capital from from IstanbulIstanbul to Syria.to Syria.776

In Berlin, Cavid Bey

In Berlin, Cavid Bey had to deal with Russiahad to deal with Russia’s latest condition in the ’s latest condition in the negotiations: a Russian deputy on the board of directors of the OPDA. negotiations: a Russian deputy on the board of directors of the OPDA. AlAlthothoughugh this idea would never come to fruition, Cavid Beythis idea would never come to fruition, Cavid Bey struggled struggled against this issue for a long time. He argued that if Russia had a seat at against this issue for a long time. He argued that if Russia had a seat at the OPDA, then the OPDA, then the other minor states would ask for the same. Then, the the other minor states would ask for the same. Then, the board of directors would become a politicaboard of directors would become a political al assessembly where France and mbly where France and Russia would decide the majority of all issues.Russia would decide the majority of all issues.777 However, as men-However, as men-tioned before, the Russian delegate issue would last until the Grtioned before, the Russian delegate issue would last until the Great War, eat War, and Cavid Beyand Cavid Bey would change his tactics and try to use this issue in favor would change his tactics and try to use this issue in favor of the Ottoman Gof the Ottoman Goveovernmrnment as a part of the negotiations.ent as a part of the negotiations.

The first step in the negotiations began on March 13, 1913, concern-

The first step in the negotiations began on March 13, 1913, concern-ing the Régie. Cavid Beying the Régie. Cavid Bey, Mr. Weil from the OPDA,, Mr. Weil from the OPDA, and Baron de Neuflize and Baron de Neuflize from the Banque de France met at the office of Mr. Schwabach, a promi-from the Banque de France met at the office of Mr. Schwabach, a promi-nent Genent Germarman bn banker and financier. Although the Ottoman government anker and financier. Although the Ottoman government did not want to extend the Régie, the urgent need for money to fund did not want to extend the Régie, the urgent need for money to fund Edirne's defense changed the pEdirne's defense changed the paradigm. The talks were tough. Cavid aradigm. The talks were tough. Cavid BeyBey's main problem was that the OPDA was the most crucial part's main problem was that the OPDA was the most crucial party ty to o tthe Régie businesses, and the decision was too political. The French he Régie businesses, and the decision was too political. The French asked for 20 years of concessions, but Cavid Beyasked for 20 years of concessions, but Cavid Bey stated that extending stated that extending

775 Mahmud Mahmud Şevket Paşa, Şevket Paşa, MMahmahmut Şeut Şevvket Paşaket Paşa’nın Günlüğü’nın Günlüğü, 39, 39--40, 4540, 45--46, Heller, 46, Heller, BritiBritissh h PoliPolicy Towards cy Towards thethe Ottoman Empire 1908Ottoman Empire 1908--19141914, 94. , 94.

776 Cavid BeyCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet , Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 611611--612.612.

777 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmeRuznâmesi Isi I, 615, 615--621.621.

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the time fro

the time from five years to ten years was difficult enough for the Em-m five years to ten years was difficult enough for the Em-pire. Weil personally accused Cavid Beypire. Weil personally accused Cavid Bey ofof obobjecjecting to their demands. ting to their demands. Cavid BeyCavid Bey responded that it was not only him but all of the cabinet that responded that it was not only him but all of the cabinet that objected. In terms of money, the OPDA asked for a 6% inobjected. In terms of money, the OPDA asked for a 6% interest rate and terest rate and offered less than 850,000 Ottoman Liras for the loan. Cavid Beyoffered less than 850,000 Ottoman Liras for the loan. Cavid Bey opposed opposed the OPDA's the OPDA's shashare re of this loan, which amounted to 14%, or 300,000 Liras, of this loan, which amounted to 14%, or 300,000 Liras, of profit. The Great Powers' demands were quite heavy and exploitative.of profit. The Great Powers' demands were quite heavy and exploitative.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey attended a teaattended a tea party at the Ottoman Students Club in Ber-party at the Ottoman Students Club in Ber-lin, where he gave a brief speech. While he was comparinglin, where he gave a brief speech. While he was comparing ththe Ee Empire’s mpire’s position and mood from four years before to the current situation, his position and mood from four years before to the current situation, his eyes filled up, and he puckered his lips. Cavid Beyeyes filled up, and he puckered his lips. Cavid Bey forced himself not tforced himself not to o cry and not to stop talking several times during his speech. As he writes cry and not to stop talking several times during his speech. As he writes about the day in his diabout the day in his diaryary, h, he notes that six months before, nobody could e notes that six months before, nobody could have envisaged talking about the disaster of war and the loss of Selan-have envisaged talking about the disaster of war and the loss of Selan-ik.ik.778 Though Cavid BeyThough Cavid Bey does not give does not give any personal details in his mem-any personal details in his mem-oirs, he mentions the trauma of losing Selanik and Macedonia on diffoirs, he mentions the trauma of losing Selanik and Macedonia on differ-er-eent nt occasions. His words are full of patriotic feelings toward his country: occasions. His words are full of patriotic feelings toward his country: maybe it is even possible to describe him as a patriot rather than a na-maybe it is even possible to describe him as a patriot rather than a na-tionalistionalist. He was an overt supporter of Ottomanism and multit. He was an overt supporter of Ottomanism and multi--culturalism rather than of Turkish nationalismculturalism rather than of Turkish nationalism babasedsed on ethnicity. It on ethnicity. It could be argued that factors such as his identity, childhood in Selanik, could be argued that factors such as his identity, childhood in Selanik, liberal stance, in fact his whole background might have affeliberal stance, in fact his whole background might have affected his atti-cted his atti-tude in this episode. After the Balkan Wars, nationalism and militarism tude in this episode. After the Balkan Wars, nationalism and militarism became the dombecame the dominainant nt ideologies behind the transition from Empire to ideologies behind the transition from Empire to nationnation--state. These inclinations had become more tangible in the Re-state. These inclinations had become more tangible in the Re-publican Era after the Independence publican Era after the Independence War. However, Cavid BeyWar. However, Cavid Bey, who had , who had an imperial background and stayed out of the war, became an outsidan imperial background and stayed out of the war, became an outsider er in in the Republican Era. It is possible to claim that the transition from the Republican Era. It is possible to claim that the transition from Empire to nationEmpire to nation--state began with the Balkan Wars. The exact date state began with the Balkan Wars. The exact date when Cavid Beywhen Cavid Bey sstarted to become an outsider in politics, while main-tarted to become an outsider in politics, while main-taining his position as an expert.taining his position as an expert.

778 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmeRuznâmesi si I,I, 626277..

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While in Ber

While in Berlinlin, , CCavid Beyavid Bey received a letter from the ministry of for-received a letter from the ministry of for-eign affairs asking him to participate in the negotiations with Hakkı Pa-eign affairs asking him to participate in the negotiations with Hakkı Pa-sha on navigation rights on sha on navigation rights on the Tigris and Euphrates. Cavid Beythe Tigris and Euphrates. Cavid Bey thus de-thus de-cided to go to London. However, before his departure, oncided to go to London. However, before his departure, on MaMarchrch 17, 17, 1911913, Deutsche Bank informed the Foreign Office that they had reached 3, Deutsche Bank informed the Foreign Office that they had reached a basic agreement with Britain. The main conclusion from the talks, as a basic agreement with Britain. The main conclusion from the talks, as expressed by Sir Edward Grey, was, "You (the Germans) rule over the expressed by Sir Edward Grey, was, "You (the Germans) rule over the railways, and we (the British) over railways, and we (the British) over thethe wawaters."ters."779 This deal was the first This deal was the first step in the lengthy negotiations in London, with many more ups and step in the lengthy negotiations in London, with many more ups and downs, pros and cons. The final agreement would be signed later on downs, pros and cons. The final agreement would be signed later on June 15, 1914, only 13 days before the first indication of the First World June 15, 1914, only 13 days before the first indication of the First World War. War.

Cav

Cavid id BeyBey's last 's last day in Berlin was spent in inconclusive, long debates day in Berlin was spent in inconclusive, long debates on the Régie. He arrived in London on the evening of March 18, 1913.on the Régie. He arrived in London on the evening of March 18, 1913.780

4.3.2 In London, March 1913In London, March 1913

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey began his meetings in London on March 20, 1913. He first began his meetings in London on March 20, 1913. He first met Hakkı Pasha and Tevfik Pamet Hakkı Pasha and Tevfik Pashasha. H. Hakkı Pasakkı Pasha was hha was hopeful about gain-opeful about gain-ing the support of the British against the Russians. According to him, ing the support of the British against the Russians. According to him, this was essential for the survival of the state. this was essential for the survival of the state. He was in favor of holding He was in favor of holding broad negotiations with the British government. Cavid Beybroad negotiations with the British government. Cavid Bey then met then met wiwith th SirSir Ernest Ernest Cassel, founder of the National Bank of Turkey. They Cassel, founder of the National Bank of Turkey. They talked about treasury bonds, the Mesopotamia issue, the country's fu-talked about treasury bonds, the Mesopotamia issue, the country's fu-ture, the postture, the post--war financwar financial situation, and the coup d’état. Cassel sug-ial situation, and the coup d’état. Cassel sug-gested that the British and the Ottomans compromisgested that the British and the Ottomans compromise oe on an a plan toplan to pro-pro-tect Istanbul. He argued that the Ottomans should not allocate extra tect Istanbul. He argued that the Ottomans should not allocate extra funds for the city's defense; instead, the Ottomans should consider leav-funds for the city's defense; instead, the Ottomans should consider leav-iing Istanbul to the Great Powers' guarantee. According to Cavid Beyng Istanbul to the Great Powers' guarantee. According to Cavid Bey, , these offers were impossiblethese offers were impossible toto acaccept. Cacept. Cassel also warned Cavid Beyssel also warned Cavid Bey that the Ottoman government should shift the Empire's capital to a dif-that the Ottoman government should shift the Empire's capital to a dif-

779 WillWilliamson, iamson, Karl Helfferich, 1872Karl Helfferich, 1872--1924: Econo1924: Econommist, Fist, Financier, Politicianinancier, Politician, 100, 100--101. 101.

780 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 631631

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ferent place. However, Cassel's statements about

ferent place. However, Cassel's statements about Istanbul's protection Istanbul's protection are quite interesting because he depicted what would happen five years are quite interesting because he depicted what would happen five years latlater,er, afafter the ter the armistice following the Great War.armistice following the Great War.781 He also added that He also added that the Empire would need to work very hard for the next 25 years to de-the Empire would need to work very hard for the next 25 years to de-velop into a modern nativelop into a modern nation.on. In terms of loans, Cavid BeyIn terms of loans, Cavid Bey told Cassel that told Cassel that he was not in favor of an international loan, he was not in favor of an international loan, becbecausause the loe the loan would in-an would in-terfere in the Ottoman Empire's domestic affairs.terfere in the Ottoman Empire's domestic affairs.

During his London visit, Cavid Bey

During his London visit, Cavid Bey met with the key British politi-met with the key British politi-cians who would becians who would be closely involved in the Ottoman Empire in the near closely involved in the Ottoman Empire in the near future such as Sir Edward Grey, Mark Sykes, future such as Sir Edward Grey, Mark Sykes, andand WiWinston Chnston Churchill. urchill. Cavid BeyCavid Bey had an appointment with Sir Edward Grey on March 25, 1913. had an appointment with Sir Edward Grey on March 25, 1913. First, they talked about Edirne. Grey asserted that there would be nFirst, they talked about Edirne. Grey asserted that there would be no o peace unless the Ottomans surrendered Edirne. Grey added that Edirne peace unless the Ottomans surrendered Edirne. Grey added that Edirne was an issue that could cwas an issue that could causause de domestic omestic upheaval. Grey also upheaval. Grey also notednoted that that Britain wanted a healthy Turkey in Anatolia, and that was why it did not Britain wanted a healthy Turkey in Anatolia, and that was why it did not accept any plan in which the Ottomans waccept any plan in which the Ottomans would pay war reparations to ould pay war reparations to the Balkan states. He declared that he was anxious, because ththe Balkan states. He declared that he was anxious, because the Balkan e Balkan stastates still dtes still did not understand this condition. He estimated that the Par-id not understand this condition. He estimated that the Par-is financial conference, which would be held to resolve the financial is-is financial conference, which would be held to resolve the financial is-sues in the sues in the Balkans after the war, might carry on for a long time. He Balkans after the war, might carry on for a long time. He added that Britain, France, and added that Britain, France, and Germany all Germany all agreed thatagreed that the Balkan the Balkan states should help pay the Ottoman debts. But the other states had not states should help pay the Ottoman debts. But the other states had not approved this yet.approved this yet.782 As far as we understand from Grey’s speeAs far as we understand from Grey’s speech, the ch, the Great Powers Great Powers ——except Russia except Russia —— had reached consensus on keeping the had reached consensus on keeping the Ottoman Empire'Ottoman Empire's territorias territorial integrityl integrity intact in Anatolia and viewing the intact in Anatolia and viewing the Ottoman Empire as an Asian Empire. The Great Powers had planned to Ottoman Empire as an Asian Empire. The Great Powers had planned to implement the classical policies of foreimplement the classical policies of foreign direct investment, loans, and ign direct investment, loans, and concessions, in order to keep their hold and influence wconcessions, in order to keep their hold and influence within the teithin the terri-rri-tory of tory of the Empire. The Great Powers, including Russia, did not think the Empire. The Great Powers, including Russia, did not think that it was the right time for the Empire’s dissolution.that it was the right time for the Empire’s dissolution.783 At Cavid BeyAt Cavid Bey’s ’s

781 CavCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet id Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, 631, 631--6632.32.

782 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmRuznâmesi Iesi I, , 637. 637.

783 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 636636--637.637.

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meeting

meeting with Mr. Sykeswith Mr. Sykes, the man who would "create the Middle East", the man who would "create the Middle East" with the Sykeswith the Sykes--Picot Agreement Picot Agreement in 1916, thein 1916, they talked aby talked about the Ottoman out the Ottoman Empire's future, and Sykes's travels in Anatolia. Mr. Sykes argued that Empire's future, and Sykes's travels in Anatolia. Mr. Sykes argued that the best way to govern Anatolia was to establish a modethe best way to govern Anatolia was to establish a model administration l administration that the European consultants would implement.that the European consultants would implement.784

The news of the fall of E

The news of the fall of Edirne reachedirne reached London ond London on March 26, 1913. March 26, 1913. Edirne had fallen to troops waving Bulgarian flags on the eastern Edirne had fallen to troops waving Bulgarian flags on the eastern trenches at sunrise on March 26. The city had resisted the Btrenches at sunrise on March 26. The city had resisted the Bulgarian ulgarian army's siege from November 1912 to March 1913, after the Serbian ar-army's siege from November 1912 to March 1913, after the Serbian ar-my had helped my had helped the Bulgariathe Bulgarian army. Thon army. Though Edirne's commander, Şükrü ugh Edirne's commander, Şükrü Pasha, had resisted and fought until the end, he could not stop the at-Pasha, had resisted and fought until the end, he could not stop the at-tack. The main concern after the fall of thtack. The main concern after the fall of the city was that the Bulgarians e city was that the Bulgarians would move toward Istanbul. According to Jean Frédéric Lucien Pierron would move toward Istanbul. According to Jean Frédéric Lucien Pierron dde Mondésir,e Mondésir, a French colonel who witnessed the Balkan Wars and siege a French colonel who witnessed the Balkan Wars and siege of Edirne, the city had a significant role in weakening the victorious en-of Edirne, the city had a significant role in weakening the victorious en-emy and stopemy and stopped its progress toward Istanbul.ped its progress toward Istanbul.785 The gunfight at Çatal-The gunfight at Çatal-ca continued until April 2, 1913. On April 7, ca continued until April 2, 1913. On April 7, the Ottomanthe Ottoman government government proposed a truce, and on April 15, an armistice was signed beproposed a truce, and on April 15, an armistice was signed between the tween the parties. On April 22, Esad Pasha also surrendered İşkodra (Sparties. On April 22, Esad Pasha also surrendered İşkodra (Schkodër) to chkodër) to the Montenegrin armed forces. İşkodra (Schkodër) held a critical posi-the Montenegrin armed forces. İşkodra (Schkodër) held a critical posi-tion in terms of the tion in terms of the foundation of an independent Albania. The city was foundation of an independent Albania. The city was of interest to both Montenegro anof interest to both Montenegro and the Austrod the Austro--Hungarian Empire. How-Hungarian Empire. How-ever, Montenegrin forces left the ciever, Montenegrin forces left the city, and creating an independent Al-ty, and creating an independent Al-bania arose on the international powers' agenda.bania arose on the international powers' agenda.786 Cavid BeyCavid Bey notes in notes in his diary that Edirne's fall might worsen the peace terms for the Otto-his diary that Edirne's fall might worsen the peace terms for the Otto-

784 Mahmud ŞevMahmud Şevkket Paşet Paşa, a, Mahmut Şevket Paşa’nın GünlüğüMahmut Şevket Paşa’nın Günlüğü, 49, 68., 49, 68.

785 De Mondésir, J. F. L. P. De Mondésir, J. F. L. P. Balkan Savaşı’nda Edirne Muhâsarası.Balkan Savaşı’nda Edirne Muhâsarası. (1912 Teşrînisânî (1912 Teşrînisânî -- 191913 13 MartMart), ed. Halûk Kayıcı (Istanbul: Cer), ed. Halûk Kayıcı (Istanbul: Ceren Yayıen Yayıncılık ve Kitancılık ve Kitabevbevi, 20i, 20119), 11, 9), 11, 173, 192173, 192--193. 193.

786 Hüner Tuncer Hüner Tuncer TrablusgarTrablusgarpp ve Bave Balkan Savaşları (1911lkan Savaşları (1911--1913)1913), (Istanbul: Tarihç, (Istanbul: Tarihçi i Kitabevi, 2018), 77Kitabevi, 2018), 77--79. 79.

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man Empire. A

man Empire. According to him, Grey's point on the implications of Edir-ccording to him, Grey's point on the implications of Edir-ne's fall on ne's fall on domestic politics was not a remote possibility.domestic politics was not a remote possibility.787

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey attended a dinner with Hakkı Pasha at Ernest Cassel's attended a dinner with Hakkı Pasha at Ernest Cassel's house, where Winston Churchill was also present. Churchill talked to house, where Winston Churchill was also present. Churchill talked to CaviCavid Beyd Bey, whom he had met before, about the letter he wrote to him , whom he had met before, about the letter he wrote to him concerning British support during the Tripolitanian Warconcerning British support during the Tripolitanian War (1911(1911––191912). 12). Churchill claimed that he often defended the Young Turks against the Churchill claimed that he often defended the Young Turks against the Europeans and thought that Enver's last moveEuropeans and thought that Enver's last move, the coup , the coup d’étatd’état of Janu-of Janu-aryary 1911913, 3, was patrioticwas patriotic. Churchill added that he believed that the CUP . Churchill added that he believed that the CUP would rule the country for a longwould rule the country for a long time. Catime. Cavid Beyvid Bey noted that Churcnoted that Churchhill ill had followed the political developments in Istanbul closely, including had followed the political developments in Istanbul closely, including the incidents of summer 1912 and Cavid Beythe incidents of summer 1912 and Cavid Bey’s resignation in 1911. Ac-’s resignation in 1911. Ac-cording to Churchill, the conditions had changed, and now Britain was cording to Churchill, the conditions had changed, and now Britain was supportinsupporting a healtg a healthy Turkey in Anatolia. Thy Turkey in Anatolia. Too reach this goal, Turkey reach this goal, Turkey should not pay war reparations and should share the Ottoman debts should not pay war reparations and should share the Ottoman debts owed to the OPDA.owed to the OPDA.788 A few days later, after this short conversation, A few days later, after this short conversation, Cavid BeyCavid Bey was invited to Churchill's house for dinner on April was invited to Churchill's house for dinner on April 1, 1913. 1, 1913. During their discussion,During their discussion, Churchill advised Cavid BeyChurchill advised Cavid Bey to keep good rela-to keep good rela-tions with Greece, and warned him that Britain had much stronger ties tions with Greece, and warned him that Britain had much stronger ties with the Greeks than with the Slavs.with the Greeks than with the Slavs.789 In return, Cavid BeyIn return, Cavid Bey said that said that googood relatiod relations with Greece depended ns with Greece depended oon the situation of the islands. He n the situation of the islands. He repeatedly told Churchill that if the islands off the coast of Anatolia repeatedly told Churchill that if the islands off the coast of Anatolia were given to Greece, there would be a war over them in the next five were given to Greece, there would be a war over them in the next five years. When Cavid Beyyears. When Cavid Bey mentimentioned his concerns oned his concerns about Rusabout Russia's position sia's position in Anatolin Anatoliia, Churchill told him that the British were more worried about a, Churchill told him that the British were more worried about a German occupation of the Anatolian provinces.a German occupation of the Anatolian provinces. ChurChurchill also pointed chill also pointed

787 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi Ruznâmesi I, I, 637637--638.638.

788 Cavid Bey, MeşCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet rutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 638638--639639--640.640.

789 This sThis situituationation had not had not only cultural implications but also indiconly cultural implications but also indicaated thted the direct interests e direct interests of Britain in the Mediterrof Britain in the Mediterranean. The islands on its way to the Suez Canal such as Ar-anean. The islands on its way to the Suez Canal such as Ar-gogosstoli and Cyprutoli and Cyprus were ves were very critical. Andrekos Varnava “British anry critical. Andrekos Varnava “British and Greekd Greek Liberalism Liberalism anand Id Imperimperiaalism,” ilism,” in n Liberal Imperialism in EuropeLiberal Imperialism in Europe, ed. Fitz, ed. Fitzppatrickatrick, M.P. (New York: Pa, M.P. (New York: Pal-l-grave Macmillan, 2012), grave Macmillan, 2012), 229229--241. 241.

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out the position of the Ottoman army at Çatalca. He was also aware of

out the position of the Ottoman army at Çatalca. He was also aware of the rise of Enver the rise of Enver Pasha in Pasha in the Ottoman army after the coup d’état, and the Ottoman army after the coup d’état, and that’s why he was directly mentioning him as the commander of the bat-that’s why he was directly mentioning him as the commander of the bat-tle in the Thrace. tle in the Thrace. According to ChurchilAccording to Churchil, Enver Pasha, Enver Pasha’’ss. victory would be . victory would be crucial in altering bothcrucial in altering both domestic and European relations.domestic and European relations. LLater, Cavater, Cavid id BeyBey left Churchill's house with Sir Ernest Cassel and went to Cassel's left Churchill's house with Sir Ernest Cassel and went to Cassel's house to continue the discussions. Cassel told him that the National house to continue the discussions. Cassel told him that the National Bank could not keep working like this: he said that he had started thBank could not keep working like this: he said that he had started the e bank at the request of both thebank at the request of both the OOttoman anttoman and British governments, but d British governments, but now they did not provide the necessary support for the bank to operate. now they did not provide the necessary support for the bank to operate. Cassel asked Cavid BeyCassel asked Cavid Bey whether he would always stay in politics and whether he would always stay in politics and remarked that Cavid Beyremarked that Cavid Bey would be happier and would be happier and wealthier if he worked wealthier if he worked at the banat the bank,k, and the and the bank would benefit from his presence. Cavid Beybank would benefit from his presence. Cavid Bey, , however, was a man of politics. Cassel told Cavid Beyhowever, was a man of politics. Cassel told Cavid Bey that he still kept that he still kept some of the bank's shares for Cavid Beysome of the bank's shares for Cavid Bey, hoping that he would like to , hoping that he would like to buy them one day. Cabuy them one day. Cassel stated that he had kept themssel stated that he had kept them ffor him sior him since the nce the foundation of the bank. Cavid Beyfoundation of the bank. Cavid Bey responded, "I don't think that I would responded, "I don't think that I would ever have enough money to buy these shares."ever have enough money to buy these shares."790

While in London Rifat Bey wrote to Cavid Bey

While in London Rifat Bey wrote to Cavid Bey and asked him to find and asked him to find a solution regardia solution regarding the financial problems with Frng the financial problems with Franance. Meanwce. Meanwhile, the hile, the French cabinet had changed, and M. Stephen Pichon became the French French cabinet had changed, and M. Stephen Pichon became the French minister of foreign affairs. Pichon and Cavid Beyminister of foreign affairs. Pichon and Cavid Bey had had a conflict dur-had had a conflict dur-ing the 1910 loan operation. Cavid Beying the 1910 loan operation. Cavid Bey talked to Hakkı Pasha atalked to Hakkı Pasha about bout whether or not he should go whether or not he should go toto Paris. Hakkı Pasha told him that he saw Paris. Hakkı Pasha told him that he saw no harm in his going.no harm in his going.791

Before departing for Paris, Cavid Bey

Before departing for Paris, Cavid Bey corresponded with Istanbul on corresponded with Istanbul on various issues. The topics of discussion were concessions on lighvarious issues. The topics of discussion were concessions on lighthous-thous-es, the Paris Finanes, the Paris Financial Conference, the provision ofcial Conference, the provision of oold loans from the ld loans from the territories lost in the Balkan Wars, and the battleships ordered from territories lost in the Balkan Wars, and the battleships ordered from Britain. Rifat Bey's telegram of April 20 mentioned that Britain had de-Britain. Rifat Bey's telegram of April 20 mentioned that Britain had de-layed the delivery of the battleships.layed the delivery of the battleships. He asked Cavid BeyHe asked Cavid Bey not not to endan-to endan-

790 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 643643--646.646.

791 Cavid Bey, MeşrutCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet iyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, 633., 633.

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ger the delivery of the s

ger the delivery of the shihips. However, the Ottoman government still ps. However, the Ottoman government still had to pay the last installment on the battleships. The Ottoman Empire had to pay the last installment on the battleships. The Ottoman Empire would make the final payment for the battleships on April 14, but the would make the final payment for the battleships on April 14, but the dreadnought wadreadnought was not delivered due to ts not delivered due to the ministry of the navy’s requesthe ministry of the navy’s request tto modify the ship. The main question was whether or not the Ottoman o modify the ship. The main question was whether or not the Ottoman government should pay the money for the ships or not.government should pay the money for the ships or not.792 After dealing After dealing with this work, Cavid Beywith this work, Cavid Bey visited Sir Ernest Cassel to bid hvisited Sir Ernest Cassel to bid him farewell, im farewell, and he leftand he left for Paris on April 4, 1913.for Paris on April 4, 1913.793

4.3.3 AprAprilil in Parisin Paris

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey set off for Paris on April 4, 1913. His schedule in Paris was set off for Paris on April 4, 1913. His schedule in Paris was more intense than in London and Berlin. His stay in Paris was more more intense than in London and Berlin. His stay in Paris was more complicated and essential for the Empire, due tocomplicated and essential for the Empire, due to French dominance French dominance over Oover Ottoman finances and the potentialttoman finances and the potential lloan agreement. Cavid Beyoan agreement. Cavid Bey was was wellwell--prepared for the next round of talks. To help gain support for their prepared for the next round of talks. To help gain support for their cause, he cause, he —— and the Ottoman government and the Ottoman government —— decided to make use of the decided to make use of the French press, a powerful iFrench press, a powerful institution during the 3rnstitution during the 3rd Republic of France d Republic of France (1870(1870––1914).1914). TThe most critical newspapers in France at the time he most critical newspapers in France at the time werewere Le TempsLe Temps, founded by journalist and politician André Tardieu, founded by journalist and politician André Tardieu, Le , Le JournalJournal,, Le FigaroLe Figaro,, and and Le MatinLe Matin. However, the Ottoman Government was . However, the Ottoman Government was not thenot the only state peddling proonly state peddling propaganda in the foreign press. Evepaganda in the foreign press. Everyry gov-gov-ernment that had the capacity, including Russia and Greece, had given ernment that had the capacity, including Russia and Greece, had given the utmost importance to public relations. But Cavid Beythe utmost importance to public relations. But Cavid Bey and the Otto-and the Otto-man government were determined to fight against all odman government were determined to fight against all odds. Cavid Beyds. Cavid Bey worked witworked with an intermediary, a French businh an intermediary, a French businesessman named M. Delon-sman named M. Delon-

792 There were There were primaryprimary sources on thsources on these issuese issuees. Cavids. Cavid Bey noted in his diary. Bey noted in his diary.

BOA HR_ID____BOA HR_ID____000210_00210_000020_001_00100020_001_001

BOA HR_ID____00210_000021_001BOA HR_ID____00210_000021_001_001_001

BOA HR_ID____00210_0000BOA HR_ID____00210_000022_002_00122_002_001

BOA HR_ID____00210_000019_001_001BOA HR_ID____00210_000019_001_001

BOA HBOA HR_ID_R_ID____00210_000021_002_001___00210_000021_002_001

BOA HR_ID_BOA HR_ID____0021___00210_000023_001_00_000023_001_00101

793 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, 645, 645--646.646.

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cle, to deal with the French press. M. Deloncle was very enthusiastic

cle, to deal with the French press. M. Deloncle was very enthusiastic about working with the Ottoman government. A long bargaining pro-about working with the Ottoman government. A long bargaining pro-cess began between Cavid Beycess began between Cavid Bey and the French and the French press during M. Delon-press during M. Delon-clecle’s meeting with Cavid Bey’s meeting with Cavid Bey on Aprion April l 6, 1913. According to his offer, the 6, 1913. According to his offer, the Ottoman government would pay 20 million francs for news favoring the Ottoman government would pay 20 million francs for news favoring the Ottoman loan to appear in the French press. Cavid BeyOttoman loan to appear in the French press. Cavid Bey told M. Deloncle told M. Deloncle that this was too muthat this was too much. M. Deloncle returnedch. M. Deloncle returned to Cavid Beyto Cavid Bey’s hotel at ’s hotel at night winight withth a counteroffer. His new offer was as follows: the French press a counteroffer. His new offer was as follows: the French press would publish news arguing against war reparations and supporting the would publish news arguing against war reparations and supporting the Ottoman Empire in distributing the Ottoman debts among the BalkOttoman Empire in distributing the Ottoman debts among the Balkan an states, as well as arstates, as well as articles in favor of the French loaticles in favor of the French loan.n. In return, the press In return, the press would get 15 million francs. This amount, he added, was only 3% of the would get 15 million francs. This amount, he added, was only 3% of the amount that the Bulgarian government had asked for in war repara-amount that the Bulgarian government had asked for in war repara-tions. M. Deloncle claimed that Russia wtions. M. Deloncle claimed that Russia would insist on war reparould insist on war reparations. ations. Cavid BeyCavid Bey was skeptical owas skeptical of f M. Deloncle’s behavior. Yet, the propaganda M. Deloncle’s behavior. Yet, the propaganda operation was set to start the next morning, and the French newspaper operation was set to start the next morning, and the French newspaper JournalJournal desdes DébatsDébats would publish articles supporting the Ottoman gov-would publish articles supporting the Ottoman gov-ernment. This oernment. This operation was the first speration was the first step in the Ottoman government’s tep in the Ottoman government’s nnewew public relations strategy. The first agreement with the French press public relations strategy. The first agreement with the French press involved the lighthouse project. Throughout his stay in Paris, Cavid Beyinvolved the lighthouse project. Throughout his stay in Paris, Cavid Bey continued to meet with Deloncle and some journalists, continued to meet with Deloncle and some journalists, despite their in-despite their in-creasingcreasing demands each day. By the end of demands each day. By the end of hihis trip, Cavid Beys trip, Cavid Bey would be-would be-come exhausted with their endless needs. In turn, Cavid Beycome exhausted with their endless needs. In turn, Cavid Bey doubted doubted that the French press had published enough good news and articles in that the French press had published enough good news and articles in favor of the Ottoman government tofavor of the Ottoman government to sway public opinion.sway public opinion.794

Due to the crisis over the 1910 loue to the crisis over the 1910 loanan operation in France, Cavid Beyoperation in France, Cavid Bey was still nervous about meeting French statesmen, especially Stephen was still nervous about meeting French statesmen, especially Stephen Pichon, the minister of foreign affairs. He asked the embassy to set up a Pichon, the minister of foreign affairs. He asked the embassy to set up a meeting with Pichon. Tmeeting with Pichon. The embassy talked to he embassy talked to thethe latterlatter and made implic-and made implic-it it remarks aremarks aboboutut what had happened between M. Pichon and Cavid Beywhat had happened between M. Pichon and Cavid Bey. . However, Pichon's response to Cavid BeyHowever, Pichon's response to Cavid Bey’s request was very profession-’s request was very profession-

794 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 648648--650; B650; Bayur, ayur, Türk İnkılâbı Tarihi, IITürk İnkılâbı Tarihi, II/III,/III, 446446--448. 448.

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al, highlighting that what had happened in 1910 was between govern-

al, highlighting that what had happened in 1910 was between govern-ments;ments; nothing was personal. Pnothing was personal. Pichon's reaction was a relichon's reaction was a relief to Caief to Cavivid d BeyBey, , and they set up a meeting. Interestingly, Cavid Beyand they set up a meeting. Interestingly, Cavid Bey was concerned about was concerned about coming to Paris and meeting M. Pichon or M. Cochery. This situation in-coming to Paris and meeting M. Pichon or M. Cochery. This situation in-dicates that the situation had a profound persdicates that the situation had a profound personal impact on his life.onal impact on his life.795

Concerning the future Fi

Concerning the future Financial Cnancial Comommimission in Paris, Cavid Beyssion in Paris, Cavid Bey said said that if he became the committee chairman, he would not have time to that if he became the committee chairman, he would not have time to follow other issues. Therefore, he wanted Nail Bey to be the Turkish follow other issues. Therefore, he wanted Nail Bey to be the Turkish delegation president, anddelegation president, and he could be assigned ashe could be assigned as the vice president. He the vice president. He alalso wantedso wanted HHalallaçyan Efendi and Mr. Crawford in the delega-laçyan Efendi and Mr. Crawford in the delega-tion.tion.796 However, two days later, Rifat Pasha was informed that the However, two days later, Rifat Pasha was informed that the committee would be structured differently, and the Great Powers and committee would be structured differently, and the Great Powers and the Ottomans wothe Ottomans would participate at underuld participate at undersecretary level. Cavid Beysecretary level. Cavid Bey was was happhappy y toto skip the commission and work on the other things that he had skip the commission and work on the other things that he had to follow up in Paris.to follow up in Paris.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, M. Pichon, on met the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, M. Pichon, on April 16, 1913. On behalf of the OttomanApril 16, 1913. On behalf of the Ottoman government, Cavid Beygovernment, Cavid Bey aasked sked the French to allocatthe French to allocate money fe money foror tthe development of Anatolia. Pichon he development of Anatolia. Pichon told him that although the French would not prevent the development told him that although the French would not prevent the development of Anatolia, reparations were not off the tableof Anatolia, reparations were not off the table,, either. They talked about either. They talked about the Aegean islathe Aegean islands, Arabia, Syria, and nds, Arabia, Syria, and the Paris financial conferthe Paris financial conference. ence. PicPichonhon mmade a comparison between the Ottoman Empire’s current situ-ade a comparison between the Ottoman Empire’s current situ-ation and postation and post--1871 France. Although Cavid Bey1871 France. Although Cavid Bey responded that the responded that the whole problem was entirely different, Pichon asserted, “I lived throwhole problem was entirely different, Pichon asserted, “I lived through ugh these times, France these times, France was on the verge of a clifwas on the verge of a cliff.” In tef.” In termsrms oof the 1910 loan f the 1910 loan operation, Pichon commented that the economists had controlled the operation, Pichon commented that the economists had controlled the situation entirely and that he was not involved.situation entirely and that he was not involved.797 Although Pichon’s Although Pichon’s words seem unconvincing, it was a polite words seem unconvincing, it was a polite gesture to Cavid Beygesture to Cavid Bey..

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met the French smet the French socialist ocialist lealeadeder Jean Jaurès. They talked r Jean Jaurès. They talked for an hour on various issues regarding the Ottoman Empire, such as for an hour on various issues regarding the Ottoman Empire, such as

795 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmeRuznâmesi Isi I, 653, 653--656.656.

796 Cavid BeyCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet , Meşrutiyet RuRuznâmesi I,znâmesi I, 669669--670.670.

797 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 662662--665665..

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Macedonia, Istanbul's situation, relations with allies, Albania, the Arab

Macedonia, Istanbul's situation, relations with allies, Albania, the Arab provinces, Anatolia, anprovinces, Anatolia, and Armenia. Cavid Beyd Armenia. Cavid Bey comcommented on each issue. mented on each issue. JaurJaurès told hès told him im nonot to move the capital elsewhere and not to shed blood t to move the capital elsewhere and not to shed blood to preserve it. Jaurès said that he had also met Cavid Beyto preserve it. Jaurès said that he had also met Cavid Bey’s CUP coun-’s CUP coun-terparts, and he was utterly surprised to see them talking so furiousterparts, and he was utterly surprised to see them talking so furiously. ly. Jaurès offered to wrJaurès offered to write an article about the Aite an article about the Armenian irmenian issussue e in the French in the French press if he was provided with more information on the topic. Cavid press if he was provided with more information on the topic. Cavid BeyBey's impression of Jean Jaurèswas as follows: "When you talk to Jaurès, 's impression of Jean Jaurèswas as follows: "When you talk to Jaurès, you sense that you are in the presenceyou sense that you are in the presence of a sincere human beinof a sincere human being who g who speaks their mind."speaks their mind."

During hi

During his ss statay in Paris, Cavid Beyy in Paris, Cavid Bey found himself in the company of found himself in the company of the French elite, who mediated his entrance into the French political the French elite, who mediated his entrance into the French political and financial circles. The Countess de Montobello was one of these kand financial circles. The Countess de Montobello was one of these key ey members of the elite.members of the elite. Cavid BeyCavid Bey visited the Couvisited the Countess, whntess, who do dededicated her icated her time, energy, and connections to following political affairs. Cavid Beytime, energy, and connections to following political affairs. Cavid Bey was sure that everything had been prearranged, and whoever was pre-was sure that everything had been prearranged, and whoever was pre-sent at the house that night would get a shsent at the house that night would get a share from the agreement. are from the agreement. However, Cavid BeyHowever, Cavid Bey was notwas not sure thasure that st shehe would deal adequately with would deal adequately with his matter. He commented that when you encounter this society's inner his matter. He commented that when you encounter this society's inner parts, how social relations and business affairs were intertwined, he parts, how social relations and business affairs were intertwined, he found it annoying and difound it annoying and disgusting.sgusting.798

In addition t

In addition to international affairs, do international affairs, domestic aomestic affaffairirs were growing s were growing increasingly complex while Cavid Beyincreasingly complex while Cavid Bey was away in April 1913. The main was away in April 1913. The main domestic problem was about the different ethnic and religious groups in domestic problem was about the different ethnic and religious groups in Ottoman society: the Anatolian GreeOttoman society: the Anatolian Greeks, Arabs, and Armeniansks, Arabs, and Armenians. First, the . First, the Unionist goveUnionist government dernment deporporteted 200,000 Greeks from Thrace and Anato-d 200,000 Greeks from Thrace and Anato-lia in 1913 and 1914 after the bells of war began to ring out between lia in 1913 and 1914 after the bells of war began to ring out between Greece and the Ottoman Empire due to the loss of Greece and the Ottoman Empire due to the loss of the islands.the islands.799 Second, Second, the significathe significant implication of the innt implication of the incidents and wars of 1912 acidents and wars of 1912 annd 1913 d 1913 wwas tas thahat the Empire's population became overwhelmingly Muslim. This t the Empire's population became overwhelmingly Muslim. This

798 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 668668--66669.9.

799 Emre Erol, Emre Erol, The Ottoman CThe Ottoman Crisis in Western Anatoliarisis in Western Anatolia, Tu, Turkeyrkey’’s s Belle Belle ÉÉpoque poque and the and the TrTransition to a Modern Nation Stateansition to a Modern Nation State (London(London--NNew York: I.B. ew York: I.B. TauTauris, 2016), 11ris, 2016), 1100--162162. .

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situation had reframed the perception of the Ottoman Government in

situation had reframed the perception of the Ottoman Government in the Arabs deeply. While the Arabs were negotiating in Bayreuth the Arabs deeply. While the Arabs were negotiating in Bayreuth and and Paris for reforms thParis for reforms that depended on decentralizat depended on decentralizaation, thtion, the CUe CUP P govern-govern-ment welcomed the reforms that covered local language utilization ment welcomed the reforms that covered local language utilization –– mainly Arabic mainly Arabic –– in the Arab provinces. However, the Arabs had orga-in the Arab provinces. However, the Arabs had orga-nized an Arab Congress in Paris between Junized an Arab Congress in Paris between June 18ne 18--24,24, 1913. The CUP 1913. The CUP managed tmanaged to agree with the Arabs in o agree with the Arabs in tthe Congrhe Congress.ess. TThe most important he most important step was that the Ottoman government accepted the assignment of Arab step was that the Ottoman government accepted the assignment of Arab officers to the bureaucracy according to a specific quota. Later on, in officers to the bureaucracy according to a specific quota. Later on, in 1913, the Arab reform movement w1913, the Arab reform movement was split into two by theas split into two by the vigorous ef-vigorous ef-forts of the Cforts of the CUUP. On thP. On the ote otheher hand, at the end of June, the CUP grasped r hand, at the end of June, the CUP grasped power fullypower fully--fledged after Mahmud Şevket Pasha's assassination. While fledged after Mahmud Şevket Pasha's assassination. While the central government under the CUP gained power once again, the the central government under the CUP gained power once again, the new grand vinew grand vizier, Said Halim Pasha, zier, Said Halim Pasha, an Egyptian prince, had tran Egyptian prince, had triied to taed to take ke tthehe Arabs under his wing. Until the Great War, the CUP had established a Arabs under his wing. Until the Great War, the CUP had established a sustainable situation in the region. However, the War and the policies sustainable situation in the region. However, the War and the policies implemented by Cemal Pasha turned everything upsidimplemented by Cemal Pasha turned everything upside down in the re-e down in the re-gion, angion, and the Arab revolt began ind the Arab revolt began in 1916.1916.800 FFinalinallyly, and perhaps most , and perhaps most consequentially, the Armenian issue had spilled over into the interna-consequentially, the Armenian issue had spilled over into the interna-tional arena. tional arena. Armenian representatives had started to visit European Armenian representatives had started to visit European capitals to conduct public relatiocapitals to conduct public relations work through governmns work through governments and civil ents and civil society. Dusociety. Durring his sing his staytay iin Paris, Cavid Beyn Paris, Cavid Bey met the Armenian Catholic met the Armenian Catholic leader Bogos Nubar Pashaleader Bogos Nubar Pasha801 during a luncheon at Gülbenkyan Efendi’s during a luncheon at Gülbenkyan Efendi’s house. During the meeting, Bogos Nubar Pasha argued that foreign gov-house. During the meeting, Bogos Nubar Pasha argued that foreign gov-ernors and cernors and civil agents should be aivil agents should be appointed to the Armenianppointed to the Armenian--ppoopulated pulated rregiegionons in Anatolia by the Great Powers, not by the Ottoman Govern-s in Anatolia by the Great Powers, not by the Ottoman Govern-ment. Cavid Beyment. Cavid Bey disagreed with Bogos Nubar Pasha and stated that in disagreed with Bogos Nubar Pasha and stated that in the case of the Armenians, since they were not the majority in tthe case of the Armenians, since they were not the majority in the East-he East-ern regions, thiern regions, this form of governance, whics form of governance, whichh had beenhad been ththe e same as that same as that

800 Hasan Kayalı Hasan Kayalı Jön Türkler ve Araplar Osmanlıcılık, Erken Arap Milliyetçiliği ve Jön Türkler ve Araplar Osmanlıcılık, Erken Arap Milliyetçiliği ve İslaİslamcılık mcılık 19081908--1918, (1918, (Istanbul: TIstanbul: Türkiyeürkiye İİşbankası Yayınları, 2şbankası Yayınları, 2003), 15003), 1599--168. 168.

801 Bogos Nubar Pasha traveled to the EuropeBogos Nubar Pasha traveled to the Europeaan statn states as tes as thhe Armenian Catholic e Armenian Catholic representatrepresentative, to raise the issue in an international arena.ive, to raise the issue in an international arena.

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over Macedonia, would not fit Anatolia. He added that the Russians

over Macedonia, would not fit Anatolia. He added that the Russians would stir up conflict between the Armenians and the Kurds, and that would stir up conflict between the Armenians and the Kurds, and that Armenia would be filled with British officiArmenia would be filled with British officials and military policeals and military police. “We . “We know how disorder iknow how disorder in n Armenia wArmenia woulould d damage the country,” he tells Bo-damage the country,” he tells Bo-gos Nubar Pasha. Cavid Beygos Nubar Pasha. Cavid Bey was a bit tense and nervous during this was a bit tense and nervous during this meeting. He told Bogos Efendi that he could not fulfill these requests. meeting. He told Bogos Efendi that he could not fulfill these requests. Cavid BeyCavid Bey also insistalso insisted that Europe could ned that Europe could not develop a formula for Aot develop a formula for Ar-r-mmenia. He enia. He addaddeded that Turkey and Armenia should deal with this togeth-that Turkey and Armenia should deal with this togeth-er, hand in hand. They both left, firm in their own opinions. From his er, hand in hand. They both left, firm in their own opinions. From his notes, Cavid Beynotes, Cavid Bey was on the defensive during this argument. He was was on the defensive during this argument. He was wworried that what happeorried that what happened in the Balkans could oned in the Balkans could occccur in theur in the EaEaststern ern provinces, as well.provinces, as well.802

As a general note, the spread of the Armenian Question into the Eu-

As a general note, the spread of the Armenian Question into the Eu-ropean political arena in 1913 further complicated the issue for the ropean political arena in 1913 further complicated the issue for the Young Turks. In terms of historYoung Turks. In terms of historiography, too much ink iography, too much ink has been spilled has been spilled on this ion this issssue.ue.803 AccAccordiordingng to Cavid Beyto Cavid Bey's diaries, it might be argued that 's diaries, it might be argued that the Armenian Question started in 1913, not in 1915. Discussion of the the Armenian Question started in 1913, not in 1915. Discussion of the Armenian Question became a part of an international agenda as the Armenian Question became a part of an international agenda as the MacedoMacedonian issue did at the bnian issue did at the beginning of the twentieth eginning of the twentieth cecentury. Tntury. The Uhe Un-n-iionists and mainly Cavid Beyonists and mainly Cavid Bey referred to this resemblance during his referred to this resemblance during his talks. Moreover, the way the Armenian Question became a part of the talks. Moreover, the way the Armenian Question became a part of the financial talks in 1913financial talks in 1913--1914 was uncongenial for the Ot1914 was uncongenial for the Ottoman govern-toman govern-

802 Reynolds, Reynolds, Shattering EmpirShattering Empireses, 66, 66--78. 78.

803 See, HansSee, Hans--Lukas Kieser, MehmeLukas Kieser, Mehmet Polatet Polatel, Thomas Schmutz, “Reform or Catalyscm? l, Thomas Schmutz, “Reform or Catalyscm? The The agreement of 8 Feagreement of 8 February 1bruary 19914 regarding the Ottom14 regarding the Ottomaan eastern provinces.” n eastern provinces.” JourJournnal oal of f Genocide ResearchGenocide Research, 17, no. 3, (Jul, 2015), 285, 17, no. 3, (Jul, 2015), 285--304304;; Thomas Schmutz ,“The German Role Thomas Schmutz ,“The German Role in thein the Reform Discussion of 1913Reform Discussion of 1913--1911914”4”,, in in World War I and the End of the OttomaWorld War I and the End of the Ottomans ns from the Balkan Wars tofrom the Balkan Wars to tthhee Armenian GenocideArmenian Genocide, edited , edited bby Hansy Hans--Lukas Kieser, Lukas Kieser, KKerem erem ÖÖktektem, Maurus Reinkowski (London: I.B. Tauris, 2015), 188m, Maurus Reinkowski (London: I.B. Tauris, 2015), 188--209; Marcel Leart (Krikör 209; Marcel Leart (Krikör ZöhrapZöhrap), Belg), Belgelerin Işığında Ermeni Meseleselerin Işığında Ermeni Meselesi,i, ((Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2015); Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2015); MehMehmed Cavid Bey med Cavid Bey Meşrutiyet RMeşrutiyet Ruzuzaammesi esi Vol. II (Ankara: Türk TVol. II (Ankara: Türk Taarih Kurumu, 2015; rih Kurumu, 2015; FuaFuatt DündDündaar r MModern Türkiye’nin Şifresi. İttihat ve Terakki’nin Etnisite Mühendisliği odern Türkiye’nin Şifresi. İttihat ve Terakki’nin Etnisite Mühendisliği (1913(1913--1918)1918), (, (IstanbuIstanbul: İletişim, 2008). The sources related to this issue could be pro-l: İletişim, 2008). The sources related to this issue could be pro-liferateliferated. d.

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ment.

ment.804 AccoAccording to Cavid Beyrding to Cavid Bey’s diary’s diary, , the incithe incidentdents s preceding the preceding the 1915 deportations began in 1913.1915 deportations began in 1913.

804 To bring the RevolutTo bring the Revolutioionn to fruition, the CUP collabto fruition, the CUP collaboorated with secret orgrated with secret orgaanizatnizatiionsons of of various ethnic stripes, notably the Armenian Revolutionary Army (ARF). After the various ethnic stripes, notably the Armenian Revolutionary Army (ARF). After the RRevolutievolution, the ARF began to conduct negotiations with the CUP on the Armenian on, the ARF began to conduct negotiations with the CUP on the Armenian QueQuestion's resolution, which stion's resolution, which wawass based on the land dispute. based on the land dispute. TThe main problem was he main problem was tthhe lane landd didispute and ongoing conflict between the Armenians and the local Muslims, spute and ongoing conflict between the Armenians and the local Muslims, mainly Kurds. mainly Kurds. The ArmThe Armenians' land was occupied by the Muslim locals when they fled enians' land was occupied by the Muslim locals when they fled during the iduring the insurrection of the 1890s. nsurrection of the 1890s. ThThee Adana Massacres of 1909 hadAdana Massacres of 1909 had interrupted interrupted this procthis proceess anss andd exexacerbated the land acerbated the land dispute anddispute and obstructed dialogue. After 1910, the obstructed dialogue. After 1910, the government began government began tto settlo settle Muslim migrants and nomadic Kurdish tribes in these dis-e Muslim migrants and nomadic Kurdish tribes in these dis-puted Armenian lputed Armenian lands. In May 1912, the ands. In May 1912, the SaiSait Pashat Pasha government decided to esgovernment decided to esttaabblish a lish a reform commreform commiissionssion for for the Eastern provinces. Although the state continued to promise the Eastern provinces. Although the state continued to promise to found commissions tto found commissions too solve solve land disputes, no substantial legal or adminiland disputes, no substantial legal or adminisstrative trative plan was put in plaplan was put in place. During the First Balkace. During the First Balkan n WWaar, on December 18, 1912, ther, on December 18, 1912, the Otto-Otto-man government bman government beegan pgan prrepareparing a draft reform plan for Van, Bitlis, Diyarbakır, and ing a draft reform plan for Van, Bitlis, Diyarbakır, and Ma’mûretü’l Azîz. This reforMa’mûretü’l Azîz. This reform plan am plan aimed to establish a general inspectorate. Foimed to establish a general inspectorate. Forreign eign inspectors would work ainspectors would work as advisors for the generals advisors for the general iinnsspectorate, and foreign ipectorate, and foreign innspespecctors tors would work as awould work as addvisorvisorss forfor the inspector general. In late 1912, the Armenthe inspector general. In late 1912, the Armeniians in the ans in the Ottoman Empire and Russia started Ottoman Empire and Russia started to take active steps toward the internationaliza-to take active steps toward the internationaliza-tion of the issue of refotion of the issue of reform in the Eastern provincerm in the Eastern provinces.s. TThe Armenian community sent ahe Armenian community sent a commission under Bogcommission under Boghhos Nuos Nubbar Par Pasha's presidency to Europe to lobby for reforms. asha's presidency to Europe to lobby for reforms. Armenian political parties acted together fArmenian political parties acted together for the first time. Krikor Zöhrap Efendi, who or the first time. Krikor Zöhrap Efendi, who was the archwas the arch--rival of Cavid rival of Cavid Bey during the parliamentaBey during the parliamentaryry ttalks, was one of the negotia-alks, was one of the negotia-ttions' key actors. Heions' key actors. He had whad wrritteitten Lumières under the pseudn Lumières under the pseudoonym Marcel Léart in 1913 nym Marcel Léart in 1913 and published "La Question Arménienne: À and published "La Question Arménienne: À la lumière des documents" to discuss his la lumière des documents" to discuss his arguments on the Armenian Questiarguments on the Armenian Question in the international mion in the international mililieeuu. According to him, . According to him, this refthis refoorm, particularly apprm, particularly appoointinintingg a Ea European governor of the region, did not mean uropean governor of the region, did not mean "separation," "autonomy," or a "special regime" "separation," "autonomy," or a "special regime" for the Anfor the Anaatolian Armtolian Armeenians. Instead, a nians. Instead, a new reform agreement would enablenew reform agreement would enable both the Ottoman Empire aboth the Ottoman Empire andnd AArmenians' secu-rmenians' secu-rity and prosprity and prospeerity. He was well awrity. He was well awaare thre thaat tht the outcomes of the Balkan Wars would e outcomes of the Balkan Wars would only lead to rage and discrimination between Muslims and only lead to rage and discrimination between Muslims and Armenians. However, the Armenians. However, the CUP government had feared the reform issue from tCUP government had feared the reform issue from the bhe beeginning and argued thginning and argued thatat iin-n-ternational involvement wouternational involvement woulld decrease Ottoman sd decrease Ottoman sooveverreieiggnty.nty. The Macedonian reform The Macedonian reform process, the turning point for the Balkans' disintegrprocess, the turning point for the Balkans' disintegraation, was too retion, was too recent in their cent in their memory. However, despite the CUP's apprehension, this issuememory. However, despite the CUP's apprehension, this issue would continue to de-would continue to de-velopvelop rraappidly through Russia and Germidly through Russia and Germaany's influence. The ny's influence. The ppaarrtietiess sigsigned the Armeni-ned the Armeni-an Reform Act on February 8, 1914.an Reform Act on February 8, 1914. Citation??Citation??

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While Cavid Bey

While Cavid Bey was in Paris, France's idea of financial control over was in Paris, France's idea of financial control over the Ottoman Empire was brought up within the framework of the finan-the Ottoman Empire was brought up within the framework of the finan-cial cocial conference. Sir Adam Blocnference. Sir Adam Block and M. Bompard had alreak and M. Bompard had alreadydy warned warned CaviCavid d BeyBey about this issue in Istanbul. Though this conference was about this issue in Istanbul. Though this conference was mainly related to the Balkan states’ share in the Ottoman debt, the mainly related to the Balkan states’ share in the Ottoman debt, the shareholders of the Ottoman PDA wanted to have more control ovshareholders of the Ottoman PDA wanted to have more control over Ot-er Ot-toman finances in toman finances in general. In many meetings,general. In many meetings, tthis issuhis issue wae was s put forward put forward to Cavid Beyto Cavid Bey implicitly or explicitly. For instance, during a meeting with implicitly or explicitly. For instance, during a meeting with French and British financiers, the bankers brought up the financial con-French and British financiers, the bankers brought up the financial con-ference and its discussions on thference and its discussions on the Empire’s military expe Empire’s military expenses. Cavid Beyenses. Cavid Bey respondedresponded tthat the hat the OttoOttomamans would not accept limitations on this mat-ns would not accept limitations on this mat-ter. He explained that the Ottomans did not trust the Great Powers' ter. He explained that the Ottomans did not trust the Great Powers' guarantees of its territorial integrity and that they wished to defend the guarantees of its territorial integrity and that they wished to defend the countcountry on their own. At thery on their own. At the time of this meeting, thetime of this meeting, the GGreat Powreat Powers'ers' pprimary concern was the dispute over the islands and the rising military rimary concern was the dispute over the islands and the rising military expenses of the Ottoman Empire.expenses of the Ottoman Empire.805

In April 1913, the Unionists asked for two things from the Great

In April 1913, the Unionists asked for two things from the Great Powers, which would aPowers, which would affect Cavid Beyffect Cavid Bey’s talks’s talks in Europe. First, Mahmud in Europe. First, Mahmud ŞeŞevket Pasvket Pasha rha reqequested a German mission to carry out the Ottoman uested a German mission to carry out the Ottoman army's modernization and organization. Mahmud Şevket Pasarmy's modernization and organization. Mahmud Şevket Pasha con-ha con-veyed his message to the German Ambassador, Baron Wangenheim. The veyed his message to the German Ambassador, Baron Wangenheim. The Germans would Germans would accept his offer, taccept his offer, thus hus beginning the German missibeginning the German mission on commandcommanded by ed by General Liman von Sanders that would enter Istanbul General Liman von Sanders that would enter Istanbul and cause a massive crisis at the end of 1913. Mahmudand cause a massive crisis at the end of 1913. Mahmud Şevket Pasha Şevket Pasha aimed to strengthen the army and prevent the politicization of military aimed to strengthen the army and prevent the politicization of military officers, which had harofficers, which had harmed the country heavily dumed the country heavily during the Bring the Balkan alkan Wars. Wars. Talat Bey made the Empire’s second request to the British government, Talat Bey made the Empire’s second request to the British government, which was to assign British gwhich was to assign British general inspectors to the gendarmerie, min-eneral inspectors to the gendarmerie, min-istry of agriculture, ministry of public workistry of agriculture, ministry of public works, and an advisor and is, and an advisor and inspec-nspec-tor general for the mtor general for the ministry ofinistry of the ithe interior. He also asked for inspectors nterior. He also asked for inspectors for the Eastern provinces. However, Britain rejected the Ottoman re-for the Eastern provinces. However, Britain rejected the Ottoman re-

805 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuRuznâmesi I,znâmesi I, 680680--682.682.

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quest in order not to anger Russia. Britain wanted to avoid sending in-

quest in order not to anger Russia. Britain wanted to avoid sending in-spector generalsspector generals to regions close to thto regions close to the Russian border.e Russian border.806 The BriThe British tish govergovernment nment was aware that the reform issue would likely snowball out was aware that the reform issue would likely snowball out of control, especially if the Armenians broughtof control, especially if the Armenians brought their issues into the in-their issues into the in-ternational arena. In the meantime, Talat Bey began his meetiternational arena. In the meantime, Talat Bey began his meetings with ngs with Armenian deputArmenian deputies in Istanbul to find a ies in Istanbul to find a solution. solution. HoweveHowever, these meet-r, these meet-ings remained inconclusive.ings remained inconclusive.

On April 29, 1913, Cavid Bey

On April 29, 1913, Cavid Bey attended Pierre Loti's conference attended Pierre Loti's conference in in Anmale Hall in Paris, an event which was not friendly to the Ottomans. Anmale Hall in Paris, an event which was not friendly to the Ottomans. Pierre Loti,Pierre Loti, a French writer who lia French writer who lived in Istanbul for many yved in Istanbul for many years and ears and wwas knoas known for his love for the city and its people, focused on the atroci-wn for his love for the city and its people, focused on the atroci-ties in the Balkans. He pointed out theties in the Balkans. He pointed out the bias in the Paris newspapers and bias in the Paris newspapers and read a bit from letters and his writings. Cavid Beyread a bit from letters and his writings. Cavid Bey noted that women noted that women were iwere impressed by this performanmpressed by this performance, and hece, and he thougthought to himself that if ht to himself that if Loti had given a full performance in favor of the Ottoman Empire, he Loti had given a full performance in favor of the Ottoman Empire, he would appeal twould appeal to the hearts of these women. He complained that there o the hearts of these women. He complained that there was still no strong voice in Parwas still no strong voice in Paris defending Turkey.is defending Turkey.807

Meanwhile, after almost foueanwhile, after almost four months or months of talkf talks between Hakkı Pasha s between Hakkı Pasha and Sir Edward Grey related to Mesopotamia, the British and the Otto-and Sir Edward Grey related to Mesopotamia, the British and the Otto-mans reached anmans reached an agreement on May 7, 1913 in London. Soon after, the agreement on May 7, 1913 in London. Soon after, the German embassy, including Herr von Kühlmann, Prince Lichnowsky, German embassy, including Herr von Kühlmann, Prince Lichnowsky, and the German amband the German ambassador toassador to LondoLondon, were informed about the de-n, were informed about the de-tails of the agreement. These were the last diplomatic agreements be-tails of the agreement. These were the last diplomatic agreements be-tween the Ottoman and the British governments before Anglotween the Ottoman and the British governments before Anglo--German German talks would begin to replace the economic and political questions con-talks would begin to replace the economic and political questions con-cerning cerning the Empirethe Empire's fut's future. The agreement followed the prelimary ure. The agreement followed the prelimary terms that had been outlined earlier in March between the Foreign Of-terms that had been outlined earlier in March between the Foreign Of-fice and Deutsche Bank. In brief, the agreement decided that Basra fice and Deutsche Bank. In brief, the agreement decided that Basra would be the terminus of the Baghdad Railway. The construction would be the terminus of the Baghdad Railway. The construction of the of the GulGulf sectf section of the railway was postponed, and the Baghdad Railway ion of the railway was postponed, and the Baghdad Railway company would appoint two British directors to the Konyacompany would appoint two British directors to the Konya--Basra Rail-Basra Rail-

806 Heller, Heller, British Policy Towards British Policy Towards thethe Ottoman Empire 1908Ottoman Empire 1908--19141914, 8, 84. 4.

807 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 683683--684.684.

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way board. On the navigation issue, Germany would not object to Brit-

way board. On the navigation issue, Germany would not object to Brit-ain's navigation rights on the Tigris and the Eain's navigation rights on the Tigris and the Euphrates. uphrates. The ShThe Shattatt--al Ar-al Ar-ab would be open to allow all flagsab would be open to allow all flags’’ access to Basra.access to Basra.808 In return for In return for these and other assurances and concessions, Britain consented to sup-these and other assurances and concessions, Britain consented to sup-port an increase of 4% in the Ottoman Empire's customs duties. Imple-port an increase of 4% in the Ottoman Empire's customs duties. Imple-menting this article was tmenting this article was the main gohe main goal of al of tthe Ottoman government. he Ottoman government. Britain and the Ottoman Empire would reach subsequent agreements Britain and the Ottoman Empire would reach subsequent agreements on the navigation of rivers and oil concessions in 1913 and 1914.on the navigation of rivers and oil concessions in 1913 and 1914.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey’s agenda in Paris also consisted of various issues concern-’s agenda in Paris also consisted of various issues concern-ing the Ottoman ing the Ottoman Bank. The Bank. The new dinew dirrector of the IOB Istanbul branch, and ector of the IOB Istanbul branch, and the future of the Ottoman Bank branch offices in Macedonia were the the future of the Ottoman Bank branch offices in Macedonia were the most problematic issues. The French were considering the possibility of most problematic issues. The French were considering the possibility of a Russian Bank taking control of IOB branches in Macedonia.a Russian Bank taking control of IOB branches in Macedonia.809 Mr. Nias Mr. Nias ffrom throm thee IOB had come to Paris to meet the Ottoman Bank’s administra-IOB had come to Paris to meet the Ottoman Bank’s administra-tive board. When the administrators of the IOB in Paris asked him ques-tive board. When the administrators of the IOB in Paris asked him ques-tions about the Turkish economy, Nias responded that the Ottoman gov-tions about the Turkish economy, Nias responded that the Ottoman gov-ernment had repaid its debts even in the ernment had repaid its debts even in the darkest ofdarkest of days,days, even if that even if that meant it had no money to buy bread for its soldiers. He added that the meant it had no money to buy bread for its soldiers. He added that the Ottomans needed new additional sources of income, i.e., customs duties. Ottomans needed new additional sources of income, i.e., customs duties. Cavid BeyCavid Bey met with Mr. Nias and told him that since he had arrived in met with Mr. Nias and told him that since he had arrived in Paris, the OtParis, the Ottoman Banktoman Bank had shad sttill not been willing to discuss business ill not been willing to discuss business with him. This situation shows that Cavid Beywith him. This situation shows that Cavid Bey had to overcome several had to overcome several obstacles, including the Ottomanobstacles, including the Ottoman--French and FrenchFrench and French--German agree-German agree-ments, as well as Russia's various demands, in order to solve thements, as well as Russia's various demands, in order to solve the loan loan issuissue on se on scchedule.hedule.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met Mr. Steeg to discuss his notes with Mr. Harvey, the met Mr. Steeg to discuss his notes with Mr. Harvey, the British delegate to the Paris Financial Conference. Harvey had stated British delegate to the Paris Financial Conference. Harvey had stated that Turkey should commit to making improvements in the administra-that Turkey should commit to making improvements in the administra-tive field. Mr. Steeg objecttive field. Mr. Steeg objected to Mr. ed to Mr. HarveyHarvey’’s proposal, saying that Tur-s proposal, saying that Tur-key had already committed itself to the deputies and shareholders of key had already committed itself to the deputies and shareholders of the OPDA through the “Muharrem decreethe OPDA through the “Muharrem decree”” in 1881.in 1881. For this reason, Tur-For this reason, Tur-

808 HeHeller, ller, BritishBritish PoliPoliccy Toway Towards rds thethe Ottoman Empire 1908Ottoman Empire 1908--19141914, 93. , 93.

809 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, 691, 691--695.695.

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key only committed itself to the bond holders but not to the states.

key only committed itself to the bond holders but not to the states. Cavid Cavid BeyBey comcommenmented thted that eachat each ddelegate to the conference had a differ-elegate to the conference had a differ-ent idea of financial control in their minds. Steeg suggested finding a ent idea of financial control in their minds. Steeg suggested finding a solution to issues such as the employment of foreigners (solution to issues such as the employment of foreigners (i.e.,i.e., foreign bu-foreign bu-reaucrats) before the Great Powers would ask forreaucrats) before the Great Powers would ask for reformsreforms iin thisn this field. field. CaCavid Beyvid Bey agreed with Mr. Steegagreed with Mr. Steeg810 and he wrote a letter to Mahmud and he wrote a letter to Mahmud Şevket Pasha telling him to publish a reform program as soon as possi-Şevket Pasha telling him to publish a reform program as soon as possi-ble. He insisted that if his colleagues should hesitate to follow him, he ble. He insisted that if his colleagues should hesitate to follow him, he would leave them.would leave them. HowevHowever, he rer, he receceived eived a telegra telegramam from Mahmud Şev-from Mahmud Şev-ket Pasha complaining that the government was penniless. He asked ket Pasha complaining that the government was penniless. He asked Cavid BeyCavid Bey to deal with the Régie and Necip Asgar’s farms issue as soon to deal with the Régie and Necip Asgar’s farms issue as soon as possible.as possible.811

As noted in Cavid Bey

As noted in Cavid Bey's journal, the Russian Minister of Foreig's journal, the Russian Minister of Foreign Af-n Af-fairfairs,s, SergeSergei Sazanoi Sazanov,v, had allegedly told Count Vitali that a ruined Anato-had allegedly told Count Vitali that a ruined Anato-lia would not be suitable for both French and Russian interests. There-lia would not be suitable for both French and Russian interests. There-fore, the Ottoman Empire should go into debt to secure the state and fore, the Ottoman Empire should go into debt to secure the state and pay its debts through loans. In his joupay its debts through loans. In his journal Cavrnal Cavidid BeyBey uunderlinenderlines,s, "we are "we are not seeking loans under the guarantee of the Great Powers"; instead, he not seeking loans under the guarantee of the Great Powers"; instead, he thought, Russia should consent to a 10thought, Russia should consent to a 10––1212--year contract on the Black year contract on the Black Sea Railways. Sea Railways.

In Paris, the issue of financial control was on the agenda once a

In Paris, the issue of financial control was on the agenda once again. gain. CaCavivid Beyd Bey was squewas squeezezed between foreign control of the Ottoman Empire ed between foreign control of the Ottoman Empire and the loan issue. Cavid Beyand the loan issue. Cavid Bey restated in various meetings that the Ot-restated in various meetings that the Ot-toman government and he himself would never accept such a thing. On toman government and he himself would never accept such a thing. On the other hand, Mr. Steeg from IOB and Hallthe other hand, Mr. Steeg from IOB and Hallaçyan Efaçyan Efenendi, whdi, who was ino was in PParis then, supported Great Power control of the Empire. During a aris then, supported Great Power control of the Empire. During a meeting, Salem Efendi told Mr. Steeg that if the Great Powers were to meeting, Salem Efendi told Mr. Steeg that if the Great Powers were to implement international financial control over Ottoman finances, Cavid implement international financial control over Ottoman finances, Cavid BeyBey could not return to could not return to IstanbulIstanbul. . The YoThe Young Turkung Turk ggovernment would overnment would collapse, and such a situation would go against France's interests in collapse, and such a situation would go against France's interests in

810 Cavid Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 698.698.

811 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 770404--705.705.

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Turkey.

Turkey.812 Nevertheless, these debates did not surprise Cavid BeyNevertheless, these debates did not surprise Cavid Bey. He . He was acquainted with the was acquainted with the fact thatfact that the French government might push the French government might push him on fihim on financialnancial cocontrol.ntrol.

Durin

During g 1913 and 1914, another key issue for the Empire was the 1913 and 1914, another key issue for the Empire was the leaking of the secret correspondence between Ottoman politicians. leaking of the secret correspondence between Ottoman politicians. These secret letters were published in French These secret letters were published in French newspapers,newspapers, or the or the FrenchFrench--language newspapers published in the language newspapers published in the Ottoman Ottoman EmEmppire sire suuch as ch as MMecechroutiettehroutiette..813 The CUP opponents tried to pressurize Cavid BeyThe CUP opponents tried to pressurize Cavid Bey in in Paris and cause doubts about reliability by using the most dangerous Paris and cause doubts about reliability by using the most dangerous tool, the press. tool, the press. FranceFrance was also using its press as a tool in negotiations was also using its press as a tool in negotiations to strengthento strengthen itits hands hand againsagainst t tthe Emphe Empire. According to M. Deloncle, by ire. According to M. Deloncle, by the end of May 1913, the Empire’s propaganda campaign was going the end of May 1913, the Empire’s propaganda campaign was going well, although well, although Le TempsLe Temps continued to propagate negative news about continued to propagate negative news about the Empire.the Empire.814

Karl Helfferich from Deutsche Bank arrived in Paris u

Karl Helfferich from Deutsche Bank arrived in Paris unexnexpectedpectedly at ly at tthehe end ofend of MayMay 1913. Cavid Bey1913. Cavid Bey immediately understood that there immediately understood that there should be a reason for his sudden visit. Mr. Helfferich wanted to discuss should be a reason for his sudden visit. Mr. Helfferich wanted to discuss the railway issue here in Paris, because there was no one to discuss this the railway issue here in Paris, because there was no one to discuss this issue with other than Cavidissue with other than Cavid BeBeyy or tor thhe grane grand d vivizier izier in Istanbul. The n Istanbul. The main problem was that the Germans did not want to commit to the tim-main problem was that the Germans did not want to commit to the tim-ing as outlined in the Baghdad Railway contract; they prefered to com-ing as outlined in the Baghdad Railway contract; they prefered to com-mit to building new lines when they had the money for each one. Cavid mit to building new lines when they had the money for each one. Cavid BeyBey askeasked wd why thehy the OttomaOttoman n gogovernmevernment should give the Germans con-nt should give the Germans con-cessions, especially when the Ottomans could find an American compa-cessions, especially when the Ottomans could find an American compa-ny that would build the railway (i.e., the Ankarany that would build the railway (i.e., the Ankara--SivasSivas--HarputHarput--DiyarbakırDiyarbakır--Bitlis line) in a shorter amount of time. Besides, the OttoBitlis line) in a shorter amount of time. Besides, the Ottomanman EmpirEmpiree had ahad alrlreaeady comdy committed France to constructing the Harput track. mitted France to constructing the Harput track. As Cavid BeyAs Cavid Bey was discussing these issues with Mr. Helfferich, he was al-was discussing these issues with Mr. Helfferich, he was al-so carrying out negotiations with both France and Germany on the rail-so carrying out negotiations with both France and Germany on the rail-

812 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 713.713.

813 MecMechhrouietrouiette te was belonged to Şerif Pasha, an opponent of the CUP. He would be was belonged to Şerif Pasha, an opponent of the CUP. He would be accused accused ofof the assthe assassination of Mahmut Şevket Pasha. assination of Mahmut Şevket Pasha.

814 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, 714, 714..

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ways and the farm issue, as the Sublime Po

ways and the farm issue, as the Sublime Porterte had rhad reequestequested d hihim to dm to do. o. He was also corresponding with Mahmud Şevket Pasha and Said Halim He was also corresponding with Mahmud Şevket Pasha and Said Halim Pasha on the current developments in Istanbul. Pasha on the current developments in Istanbul.

On June 5, 1912, the Paris financial conference

On June 5, 1912, the Paris financial conference815 met for the first met for the first time on the premises of the French Ministry oftime on the premises of the French Ministry of Foreign AffairsForeign Affairs.. CaCavid vid BeBeyy met the delegates there, including French journalist and politician met the delegates there, including French journalist and politician Andre Tardieu. According to Cavid BeyAndre Tardieu. According to Cavid Bey's notes about the conference, M. 's notes about the conference, M. Tardieu confessed to Cavid BeyTardieu confessed to Cavid Bey that the Paris financial conference had that the Paris financial conference had political aims ratpolitical aims rather than economiher than economic c onones. Hees. He admitted that he was not admitted that he was not expecting anything from the Ottoman Empire because "it is sitting on expecting anything from the Ottoman Empire because "it is sitting on Germany's lap." Tardieu did not care about French investments in the Germany's lap." Tardieu did not care about French investments in the Ottoman Empire.Ottoman Empire.816 Tardieu's words reflect the general French senti-Tardieu's words reflect the general French senti-mment toward the Eent toward the Empmpirire.e. TheThe Paris financial commission had two aims: Paris financial commission had two aims: firstly, to determine the Balkan states' share of the Ottoman debts; sec-firstly, to determine the Balkan states' share of the Ottoman debts; sec-ondly, to decide and calculate the amount of a consolidated loan to be ondly, to decide and calculate the amount of a consolidated loan to be given to the Ottoman Empire. After the first given to the Ottoman Empire. After the first meeting, the conmeeting, the confefererence nce wawas postponed due to the outbreak of the Second Balkan War. Cavid Beys postponed due to the outbreak of the Second Balkan War. Cavid Bey notes that there were many critics of the Ottoman Empire’s position at notes that there were many critics of the Ottoman Empire’s position at the conference. According to Parvus Efendi, the Ottoman Empire's total the conference. According to Parvus Efendi, the Ottoman Empire's total debt, including debtdebt, including debts, advances, bons, advances, bondsds, , and fland floating debts, was 173.7 oating debts, was 173.7 million Ottoman Liras. It was expected that, if the conference were to million Ottoman Liras. It was expected that, if the conference were to continue, the Balkan states would pay around 20 million Ottoman Liras continue, the Balkan states would pay around 20 million Ottoman Liras

815 The Paris FThe Paris Fininancial Confeancial Conferrence was held to dence was held to determine the Ottoman debtsetermine the Ottoman debts,, thethe BalkanBalkan states’ shstates’ share of the debts, and to find a solution as to how much Balkan states would are of the debts, and to find a solution as to how much Balkan states would pay. Another issue was to confirm how much the Opay. Another issue was to confirm how much the Otttoman Empire would need from a toman Empire would need from a loaloan and how it won and how it woululd be given. d be given. TThough the first mehough the first meeting was held after the oeting was held after the ouuttbrebreaak k of tof the Second Bhe Second Balkan War, the conference was delayed. alkan War, the conference was delayed.

According to Parvus Efendi, the toAccording to Parvus Efendi, the total debt of the Ottoman Empire including debts, tal debt of the Ottoman Empire including debts, advances, bonds, and floating debtsadvances, bonds, and floating debts was 173.7 millwas 173.7 millioion Ottoman lin Ottoman lirra. The expected a. The expected shshare of the Balkan states ware of the Balkan states waas 20s 20 milliomillion Ottoman ln Ottoman lira. If we consider the income of ira. If we consider the income of the Ottthe Ottooman Empire, the total debt of the man Empire, the total debt of the Ottoman Empire was 150 million Ottoman Ottoman Empire was 150 million Ottoman lira. Palira. Parrvus Efendi. 2017, p: 141.vus Efendi. 2017, p: 141.

816 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmeRuznâmessi Ii I, 734, 734--735.735.

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of this debt. Thus, the Ottoman Empire's total debt would still h

of this debt. Thus, the Ottoman Empire's total debt would still have been ave been around around 15150 0 milliomillion Ottoman Liras.n Ottoman Liras.817

While participating in the financial conference, Cavid Bey

While participating in the financial conference, Cavid Bey carried out carried out negotiations on an individual level. He met with French politicians in-negotiations on an individual level. He met with French politicians in-cluding M. Pichon, M. Grandjean, M. Revoil, and others to discuss vari-cluding M. Pichon, M. Grandjean, M. Revoil, and others to discuss vari-oous railways and us railways and scschohools. Tols. The French politicians perceived Mahmud he French politicians perceived Mahmud Şevket Pasha as a German tool. Cavid BeyŞevket Pasha as a German tool. Cavid Bey assured M. Pichon that he assured M. Pichon that he wanted to resolve all of the conflictual issues in Paris.wanted to resolve all of the conflictual issues in Paris.818 Meanwhile, Meanwhile, Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s efforts to publish pro’s efforts to publish pro--Ottoman articles inOttoman articles in the French presthe French press s hahad resud resulted in two welllted in two well--rereceiveceived d articles in articles in LeMatinLeMatin written by M. Reg-written by M. Reg-nier, who was M. Delonce’s colleague. nier, who was M. Delonce’s colleague.

According to his journal entry dated June 12, 1913, while he was

According to his journal entry dated June 12, 1913, while he was working with Nail Bey, Cavid Beyworking with Nail Bey, Cavid Bey received news about Mahmud Şereceived news about Mahmud Şevket vket Pasha's assPasha's assasasssinination.ation. He was devastated when he heard the news. He He was devastated when he heard the news. He noted that Mahmud Şevket Pasha was killed at noted that Mahmud Şevket Pasha was killed at the very moment when the very moment when he could serve his country best.he could serve his country best.819 During Mahmud Şevket Pasha's last During Mahmud Şevket Pasha's last cabinet meeting, he and Cavid Beycabinet meeting, he and Cavid Bey had been able had been able to behave harmonto behave harmonioiouus-s-lyly for tfor the first and the last time. Mahmud Şevket Pasha had personally he first and the last time. Mahmud Şevket Pasha had personally assigned Cavid Beyassigned Cavid Bey to be in charge of the international negotiations and to be in charge of the international negotiations and Hakkı Pasha to push for reconciliation with Britain on essential issues Hakkı Pasha to push for reconciliation with Britain on essential issues such as Kuwait. Oversuch as Kuwait. Over the last six mothe last six montnthhss oof his f his life, Mahmud Şevket Pa-life, Mahmud Şevket Pa-sha had been working with the Unionists. sha had been working with the Unionists. Mahmut Şevket Mahmut Şevket PashaPasha was was once more complaining about the Unionists, such as Hacı Adil Bey and once more complaining about the Unionists, such as Hacı Adil Bey and Şükrü Bey.Şükrü Bey.820 It is possible to argue that Mahmud Şevket Pasha was the It is possible to argue that Mahmud Şevket Pasha was the last person who enclast person who encompaompassssed theed the valvalueues s of the Ottoman Empire as a of the Ottoman Empire as a statesman and a soldier. statesman and a soldier. Following Mahmud Şevket Pasha's assassina-Following Mahmud Şevket Pasha's assassina-

817 PaParvus Efendi. rvus Efendi. Cihan HarbineCihan Harbine doğrdoğruu TürkiTürkiyeye, 141., 141.

818 Cavid BCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet ey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I,Ruznâmesi I, 734734--736. 736.

819 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi I, 745Ruznâmesi I, 745--746.746.

820 Mahmut Şevket Paşa, Mahmut Şevket Paşa’nın Günlüğü, Mahmut Şevket Paşa, Mahmut Şevket Paşa’nın Günlüğü, 56. Türkgeldi, 56. Türkgeldi, GöGörüp rüp İşittiklİşittikleerimrim, 99. , 99.

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tion, Said Halim Pasha became the grand vizier,

tion, Said Halim Pasha became the grand vizier,821 and at last, a fully Un-and at last, a fully Un-ionist government was established. Talat Bey became minister of interi-ionist government was established. Talat Bey became minister of interi-oor afr affafairs irs afafter ter sosomeme secret discussions in the Committeesecret discussions in the Committee. Halil Bey be-. Halil Bey be-came the president of the Council of State, İzzet Pasha the minister of came the president of the Council of State, İzzet Pasha the minister of war, Osman Nizâmi Pasha the minister of public works, and Süleyman war, Osman Nizâmi Pasha the minister of public works, and Süleyman Bostani Efendi the minister of agriculture and Bostani Efendi the minister of agriculture and commcommererce. Thce. The ree restst oof the f the cabinet was the same as Mahmud Şevket Pasha's cabinet. cabinet was the same as Mahmud Şevket Pasha's cabinet. Due to fears of Due to fears of opposition, Cemal Bey and Fethi Bey did not enter the cabinet. Though opposition, Cemal Bey and Fethi Bey did not enter the cabinet. Though Cavid BeyCavid Bey was considered the shadow finance minister, Rifat Bey was was considered the shadow finance minister, Rifat Bey was assigned as the finanassigned as the finance mce mininister ister due due toto CCavid Beyavid Bey's work in Paris. Five 's work in Paris. Five years after the Young Turks revolution, this was the first cabinet of the years after the Young Turks revolution, this was the first cabinet of the CUP.CUP.822 The new government's first priority in domestic politics was to The new government's first priority in domestic politics was to find and arrest Mahmud Şevket Pasha's assassins. The assassinfind and arrest Mahmud Şevket Pasha's assassins. The assassins wes werere triedtried in in ththe Ee Empire’s military courts. Damat Salih Pasha, a member of mpire’s military courts. Damat Salih Pasha, a member of the royal family, and 11 others were executed for their roles in the inci-the royal family, and 11 others were executed for their roles in the inci-dent. Prince Sabahaddin, Şerif Pasha, and Ahmet Reşid (Rey) were sen-dent. Prince Sabahaddin, Şerif Pasha, and Ahmet Reşid (Rey) were sen-tenced to death, but they had already tenced to death, but they had already fledfled IIstanbustanbul anl and d escescaped pun-aped pun-ishment.ishment.823

June and July 1913 were critical months for the Ottoman govern-

June and July 1913 were critical months for the Ottoman govern-ment. ment. On June 10, 1913, the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan states On June 10, 1913, the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan states signed the London Treaty. According to this agreement, the Ottoman signed the London Treaty. According to this agreement, the Ottoman Empire’s Northwestern bEmpire’s Northwestern bordeorder r now exnow extendtendeded toto the Enezthe Enez--Midye line Midye line between the Aegean and the Black Seas. The Ottoman Empire lost Edir-between the Aegean and the Black Seas. The Ottoman Empire lost Edir-ne to Bulgaria.ne to Bulgaria. Albania became a separate country, but its legal status Albania became a separate country, but its legal status was under the Great Power's authority. Furthermore, the legal status of was under the Great Power's authority. Furthermore, the legal status of thethe AegAegeaean islan islands nds wowoulduld be determined by the Great Powers; Turkey be determined by the Great Powers; Turkey would withdraw and renounce its rights of sovereignty in Crete, and the would withdraw and renounce its rights of sovereignty in Crete, and the

821 İhsan İhsan Güneş Güneş Meşrutiyet’ten CumhuMeşrutiyet’ten Cumhurriyetiyet’’e Türke Türkiye’de Hükümetler Programları veiye’de Hükümetler Programları ve Meclisteki Yankıları (1908Meclisteki Yankıları (1908--1923)1923), (Istanbul: Türkiye İ, (Istanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Yayınları, 2012),ş Bankası Yayınları, 2012), 151151--170. 170.

822 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, , 748. Çavdar, 748. Çavdar, BiBir r Örgüt UstasıÖrgüt Ustasınnın yaşamüyküsü Talın yaşamüyküsü Talat at PaşaPaşa, 332, 332--333. 333.

823 TürkgTürkgeeldi,ldi, GGörüp örüp İşittiklerimİşittiklerim, 103. , 103.

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Ottoman Empire would not pay indemnity.

Ottoman Empire would not pay indemnity.824 However, the London However, the London Peace Treaty did not solve the Empire's problems; on the coPeace Treaty did not solve the Empire's problems; on the contrantraryry, it , it ccreatreateded nenew tensions. In Cavid Beyw tensions. In Cavid Bey’s terms, the status of the Ottoman ’s terms, the status of the Ottoman debts, the largest share of which fell to the Balkan states, remained am-debts, the largest share of which fell to the Balkan states, remained am-biguous.biguous.

Meanwhile, the First Balkan War was ending, and Germany had an-

Meanwhile, the First Balkan War was ending, and Germany had an-nounced the appointment of a Gernounced the appointment of a German man mimilitarylitary mismissision on to Istanbul un-to Istanbul un-der General Liman von Sanders. Between June 18 and 21, an Arab Con-der General Liman von Sanders. Between June 18 and 21, an Arab Con-gress met in Paris. On June 19, the Ottoman government applied to Paris gress met in Paris. On June 19, the Ottoman government applied to Paris for a new loan. Five days later, the French government asked for further for a new loan. Five days later, the French government asked for further concessionconcessions, is, in n particparticularular ffor or the Hedjaz railway. The new grand vizier the Hedjaz railway. The new grand vizier was skeptical of the construction of this railway. On June 21, the same was skeptical of the construction of this railway. On June 21, the same day, Britain conveyed the Angloday, Britain conveyed the Anglo--Ottoman agreements to Russia, France, Ottoman agreements to Russia, France, and Germany.and Germany.825

While Cavid Bey

While Cavid Bey was in Paris, the Secowas in Paris, the Second Bnd Balalkan Wakan War brr brokoke oe out on ut on June 29/30, 1913. The central conflict occurred due to the partition of June 29/30, 1913. The central conflict occurred due to the partition of Macedonian lands among the victor states of the First Balkan War. The Macedonian lands among the victor states of the First Balkan War. The primary battle pitted Bulgaria against the rest of the Balkan states. First, primary battle pitted Bulgaria against the rest of the Balkan states. First, Bulgaria fBulgaria foughought t with Gwith Greecreece e oveover Selanik; second, Greece fought with r Selanik; second, Greece fought with Serbia, which had captured most of Macedonia. Greece, Serbia, and Serbia, which had captured most of Macedonia. Greece, Serbia, and Montenegro then accused Bulgaria of unnecessarily extending the First Montenegro then accused Bulgaria of unnecessarily extending the First Balkan War to conquer Edirne. The Great Powers also benefitteBalkan War to conquer Edirne. The Great Powers also benefitted frd fromom this this riftrift iin tn the Balkans and utilized it for their own interests. However, he Balkans and utilized it for their own interests. However, the participation of Serbia and especially Romania changed the balance the participation of Serbia and especially Romania changed the balance of the alliance. In the end, Bulgaria found itself alone. Bulgaria made a of the alliance. In the end, Bulgaria found itself alone. Bulgaria made a surprise attack on Serbia andsurprise attack on Serbia and GreGreecece, igne, ignitiniting g thethe second war. Mean-second war. Mean-while, the conflict between the Bulgarian king and the army over their while, the conflict between the Bulgarian king and the army over their support for the war had weakened the latter. Romania's surprise recon-support for the war had weakened the latter. Romania's surprise recon-

824 Armaoğlu, Armaoğlu, Siyasi TSiyasi Tarih 1789 arih 1789 -- 19141914, 658. Zürcher, , 658. Zürcher, A Modern TurkeyA Modern Turkey,, 108. According to 108. According to Bayur, the London treaty was signed on May 30. Bayur, Bayur, the London treaty was signed on May 30. Bayur, Türk İnkiTürk İnkilâbı Tarihi, IIlâbı Tarihi, II/I/III, 313., 313.

825 BaBayyur, ur, Türk İnkilâbı Türk İnkilâbı Tarihi,II/IVTarihi,II/IV, 742, 742--745.745.

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quest of South Bulgaria in Dobruca after an immediate attack and ad-

quest of South Bulgaria in Dobruca after an immediate attack and ad-vance into vance into BulgBulgararia's iia's internterioior fr further weakened the Bulgarian army.urther weakened the Bulgarian army.826

Following these events, the CUP leaders, including Talat, Cemal, Adil,

Following these events, the CUP leaders, including Talat, Cemal, Adil, Midhat, Eyüp Sabri, and Ziya İhsan, held a meeting to discuss whether Midhat, Eyüp Sabri, and Ziya İhsan, held a meeting to discuss whether or not they should declare war on the Bulgarians in Edirnor not they should declare war on the Bulgarians in Edirne. Te. Talalat Beyat Bey waswas vveryery decisive and stated that he would redecisive and stated that he would resign if they would not de-sign if they would not de-cide to take Edirne back. Talat, Cemal, Adil, Mithat, Eycide to take Edirne back. Talat, Cemal, Adil, Mithat, Eyüüp Sabri, and Ziya p Sabri, and Ziya İhsan gathered in Arnavutköy. Apart from Ziya Bey, they all agreed on a İhsan gathered in Arnavutköy. Apart from Ziya Bey, they all agreed on a declaration of war.declaration of war.827 However, However, ththe cabie cabinet hanet had nd not fully decided on re-ot fully decided on re-capturing Edirncapturing Edirne. Despite the division in the cabinet, Talat Bey and En-e. Despite the division in the cabinet, Talat Bey and En-ver Bey’s opinions prevailed. The Ottoman army occupied Eastern ver Bey’s opinions prevailed. The Ottoman army occupied Eastern Thrace on July 21 and moved into Edirne. The Ottoman army did not Thrace on July 21 and moved into Edirne. The Ottoman army did not meet with any remeet with any resisistancestance, as t, as the he Bulgarian army had withdrawn its Bulgarian army had withdrawn its trootroops in order to fight its enemies on the western front. On July 22, the ps in order to fight its enemies on the western front. On July 22, the Ottoman army entered Edirne under the command of Enver Pasha, "the Ottoman army entered Edirne under the command of Enver Pasha, "the Conqueror of Edirne." Edirne's recapture by the Young Turks and Conqueror of Edirne." Edirne's recapture by the Young Turks and esespe-pe-cialcially Envly Enver er Pasha instilled the government with tPasha instilled the government with the confidence that he confidence that they might save the Empire through their commitment to actionthey might save the Empire through their commitment to action, not , not diplomacy alonediplomacy alone..828 The reconquest of Edirne gave Cavid BeyThe reconquest of Edirne gave Cavid Bey strength strength and morale during his talks in Europe.and morale during his talks in Europe.

Finally, o

Finally, onene of thof the moste most critical issues of Julycritical issues of July 1913 was the Ye1913 was the Yeniköy niköy Conference, whiConference, which was conducted by the dragomen of the Great Powers ch was conducted by the dragomen of the Great Powers from July 3from July 3––23. The conference had been initiated by the Russians and 23. The conference had been initiated by the Russians and was held in the Austrian embassy's summer cottage in Yenikwas held in the Austrian embassy's summer cottage in Yeniköyöy. Mr. . Mr. Jo-Jo-hannhann Markgraf von PallavicinMarkgraf von Pallavicini, the Austriai, the Austria--HHungary ambassador, waungary ambassador, was s the eldest ambassador in Istanbul, and for this reason he hosted the the eldest ambassador in Istanbul, and for this reason he hosted the conference. Though Britain and Germany had argued that the Ottoman conference. Though Britain and Germany had argued that the Ottoman government should participate in the confergovernment should participate in the conferenence, Ruce, Russia rssia rejected this ejected this

826 AArrmaoğmaoğlluu, , SiySiyasi Tarih 1789asi Tarih 1789--19141914, 659, 659--673; Tuncer, 673; Tuncer, TrTrablusgarp ve Balkan Savaşları ablusgarp ve Balkan Savaşları (1911(1911--1913)1913), 90, 90--9191. Shaw, II, 357. Shaw, II, 357--358.358.

827 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi Ruznâmesi II, 791, 791. .

828 MustaMustafa Aksakal fa Aksakal The The OtOttoman Road ttoman Road too War in 1914. The War in 1914. The Ottoman Empire and The FirOttoman Empire and The Firsst t WoWorrld Wald Warr, (, (Cambridge: Cambrdige University Press, 2008), 23Cambridge: Cambrdige University Press, 2008), 23. .

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proposal. T

proposal. Therefore, the Grherefore, the Great Powers decided theat Powers decided that the Ottoman Empire at the Ottoman Empire could not attend an international conference that was held on the Em-could not attend an international conference that was held on the Em-pire’s own territory to discuss its domestic affairs. During the confer-pire’s own territory to discuss its domestic affairs. During the confer-ence, the reform plaence, the reform plan n of Mr.of Mr. MandeMandelstam, the Russian dragolstam, the Russian dragoman, was man, was discussdiscussed.ed.

The Yeniköy Confe

The Yeniköy Conference was ultimately inconclusive. While the En-rence was ultimately inconclusive. While the En-tente Powers supported the Mandelstam plan, Berlin, Vienna, and Rome tente Powers supported the Mandelstam plan, Berlin, Vienna, and Rome opposed it. According to the plan, one general inspectorate wouldopposed it. According to the plan, one general inspectorate would bbe e appoappointed inted for the six eastern provfor the six eastern provinces and would inces and would be supervised under be supervised under aan Ottoman Christian inspector (similar to Lebanon's special status) or n Ottoman Christian inspector (similar to Lebanon's special status) or a European inspector. Mandelstam prepared the plan according to the a European inspector. Mandelstam prepared the plan according to the reform plan of 1865 that was outlined in Areform plan of 1865 that was outlined in Artrticle 6icle 61 of t1 of the Berlin Treaty. he Berlin Treaty. HoweveHowever, obviously unlr, obviously unlike 1865, all of the ike 1865, all of the states in 1913 belonged to states in 1913 belonged to two different pacts, the Triple Alliance and Entente Powers, and were to two different pacts, the Triple Alliance and Entente Powers, and were to agree on the plan. Mandelstam's plan was ruled out, and Germany be-agree on the plan. Mandelstam's plan was ruled out, and Germany be-came Russia's ccame Russia's couounterpanterpart in rt in handling the Armenian Quhandling the Armenian Question, due to estion, due to iits policy of dominatits policy of dominating the region as a part of the Baghdad Railway pro-ng the region as a part of the Baghdad Railway pro-ject.ject.829

4.3.4 AngloAnglo--Ottoman Talks, LondonOttoman Talks, London

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey was in London from July 25was in London from July 25––30, 1913, accompanying Hakkı 30, 1913, accompanying Hakkı Pasha during the last phase ofPasha during the last phase of the Anglothe Anglo--OttOttoman agreement. They alsoman agreement. They also o discussed the recent developments in the German negotiations. In re-discussed the recent developments in the German negotiations. In re-turn, Cavid Beyturn, Cavid Bey asked Hakkı Pasha to discuss issues sasked Hakkı Pasha to discuss issues such as thuch as the octroi e octroi and monopolies with the French, since these issues were outside of his and monopolies with the French, since these issues were outside of his expertise.expertise. He also met with British financiers such as Sir Henry Babing-He also met with British financiers such as Sir Henry Babing-ton Smith concerning the matter of the Ottoman dreadnoughts.ton Smith concerning the matter of the Ottoman dreadnoughts.830 His His first impression of Ottoman pfirst impression of Ottoman political olitical matters in London was that alt-matters in London was that alt-hough the British government was not opposed to Edirne's recapture, hough the British government was not opposed to Edirne's recapture,

829 HansHans--Lukas Kieser Et Al. Lukas Kieser Et Al. Reform or CReform or Catalyscm? The agreement of 8 February 1914 atalyscm? The agreement of 8 February 1914 regarding the Ottoman eastern proviregarding the Ottoman eastern provinces.”, 295, Kinces.”, 295, Kieseser, Ter, Talaat Palaat Paasha: Father of Mosha: Father of Moddern ern Turkey, Architect of GTurkey, Architect of Geenocinociddee, 15, 1588..

830 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, 787, 787--789. 789.

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they did have concerns about Russia.

they did have concerns about Russia.831 She could object to it because of She could object to it because of her interests in the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, it was obvious to Cavid her interests in the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, it was obvious to Cavid BeyBey tthat Franchat France felt excluded from the negotiations between Britain, e felt excluded from the negotiations between Britain, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire.Germany, and the Ottoman Empire.832

When Cavid Bey

When Cavid Bey met Sir Henry Babington Smith, the president of the met Sir Henry Babington Smith, the president of the National Bank of Turkey to discuss the dreadnoughts that the Ottoman National Bank of Turkey to discuss the dreadnoughts that the Ottoman government had orderegovernment had ordered, the NBd, the NBT seemed like it was procrastinating on T seemed like it was procrastinating on the delivery or trying to stop the delivery of the warships. The academic the delivery or trying to stop the delivery of the warships. The academic sources prevail in the opinion that the Ottoman Naval Society, a nonsources prevail in the opinion that the Ottoman Naval Society, a non--governmental society funded by Ottoman civilians, sponsored the governmental society funded by Ottoman civilians, sponsored the pur-pur-chase chase of the dreadnoughts, Reşadiye and Sultan. Jonathan Conlin argues of the dreadnoughts, Reşadiye and Sultan. Jonathan Conlin argues that the NBT also subsidized the ships.that the NBT also subsidized the ships.833 As a matter of fact, Sir Henry As a matter of fact, Sir Henry Babington Smith offered to sell the ships on the Ottomans’ behalf. Cavid Babington Smith offered to sell the ships on the Ottomans’ behalf. Cavid BeyBey assessed that his British counterassessed that his British counterparts werparts were being unhelpful and e being unhelpful and overly riskoverly risk--averse. According to him, they might find a good customer averse. According to him, they might find a good customer now, but next year they might lose money. The National Bank of Turkey now, but next year they might lose money. The National Bank of Turkey appeared similarly hesitant. Sir Henry openly told Cavid Beyappeared similarly hesitant. Sir Henry openly told Cavid Bey that the that the British did notBritish did not see a brsee a bright future for the Empire. This warning might be ight future for the Empire. This warning might be a predictor of the future of the dreadnoughts, which the British gov-a predictor of the future of the dreadnoughts, which the British gov-ernment requisitioned in time of war. They evaluated even slight suspi-ernment requisitioned in time of war. They evaluated even slight suspi-cions of a delay in the payments. Moreover, they asked for cions of a delay in the payments. Moreover, they asked for more secumore securi-ri-ties for the payment dates. He complained that they were not helpful. ties for the payment dates. He complained that they were not helpful. According to Cavid BeyAccording to Cavid Bey's diary, there was a conflict between the Foreign 's diary, there was a conflict between the Foreign Office and the NBT. The NBT wanted to retreat from the liquidation op-Office and the NBT. The NBT wanted to retreat from the liquidation op-erations of Turkey. The Foreign Oerations of Turkey. The Foreign Office letffice let them withdraw without any them withdraw without any insistence on their part.insistence on their part.

The Anglo

The Anglo--Ottoman Treaty was signed by Hakkı Pasha and Sir Ed-Ottoman Treaty was signed by Hakkı Pasha and Sir Ed-ward Grey on July 29, 1913. However, the British and French agree-ward Grey on July 29, 1913. However, the British and French agree-ments were renewed once again, and their scope was enlarged by new ments were renewed once again, and their scope was enlarged by new

831 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâRuznâmesi I,mesi I, 787. 787.

832 Cavid Bey, MeşrutiyeCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet t Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi I, 788., 788.

833 Conlin, Conlin, Mr FiMr Five Percent. Theve Percent. The MMany Lives ofany Lives of Calouste GulbenkiaCalouste GulbenkianThe World’s Richest MannThe World’s Richest Man, , 103. 103.

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areas or issues. However, reas or issues. However, tthe British Agreement of July 29, 19he British Agreement of July 29, 19113 was 3 was renewed in technical details once again on December 12, 1913.renewed in technical details once again on December 12, 1913.834 Alt-Alt-hough the British had approved the 4% increase in the Ottoman cus-hough the British had approved the 4% increase in the Ottoman cus-toms duties (from 11% to 15%), the British had approved this on two toms duties (from 11% to 15%), the British had approved this on two conditions: first, that Germany ratify the treaty conditions: first, that Germany ratify the treaty aand, second, that the Ot-nd, second, that the Ot-toman government lift its veto over the Egyptian rights to obtain foreign toman government lift its veto over the Egyptian rights to obtain foreign loans. While the latter had already been lifted, the only thing that re-loans. While the latter had already been lifted, the only thing that re-mained was Germany’s approval.mained was Germany’s approval.

In July, Britain and the Ottoman Empire had resolved m

In July, Britain and the Ottoman Empire had resolved maany conflict-ny conflict-ual issues, with the exception of ongoing discussions on navigation ual issues, with the exception of ongoing discussions on navigation rights and oil issues. With the treaty coming closer to conclusion, France rights and oil issues. With the treaty coming closer to conclusion, France began accelerating negotiation processes with the Ottoman Empire with began accelerating negotiation processes with the Ottoman Empire with great enthusiasm and appetite. great enthusiasm and appetite. IIts sole concern was to prevent Britain ts sole concern was to prevent Britain from coming to terms with Germany before France.from coming to terms with Germany before France.835

4.3.5 The End of the Balkan Wars The End of the Balkan Wars

As mentioned above, the Second Balkan War was a brief war between

As mentioned above, the Second Balkan War was a brief war between Bulgaria and its erstwhile Balkan allies, which ended in the massive de-Bulgaria and its erstwhile Balkan allies, which ended in the massive de-ffeat of Bulgaria. As Cavid Beyeat of Bulgaria. As Cavid Bey foresaw, the Balkan states waged a war to foresaw, the Balkan states waged a war to redistribute the southeastern Balkans, which had expanded in Bulgar-redistribute the southeastern Balkans, which had expanded in Bulgar-ia’s favor. One of the leading causes of the war was the territorial dis-ia’s favor. One of the leading causes of the war was the territorial dis-putes over Selanik, which went back and fortputes over Selanik, which went back and forthh between Greece and Bul-between Greece and Bul-garia. The war pitted Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania, while garia. The war pitted Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania, while the Ottoman Empire took advantage of Bulgaria's weakened position to the Ottoman Empire took advantage of Bulgaria's weakened position to win back territory. On the Ottoman front, the Çatalca and Gelibolu ar-win back territory. On the Ottoman front, the Çatalca and Gelibolu ar-mies led by Enver Bey (nomies led by Enver Bey (noww Pasha) advanced toward Edirne and the Pasha) advanced toward Edirne and the EnezEnez--Midye line. On July 23, the anniversary of the Revolution, the Ot-Midye line. On July 23, the anniversary of the Revolution, the Ot-toman army reoccupied Edirne. The small Ottoman units led by toman army reoccupied Edirne. The small Ottoman units led by Kuşçubaşı Eşref and Süleyman Askerî proceeded to Western Thrace to Kuşçubaşı Eşref and Süleyman Askerî proceeded to Western Thrace to

834 ÖzÖzyyüksel, üksel, The BerlinThe Berlin--BaghBaghdad Railway and the Ottoman Empire,dad Railway and the Ottoman Empire,146, 147.146, 147.

835 YeYerasimos, rasimos, Az GelişmişAz Gelişmişlik Sürecinde Türkiye 2 lik Sürecinde Türkiye 2 -- Tanzimattan I. Dünya SavaşınaTanzimattan I. Dünya Savaşına, 1094., 1094.

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prohibit the terro

prohibit the terrorr of the Bulgarian guerrillas from spreading.of the Bulgarian guerrillas from spreading.836 They They established the Temporary Government of Western Thrace to use as established the Temporary Government of Western Thrace to use as leverage. Soon after, in August 1913, the Bucharest Agreement between leverage. Soon after, in August 1913, the Bucharest Agreement between Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia ended the fighting between Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia ended the fighting between tthhese states. Greece deployed Greek troops in Selanik and assumed di-ese states. Greece deployed Greek troops in Selanik and assumed di-rect control of the city at the end of the war. Serbia became a protec-rect control of the city at the end of the war. Serbia became a protec-torate of Russia, while Bulgaria approached the Germantorate of Russia, while Bulgaria approached the German--AustriaAustria--Hungarian alliance. One month later, the Istanbul AgreemHungarian alliance. One month later, the Istanbul Agreemeent between nt between the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria officially ended the war on September the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria officially ended the war on September 30, 1913. Edirne remained within Ottoman territory, and in return, the 30, 1913. Edirne remained within Ottoman territory, and in return, the Ottomans evacuated Western Thrace and left Gümülcine and Dedeağaç Ottomans evacuated Western Thrace and left Gümülcine and Dedeağaç to Bulgaria.to Bulgaria.837 According to the Great According to the Great PPowers, the treaty was a fait ac-owers, the treaty was a fait ac-compli, which obtained many advantages for the Sublime Porte, espe-compli, which obtained many advantages for the Sublime Porte, espe-cially compared to those won in the London Treaty. The only remaining cially compared to those won in the London Treaty. The only remaining issue was the Grecoissue was the Greco--Ottoman peace agreement. Britain complained and Ottoman peace agreement. Britain complained and even even protestedprotested the agthe agreement's delay because of its negative impact on reement's delay because of its negative impact on British trade and shipping. However, the Ottoman Empire and Greece British trade and shipping. However, the Ottoman Empire and Greece signed the Treaty of Athens on November 14, 1913. Finally, the Ottoman signed the Treaty of Athens on November 14, 1913. Finally, the Ottoman Empire and Serbia ratified the Treaty of Istanbul on March Empire and Serbia ratified the Treaty of Istanbul on March 114, 1914.4, 1914.838

The consequences of the Balkan Wars were met by a society al

The consequences of the Balkan Wars were met by a society alrereaady dy mobilized and politicized after the Revolution of 1908. Nevertheless, the mobilized and politicized after the Revolution of 1908. Nevertheless, the two subsequent wars changed Ottoman society irreversibly and per-two subsequent wars changed Ottoman society irreversibly and per-haps even more drastically. The Balkan Wars led tohaps even more drastically. The Balkan Wars led to the collapse of the the collapse of the Ottomans’ traditional imperial policy thaOttomans’ traditional imperial policy that t hhad lasted for almost 500 ad lasted for almost 500 years: to expand toward the West and use the Balkans as a gateway to years: to expand toward the West and use the Balkans as a gateway to

836 This was one This was one of the criticalof the critical iincidents in ncidents in wwhich the selfhich the self--sacrsacrificing soldiers, who wereificing soldiers, who were loyaloyall to tto thhe CUP, played a role. e CUP, played a role. They would play a significant role in both the GreThey would play a significant role in both the Great War at War and National and National Struggle to combat domestic and foreign enemies.Struggle to combat domestic and foreign enemies.

837 Sacit Kutlu Sacit Kutlu Milliyetçilik vMilliyetçilik ve Emperyalizm Ye Emperyalizm Yüzüzyılında Balkyılında Balkaanlar ve Osmanlı Denlar ve Osmanlı Devleti, vleti, ((Istanbul: IstanbulIstanbul: Istanbul BilgBilgii ÜnivÜniveersitesi Yayınları, 201rsitesi Yayınları, 2018), 3828), 382--393. 393.

838 Heller, Heller, British Policy Towards TheBritish Policy Towards The Ottoman Empire 1908Ottoman Empire 1908--19141914, 82. Hall, R.C. “Ottoman , 82. Hall, R.C. “Ottoman Empire in the Balkan Wars”, “Salonika”, “SecondEmpire in the Balkan Wars”, “Salonika”, “Second Balkan War” ciBalkan War” citeted in d in War in War in tthe Bahe Bal-l-kanskans, p: 122, p: 122--123, 215123, 215--220, 262. Mark M220, 262. Mark Mazoweazowerr SelaSelannik Hayaletler Şehri Hıik Hayaletler Şehri Hıristiyanlar, ristiyanlar, MüslümanlMüslümanlar ve Yahudiler, 1430ar ve Yahudiler, 1430--1950, 1950, (( Istanbul: Alfa TarIstanbul: Alfa Tarih, 2013), 387.ih, 2013), 387.

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Europe. On the domestic side, the wars harmed the monolithic frame-

Europe. On the domestic side, the wars harmed the monolithic frame-work of the transcendental empiwork of the transcendental empire, which constituted the sultan, his re, which constituted the sultan, his loyal subjects, and the loyal subjects, and the EmEmppire’s territorial possessions. Moreover, it ire’s territorial possessions. Moreover, it triggered the anxiety of survival to keep the state unified. The only rem-triggered the anxiety of survival to keep the state unified. The only rem-edy to save the state was to adopt and implement new ideologies and edy to save the state was to adopt and implement new ideologies and policipolicies such as nationalism and solidarity.es such as nationalism and solidarity.839 From the European sideFrom the European side, , tthe Ottoman Empire was no longer the 'other' of Europe. For the first he Ottoman Empire was no longer the 'other' of Europe. For the first time in almost 500 years, the Balkan states, as independent agencies, time in almost 500 years, the Balkan states, as independent agencies, could unite against the Ottoman Empire in 1912could unite against the Ottoman Empire in 1912--13 wi13 without the Great thout the Great Powers' overt support. After first losing the Powers' overt support. After first losing the TrTriipolitanian War and then politanian War and then the Balkan Wars, the main question in the European milieu was if the the Balkan Wars, the main question in the European milieu was if the 'sick man of Europe' was falling to pieces.'sick man of Europe' was falling to pieces.840 On the other hand, On the other hand, Union-Union-ists, who were mostly born anists, who were mostly born and had grownd had grown upup in the Balkans. The shock in the Balkans. The shock of the defeat and loss is also very apparent in Cavid Beyof the defeat and loss is also very apparent in Cavid Bey's diaries. In 's diaries. In many entries, he writes about his sorrow over the loss of his homeland. many entries, he writes about his sorrow over the loss of his homeland. Despite these losses, during the Balkan Wars, the Unionists had finallyDespite these losses, during the Balkan Wars, the Unionists had finally ascended tascended to to thhe apex of power within the Ottoman state. As detailed in e apex of power within the Ottoman state. As detailed in the previous chapter, following the coup d’the previous chapter, following the coup d’état of January 1913 and then état of January 1913 and then Mahmud Şevket Pasha's assassination, the CUP established a singleMahmud Şevket Pasha's assassination, the CUP established a single--party government. The Committee, for the firsparty government. The Committee, for the first time, hadt time, had ththee chance to chance to shape the politics, military, economy, and society of the Ottoman Em-shape the politics, military, economy, and society of the Ottoman Em-pire. Although they hpire. Although they had suffered immense losses, they embraced their ad suffered immense losses, they embraced their new Ottoman homeland in Anatolia and left their bitter experiences in new Ottoman homeland in Anatolia and left their bitter experiences in the past as they ascendthe past as they ascended to power. As seen in Cavid Beyed to power. As seen in Cavid Bey's memoirs, the 's memoirs, the Unionists immediately started negotiations to seek investments forUnionists immediately started negotiations to seek investments for the the new Anatolian homeland at the beginning of March. new Anatolian homeland at the beginning of March.

The Balkan Wars had changed Ottoman politics, society, and econo-

The Balkan Wars had changed Ottoman politics, society, and econo-my profoundly. The nemy profoundly. The new circumstances necessitated the establishment w circumstances necessitated the establishment

839 Mehmet Arısan, “Loss of the Lost,” in Mehmet Arısan, “Loss of the Lost,” in War & Nationalism the War & Nationalism the Balkan Wars, 19Balkan Wars, 191212--1913, 1913, and Tand Thheir Sociopoliticaleir Sociopolitical ImplicationsImplications, ed. M. Haka, ed. M. Hakan Yavn Yavuuz andz and Isa Blumi (Utah: The UIsa Blumi (Utah: The Uni-ni-versity of Utah Press, 2013),716versity of Utah Press, 2013),716

840 Sean McMeekinSean McMeekin The BerlinThe Berlin--Baghdad Baghdad Express. The Ottoman Empire and Germany Bid for Express. The Ottoman Empire and Germany Bid for World PowerWorld Power, (Massachusetts: H, (Massachusetts: Harvard Universiarvard Universityty Press, 2012Press, 2012)), 80., 80.

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of modern and nationalist policies rather than sustaining the polici

of modern and nationalist policies rather than sustaining the policies of es of Ottomanism and liberalism. Throughout its five hundred years’ history, Ottomanism and liberalism. Throughout its five hundred years’ history, the Ottoman Empire had waged war primarily with outsiders like Rthe Ottoman Empire had waged war primarily with outsiders like Rus-us-sia and Austriasia and Austria--Hungary. However, the independence movements in the Hungary. However, the independence movements in the Balkans led to either internal wars or revoltBalkans led to either internal wars or revolts. The Balkan Wars were s. The Balkan Wars were largelarge--scale wars against the Empire’s scale wars against the Empire’s milletsmillets or former or former milletmillet nations. nations. Thus, it changed the perception of the enemy Thus, it changed the perception of the enemy within the Empire. The within the Empire. The wildness of the war, the atrocities, and stories of the refugees made a wildness of the war, the atrocities, and stories of the refugees made a great impact on the great impact on the population. Moreover, Greek superiority in the Ae-population. Moreover, Greek superiority in the Ae-gean Sea due to its ownership of only one battleship, gean Sea due to its ownership of only one battleship, AverofAverof, which had , which had been previously ownebeen previously owned by Italy, was a real disappointment for the Ot-d by Italy, was a real disappointment for the Ot-toman Empire. What made matters worse was that prior to Greece’s toman Empire. What made matters worse was that prior to Greece’s pupurchase of the ship, the Fratelli Orlando brothers in Livorno had first rchase of the ship, the Fratelli Orlando brothers in Livorno had first asked the Ottoman Empire to buy the ship. However, the Empire could asked the Ottoman Empire to buy the ship. However, the Empire could nonot afford to buy it. After the Ottomans declined the sale, with the finan-t afford to buy it. After the Ottomans declined the sale, with the finan-cial aid of an Egyptiancial aid of an Egyptian--Greek named George Greek named George Averof, the Greek govern-Averof, the Greek govern-ment purchased the ship. During the First Balkan War, Greece was able ment purchased the ship. During the First Balkan War, Greece was able to use this battleship to occupy to use this battleship to occupy allall the Aegeanthe Aegean islands except for the islands except for the Dodacanese. Moreover, she hampered the Ottoman Empire from dis-Dodacanese. Moreover, she hampered the Ottoman Empire from dis-patching soldiers from patching soldiers from İzmirİzmir to Beirut by sea. Thus, in large part due to to Beirut by sea. Thus, in large part due to the success of the the success of the AverofAverof, after the war the Anatolian Greeks were seen , after the war the Anatolian Greeks were seen as the enemies of the Emas the enemies of the Empire. Rumors that they had helped the Greek pire. Rumors that they had helped the Greek government during the war spread widely. The loyalty of nongovernment during the war spread widely. The loyalty of non--MusliMuslims ms to the Ottoman Empire began to be questioned. to the Ottoman Empire began to be questioned.

Developments during and after the Balkan Wars overlapped with the

Developments during and after the Balkan Wars overlapped with the rise of Turkish nationalism. Furise of Turkish nationalism. Further, the supporters of the national rther, the supporters of the national economy dominated public opinion. One of the key aims was to estab-economy dominated public opinion. One of the key aims was to estab-lish lish a na national Muslimational Muslim--Turkish bourgeoisie independent of the Empire’s Turkish bourgeoisie independent of the Empire’s nonnon--Muslims. For this reason, it was not difficult to organize protests Muslims. For this reason, it was not difficult to organize protests and boycoand boycotts against nontts against non--Muslims, particularly the Anatolian Greeks. As Muslims, particularly the Anatolian Greeks. As mentioned above, the society had had experiencmentioned above, the society had had experience oe of protests and boy-f protests and boy-cotts since 1908, but this time the protests had stronger ethnic and reli-cotts since 1908, but this time the protests had stronger ethnic and reli-gious undertones. Though Turkish nationalism would fugious undertones. Though Turkish nationalism would fundamentally ndamentally rise during and after the Great War, the homogenization of Anatolia be-rise during and after the Great War, the homogenization of Anatolia be-

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gan in 1913 and 1914. One o

gan in 1913 and 1914. One of tf the key tools of this policy was the “Islam-he key tools of this policy was the “Islam-ic Boycott”. The boycott was against the Anatolian Greeks who were ac-ic Boycott”. The boycott was against the Anatolian Greeks who were ac-cused of helping the Greeks durincused of helping the Greeks during the First Balkan War and seen as the g the First Balkan War and seen as the scapegoat for the war's defeat and its losses. The Islamic boycott wasscapegoat for the war's defeat and its losses. The Islamic boycott was heheld in April 1914. It was carried out in various towns where the Anato-ld in April 1914. It was carried out in various towns where the Anato-lian Greeks lived with various societies and voluntary organizations. In lian Greeks lived with various societies and voluntary organizations. In 191914, they were also linked to the Special Organization (14, they were also linked to the Special Organization (TeşkilatTeşkilat--ı ı MahsusaMahsusa), the CUP’s paramilitary group. As ), the CUP’s paramilitary group. As a ra result, approximately esult, approximately 200,000 Anatolian Greeks from both Thrace and the Aegean region (be-200,000 Anatolian Greeks from both Thrace and the Aegean region (be-tween Edremit and tween Edremit and İzmirİzmir) left Anatolia without a signifi) left Anatolia without a significant incident.cant incident.841

The Balkan Wars spurred the social mobi

The Balkan Wars spurred the social mobilization of the Empire. It lization of the Empire. It resembled the Great War in resembled the Great War in manmany aspects, almost like a dress rehearsal y aspects, almost like a dress rehearsal for the Ottoman Empire. One of the Great War's crucial points was that for the Ottoman Empire. One of the Great War's crucial points was that the home front was as critical athe home front was as critical as the military front itself. The Ottomans s the military front itself. The Ottomans had experienchad experienced and noticed its importance in the Balkan War. The Ced and noticed its importance in the Balkan War. The CUP UP mobilized the society, especially young people, through propaganda and mobilized the society, especially young people, through propaganda and education via the National Defense Societyeducation via the National Defense Society842 and CUP Clubs. The con-and CUP Clubs. The con-cepts ocepts of nationalism, militarism, and solidarity were spread tf nationalism, militarism, and solidarity were spread through hrough these institutions. Furthermore, the nationalisthese institutions. Furthermore, the nationalist dt discourse of the Otto-iscourse of the Otto-man press in outlets such as man press in outlets such as TaninTanin and other new publications helped to and other new publications helped to spread nationalists’ messages across Istanbul and Anspread nationalists’ messages across Istanbul and Anatolia. The new atolia. The new mindset would also help the ruling elitmindset would also help the ruling elite create a more resilient and e create a more resilient and stronger army, which wasstronger army, which was lalacking during the Balkan Wars.cking during the Balkan Wars.843 The intel-The intel-lectuals of the day became the main proponents of nationalism as they lectuals of the day became the main proponents of nationalism as they

841 Doğan Y. ÇDoğan Y. Çetinkaya etinkaya Osmanlı’yı MüslüOsmanlı’yı Müslümanştmanştıırmak Krmak Kitle Siyaseti, Toplumsitle Siyaseti, Toplumsaal Sınıflar, l Sınıflar, Boykotlar ve Milli İktisatBoykotlar ve Milli İktisat (1909 (1909 –– 1911914), 134), 13--27, 16727, 167--226, 226, 227, 55. See also, Tunaya, 227, 55. See also, Tunaya, Tü-Tü-rkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol. 3 İttihat ve Terarkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol. 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, kki, Bir Çağın, BBir Kuşağın, ir Kuşağın, BBir Partinin Ta-ir Partinin Ta-rih, rih, 33, 576, 576--580.580.

842 The BritishThe British EmbaEmbasssy consy considered the National Dsidered the National Deefense Societies to be similar to the fense Societies to be similar to the French revoluFrench revolutionaries in 1793 antionaries in 1793 and the Communards in 1870, both of which suppord the Communards in 1870, both of which support-t-ed launching terror campaigns.ed launching terror campaigns. Heller, Heller, BritishBritish Policy TowarPolicy Towardds The Ottoman Es The Ottoman Emmpirpire e 19081908--19141914, 78., 78.

843 AksakaAksakal, l, HaHarrbb--i Umi Umumi Eşiğinde Osmanlı Dumi Eşiğinde Osmanlı Deevletivleti, 21., 21.

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tried to mobilize society.

tried to mobilize society.844 This wThis was an institutionalized and standard-as an institutionalized and standard-ized transformationized transformation with the ruling party’s establishment of social with the ruling party’s establishment of social clubsclubs, p, paramilitary forces, and legal codes. Alongside society, the econ-aramilitary forces, and legal codes. Alongside society, the econ-omy was given a national character. The loss of Selanik was inde-omy was given a national character. The loss of Selanik was inde-pendently a traupendently a trauma for the Young Turks born there, and who gave birth ma for the Young Turks born there, and who gave birth tto the CUP. Until the Balkan Wars, the Central Committeo the CUP. Until the Balkan Wars, the Central Committee we was located in as located in Selanik, far from Istanbul's political conflicts, to protect and sacralize Selanik, far from Istanbul's political conflicts, to protect and sacralize the Committee. Selanik, the city of multithe Committee. Selanik, the city of multi--culturalism, culturalism, cosmopolitanism, cosmopolitanism, industry, leisure, and commerce, had eindustry, leisure, and commerce, had educated the Young Turks on how ducated the Young Turks on how to be modern. The city to be modern. The city itsitself was a role model for the generation of the elf was a role model for the generation of the Young Turks. Though Istanbul was also a center of commerce with its Young Turks. Though Istanbul was also a center of commerce with its multimulti--cultural structure, it cultural structure, it was the Empire's capital, the Sultan, and the was the Empire's capital, the Sultan, and the CaliphateCaliphate. After the fall of Selanik, the CUP moved its center . After the fall of Selanik, the CUP moved its center to to Istanbul.Istanbul.

After the loss of Selanik during the Balkan Wars, the ideological and

After the loss of Selanik during the Balkan Wars, the ideological and economic capital of the Unionists and the whole country shifted economic capital of the Unionists and the whole country shifted from from Selanik to Istanbul. Istanbul had a more homogenouSelanik to Istanbul. Istanbul had a more homogenous commercial life s commercial life based on local merchants, artisans, based on local merchants, artisans, andand labor than Selanik's interna-labor than Selanik's interna-tional business milieu. The end of the Balkan Wars precipitated the Ot-tional business milieu. The end of the Balkan Wars precipitated the Ot-toman government's adaptation to nationalism toman government's adaptation to nationalism and national economy and national economy policies that had begun in the prepolicies that had begun in the pre--war period, were implemented dur-war period, were implemented dur-ing the Great War, aning the Great War, and wd were inherited by the new Turkish state during ere inherited by the new Turkish state during the Republican Era. After the loss of the Balkans, a new identity was es-the Republican Era. After the loss of the Balkans, a new identity was es-tablished, which founded Ttablished, which founded Turkish nationalism. It was end of Ottoman-urkish nationalism. It was end of Ottoman-ism and the awism and the awakening of the Ottomanakening of the Ottoman--Muslim economy. The ethnic and Muslim economy. The ethnic and relreligious feelings were intertwined with each other. The press support-igious feelings were intertwined with each other. The press support-ed the new inclinations of the Ottoman government. ed the new inclinations of the Ottoman government.

The new political and nat

The new political and national consciousness after the Balkan Wars ional consciousness after the Balkan Wars aimed to achiaimed to achieve economic independence both domestically and inter-eve economic independence both domestically and inter-nnatiationally. The liberal economy and Ottomanism were losing im-onally. The liberal economy and Ottomanism were losing im-

844 Şirin Funda Selçuk "The Traumatic LegŞirin Funda Selçuk "The Traumatic Legacy of the Balkan Waacy of the Balkan Wars for Turkish Intellectu-rs for Turkish Intellectu-als" in als" in War & Nationalism the Balkan Wars, 1912War & Nationalism the Balkan Wars, 1912--19131913, and Their Soci, and Their Socioopolitical Impolitical Impplica-lica-tionstions, ed. M. H, ed. M. Hakan Yavuz and Isa Blumi akan Yavuz and Isa Blumi (Salt(Salt Lake CLake City: The University ofity: The University of Utah Press, Utah Press, 2013), 6792013), 679--703.703.

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portance, while the national economy and national solidarity were gain-

portance, while the national economy and national solidarity were gain-ing impetus. Whening impetus. When such a fundamental national transformation occurs, such a fundamental national transformation occurs, thethe actors in power also typically change. However, Cavidactors in power also typically change. However, Cavid BeBeyy, though a , though a liberal economist, did not lose importance due to his power as a finan-liberal economist, did not lose importance due to his power as a finan-cier at the international level. Although new, strong critics cier at the international level. Although new, strong critics of liberalism of liberalism confronted him, Cavid Beyconfronted him, Cavid Bey's role and ideo's role and ideologies were still relevant amid logies were still relevant amid the ascent of Turkism the ascent of Turkism andand the transformation of the national economy. the transformation of the national economy. During this period, new economic ideologues including Ziya (Gökalp), During this period, new economic ideologues including Ziya (Gökalp), Yusuf (Akçura), and Muhlis (TeYusuf (Akçura), and Muhlis (Tekinalp Moiz Kohen) rose to popularity in kinalp Moiz Kohen) rose to popularity in the public sphthe public sphere. New periodicals such as Türk Yurdu, Genç Kalemlerere. New periodicals such as Türk Yurdu, Genç Kalemler, , aand Halka Doğru had been the intellectual groundwork for this new nd Halka Doğru had been the intellectual groundwork for this new formation. formation. 845

During the Second Constitutional Period (1908

During the Second Constitutional Period (1908––1918), three main 1918), three main ececonomic philosophies developed and competed with each otonomic philosophies developed and competed with each other: liber-her: liber-al economic thought, led by Cavid Beyal economic thought, led by Cavid Bey; corpo; corporatratism, which aimed to ism, which aimed to strengthen and organize Turkish and Muslim artisans and was led by strengthen and organize Turkish and Muslim artisans and was led by Kara Kemal and Mamhut Şevket (Esendal); and the national Kara Kemal and Mamhut Şevket (Esendal); and the national economy economy pioneered by Ziya Gökalp, the leading ideologuepioneered by Ziya Gökalp, the leading ideologue among the CUP, and among the CUP, and Munis (Tekinalp). The leading periMunis (Tekinalp). The leading periodiodicals supporting the national econ-cals supporting the national econ-omy's idea wereomy's idea were The New MagazineThe New Magazine ((Yeni MecmuaYeni Mecmua) and) and The Economics The Economics MagazineMagazine ((İktisadiyyat Mecmuasıİktisadiyyat Mecmuası). The three id). The three ideas were similar in one eas were similar in one respect: they all aimed at estarespect: they all aimed at establishing a bourgeoisie in the country. blishing a bourgeoisie in the country. From his firstFrom his first dadays in office, Cavid Beyys in office, Cavid Bey argued that the main economic argued that the main economic outputs of the Ottoman Empire ought to be agriculture and commerce. outputs of the Ottoman Empire ought to be agriculture and commerce. He promoted foreign diHe promoted foreign direct investment to increase efficiency in these rect investment to increase efficiency in these fields.fields. Cavid BeyCavid Bey was aware that the Ottoman Empire was lackiwas aware that the Ottoman Empire was lacking ng re-re-sources to invest in its own industries. Therefore, he did not support sources to invest in its own industries. Therefore, he did not support state intervention, especially for industrial development. He adopted state intervention, especially for industrial development. He adopted tthe economic and political tenets of liberalism and estahe economic and political tenets of liberalism and established modern blished modern financial institutions in the Empire unfinancial institutions in the Empire underder this framework. From 1908 to this framework. From 1908 to 1913, Cavid Bey1913, Cavid Bey's liberal economic framework was the dominant 's liberal economic framework was the dominant

845 Toprak, Toprak, Türkiye’de MTürkiye’de Milli İktisat (1908illi İktisat (1908--11918),918), 161161--64.64.

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framework within the Empire, though other ideas were

framework within the Empire, though other ideas were flourishing. flourishing. However, between the end of the First BalHowever, between the end of the First Balkan War and the beginning of kan War and the beginning of the Great War, nationalisthe Great War, nationalism am and the national economy were elevated nd the national economy were elevated both in context and practice. By the outbreak of the Great War, the Un-both in context and practice. By the outbreak of the Great War, the Un-ionists had fully adopted national eionists had fully adopted national economic policies. One of the main conomic policies. One of the main questions here is to questions here is to what extent Cavid Beywhat extent Cavid Bey had adopted this new eco-had adopted this new eco-nomic ponomic policlicy and embraced nationalism and protectionism rather than y and embraced nationalism and protectionism rather than individual competition and the free market. As I would argue in this dis-individual competition and the free market. As I would argue in this dis-sertation, Cavisertation, Cavid Beyd Bey was a man of duty: he followed the CUP’s instruc-was a man of duty: he followed the CUP’s instruc-ttions, as we have witnessed in the previous chapters. Wions, as we have witnessed in the previous chapters. Whilhile he was e he was promoting foreign investments, he was critical of the existence of the promoting foreign investments, he was critical of the existence of the Ottoman PDA, and also tried to force through new legislation to Ottoman PDA, and also tried to force through new legislation to pro-pro-mote the local production of alcoholic beverages. Whmote the local production of alcoholic beverages. While Cavid Beyile Cavid Bey did did not personally adopt national economnot personally adopt national economic ic policies, his financial expertise policies, his financial expertise was essential for the Unionist government. Despite differing economic was essential for the Unionist government. Despite differing economic philosophies, Cavid Beyphilosophies, Cavid Bey was called from was called from Europe many times to draft the Europe many times to draft the state’s budget or balancstate’s budget or balance the budget deficit while he was dealing with e the budget deficit while he was dealing with loan isloan issuesues.s.

New disciplines and concepts such as sociology and solidarity in-

New disciplines and concepts such as sociology and solidarity in-spired the newly emerging economic policies. Rather than being mar-spired the newly emerging economic policies. Rather than being mar-ketket--orienteoriented, they focused on social issues. These sociological and, they focused on social issues. These sociological and eco-d eco-nomic ideas were inspired by French sociologist Énomic ideas were inspired by French sociologist Émilmile Durkheim and e Durkheim and German economist Friedrich List, respectively, in particular List’s motto German economist Friedrich List, respectively, in particular List’s motto of “No individual but a society.” It was a drastic chanof “No individual but a society.” It was a drastic change that affected the ge that affected the way the economy operated and the away the economy operated and the actors involved, as well as the rela-ctors involved, as well as the rela-tions between actortions between actors, s, both entrepreneurs and institutions, and their re-both entrepreneurs and institutions, and their re-lations with the state. One of the key concepts during this period was lations with the state. One of the key concepts during this period was the concept of the statethe concept of the state. The Empire encompassed a huge territory, with . The Empire encompassed a huge territory, with MuslimsMuslims and nonand non--Muslims living together. Especially in the BaMuslims living together. Especially in the Balkalkans, ns, nonnon--Muslims were the majority. However, after the Balkan Wars, Mus-Muslims were the majority. However, after the Balkan Wars, Mus-lims became the majority, and nonlims became the majority, and non--Muslims were perceived as an obsta-Muslims were perceived as an obsta-cle agcle against the foundation of a national economy and sovereigainst the foundation of a national economy and sovereignty, due to nty, due to their strong historical, cultural, and ecotheir strong historical, cultural, and economnomic ties with the Great Pow-ic ties with the Great Pow-ers. This transformation started with the Balkan Wars and accelerated ers. This transformation started with the Balkan Wars and accelerated

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during the Great War. Thus, the will to establis

during the Great War. Thus, the will to establish a unified state consisted h a unified state consisted of unified nationality, lanof unified nationality, language, religion, culture, economy, and social guage, religion, culture, economy, and social harmony harmony aftafter 1913.er 1913.846

Ziya Gökalp was the prominent intellectual shaping this new era.

Ziya Gökalp was the prominent intellectual shaping this new era. Originally from Diyarbakır, he became a Unionist at a very early ageOriginally from Diyarbakır, he became a Unionist at a very early age. He . He joined the CUP and lived in Selanik after the joined the CUP and lived in Selanik after the RevoRevolution andlution and wrote arti-wrote arti-cles for the cles for the Young PensYoung Pens ((Genç KalGenç Kalememlerler). On the eve of the outbreak of ). On the eve of the outbreak of the First Balkan War, he returned to Istanbul. He joined “Türk Ocağı" the First Balkan War, he returned to Istanbul. He joined “Türk Ocağı" and started to write inand started to write in Türk YurduTürk Yurdu witwith Yusuf Akçura, until the two au-h Yusuf Akçura, until the two au-thors began to argue abothors began to argue about the primary role of Russian Turks in the ut the primary role of Russian Turks in the awakening awakening ofof nationalism among the Ottoman Turks. His writings fo-nationalism among the Ottoman Turks. His writings fo-cused on cused on whetherwhether it was possible to unite the concepts of Turkism, Is-it was possible to unite the concepts of Turkism, Is-lamism, and modlamism, and modernization. Gökalp was a professor in the Faculty of ernization. Gökalp was a professor in the Faculty of LiteratureLiterature at Istanbul University between 1913 and 1918, that Istanbul University between 1913 and 1918, the mose most viv-t viv-id period of the CUP. In 1917, he began publishingid period of the CUP. In 1917, he began publishing The New Maga-The New Maga-zinezine ((Yeni MecmuaYeni Mecmua) under the auspices of ) under the auspices of the CUP.the CUP.847 Ziya Gökalp was Ziya Gökalp was the the primary intellectual who elevated the concept of sociology in tprimary intellectual who elevated the concept of sociology in the he Ottoman Empire. Inspired by Auguste Comte and Ottoman Empire. Inspired by Auguste Comte and EEmilemile Durkheim, he Durkheim, he attributed organic totality to society. According to him, the nation attributed organic totality to society. According to him, the nation waswas "toute complète"toute complète."."848 Gökalp shaped the new ideology ofGökalp shaped the new ideology of the new the new spatial context of the Empire. The Balkan Wars had chaspatial context of the Empire. The Balkan Wars had changed the place, nged the place, the scale of the place, and the pthe scale of the place, and the peeopleople living in that new place. Hence, a living in that new place. Hence, a new ideology was necessitated for the creation and survival of the Turk-new ideology was necessitated for the creation and survival of the Turk-ish nation. According to Gökalp,ish nation. According to Gökalp, the development of the Turks was the development of the Turks was bound to "national consciousnbound to "national consciousness." As mentioned above, nationalism ess." As mentioned above, nationalism was seen aswas seen as the the only exit from the current situation of the Empire. The only exit from the current situation of the Empire. The

846 Though there had been debates on nationalism, a national econThough there had been debates on nationalism, a national economy, and Turkismomy, and Turkism,, the the possibipossibillity of implementingity of implementing such a policy emerged onsuch a policy emerged only afly aftter theer the Balkan Wars.Balkan Wars.

847 Umut UUmut Uzzer, er, An IntAn Intellectual History of Turkish Nationalisellectual History of Turkish Nationalism Between Turkish Etm Between Turkish Ethnicity hnicity and Islamic Identity and Islamic Identity (Salt Lake C(Salt Lake Ciity:ty: The UniverThe University of sity of UTAH Press, 2016), 1UTAH Press, 2016), 1--91. 91.

848 ToprakToprak, , Türkiye’de Milli İktisat (Türkiye’de Milli İktisat (19081908--1918),1918), 94. For more information:94. For more information: Mehmet EminMehmet Emin Erişirgil,Erişirgil, Bir Fikir Adamıın Romanı Ziya GökalpBir Fikir Adamıın Romanı Ziya Gökalp. Ankara: Nob. Ankara: Nobel Yayın el Yayın DağıtDağıtım, 20ım, 2007. 07. PaParla, Taharla, Taha. Z. Ziiya Gökalp, Kemalizm ve Türkiye’dya Gökalp, Kemalizm ve Türkiye’de Korporatize Korporatizmm. Is. Isttanbul:anbul: Metis YayMetis Yayınları, ınları, 20182018. .

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ruling elite embraced it in various ways; some remained Turkish na-

ruling elite embraced it in various ways; some remained Turkish na-tionalists, some tionalists, some became the supporters of panbecame the supporters of pan--Turkism or the idea of Turkism or the idea of panpan--TuranisTuranism aims to unite the Turkish communities all over m aims to unite the Turkish communities all over tthe whe world. orld. It is crucial to understand that Gökalp’s nationalism was not only based It is crucial to understand that Gökalp’s nationalism was not only based on ethnicity: it also encompassed secularism, gender, modernon ethnicity: it also encompassed secularism, gender, modernism, social ism, social mobilization, and science. It created 'a new life' mobilization, and science. It created 'a new life' for the people and the for the people and the country. The new life's gocountry. The new life's goaal wal was to make the society independent from s to make the society independent from its traditional and imperial bonds.its traditional and imperial bonds.849

According to Gökalp, nationalism and the economy were inter-

According to Gökalp, nationalism and the economy were inter-twintwined. A new Turkish state could not reed. A new Turkish state could not re--adopt the old governance sadopt the old governance style tyle and could no longer deny the role of nationaand could no longer deny the role of nationallism ism in politics. It was es-in politics. It was es-sential to awaken Turkish nationalism, as well as modernize and na-sential to awaken Turkish nationalism, as well as modernize and na-tionalize the economy. In a new society, the only rtionalize the economy. In a new society, the only remaining socioeco-emaining socioeco-nomic strata inherited from the Ottoman Empirenomic strata inherited from the Ottoman Empire would be the would be the peasantry and the civil/military bupeasantry and the civil/military burreauceaucracy. Notably, a national bour-racy. Notably, a national bour-geoisie, which was a prerequisite for the development of society, was geoisie, which was a prerequisite for the development of society, was absent. According to Gökalp, the idea oabsent. According to Gökalp, the idea of a national bourgeoisie was es-f a national bourgeoisie was es-sential; otherwise, there could sential; otherwise, there could be no common conscience between be no common conscience between Turks and nonTurks and non--MusMusllims ims due to thedue to the milletmillet system under the Ottoman system under the Ottoman economic system. For this reason, Gökalp’s main aim was to create a economic system. For this reason, Gökalp’s main aim was to create a Turkish bourgeoisie.Turkish bourgeoisie.850 TurkeyTurkey should be both an agricultural and an should be both an agricultural and an industrial country, an iindustrial country, an idea that was contrary to Cavid Beydea that was contrary to Cavid Bey’s liberalist ’s liberalist vviiews ews and the Ricardian comparative advantage approach. Gökalp be-and the Ricardian comparative advantage approach. Gökalp be-lieved that Britain was the only country that could adopt an open mar-lieved that Britain was the only country that could adopt an open mar-ket economyket economy, because it had initiated the Industrial Revolution. Accord-, because it had initiated the Industrial Revolution. Accord-inging to Gökalp, the Germans, a latecomer to modernizato Gökalp, the Germans, a latecomer to modernizattion,ion, had adopted had adopted the protectionist economic theories of German economist Friedrich List the protectionist economic theories of German economist Friedrich List and American economist John Rae, through implementing pand American economist John Rae, through implementing policies pro-olicies pro-tecting domestic markets, supporting local industrietecting domestic markets, supporting local industries, and raising cus-s, and raising cus-

849 Tunaya,Tunaya, Türkiye’de SiyasTürkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki,al Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, Bir KuşağınBir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir , Bir Partinin Tarih, 3Partinin Tarih, 3, 560, 560--561.561.

850 According to TAccording to Toprak, heoprak, he prefpreferred erred to useto use the terms “the terms “ttradespeople or craftsmen” radespeople or craftsmen” insteainstead of the boud of the bourgeoirgeoissie. Toie. Toprak, prak, TürkTürkiye’de Milliiye’de Milli İktisat (1908İktisat (1908--1918)1918),100,100--101.101.

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toms duties. However, in contra

toms duties. However, in contrasst, Zt, Ziya Gökalp’s national economy iya Gökalp’s national economy would engage with socialism. According to his model, to enable the ac-would engage with socialism. According to his model, to enable the ac-cumulation of wealth, all of the resourccumulation of wealth, all of the resources must be mobilized regardless es must be mobilized regardless of income equality; then, in thof income equality; then, in the second stage, a social state would be es-e second stage, a social state would be es-tablishtablisheed fod for all citizens to benefit from wealth accumulation. By adopt-r all citizens to benefit from wealth accumulation. By adopt-ing Durkheim’s concept of “social division of labor,” Gökalp noted that ing Durkheim’s concept of “social division of labor,” Gökalp noted that the ecothe economy and sociology were intertwined and should be discussed nomy and sociology were intertwined and should be discussed togtogether. Although these ideas were pursued by the Cether. Although these ideas were pursued by the CUUP, tP, they became hey became more widespread during the Republican Era.more widespread during the Republican Era.851

Another key figure standing in opposition to Cavid Bey

Another key figure standing in opposition to Cavid Bey’s liberal eco-’s liberal eco-nomic approach wnomic approach was Yusuf Akçuraas Yusuf Akçura.. Hailing from Russia, he was a mem-Hailing from Russia, he was a mem-ber of a bourber of a bourgeois Tatar family. He was a prominent intellectugeois Tatar family. He was a prominent intellectuaal dul during ring the Second Constitutional Period who supported Turkism and the na-the Second Constitutional Period who supported Turkism and the na-tional economy. His book,tional economy. His book, Üç TarzÜç Tarz--ı Syasetı Syaset, was published in 1904, and , was published in 1904, and made a critical comparison of Ottomanism, Islamism, and Turkism. Lat-made a critical comparison of Ottomanism, Islamism, and Turkism. Lat-er, his magazine,er, his magazine, The Homeland of TurksThe Homeland of Turks ((Türk YurduTürk Yurdu), was first pub-), was first pub-lished in 1911, and he quickly succeeded in gathering together preemi-lished in 1911, and he quickly succeeded in gathering together preemi-nent scnent scholars such as Halide Edip, Celal Sahir, Mehmet Emin, holars such as Halide Edip, Celal Sahir, Mehmet Emin, Köprülüzade Mehmed Fuad, Ahmet Ağaoğlu, Ömer Seyfettin, and Ali Köprülüzade Mehmed Fuad, Ahmet Ağaoğlu, Ömer Seyfettin, and Ali Canip, as well as Parvus Efendi, who began writing for the magazine. Canip, as well as Parvus Efendi, who began writing for the magazine. The magazine is still regarded as an essential source in documenting The magazine is still regarded as an essential source in documenting the the history of Turkish political thought. Akçura made significant contribu-history of Turkish political thought. Akçura made significant contribu-tions to the emergence of Turkish nationalism, its strategy, and its im-tions to the emergence of Turkish nationalism, its strategy, and its im-plementation. His activity and role in the movement would increase af-plementation. His activity and role in the movement would increase af-ter 1914, as he challenged the state’s libter 1914, as he challenged the state’s liberal economic policies and eral economic policies and championed a new paradigm in the field of economy and politics right championed a new paradigm in the field of economy and politics right before the Great War. He maintained a populist approach and praised before the Great War. He maintained a populist approach and praised the peasantry, while emphasizing the importance of the bourgeoisie. His the peasantry, while emphasizing the importance of the bourgeoisie. His articles gained popuarticles gained popularity after appearing in the magazinelarity after appearing in the magazine Toward Peo-Toward Peo-pleple ((Halka DoğruHalka Doğru). Like Gökalp, Akçura maintained that the only way for ). Like Gökalp, Akçura maintained that the only way for a society to survive was to create a bourgeoisie.a society to survive was to create a bourgeoisie.

851 Toprak, Toprak, Milli İktisat (1908Milli İktisat (1908--1918),1918), 9494--99. Hilmi Ziya Ülke99. Hilmi Ziya Ülken n Seçme Eserleri I Ziya GökalpSeçme Eserleri I Ziya Gökalp, , (Istanbul: Türkiye(Istanbul: Türkiye İş Bankaİş Bankası Yası Yayınlaryınları, 200ı, 2007), XVII7), XVII--XVIXVIIII. I.

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Tekinalp was also among the rising stars of the economic literature

Tekinalp was also among the rising stars of the economic literature in the Second Coin the Second Constitutional Period. He became the editornstitutional Period. He became the editor--inin--chief of chief of the the Economy JournalEconomy Journal ((İktisadiyyat Mecmuasıİktisadiyyat Mecmuası) in 1915, which advocated ) in 1915, which advocated for the national economy. He was the assistant of Dr. Fleck, professor of for the national economy. He was the assistant of Dr. Fleck, professor of finance atfinance at Ottoman Imperial University (Ottoman Imperial University (Darülfünun),Darülfünun), one ofone of the most the most prolific writers on the subject, particularly between 1913prolific writers on the subject, particularly between 1913––1918. He be-1918. He be-came one of the foremost intellectuals influencing economic policies. came one of the foremost intellectuals influencing economic policies. According to Tekin Alp, protectionism was almost invisible before the According to Tekin Alp, protectionism was almost invisible before the Great War. He took inspiration from Great War. He took inspiration from his favorite economists, List, Wag-his favorite economists, List, Wag-ner, Schmoller, and Philippovich.ner, Schmoller, and Philippovich.852

We should note that Cavid Bey

We should note that Cavid Bey’s concept of the bourgeoisie departs ’s concept of the bourgeoisie departs from the economists above and also the sociologists, because he be-from the economists above and also the sociologists, because he be-lieved that the bourgeoisie should not necessarily be lieved that the bourgeoisie should not necessarily be Muslim but local. If Muslim but local. If local companies were challenged by foreign companies, Cavid Beylocal companies were challenged by foreign companies, Cavid Bey’s ’s main concern would be choosing the one which offered a better price. main concern would be choosing the one which offered a better price. While Cavid BeyWhile Cavid Bey’s political discourse was nationalist, especially in nego-’s political discourse was nationalist, especially in nego-tiations with foreign repretiations with foreign representatives, in economic terms he was in favor sentatives, in economic terms he was in favor of developing the concept of the local “Ottoman” rather than the “Turk.” of developing the concept of the local “Ottoman” rather than the “Turk.”

The last person whose ideas and comments shook the ruling and in-

The last person whose ideas and comments shook the ruling and in-tellectual elites in the pretellectual elites in the pre--war era was impressive;war era was impressive; a man of his time a man of his time iin n terms of his origins, experiences, activities, intellectual capacity, and terms of his origins, experiences, activities, intellectual capacity, and transactions transactions —— Alexander Helphand Parvus. Parvus Efendi, as he was Alexander Helphand Parvus. Parvus Efendi, as he was known, was a Russian Jew, a member of the Russian Socialist Party, a known, was a Russian Jew, a member of the Russian Socialist Party, a prominent Menshevik revolutionary, the mentprominent Menshevik revolutionary, the mentoor of Leon Trotsky, a mer-r of Leon Trotsky, a mer-chant millionaire, and an economic adviser to the Young Turks between chant millionaire, and an economic adviser to the Young Turks between 1910 and 1914. He had a significant impact on the Young Turks, who 1910 and 1914. He had a significant impact on the Young Turks, who were advocating for a national economy. He wrote on various issues, in-were advocating for a national economy. He wrote on various issues, in-cluding Ottoman governancluding Ottoman governancce, the importance of the peasantry and its e, the importance of the peasantry and its neglect by the Unionist leaders, general economic problems in Turkey, neglect by the Unionist leaders, general economic problems in Turkey, budgets, loans, floating debts, et cetera. His thoughts aligned with inter-budgets, loans, floating debts, et cetera. His thoughts aligned with inter-national discussions from both the communist and liberal wings. He national discussions from both the communist and liberal wings. He

852 Toprak, Toprak, Toprak, Toprak, Milli İktiMilli İktisat (1908sat (1908--191918),18), 110000--102102. .

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wrrote for various newspapers and journals such asote for various newspapers and journals such as Türk Tur-Türk Tur-dudu,, İçtihadİçtihad,, TasvirTasvir--i Efkari Efkar,, BüyükBüyük MecmuasıMecmuası, and, and Jeune TurcJeune Turc. As . As KaraömerlioğluKaraömerlioğlu853 mentionsmentions, he also wrote a book on the Empire’s for-, he also wrote a book on the Empire’s for-eign debts, directly related to Cavid Beyeign debts, directly related to Cavid Bey’s field.’s field.

Parvus had criticized the implementation

Parvus had criticized the implementation of liberal policies in the of liberal policies in the Ottoman EmOttoman Empire for decades, claiming that they damaged the economy pire for decades, claiming that they damaged the economy and resulted in the absence of industry and increased dependency on and resulted in the absence of industry and increased dependency on the Great Powers. For this reason, he argued, the Ottoman Empire the Great Powers. For this reason, he argued, the Ottoman Empire should establish a national eshould establish a national economy to break free from European doconomy to break free from European dom-m-ination. Parvus Efendi claimed that the Ottomans did not focus on the ination. Parvus Efendi claimed that the Ottomans did not focus on the economy at large but only on state finances. He criticized the Ottoman economy at large but only on state finances. He criticized the Ottoman bureaucracy for spending money inefficiently. He warned the Young bureaucracy for spending money inefficiently. He warned the Young Turks of thTurks of their foreign debts and how these debtseir foreign debts and how these debts and other means were and other means were utilized by the Europeans as the instruments of imperialism. He high-utilized by the Europeans as the instruments of imperialism. He high-lighted the fact that the European financial powers, especially Germany lighted the fact that the European financial powers, especially Germany and the Baghdad Railway, controlled the country's destinyand the Baghdad Railway, controlled the country's destiny —— not the not the Ottoman state, not the natOttoman state, not the nation, not the Muslims. Nevertheless, the Em-ion, not the Muslims. Nevertheless, the Em-pire's dependency on foreign markets and its financial burdens contin-pire's dependency on foreign markets and its financial burdens contin-ued to increase, and the Empire's economic policy continued without ued to increase, and the Empire's economic policy continued without direction or aim.direction or aim.854 Parvus Efendi emphasiParvus Efendi emphasized that foreign banks in the zed that foreign banks in the OttomanOttoman Empire not only offered standard banking services but were Empire not only offered standard banking services but were also waiting to profit off the shares of the ruins of the Empire once it also waiting to profit off the shares of the ruins of the Empire once it collapsed. While they made large profits in promoting their home coun-collapsed. While they made large profits in promoting their home coun-try's trade, nonetry's trade, none of these banks had worked for Turkeyof these banks had worked for Turkey's prosperity.'s prosperity.855 Parvus Efendi also asserted that capitulations were threatening the in-Parvus Efendi also asserted that capitulations were threatening the in-dependence of the Ottoman Empire economically and politically. Exam-dependence of the Ottoman Empire economically and politically. Exam-ining the events in the years 1913 and 1914 is quite crucial in oining the events in the years 1913 and 1914 is quite crucial in order to rder to understand his claims. Parvusunderstand his claims. Parvus also depicted Ottoman finances from an also depicted Ottoman finances from an

853 KaraöKaraömerlioğlu, “merlioğlu, “HelphandHelphand--Parvus anParvus and his Impacd his Impact on Turkish Intellectual Life,” 145t on Turkish Intellectual Life,” 145--165.165.

854 Vedat Eldem, Vedat Eldem, HarHarp ve Mütareke Yıllarında Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nunp ve Mütareke Yıllarında Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun EkonomisEkonomisii, , (A(Ankara:nkara: Türk Türk Tarih KurumuTarih Kurumu,, 1994), 316. 1994), 316.

855 Geyikdağı, “FrenGeyikdağı, “French İnvestmench İnvestments ints in the Otthe Ottoman Empitoman Empire Before Wore Before World War I,” 540. rld War I,” 540.

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international perspective, including imperialism and democracy, which

international perspective, including imperialism and democracy, which he advocated that the Ottomans implement. However, otherwise, Parvus he advocated that the Ottomans implement. However, otherwise, Parvus asserted that European imperialism couldasserted that European imperialism could hinder the development of hinder the development of domestic edomestic economic life. From this perspective, he criticized the domi-conomic life. From this perspective, he criticized the domi-nance of the Great Powers over the Ottoman Empire and their use of nance of the Great Powers over the Ottoman Empire and their use of various tools to manipulate it. He drew attention primarily to loans, in-various tools to manipulate it. He drew attention primarily to loans, in-vestments such as raivestments such as railroads, and the existence of the OPDAlroads, and the existence of the OPDA. According . According to him, the OPDA was so powerful that it alone could control the Otto-to him, the OPDA was so powerful that it alone could control the Otto-man economy. While Cavid Beyman economy. While Cavid Bey had worked to find solutions to avoid had worked to find solutions to avoid the OPDA, he did not have enough room to maneuver. Still, Parvus the OPDA, he did not have enough room to maneuver. Still, Parvus EfendiEfendi criticized the limits in this field.criticized the limits in this field. As KaraömerliAs Karaömerlioğlu oğlu notesnotes, Parvus , Parvus Efendi's intentions were quite clear: to build an antiEfendi's intentions were quite clear: to build an anti--liberal national liberal national economy. This solution was contrary to Cavid Beyeconomy. This solution was contrary to Cavid Bey's ideas, particularly 's ideas, particularly the antithe anti--liberal part. Unfortunately, itliberal part. Unfortunately, it is unclear if Cavid Beyis unclear if Cavid Bey paid any paid any attention toattention to ParvParvus us Efendi and his arguments. Did they ever meet, or did Efendi and his arguments. Did they ever meet, or did he read Parvus's articles? Since Cavid Beyhe read Parvus's articles? Since Cavid Bey is well known for his selfis well known for his self--confidence, he might not have paid attention to Parvus Efendi's col-confidence, he might not have paid attention to Parvus Efendi's col-umns.umns.

In sum, these discussions had repercussions in the

In sum, these discussions had repercussions in the dailydaily lilives of ves of people across the Empire. In 1913, the abovementioned ideas and ac-people across the Empire. In 1913, the abovementioned ideas and ac-tors reshaped the Empire’s economic policies. The process began in the tors reshaped the Empire’s economic policies. The process began in the summer of 1912, with the Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha Cabinet and his at-summer of 1912, with the Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha Cabinet and his at-tempt to adjourn the Cabinet, and thetempt to adjourn the Cabinet, and the inevinevitaitable defeat of the First Bal-ble defeat of the First Bal-kan War changed the states of mind of especially the ruling elite. The kan War changed the states of mind of especially the ruling elite. The Unionists became the opposition and followed by the government even Unionists became the opposition and followed by the government even during the Balkan War. The Kamil Pasha government's priority seemed during the Balkan War. The Kamil Pasha government's priority seemed to be to pursuto be to pursue thee the wawar and get rid of the Unionists. These challenges r and get rid of the Unionists. These challenges created a shift for the CUP, indicating how strongly they should use the created a shift for the CUP, indicating how strongly they should use the power of state and central government to come to government once power of state and central government to come to government once again. The possibility of surrendering Edirne was the last poagain. The possibility of surrendering Edirne was the last point aint at wt which hich they felt like intervening directly. It must have been a mixture of feel-they felt like intervening directly. It must have been a mixture of feel-ings of despair and courage. However, after the coup d'état of 1913, pol-ings of despair and courage. However, after the coup d'état of 1913, pol-icies from a different political arena were implemented, which caused icies from a different political arena were implemented, which caused radical changes. The economyradical changes. The economy had had a ca central position in this change. entral position in this change.

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However, the note submitted to the Great Powers right after the putsch

However, the note submitted to the Great Powers right after the putsch included the abolition of the capitulations. The foundation of the na-included the abolition of the capitulations. The foundation of the na-tional economy was more precise and planned in the minds of the Un-tional economy was more precise and planned in the minds of the Un-ionists. ionists.

Espec

Especialially after the putsch of 1913, liberal economy policies ceded ly after the putsch of 1913, liberal economy policies ceded the floor to nationalist and protectionist policies (or at least intentions the floor to nationalist and protectionist policies (or at least intentions to enact these policies). These radical changes were ushered in right be-to enact these policies). These radical changes were ushered in right be-fore the Ottoman Empire’s entrance into fore the Ottoman Empire’s entrance into the Gthe Greareat War and led to the t War and led to the abolishment of capitulations. With the emergence of a singleabolishment of capitulations. With the emergence of a single--party era party era in 1913, the CUP and the state apparatus were intertwined, which ena-in 1913, the CUP and the state apparatus were intertwined, which ena-bled the CUP to begin to find entrepreneurial cadres from within its bled the CUP to begin to find entrepreneurial cadres from within its ranks. The members ranks. The members of thof the se smallmall--town gentry (town gentry (eşrafeşraf) as well as artisans ) as well as artisans ((esnafesnaf) and small merchants () and small merchants (tüccartüccar) joined the party. In the country-) joined the party. In the country-side, the CUP attracted landlords and the landowning peasantry.side, the CUP attracted landlords and the landowning peasantry.856 The The Great War would be the real stimulus that created what would becoGreat War would be the real stimulus that created what would become me ththe Te Turkish national economy.urkish national economy.

Finally, the Balkan Wars revealed the weakness and fractured politi-

Finally, the Balkan Wars revealed the weakness and fractured politi-cal and military structure of the Ottoman Empire for both domestic and cal and military structure of the Ottoman Empire for both domestic and international actors. The profile of the Empire was fragile in every as-international actors. The profile of the Empire was fragile in every as-pect. The CUPpect. The CUP ruliruling ng cadre was aware of this situation and took quick cadre was aware of this situation and took quick steps to strengthen the state, military, and society. The intellectual steps to strengthen the state, military, and society. The intellectual transformation was the basis of this process. The founding elements of transformation was the basis of this process. The founding elements of the Empire, which had lasted for five hundred years, chanthe Empire, which had lasted for five hundred years, changed oged or cr col-ol-lapsed suddenly. It was a total transformation of the Ottoman Empire, lapsed suddenly. It was a total transformation of the Ottoman Empire, which led the way to the Republican Era. In domestic policy, the Balkan which led the way to the Republican Era. In domestic policy, the Balkan Wars led to considerable changes in every aspect of life. In international Wars led to considerable changes in every aspect of life. In international politics, it also caused a chpolitics, it also caused a change ange of of paradigm in the Great Powers’ behav-paradigm in the Great Powers’ behav-ior toward the Ottoman Empire. After its terrible defeat, the possible ior toward the Ottoman Empire. After its terrible defeat, the possible division of the Empire entered the Great Powers' minds. Nevertheless, division of the Empire entered the Great Powers' minds. Nevertheless, none of them were ready for the Empire’s total disintegration in 1913. none of them were ready for the Empire’s total disintegration in 1913. AAs Sirs Sir EdEdward Grey assured the Germans, the Great Powers did not in-ward Grey assured the Germans, the Great Powers did not in-

856 Ahmad, Ahmad, ItIttihat ve Terakki,1908tihat ve Terakki,1908--1914 (Jön Türkl1914 (Jön Türkler),er), 4242--44. 44.

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tend to establish Arabian, Armenian, and Syrian spheres of influence.

tend to establish Arabian, Armenian, and Syrian spheres of influence. However, as the previous experiences such as France’s annexation of the However, as the previous experiences such as France’s annexation of the Magreb, British occupation in Cyprus and Egypt, Magreb, British occupation in Cyprus and Egypt, ItaliItalian an occupation in occupation in Libya, and AustriaLibya, and Austria--Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia had shown, it be-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia had shown, it be-came increasingly possible that one of the Great Powers might absorb came increasingly possible that one of the Great Powers might absorb certain territories within the Empire as its colonies.certain territories within the Empire as its colonies.857 This situation This situation brought some Ottoman issues brought some Ottoman issues to thto the ie international level such as the Ar-nternational level such as the Ar-menian Question. As of January 1913, it was evident that the Armenians menian Question. As of January 1913, it was evident that the Armenians were not content with the Empire’s palliative measures. and carried this were not content with the Empire’s palliative measures. and carried this issue to the international arena under Russia's auspices. Though a forcissue to the international arena under Russia's auspices. Though a force-e-ful ful intintervention was out of question, the Armenian Question was added ervention was out of question, the Armenian Question was added to the list of issues that occupied both the Ottoman government and to the list of issues that occupied both the Ottoman government and Great Powers, which also affected the loan process. In addition to the Great Powers, which also affected the loan process. In addition to the Armenian Question, the Aegean islands, the RusArmenian Question, the Aegean islands, the Russian sian deldelegate to OPDA, egate to OPDA, et cetera, were among the reasons to postpone the Ottoman loan in et cetera, were among the reasons to postpone the Ottoman loan in 19131913--1914. The Great Powers wanted to squeeze the most benefits 1914. The Great Powers wanted to squeeze the most benefits from the Ottoman Empire, which urgently needed money. Thus, this 18from the Ottoman Empire, which urgently needed money. Thus, this 18--month period included many stiff nemonth period included many stiff negotiagotiatiotions on different issues. As ns on different issues. As will be discussed below, the agreements of 1913 and 1914 would create will be discussed below, the agreements of 1913 and 1914 would create an implicit division an implicit division —— in other words, spheres of influence in other words, spheres of influence —— for each for each Great Power. The Ottoman loan that Cavid BeyGreat Power. The Ottoman loan that Cavid Bey was running after was was running after was simply a carrsimply a carrot foot for cr concessions and privileges.oncessions and privileges.

In 1913

In 1913--1914, while the Unionists regulated and reorganized the 1914, while the Unionists regulated and reorganized the state apparatus, military, society, and economy, the negotiations with state apparatus, military, society, and economy, the negotiations with the Great Powers deepened the trauma of the Balkan Wars. The acceler-the Great Powers deepened the trauma of the Balkan Wars. The acceler-ation of imperialation of imperialism oism on tn the eve of the Great War triggered nationalism he eve of the Great War triggered nationalism and protectionism among the ruling elite. However, the ruling elites’ and protectionism among the ruling elite. However, the ruling elites’ ability to fully implement nationalist policies and support independence ability to fully implement nationalist policies and support independence in the new homeland was hindered by several obstacles, inclin the new homeland was hindered by several obstacles, includinuding fi-g fi-nancial difficulties as nancial difficulties as tthe Great Powers’ endless demands in return for he Great Powers’ endless demands in return for loansloans;; iinvestments and the rise in customs dutiesnvestments and the rise in customs duties; i; internationalization nternationalization

857 Heller, Heller, British Policy Towards The Ottoman Empire 1908British Policy Towards The Ottoman Empire 1908--19119144, 79. , 79.

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of minority issues

of minority issues; ; tthe Great Powers' attempts at financial controlhe Great Powers' attempts at financial control; ; tthe he Armenian Reform ActArmenian Reform Act; t; the Aegean Islandhe Aegean Islandss. . AllAll these developments coa-these developments coa-lesced within a short period of time, which increased the perception lesced within a short period of time, which increased the perception that the imperial elites were losing control and independence. This had that the imperial elites were losing control and independence. This had a negative influence on the ruling elites during the age of nationalism a negative influence on the ruling elites during the age of nationalism and total wand total waars.rs. HHowever, in the end, the whole process brought into ex-owever, in the end, the whole process brought into ex-istence the beginnings of the nationistence the beginnings of the nation--state that would be inherited dur-state that would be inherited dur-ing the Republican Era. ing the Republican Era.

4.3.6 OttomanOttoman--French Agreement, AugustFrench Agreement, August––September 1913September 1913

After staying in London for a couple of days to assist

After staying in London for a couple of days to assist HakHakkıkı Pasha in fi-Pasha in fi-nalizing the Anglonalizing the Anglo--Ottoman Agreement of July 29, 1913, he Ottoman Agreement of July 29, 1913, he returnedreturned to to Paris once again to continue the FrancoParis once again to continue the Franco--Ottoman talks on July 30, 1913. Ottoman talks on July 30, 1913. However, first, I would like to draw a brief picture of the FrancoHowever, first, I would like to draw a brief picture of the Franco--Ottoman talks, which wereOttoman talks, which were crcrititicaical for the Ottoman Empire. The general l for the Ottoman Empire. The general outline of the Ottoman demands from France included, first, a vast loan; outline of the Ottoman demands from France included, first, a vast loan; second, French support for the development of the Ottoman economy; second, French support for the development of the Ottoman economy; third, political assistance from the French government on the abolish-third, political assistance from the French government on the abolish-mmentent oof mf monopolies, capitulations, raising of customs duties, and ena-onopolies, capitulations, raising of customs duties, and ena-bling Russian support for all of these critical matters. In return, the bling Russian support for all of these critical matters. In return, the French demands were as follows: determination of the legal status of French demands were as follows: determination of the legal status of various French institutions such as schools andvarious French institutions such as schools and hohospspitaitals; legal capitula-ls; legal capitula-tions such as the imprisonment of French citizens; concessions on rail-tions such as the imprisonment of French citizens; concessions on rail-way networks in the Eastern provinces, particularly the section of the way networks in the Eastern provinces, particularly the section of the Hedjaz Railway covering ŞamHedjaz Railway covering Şam--Der'a and ŞamDer'a and Şam--Hayfa, ŞamHayfa, Şam--Hama, and the Hama, and the RayakRayak--Lida railway. MoLida railway. Moreoreovever, r, the French also asked for dock privileges the French also asked for dock privileges in Trablusşam, Hayfa, and Yafa in Syria (and Pin Trablusşam, Hayfa, and Yafa in Syria (and Palestine). The French de-alestine). The French de-mands on the Hedjaz railway, which was established by Muslims mands on the Hedjaz railway, which was established by Muslims worldwide, were difficult for the Empire to accept. However, in order to worldwide, were difficult for the Empire to accept. However, in order to gget et the lthe loan, the government had to accept these conditions. The main oan, the government had to accept these conditions. The main problem was that the last lproblem was that the last line of the Şamine of the Şam--Medina railway, which was Medina railway, which was established by Sultan Abdülhamid II, was a rival to the French railway established by Sultan Abdülhamid II, was a rival to the French railway from Şam to Befrom Şam to Beyyrutrut. For this reason, France als. For this reason, France alsoo wawanted nted to receive privi-to receive privi-leges on that line, too. On a broader level, the intentions of the Frencleges on that line, too. On a broader level, the intentions of the French h

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were

were obviousobvious: they would like to have concessions in Syria so as to dom-: they would like to have concessions in Syria so as to dom-inate the whole region.inate the whole region.

Two groups carried out the Ottoman

Two groups carried out the Ottoman--French talks simultanFrench talks simultaneeously in ously in IstanIstanbul and in Paris. The political and legal issues were discussed by bul and in Paris. The political and legal issues were discussed by Said Halim PasSaid Halim Pasha and M. Bompard in Istanbul. Cavid Beyha and M. Bompard in Istanbul. Cavid Bey conducted fi-conducted fi-nancial negotiations with the French ministry of foreign affairs and nancial negotiations with the French ministry of foreign affairs and French financiers in Paris. These negFrench financiers in Paris. These negootiations tiations were were brought about fol-brought about fol-lowing Said Halim Pasha's request from the French government for lowing Said Halim Pasha's request from the French government for a a loan after Mahmud Şevket Pasha's assassination. After assuming office, loan after Mahmud Şevket Pasha's assassination. After assuming office, Said Halim Pasha was in a state of panic when he saw the Empire’s fi-Said Halim Pasha was in a state of panic when he saw the Empire’s fi-nancial situation.nancial situation. He decideHe decided to d to ask for a loan immediately, and thus ap-ask for a loan immediately, and thus ap-plied to the Empire’s strongest financial pplied to the Empire’s strongest financial partner, France. artner, France.

By the summer of 1913, the Ottoman economic situation was near

By the summer of 1913, the Ottoman economic situation was near disaster, and the government could not even pay officers' salaries for disaster, and the government could not even pay officers' salaries for three mothree months. Meannths. Meanwhilewhile, the Ottoman Bank and Ottoman PDA were , the Ottoman Bank and Ottoman PDA were afraid that the Ottoman Empire might afraid that the Ottoman Empire might collapse andcollapse and decided to give small decided to give small advances to the government. In July and August, the Ottoman govern-advances to the government. In July and August, the Ottoman govern-ment obtained 1,700,000 Ottoman gold liras. The loan was mostlment obtained 1,700,000 Ottoman gold liras. The loan was mostly taken y taken frofrom them the Régie and was used to finance the Edirne operation. These Régie and was used to finance the Edirne operation. These small loans, however, small loans, however, were not a part of the larger loan that Cavid Beywere not a part of the larger loan that Cavid Bey was negotiating. Though the agreements were signed, as will be seen in was negotiating. Though the agreements were signed, as will be seen in later sections of this chapter, the Frlater sections of this chapter, the French governench government ment delayed the loan delayed the loan due to various reasons until April 29, 1914. due to various reasons until April 29, 1914.

During this period

During this period, as we may guess, Cavid Bey, as we may guess, Cavid Bey worked like a fullworked like a full--time diplomat who primarily operated in the financial arena. Cavid Beytime diplomat who primarily operated in the financial arena. Cavid Bey was also in the know about political andwas also in the know about political and internatiointernational inal issues, which ssues, which were part of the financial negotiations. In Paris, apart from the Frwere part of the financial negotiations. In Paris, apart from the French ench talks, Cavid Beytalks, Cavid Bey was also dealing with other issues such as the Russian was also dealing with other issues such as the Russian talks, German issues, the Armenian Question, et cetera. The negotiations talks, German issues, the Armenian Question, et cetera. The negotiations with Russwith Russia, the peaia, the peace tace talk on the Balkan Wars, the Francolk on the Balkan Wars, the Franco--German German talks, and many other issues were discustalks, and many other issues were discussed. The Russian talks covered sed. The Russian talks covered the railways and docks in the Black Sea region and the railways in the the railways and docks in the Black Sea region and the railways in the Eastern provinces, the rise in customs duties, the ArmeniEastern provinces, the rise in customs duties, the Armenian Questionan Question, , thethe case of a Russian deputy to the OPDA, and the German mission's ar-case of a Russian deputy to the OPDA, and the German mission's ar-

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rival in Istanb

rival in Istanbul. These issues occupied most of Cavid Beyul. These issues occupied most of Cavid Bey's time. How-'s time. How-ever, some of these discussions remained inconclusive until the out-ever, some of these discussions remained inconclusive until the out-break of the Great War. Firstly, on Abreak of the Great War. Firstly, on August 14, 1ugust 14, 1913, 913, Cavid BeyCavid Bey was shak-was shak-en by a Russian demand to leave the construction of the Trabzonen by a Russian demand to leave the construction of the Trabzon--Pekeriç line exclusively to Russia. He was surprised at this request, be-Pekeriç line exclusively to Russia. He was surprised at this request, be-cause the 1900 Note did not cover the area they mentioned. Edirne was cause the 1900 Note did not cover the area they mentioned. Edirne was also one of the also one of the Russians' cRussians' criticritical issues in the region of her influence. al issues in the region of her influence. Regarding Edirne, Cavid BeyRegarding Edirne, Cavid Bey gave the Rugave the Russian officers a clear message ssian officers a clear message that they would not leave Edirne, and the Ottomans would persist until that they would not leave Edirne, and the Ottomans would persist until they could take back Edirne. Following these meetings, Cathey could take back Edirne. Following these meetings, Cavid Beyvid Bey hophoped ed toto finish the negotiations with France and return to Istanbul. As men-finish the negotiations with France and return to Istanbul. As men-tioned before,tioned before, during the official negotiations, Cavid Beyduring the official negotiations, Cavid Bey's discourse 's discourse was always compatible with the Unionist approach, and he was loyal to was always compatible with the Unionist approach, and he was loyal to his party and country. his party and country.

The top

The top issue on Caissue on Cavid Bvid Beyey's agenda was the loan issue. For France, 's agenda was the loan issue. For France, the amount and timing of the loan depthe amount and timing of the loan depended on both the privileges it ended on both the privileges it obtained from the Ottoman Empire and the other negotiations it was obtained from the Ottoman Empire and the other negotiations it was carrying out. For the Ottomans, Cavid Beycarrying out. For the Ottomans, Cavid Bey was under pressurewas under pressure, because , because tthe trhe treasury was empty. Ottoman monetary needs were increasing day easury was empty. Ottoman monetary needs were increasing day by day. In the winteby day. In the winter of 1913r of 1913––1914, the need for cash was at its greatest. 1914, the need for cash was at its greatest. However, Cavid BeyHowever, Cavid Bey never expressed this in his talks with the French, never expressed this in his talks with the French, although the French knew the situaalthough the French knew the situation. The ttion. The terms erms of the general of the general agreement between the two countries covered the topics of the railagreement between the two countries covered the topics of the railways ways and docks. The negotiations on the railway lines were divided into two: and docks. The negotiations on the railway lines were divided into two: the railways in Syria and those in Anatolia. Syria was the priority of the railways in Syria and those in Anatolia. Syria was the priority of France, andFrance, and that is whthat is why they the Syrian railways were more important for Syrian railways were more important for them. Cavid Beythem. Cavid Bey was aware of this situatwas aware of this situation. The talks covered the Black ion. The talks covered the Black Sea and Syrian lines, including the HaifaSea and Syrian lines, including the Haifa--JaffaJaffa--JerusalemJerusalem--Trablusgarp, Trablusgarp, and Rayak and Lida lines.and Rayak and Lida lines.858 The docks were also a part The docks were also a part of the consof the construc-truc-ttion plans. In terms of the loan, Cavid Beyion plans. In terms of the loan, Cavid Bey made a new offer to his made a new offer to his French counterFrench counterparts as follows: to decrease the interim interest interest parts as follows: to decrease the interim interest interest

858 MeşrMeşrutiyetutiyet RuznâRuznâmesi IImesi II,, AuguAugusst 14, 1913, p: 5t 14, 1913, p: 5--8.8.

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rates from 6 to 5%; to decrease the interest obligation to 5%; amortiza-

rates from 6 to 5%; to decrease the interest obligation to 5%; amortiza-tion of the loan by half; antion of the loan by half; and a barrierd a barrier on bon building new lines over certain uilding new lines over certain distances. Cavid Beydistances. Cavid Bey stated that since they could stated that since they could not predict the next 60 not predict the next 60 years, it was better to prioritize the French. In terms of the port of Haifa, years, it was better to prioritize the French. In terms of the port of Haifa, the French could only commit to construction work. The Frthe French could only commit to construction work. The French would ench would not hnot have privileges on the railways that would conave privileges on the railways that would connect to the port of nect to the port of Ereğli. The OttoEreğli. The Ottoman government could not extend the privileges for the man government could not extend the privileges for the duration of construction of the Jaffaduration of construction of the Jaffa--Jerusalem line, but the expiration Jerusalem line, but the expiration date might be delayed. For the date might be delayed. For the port of Traport of Trablusgblusgarp, Cavid Beyarp, Cavid Bey offered offered the French subsidies fthe French subsidies from the railway company. Cavid Beyrom the railway company. Cavid Bey tried to tried to change the conditions of the concession in favor of the Ottoman gov-change the conditions of the concession in favor of the Ottoman gov-ernment. The negotiations would continue like this for a very long time.ernment. The negotiations would continue like this for a very long time.

While in Pa

While in Paris, Cavid ris, Cavid BeyBey mmet the journalists whom the Ottoman et the journalists whom the Ottoman governmengovernment was paying for prot was paying for pro--Ottoman propaganda in the French Ottoman propaganda in the French press. Cavid Beypress. Cavid Bey told them that the money would be paid after the loan told them that the money would be paid after the loan agreement. As time went on, he became better at bargaining. Cavid Beyagreement. As time went on, he became better at bargaining. Cavid Bey met Jean Hemet Jean Herbettrbette, a welle, a well--known journalist and a politician. known journalist and a politician. According According to M. Herbette, since Cavid Beyto M. Herbette, since Cavid Bey did not compromise on the agreements did not compromise on the agreements in 1910, he thought that Cavid Beyin 1910, he thought that Cavid Bey would be unsuccessful in receiving a would be unsuccessful in receiving a loan this time, too. M. Herbette stated thatloan this time, too. M. Herbette stated that he was mishe was mistakentaken about Cavid about Cavid BeyBey, who was an unpopular person, who was an unpopular person in France. They discussed many is-in France. They discussed many is-sues from Edirne to the Balkan shares in the Ottoman debts, and Jean sues from Edirne to the Balkan shares in the Ottoman debts, and Jean Herbette published a very positive article about the Empire in the Echo Herbette published a very positive article about the Empire in the Echo de Paris the next dade Paris the next day. However,y. However, thisthis article did not mention Cavid Beyarticle did not mention Cavid Bey by by name, bname, because the foreign office had given an order to the press not to ecause the foreign office had given an order to the press not to mention his name while the negotiations were ongoing.mention his name while the negotiations were ongoing.859 In the mean-In the mean-time, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, M. Pichon, announctime, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, M. Pichon, announced that ed that FraFrance hnce had approved of Edirne's legal status under thad approved of Edirne's legal status under the Ottoman Empire, e Ottoman Empire, as long as the Ottomans left Western Thrace and did not cross the Meriç as long as the Ottomans left Western Thrace and did not cross the Meriç River. On August 21, Cavid BeyRiver. On August 21, Cavid Bey met with an influential banker from the met with an influential banker from the

859 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi III, , 12.12.

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Paris milieu, Baron Jacques de Gun

Paris milieu, Baron Jacques de Gunzburgzburg860, in , in the bthe building of the minis-uilding of the minis-try of foreign affairs. Atry of foreign affairs. According to a confidential letter Baron de Gunz-ccording to a confidential letter Baron de Gunz-burg had received and shown Cavid Beyburg had received and shown Cavid Bey, the Minister of Finance, M. , the Minister of Finance, M. Dumont, and M. Pichon had agreed that the ministry of finance would Dumont, and M. Pichon had agreed that the ministry of finance would follow up on follow up on the projectthe projects thas that were already under the control of the t were already under the control of the minisministry of foreign affairs, as they were a political priority. According to try of foreign affairs, as they were a political priority. According to the letter, M. Dumont would also follow up on the farm issue. Cavid Beythe letter, M. Dumont would also follow up on the farm issue. Cavid Bey stated that this letter showed that French bureaucrstated that this letter showed that French bureaucrats obeyed ats obeyed politpolitical ical orders. Baron de Gunzburg also told Caviorders. Baron de Gunzburg also told Cavid Beyd Bey that, except for Russia, that, except for Russia, the Entente powers approved of the Ottoman government's claim on the Entente powers approved of the Ottoman government's claim on Edirne. Cavid BeyEdirne. Cavid Bey also met M. Bopp in his office. He asked for help with also met M. Bopp in his office. He asked for help with unsettled issues such as tunsettled issues such as the Hedjaz rhe Hedjaz railwaailways. M. Bopp stated that they ys. M. Bopp stated that they had agreed on ishad agreed on issues concerning schools and churches. Only the Tunisi-sues concerning schools and churches. Only the Tunisi-an and Algerian issues were waiting to be settled.an and Algerian issues were waiting to be settled.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met the French diplomat M. Maurice Paléologue, who met the French diplomat M. Maurice Paléologue, who worked on Russian affairs withworked on Russian affairs within the miniin the ministry stry of foreign affairs (and of foreign affairs (and who would later be apwho would later be appointed as the ambassador to St. Petersburg be-pointed as the ambassador to St. Petersburg be-fore World War I and until the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917fore World War I and until the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917861) to dis-) to dis-cuss the French demands on the railways and ports close to the Russian cuss the French demands on the railways and ports close to the Russian border. Frborder. France neededance needed coalcoal resources, and therefore, the Ereğliresources, and therefore, the Ereğli--ZonguldZonguldak area was a vital area for them to control. France had also ak area was a vital area for them to control. France had also strengthened its presence in the Black Sea region and Eastern Anatolia, strengthened its presence in the Black Sea region and Eastern Anatolia, a primarily Russiana primarily Russian--controlled zone. The main problem was to controlled zone. The main problem was to settle the settle the agreeagreements according to the 1900 note of Abdülhamiments according to the 1900 note of Abdülhamid II given to the d II given to the Russians, which approved Russia's contract for the extensions of the Russians, which approved Russia's contract for the extensions of the Baghdad Railway. According to the note, if the Ottoman Empire wanted Baghdad Railway. According to the note, if the Ottoman Empire wanted to establish railways in the Black Sea to establish railways in the Black Sea region, it region, it shoulshould construct them d construct them independently. If not, then independently. If not, then Russia would build these railways, but no Russia would build these railways, but no

860 Peter FrPeter Fraser aser Lord ELord Esher A Political Biographysher A Political Biography (L(London: Hartondon: Hart--Davis, MacDavis, MacGibbonp, Gibbonp, 2013), 3462013), 346--347347. . 861 “Maurice“Maurice--Georges PaléologueGeorges Paléologue”, accesed August 3, 202”, accesed August 3, 2021, 1, https://wwwhttps://www.brit.britaannica.nnica.com/biogracom/biography/Mauricephy/Maurice--GeorgesGeorges--PaleologuePaleologue..

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third party could. The Adapazarı

third party could. The Adapazarı--EreğliEreğli--KayseriKayseri--Sivas, SivasSivas, Sivas--Harput, Harput, HarputHarput--Diyarbakır, and DiyarbakırDiyarbakır, and Diyarbakır--Van lines were excluded.Van lines were excluded.862 However, However, in 1913in 1913––1914, Russia abandoned its right in favor of its ally France, 1914, Russia abandoned its right in favor of its ally France, which which had greater financial assets to build it. Therefore, Russia joined had greater financial assets to build it. Therefore, Russia joined the negotiations on these lines along with France and the Ottoman gov-the negotiations on these lines along with France and the Ottoman gov-ernment. The main problem was the railway line to Van. Cavid Beyernment. The main problem was the railway line to Van. Cavid Bey of-of-fered that a company consisting of Ottoman, French, fered that a company consisting of Ottoman, French, and Russian share-and Russian share-holders could construct the Van line. Nevertheless, the Russians were holders could construct the Van line. Nevertheless, the Russians were anxious about France's greater financial and technological capacities.anxious about France's greater financial and technological capacities.

One of the most important topics on Cavid Bey

One of the most important topics on Cavid Bey’s agenda was the ’s agenda was the French loans to Russia and the otheFrench loans to Russia and the other Balkan states. Cavid Beyr Balkan states. Cavid Bey had put had put pressure on the French politicians to prioritize the Ottoman loans in pressure on the French politicians to prioritize the Ottoman loans in Paris. Cavid BeyParis. Cavid Bey conveyed the revised Russian railway project offer to conveyed the revised Russian railway project offer to his French colleagues. On the same day, August 18, 1913, Cavid Beyhis French colleagues. On the same day, August 18, 1913, Cavid Bey met met Mr. IzvolMr. Izvolsky, the Russian ambassador to Paris. Izvolsky, however, did not sky, the Russian ambassador to Paris. Izvolsky, however, did not find Cavid Beyfind Cavid Bey’s offer acceptable. According to Cavid Bey’s offer acceptable. According to Cavid Bey, the Russians , the Russians would prefer to protect their commercial interests in the region. Never-would prefer to protect their commercial interests in the region. Never-theless, Izvolsky asserted that the 1900 note ditheless, Izvolsky asserted that the 1900 note did not cover the railway d not cover the railway between Diyarbakır and Van. Cavid Beybetween Diyarbakır and Van. Cavid Bey asserted that only the Ottoman asserted that only the Ottoman Empire itself could construct the line, but Izlovsky responded that, “if Empire itself could construct the line, but Izlovsky responded that, “if you cannot construct it by yourself, the Russians would do it. However, you cannot construct it by yourself, the Russians would do it. However, this condition is this condition is not in the proposal.” Cavid Beynot in the proposal.” Cavid Bey did not lend credit to his did not lend credit to his statement. Another significant point of discussion was that the Russians statement. Another significant point of discussion was that the Russians wanted to have a deputy on the board of the OPDA. Indeed, it was wanted to have a deputy on the board of the OPDA. Indeed, it was France’s idea for Russia to make this demand. Cavid BeyFrance’s idea for Russia to make this demand. Cavid Bey stastated that if ted that if Russia sent a delegate to the Assembly of the OPDA, then smaller states Russia sent a delegate to the Assembly of the OPDA, then smaller states such as Belgium, The Netherlands, or Switzerland would also send dele-such as Belgium, The Netherlands, or Switzerland would also send dele-gates, and then the board would become obsolete. Then, they discussed gates, and then the board would become obsolete. Then, they discussed the Ottoman government’s demands.the Ottoman government’s demands. Izvolsky did not want to accept the Izvolsky did not want to accept the 4% rise in customs duties, due to the probable harm it would cause to 4% rise in customs duties, due to the probable harm it would cause to Russian merchants. The straits issue was brought to the agenda because Russian merchants. The straits issue was brought to the agenda because

862 Bayur,Bayur, Türk İnlîlâbı Tarihi Türk İnlîlâbı Tarihi II/III, 434. II/III, 434.

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of its harmful impact when the Ottoman Empire closed them during a

of its harmful impact when the Ottoman Empire closed them during a state of wastate of war. Cavid Beyr. Cavid Bey claimed that the Straits had only been closed to claimed that the Straits had only been closed to commercial shipping during the Tripolitanian War in 1911. After this commercial shipping during the Tripolitanian War in 1911. After this meeting, M. Paléologue asked Rifat Pasha to ask Cavid Beymeeting, M. Paléologue asked Rifat Pasha to ask Cavid Bey to be more to be more tolerant of the Russian railways.tolerant of the Russian railways.863

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey solved the solved the problem of the Rayakproblem of the Rayak--Lida railway line with the Lida railway line with the French officers. Hemon told Cavid BeyFrench officers. Hemon told Cavid Bey that M. Bompard, the French am-that M. Bompard, the French am-bassador to Istanbul, has asked the Lebanese government for a conces-bassador to Istanbul, has asked the Lebanese government for a conces-sion for the port of Jounieh. Cavid Beysion for the port of Jounieh. Cavid Bey was surprised at this request, bwas surprised at this request, be-e-cause he had been dealing with the same issue in Paris. He informed the cause he had been dealing with the same issue in Paris. He informed the French government that the concession for Jounieh would only be given French government that the concession for Jounieh would only be given by the Ottoman government. Since these negotiations were multilateral, by the Ottoman government. Since these negotiations were multilateral, France wanted to guarantee its interests aFrance wanted to guarantee its interests and tried to reach its goals nd tried to reach its goals through several channels. M. Pichon summoned Cavid Beythrough several channels. M. Pichon summoned Cavid Bey to meet him to meet him in the ministry. Pichon asked him to complete the negotiations with in the ministry. Pichon asked him to complete the negotiations with Izlovsky and sacrifice fiscal concessions in favor of Russia in order to Izlovsky and sacrifice fiscal concessions in favor of Russia in order to save Edirne. Pichon save Edirne. Pichon asked Rifat Pasha the same, as he believed that it asked Rifat Pasha the same, as he believed that it would be challenging to keep Edirne without providing any concessions. would be challenging to keep Edirne without providing any concessions. Cavid BeyCavid Bey discussed the issues he was having with the assignment of a discussed the issues he was having with the assignment of a Russian deputy to the OPDA with Izvolsky and M. Pichon separatelRussian deputy to the OPDA with Izvolsky and M. Pichon separately, y, and, in turn, he received the same questions from them.and, in turn, he received the same questions from them.

In the end, M. Pichon stated that when he read the minutes from the

In the end, M. Pichon stated that when he read the minutes from the FrancoFranco--German negotiations, he was reminded of the 1910 loan opera-German negotiations, he was reminded of the 1910 loan opera-tion, which caused significant problems for Francotion, which caused significant problems for Franco--Ottoman relaOttoman relations. tions. He regretted that they had missed the opportunity in 1910. He stated He regretted that they had missed the opportunity in 1910. He stated that the Ottoman Bank’s insistence on financial control was hindering that the Ottoman Bank’s insistence on financial control was hindering the loan agreement. Moreover, in the end, even the Ottoman Bank had the loan agreement. Moreover, in the end, even the Ottoman Bank had understood that it was a huge mistake not understood that it was a huge mistake not to make that agreement. to make that agreement.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met M. Pierre de Margerie from the ministry of foreign af-met M. Pierre de Margerie from the ministry of foreign af-fairs, who would lead the negotiations from now on, instead of M. Paléo-fairs, who would lead the negotiations from now on, instead of M. Paléo-

863 MeşrutiMeşrutiyet Ruznyet Ruznâmesi II, 14âmesi II, 14--2222

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logue. Though Mr. Margerie had not read the file on the negotiations yet,

logue. Though Mr. Margerie had not read the file on the negotiations yet, Cavid BeyCavid Bey objected objected to many significant points in the file: to many significant points in the file:

■ The permanence of the rise in the 4% tax rate (customs duty)The permanence of the rise in the 4% tax rate (customs duty)

■ Continuing customs reform Continuing customs reform

■ Other points about customsOther points about customs

■ OttomanOttoman--French customs issuesFrench customs issues

■ Abolishing the stamp of Hedjaz Abolishing the stamp of Hedjaz

■ The postal service The postal service

■ Shares of loans aShares of loans and compensation nd compensation

■ BorrowingBorrowing

■ Collateral Collateral

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey made comments on certain issues, which the French had re-made comments on certain issues, which the French had re-jected. In terms of the postal services which covered using only Ottoman jected. In terms of the postal services which covered using only Ottoman stamps in the post offices, he argued that Britain had accepted it. On the stamps in the post offices, he argued that Britain had accepted it. On the matmatter of borrowing, Cavid Beyter of borrowing, Cavid Bey told him that French capitalists should told him that French capitalists should include borrowing in a wide range of issues. Cavid Beyinclude borrowing in a wide range of issues. Cavid Bey was avoiding the was avoiding the option of an international loan. In terms of collateral, Cavid Beyoption of an international loan. In terms of collateral, Cavid Bey stated stated that the control and assurance of the OPDAthat the control and assurance of the OPDA would be more appropriate would be more appropriate for Turkey.for Turkey.

As might be seen from this list, Cavid Bey

As might be seen from this list, Cavid Bey's agenda was pretty long, 's agenda was pretty long, and from postal services to loans, many issues were linked to each oth-and from postal services to loans, many issues were linked to each oth-er. While the French insisted that they would not give any loan before er. While the French insisted that they would not give any loan before determidetermining these conditions, Cavid Beyning these conditions, Cavid Bey was trying not to restrict the was trying not to restrict the Ottoman Empire's sovereignty. Cavid BeyOttoman Empire's sovereignty. Cavid Bey was resisting the demands of was resisting the demands of the French, which were putting more restrictions on the capitulations. the French, which were putting more restrictions on the capitulations. The Unionists aimed to save the independence of the The Unionists aimed to save the independence of the state in various state in various fields restricted by the capitulations. fields restricted by the capitulations.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey requested that M. Margerie hurry up with the agreement, requested that M. Margerie hurry up with the agreement, because he said that he had to return to Istanbul. Cavid Beybecause he said that he had to return to Istanbul. Cavid Bey stated that stated that while he was in Paris, he could not acknowledge and accelerwhile he was in Paris, he could not acknowledge and accelerate things ate things in Istanbul and, therefore, maybe the Paris financial conference should in Istanbul and, therefore, maybe the Paris financial conference should be delayed. M. Margerie thought that it may not be held until October. be delayed. M. Margerie thought that it may not be held until October. Later, Cavid BeyLater, Cavid Bey received a telephone call from Izvolsky. The main prob-received a telephone call from Izvolsky. The main prob-

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lem was that though the French

lem was that though the French companies and syndicates were ready companies and syndicates were ready to establish the railway lines, the Russians were not ready. There was to establish the railway lines, the Russians were not ready. There was also a second issue between the Ottoman and Russian governments: the also a second issue between the Ottoman and Russian governments: the Armenian question. He accused the Turks of approaching the Germans Armenian question. He accused the Turks of approaching the Germans and warned Caand warned Cavid Beyvid Bey that Germany did not want the Ottoman Empire that Germany did not want the Ottoman Empire to survive. Cavid Beyto survive. Cavid Bey stated that they agreed with the need for reforms stated that they agreed with the need for reforms in the Armenian region; however, they rejected foreign control because in the Armenian region; however, they rejected foreign control because once it was accepted, it would be implemented in other regioonce it was accepted, it would be implemented in other regions, includ-ns, includ-ing the Arab provinces. Izvolsky stated that the Armenian people would ing the Arab provinces. Izvolsky stated that the Armenian people would not trust the Ottoman officers to implement the reform. Cavid Beynot trust the Ottoman officers to implement the reform. Cavid Bey re-re-sponded that they would assign foreigners who knew the situation in sponded that they would assign foreigners who knew the situation in detail, and for this reason, they had adetail, and for this reason, they had already asked Britain to appoint lready asked Britain to appoint British inspectors in the region.British inspectors in the region.864 Nevertheless, Britain had refused, be-Nevertheless, Britain had refused, be-cause the region was very close to its allies’ borders. Other than the al-cause the region was very close to its allies’ borders. Other than the al-lies' inspectors, the officers from the neutral states also became a cur-lies' inspectors, the officers from the neutral states also became a cur-rent isrent issue. However, he underlined the fact that inspectors from neutral sue. However, he underlined the fact that inspectors from neutral states would also be pointless in this case.states would also be pointless in this case.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey prepared a new project according to Izvolsky’s plan and prepared a new project according to Izvolsky’s plan and sent it to him. According to Cavid Beysent it to him. According to Cavid Bey's proposal, if the Ottoman gov-'s proposal, if the Ottoman gov-ernment neernment needed to extend the Trabzoneded to extend the Trabzon--Pekeric and HarputPekeric and Harput--Diyarbakir Diyarbakir railway lines toward the Russian border, the government would con-railway lines toward the Russian border, the government would con-struct it alone or give concessions to Russian companies for the con-struct it alone or give concessions to Russian companies for the con-struction. If the Ottoman government constructed it, it would unifstruction. If the Ottoman government constructed it, it would unify the y the railway tariffs’ incorporation with the Russian Railroad administra-railway tariffs’ incorporation with the Russian Railroad administra-tion.tion.865

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met Izvolsky almost every day. He warned Cavid Beymet Izvolsky almost every day. He warned Cavid Bey that that the reform process on the Armenian Question needed to be sped up: "the reform process on the Armenian Question needed to be sped up: "It It is time for reconciliation and a sustainis time for reconciliation and a sustainable peace processable peace process." Cavid Bey." Cavid Bey stated that the Ottoman Empire had made mistakes in domestic politics, stated that the Ottoman Empire had made mistakes in domestic politics, and some of its politicians, such as those in the Kamil Pasha govern-and some of its politicians, such as those in the Kamil Pasha govern-ment, had harmed the country's unity. Izvolsky asked Cavid Beyment, had harmed the country's unity. Izvolsky asked Cavid Bey about about

864 Bayur, Bayur, Türk İnkılâbı Tarihi, IITürk İnkılâbı Tarihi, II/III/III, 60, 60--61. 61.

865 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuuznâmesi IIznâmesi II, 26, 26--34. 34.

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Mr. Mandelstam, w

Mr. Mandelstam, who had helped Cavid Beyho had helped Cavid Bey and Hüseyin Cahit Bey to and Hüseyin Cahit Bey to flee from Istanbul during the March 31 Incident, and was now preparing flee from Istanbul during the March 31 Incident, and was now preparing the controversial reform project on the Armenian Question. Izvolsky the controversial reform project on the Armenian Question. Izvolsky reminded him of Russia's favor to them during this period and warnedreminded him of Russia's favor to them during this period and warned him of the dangers of diplomacy. him of the dangers of diplomacy.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met with Count Vitali and discussed the amount that the met with Count Vitali and discussed the amount that the Empire was planning on borrowing. Vitali stated that the loan might be Empire was planning on borrowing. Vitali stated that the loan might be around 700 million francs, and the payment would be divided into two around 700 million francs, and the payment would be divided into two between the curbetween the current year and the following year. Cavid Beyrent year and the following year. Cavid Bey objected to objected to the payment schedule. In terms of public opinion, the press, and gov-the payment schedule. In terms of public opinion, the press, and gov-ernment position, the payment should be made all at once. However, ernment position, the payment should be made all at once. However, Cavid BeyCavid Bey had similar talks with various French officers until thhad similar talks with various French officers until the loan e loan agreement would be signed in April 1914.agreement would be signed in April 1914.866

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met Salandrouse, Hemon, and Frederic to discuss the met Salandrouse, Hemon, and Frederic to discuss the three different railway projects' contracts. Cavid Beythree different railway projects' contracts. Cavid Bey noted that Sa-noted that Sa-landrouse was an annoying person and hard to tolerate. The main prob-landrouse was an annoying person and hard to tolerate. The main prob-lem was flem was fixing the collateral, blocking the railways, and increasing the ixing the collateral, blocking the railways, and increasing the collateral on certain lines such as Halepcollateral on certain lines such as Halep--Hama.Hama.867 Hakkı Pasha asked Hakkı Pasha asked Cavid BeyCavid Bey to go to Berlin to meet German bureaucrats and bankers for to go to Berlin to meet German bureaucrats and bankers for the negotiations. The Germans wanted to meet Cavid Beythe negotiations. The Germans wanted to meet Cavid Bey bbefore the be-efore the be-ginning of the Paris financial conference. However, he did not want to go ginning of the Paris financial conference. However, he did not want to go to Berlin, because firstly, he had to be prepared and well informed be-to Berlin, because firstly, he had to be prepared and well informed be-fore meeting the Germans; second, meeting with Gwinner was not fore meeting the Germans; second, meeting with Gwinner was not pleasant; third, Cavid Beypleasant; third, Cavid Bey needed at needed at least 12 or 13 more days to finish least 12 or 13 more days to finish work with the French and Russians; and finally, he had to go to Istanbul work with the French and Russians; and finally, he had to go to Istanbul to complete these two negotiations. to complete these two negotiations.

The main reason that the Germans wanted to speak with Cavid Bey

The main reason that the Germans wanted to speak with Cavid Bey was on account of the Francowas on account of the Franco--German talks, whiGerman talks, which were held on August ch were held on August 1919––20 and September 2420 and September 24––26. These talks covered issues such as the 26. These talks covered issues such as the Baghdad Railway lines, Baghdad Railway shares in the Ottoman Bank, et Baghdad Railway lines, Baghdad Railway shares in the Ottoman Bank, et cetera. The most exciting part of these talks cetera. The most exciting part of these talks -- FrancoFranco--German, AngloGerman, Anglo--

866 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâRuznâmesi IImesi II, 42., 42.

867 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmeRuznâmesi Isi III, 43, 43--4545

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German and Russian

German and Russian--German German -- is that the Great War's hostile parties is that the Great War's hostile parties had reconciled on the Ottoman Empire's conflicts, but the Great War had reconciled on the Ottoman Empire's conflicts, but the Great War had already broken out before they were ratified. If we get back to the had already broken out before they were ratified. If we get back to the FrancoFranco--German talks, the first round of the negotiations failed. Never-German talks, the first round of the negotiations failed. Never-thelestheless, the Germans were hopeful at the beginning. Mr. Helfferich s, the Germans were hopeful at the beginning. Mr. Helfferich thought that there might be a "clean break" between French interests thought that there might be a "clean break" between French interests and the Baghdad Railway after he met French financiers in Paris in June and the Baghdad Railway after he met French financiers in Paris in June 1913.1913.868 During the talks, Mr. Gwinner and Mr. HelffericDuring the talks, Mr. Gwinner and Mr. Helfferich represented h represented Germany and Baron de Neuflize of the Banque de France, and M. de Germany and Baron de Neuflize of the Banque de France, and M. de Klapka of the Ottoman Bank represented France. As Özyüksel states, the Klapka of the Ottoman Bank represented France. As Özyüksel states, the negotiations succeeded in gathering the rival countries' officials around negotiations succeeded in gathering the rival countries' officials around the same desk. It was not a simpthe same desk. It was not a simple task, especially when concerning the le task, especially when concerning the German and French rivalry. The German's were anxious that Cavid BeyGerman and French rivalry. The German's were anxious that Cavid Bey might accept the French demands due to the pressure of the French. He might accept the French demands due to the pressure of the French. He might grant a concession that could be controversial with Germany's might grant a concession that could be controversial with Germany's interest binterest because all the actors were aware that new debts meant new ecause all the actors were aware that new debts meant new concessions and privileges.concessions and privileges.869 The Germans' assumption that the French The Germans' assumption that the French related the loan to concessions was correct. They also squeezed Cavid related the loan to concessions was correct. They also squeezed Cavid BeyBey, who was concerned about the timing of the loan issue. , who was concerned about the timing of the loan issue. The French The French officers reminded him that the loan was related to concessions based on officers reminded him that the loan was related to concessions based on French demands. France was conditioned to completing the general French demands. France was conditioned to completing the general agreement in order to start negotiating the loan contract.agreement in order to start negotiating the loan contract.870

Following the Paris financial conference, which

Following the Paris financial conference, which focused on the Bal-focused on the Bal-kan states' share in the Ottoman debts due to the Second Balkan War, kan states' share in the Ottoman debts due to the Second Balkan War, the next step in the negotiations was the Francothe next step in the negotiations was the Franco--German talks. Mr. German talks. Mr. Klapka visited Cavid BeyKlapka visited Cavid Bey and mentioned the forming of an alliance be-and mentioned the forming of an alliance be-tween France,Britain and Germany. tween France,Britain and Germany. However, his main aim was to dis-However, his main aim was to dis-cuss the loan conditions that the Ottoman government would soon ob-cuss the loan conditions that the Ottoman government would soon ob-tain from Germany. He asked to increase the interest rate from 4 to 5%, tain from Germany. He asked to increase the interest rate from 4 to 5%, decrease the amortization from 1 to 0.5% and set the net price at 84. decrease the amortization from 1 to 0.5% and set the net price at 84.

868 WilliamWilliamson, son, Karl Helfferich, 1Karl Helfferich, 1872872--1924: Economist, Financier, Politician1924: Economist, Financier, Politician, 103, 103--104. 104.

869 Özyüksel, Özyüksel, The The BerlBerlinin--BBaaghdad Railwaghdad Railway and the Oty and the Otttoman Empireoman Empire, , 150. 150.

870 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâRuznâmesi IImesi II,, 50,, 50--51. 51.

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Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey objectobjected to these conditions because it would harm the con-ed to these conditions because it would harm the con-solidated loan. However, France asked the Ottoman government to final-solidated loan. However, France asked the Ottoman government to final-ize the Francoize the Franco--German talks as soon as possible. Being an intermediary German talks as soon as possible. Being an intermediary during these talks was one of Cavid Beyduring these talks was one of Cavid Bey's roles. He also underli's roles. He also underlined the ned the fact that the Germans would buy the Baghdad Railway's French shares, fact that the Germans would buy the Baghdad Railway's French shares, but they may lose money on this operation. If so, the Ottoman Empire but they may lose money on this operation. If so, the Ottoman Empire should grant new concessions on the loss.should grant new concessions on the loss.871 Mr. Klapka also told Cavid Mr. Klapka also told Cavid BeyBey that they were preparing a loan forthat they were preparing a loan for Serbia, and therefore, they Serbia, and therefore, they should hurry up if the Ottomans wanted to receive their loan first.should hurry up if the Ottomans wanted to receive their loan first.872

On September 3, Cavid Bey

On September 3, Cavid Bey met Mr. Izvolsky, following his invitation met Mr. Izvolsky, following his invitation on the phone. When they met, Mr. Izvolsky stated that the negotiations on the phone. When they met, Mr. Izvolsky stated that the negotiations on the railways coon the railways could not be concluded in Paris, and that it would be uld not be concluded in Paris, and that it would be better to transfer these discussions to Istanbul. However, Cavid Beybetter to transfer these discussions to Istanbul. However, Cavid Bey stated that due to the dragoman's mentality, it was impossible to con-stated that due to the dragoman's mentality, it was impossible to con-tinue the talks in Istanbul. The future of the Aegean Islands was tinue the talks in Istanbul. The future of the Aegean Islands was another another crucial question in Paris. Cavid Beycrucial question in Paris. Cavid Bey stated that the Great Powers', main-stated that the Great Powers', main-ly Britain's and France's, respect and admiration for Greece was an es-ly Britain's and France's, respect and admiration for Greece was an es-sential factor to be considered, as they hoped that Greece would main-sential factor to be considered, as they hoped that Greece would main-tain loyalty to them. Cavid Beytain loyalty to them. Cavid Bey addedadded that they would prefer to see the that they would prefer to see the islands under Italy's control rather than that of Greece. Cavid Beyislands under Italy's control rather than that of Greece. Cavid Bey at-at-tempted to prioritize Ottoman borrowing. Meanwhile, Serbian, Bulgari-tempted to prioritize Ottoman borrowing. Meanwhile, Serbian, Bulgari-an, and Greek borrowing were also on the minister of finance's agenda. an, and Greek borrowing were also on the minister of finance's agenda. Cavid BeyCavid Bey memet M. Sergant, vicet M. Sergant, vice--director of the Banque de France, who director of the Banque de France, who stated that he was hoping to resolve this issue with the Ministers of Fi-stated that he was hoping to resolve this issue with the Ministers of Fi-nance and Foreign Affairs. He also underlined the fact that borrowing nance and Foreign Affairs. He also underlined the fact that borrowing should be done as a whole, not piecemeal. Concerning the should be done as a whole, not piecemeal. Concerning the Van railway, Van railway,

871 ÖzÖzyüksel states that “Thyüksel states that “The Ottome Ottoman Bank had Baghdad Raian Bank had Baghdad Railway shares, but she colway shares, but she could uld not cote them in the Paris stock market because of political objecnot cote them in the Paris stock market because of political objectiotions. Tns. They werhey were like like e a dead inva dead inveestment. During the Frenchstment. During the French--GermanGerman talks, the talks, the DeutsDeutscche Banhe Bank was on the k was on the agenda toagenda to purchase the shares opurchase the shares of the If the IOB. Consequently, accorOB. Consequently, according to the agreement ding to the agreement ssigned on 15 February 1914, Deutsche Bank agreed to buy them. The valueigned on 15 February 1914, Deutsche Bank agreed to buy them. The value ofof the the shares shares was 6was 69.4 million 9.4 million ffrancs.” Özyüksel, rancs.” Özyüksel, The BerlinThe Berlin--BagBaghdad Railwayhdad Railway and and tthe Otthe Otto-o-man Empireman Empire, , 150.150.

872 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâmesi IIuznâmesi II, 54., 54.

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Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey told M. Paléologue that Turkey did not want to leave those told M. Paléologue that Turkey did not want to leave those lines to Russia. Then, he showed the maps to M. Paléologue, who agreed lines to Russia. Then, he showed the maps to M. Paléologue, who agreed that Cavid Beythat Cavid Bey's concerns were justified, and he agreed with him. Cavid 's concerns were justified, and he agreed with him. Cavid BeyBey occasionally criticized theoccasionally criticized the methods of his European colleagues.methods of his European colleagues.873 When he met M. Margerie on September 4, 1913, he saw his desk cov-When he met M. Margerie on September 4, 1913, he saw his desk cov-ered in official paperwork on Turkish affairs. He complained that even ered in official paperwork on Turkish affairs. He complained that even in Turkey, people used to work more regularly and quickly than the in Turkey, people used to work more regularly and quickly than the French. During French. During the negotiations, the French always had the Baghdad the negotiations, the French always had the Baghdad Railway on their mind. Margarite stated that the French industrialists Railway on their mind. Margarite stated that the French industrialists were complaining that the Ottoman government was spending its mon-were complaining that the Ottoman government was spending its mon-ey on this railroad. Cavid Beyey on this railroad. Cavid Bey replied that the consumers funded thireplied that the consumers funded this.s.874 During the last days of his stay in Paris, Cavid BeyDuring the last days of his stay in Paris, Cavid Bey continued his negoti-continued his negoti-ations: the Francoations: the Franco--German talks with M. Margerie; negotiations on the German talks with M. Margerie; negotiations on the railways with Count Vitali, Chenu, and Hemon; and negotiations on the railways with Count Vitali, Chenu, and Hemon; and negotiations on the farming issue with Baron Gunzburg of thfarming issue with Baron Gunzburg of the Banque de Salonique. e Banque de Salonique.

M. Margerie handed the first draft of the French

M. Margerie handed the first draft of the French--German negotia-German negotia-tions over to Cavid Beytions over to Cavid Bey. He had objections to almost every article, in-. He had objections to almost every article, in-cluding the rise in customs duties, monopolies, stamp tax, octroi duties, cluding the rise in customs duties, monopolies, stamp tax, octroi duties, privileges for the postalprivileges for the postal services, the borrowing issue, assistance for services, the borrowing issue, assistance for Turkey’s economic and fiscal improvement, intellectual property rights Turkey’s economic and fiscal improvement, intellectual property rights (which would be included in a separate accord), and the partition of the (which would be included in a separate accord), and the partition of the Balkan debts. Cavid BeyBalkan debts. Cavid Bey stated that he preferred to settle all thstated that he preferred to settle all these issues ese issues while abroad rather than in Istanbul.while abroad rather than in Istanbul.875

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey discussed the future of the Ottoman Bank with Mr. Klapka. discussed the future of the Ottoman Bank with Mr. Klapka. France wanted to extend the duration of the Ottoman Bank. Cavid BeyFrance wanted to extend the duration of the Ottoman Bank. Cavid Bey stated that they might extend the duration of the concessions. Howeverstated that they might extend the duration of the concessions. However, , the conditions should be changed, including the bank's Ottomanization, the conditions should be changed, including the bank's Ottomanization, dismissing Greeks from the head office, assigning a general manager dismissing Greeks from the head office, assigning a general manager through an imperial decree, appointing an assistant manager in the Is-through an imperial decree, appointing an assistant manager in the Is-

873 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IIRuznâmesi II, 56, 56--58.58.

874 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IIRuznâmesi II, 60, 60--6666..

875 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmesRuznâmesi IIi II, 66, 66--72.72.

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tanbul branch office, and providing advantages

tanbul branch office, and providing advantages for the government and for the government and merchants.merchants.

M. Margerie re

M. Margerie re--sent the reviewed draft agreement. Cavid Beysent the reviewed draft agreement. Cavid Bey wrote wrote thatthat his objections remained intact. There would be a separate agree-his objections remained intact. There would be a separate agree-ment on the general public works and the portsment on the general public works and the ports876 (i.e., Samsun, Trab-(i.e., Samsun, Trab-zon, Haifa, and Jafzon, Haifa, and Jafffa).a). While reviewing the draft agreements, Cavid BeyWhile reviewing the draft agreements, Cavid Bey not only edited the contents of the agreements, he also amended the le-not only edited the contents of the agreements, he also amended the le-gal vocabulary used in the agreement. For instance, he preferred to use gal vocabulary used in the agreement. For instance, he preferred to use another word instead of “reformation” to describe the custoanother word instead of “reformation” to describe the customsms duties or duties or ““arrangement d’ordre financierarrangement d’ordre financier” instead of “ordre” to discuss the ” instead of “ordre” to discuss the posts.posts.877 Finally, on September 11, Cavid BeyFinally, on September 11, Cavid Bey and M. Pichon initialed the and M. Pichon initialed the agreement.agreement.878 Mr. Margerie told Cavid BeyMr. Margerie told Cavid Bey that they would like to give that they would like to give him the Legion of Honor. They asked him the Legion of Honor. They asked foforr Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s help on the issues ’s help on the issues and and he had left for Istanbul. Cavid Beyhe had left for Istanbul. Cavid Bey affixed the seal of the embassy on affixed the seal of the embassy on the treaty related to the railways and customs issues. He thanked M. the treaty related to the railways and customs issues. He thanked M. Pichon for solving the conflictual issues between the two countries. M. Pichon for solving the conflictual issues between the two countries. M. PichoPichon n aallso told Cavid Beyso told Cavid Bey that he felt happy to have solved this, espe-that he felt happy to have solved this, espe-cially when he considered the unsuccessful attempt three years before. cially when he considered the unsuccessful attempt three years before. Cavid BeyCavid Bey said that if the negotiations were solely up to them, they said that if the negotiations were solely up to them, they could overcome the situation in a much more managecould overcome the situation in a much more manageababllee way.way.879

The next step for Cavid Bey

The next step for Cavid Bey was to eliminate the barriers to the loan was to eliminate the barriers to the loan agreement. Unfortunately, even as he would eliminate these barriers, agreement. Unfortunately, even as he would eliminate these barriers, the French would put up new ones in front of him. The main problem the French would put up new ones in front of him. The main problem now was the interest rate on the loan. now was the interest rate on the loan. ThThee Ottoman government insist-Ottoman government insist-ed on a 4% rate, but Russia wanted to increase it to 5%. Though there ed on a 4% rate, but Russia wanted to increase it to 5%. Though there were questions in his mind concerning the coming days, Cavid Beywere questions in his mind concerning the coming days, Cavid Bey posi-posi-tively evaluated his time in Paris. In his diary, he writes that “a lot of tively evaluated his time in Paris. In his diary, he writes that “a lot of (positive) ch(positive) chananggees happened in French public opinion, press, govern-s happened in French public opinion, press, govern-

876 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâmesi IIuznâmesi II,, 7272--74. 74.

877 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IIRuznâmesi II, , 7474--77.77.

878 This agreement would not be considered as the final version. The final version would This agreement would not be considered as the final version. The final version would be signebe signed on d on AprilApril 9, 199, 1914. 14.

879 Cavid Bey, MCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet eşrutiyet RuznâmesiRuznâmesi IIII, 88, 88--89.89.

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ment, finance department related to the Ottoman Empire. I came here

ment, finance department related to the Ottoman Empire. I came here with an overwhelming concern, and I was afraid of a huge pressure with an overwhelming concern, and I was afraid of a huge pressure against me. On the contrary, I return to Istanbul content and with aagainst me. On the contrary, I return to Istanbul content and with a sseennse of accomplishment.”se of accomplishment.”880

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey had faced tough times in Paris. Upon his arrival, he was had faced tough times in Paris. Upon his arrival, he was anxious about how he would be welcomed after the 1910 loan opera-anxious about how he would be welcomed after the 1910 loan opera-tion. However, Cavid Beytion. However, Cavid Bey regained his reputation in the political and fi-regained his reputation in the political and fi-nancial milieu. He workednancial milieu. He worked wwiitth many prominent French diplomats, h many prominent French diplomats, bankers, and politicians. He met many new people from the upper class bankers, and politicians. He met many new people from the upper class of Paris and witnessed how business and politics intertwined with each of Paris and witnessed how business and politics intertwined with each other. During the dinners or meetings, he was appreciated for his pro-other. During the dinners or meetings, he was appreciated for his pro-found ifound intnteelllect. The Ottomanlect. The Ottoman--French negotiations mostly depended on French negotiations mostly depended on the French demands on Syria and the loan issue. However, the loan issue the French demands on Syria and the loan issue. However, the loan issue was conditional upon the number of concessions granted by the Otto-was conditional upon the number of concessions granted by the Otto-man Empire. The Syrian railways and ports were more critiman Empire. The Syrian railways and ports were more criticacall than the than the railways in Anatolia. In Anatolia, France gave priority to the Black Sea railways in Anatolia. In Anatolia, France gave priority to the Black Sea railway lines and the Eastern lines built with Russia. Cavid Beyrailway lines and the Eastern lines built with Russia. Cavid Bey eventu-eventu-ally accepted France's demands in Syria. He was aware that if there was ally accepted France's demands in Syria. He was aware that if there was no concession, there was nono concession, there was no mmoonney.ey.

On the other hand, there had been many other issues on the table

On the other hand, there had been many other issues on the table that had concerned Cavid Beythat had concerned Cavid Bey, such as that of the islands, the Armenian , such as that of the islands, the Armenian Question, the French press, et cetera. In this dissertation, I consider that Question, the French press, et cetera. In this dissertation, I consider that these agreements created spheres othese agreements created spheres of f iinnfluence in the Ottoman Empire's fluence in the Ottoman Empire's various lands. The main question was whether Cavid Beyvarious lands. The main question was whether Cavid Bey was aware of was aware of Europe's intentions, or if he questioned the establishment of an imperi-Europe's intentions, or if he questioned the establishment of an imperi-alistic circle around him. alistic circle around him.

4.3.7 In Istanbul: Between Paris and BerlinIn Istanbul: Between Paris and Berlin

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey depadepartrteedd from Paris on September 13, 1913. When he re-from Paris on September 13, 1913. When he re-turned to Istanbul, he encountered a domestic crisis. turned to Istanbul, he encountered a domestic crisis. TaninTanin had been had been closed by the military censorship office due to the news it had published closed by the military censorship office due to the news it had published

880 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuzRuznâmesi IInâmesi II,, 9191--9393. .

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regarding the reorganization of the army. Izzet Pasha, Chief of

regarding the reorganization of the army. Izzet Pasha, Chief of ththee Gen-Gen-eral Staff, had seen to the matter personally. He was resisting the reor-eral Staff, had seen to the matter personally. He was resisting the reor-ganization of the army, while Enver Bey was the main supporter of this ganization of the army, while Enver Bey was the main supporter of this policy. Although policy. Although TaninTanin had been closed many times before, Hüseyin Ca-had been closed many times before, Hüseyin Ca-hit Bey insisted on closing down the phit Bey insisted on closing down the pubublliication permanently. Cavid Beycation permanently. Cavid Bey and Talat Bey tried to get him to change his mind. However, when Cavid and Talat Bey tried to get him to change his mind. However, when Cavid BeyBey criticized Hüseyin Cahit Bey for his persistence in closing the paper, criticized Hüseyin Cahit Bey for his persistence in closing the paper, his reasons for wanting to close the newspaper seemed fair to Cavid his reasons for wanting to close the newspaper seemed fair to Cavid BeyBey. .

Cavividd BeyBey met the General Staff, minister of the navy, and the grand met the General Staff, minister of the navy, and the grand vizier the next day. They were all satisfied with the agreement that vizier the next day. They were all satisfied with the agreement that Cavid BeyCavid Bey had negotiated in France. According to Grand Vizier Said had negotiated in France. According to Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha, Berlin wanted Cavid BeyHalim Pasha, Berlin wanted Cavid Bey to go there immeto go there immedidiaattely. Cavid ely. Cavid BeyBey had even received a telegram from Berlin on the train, but first, he had even received a telegram from Berlin on the train, but first, he had come to Istanbul. Without Cavid Beyhad come to Istanbul. Without Cavid Bey, the cabinet would not approve , the cabinet would not approve the agreement with the French. Moreover, Cavid Beythe agreement with the French. Moreover, Cavid Bey would ask Said would ask Said Halim Pasha for his consent to Halim Pasha for his consent to cacarrrry out the negotiations with Mr. y out the negotiations with Mr. Michel de Giers, Russian ambassador, on the OttomanMichel de Giers, Russian ambassador, on the Ottoman--Russian conflicts. Russian conflicts. After he finished his work in Istanbul, he would be ready to go to Berlin. After he finished his work in Istanbul, he would be ready to go to Berlin. After he departed from Paris, the French newspaper Journal de Debats After he departed from Paris, the French newspaper Journal de Debats publipublishsheedd an article about Cavid Beyan article about Cavid Bey. The paper had written that due to . The paper had written that due to the unsettled negotiations such as the Jaffathe unsettled negotiations such as the Jaffa--Jerusalem railway line, the Jerusalem railway line, the agreement required further political negotiations. Though M. Margerie agreement required further political negotiations. Though M. Margerie had guaranteed that Journal de Debat would suphad guaranteed that Journal de Debat would suppoporrtt the Ottoman gov-the Ottoman gov-ernment, they had carried out a “coup d’état,” as Cavid Beyernment, they had carried out a “coup d’état,” as Cavid Bey called it.called it.881

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met Baron von Wangenheim. met Baron von Wangenheim. They discussed many issues, They discussed many issues, but first, he teased Cavid Beybut first, he teased Cavid Bey because of his extended stay in Paris. He because of his extended stay in Paris. He laughed about the fact thatlaughed about the fact that CCaavvid Beyid Bey could be impressed by the "charm could be impressed by the "charm of Paris." As mentioned above, the Germans were anxious about Fran-of Paris." As mentioned above, the Germans were anxious about Fran-cophile Cavid Beycophile Cavid Bey's willingness to grant concessions that could harm 's willingness to grant concessions that could harm German investments in the Ottoman Empire. Cavid BeyGerman investments in the Ottoman Empire. Cavid Bey responded, "I responded, "I

881 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmRuznâmesi IIesi II, 97., 97.

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was not tro

was not troununcceed." Wangenheim asked Cavid Beyd." Wangenheim asked Cavid Bey, who had initiated the , who had initiated the reconquest of Edirne: Talat Bey or Halil Bey? Wangenheim was ques-reconquest of Edirne: Talat Bey or Halil Bey? Wangenheim was ques-tioning Talat Bey's intelligence. In response, Cavid Beytioning Talat Bey's intelligence. In response, Cavid Bey praised Talat's praised Talat's talent, intelligence, and patriotism. On the Greek issue, thtalent, intelligence, and patriotism. On the Greek issue, the e KKiing of ng of Greece's visit to Berlin and his speech had a very negative impact on Is-Greece's visit to Berlin and his speech had a very negative impact on Is-tanbul. As seen from Cavid Beytanbul. As seen from Cavid Bey's diaries, Germany favored Greece over 's diaries, Germany favored Greece over the Ottoman Empire or the Ottoman Empire and the French alliance. the Ottoman Empire or the Ottoman Empire and the French alliance. France's alliance with Russia was far France's alliance with Russia was far totooo inin--depth and comprehensive, depth and comprehensive, including the railways, the Straits, Armenian Issue, etc. In terms of the including the railways, the Straits, Armenian Issue, etc. In terms of the island question, Wangenheim stated that Chios and Lesbos, the islands island question, Wangenheim stated that Chios and Lesbos, the islands just opposite the Çanakkale, should be returned to the Ottoman Empire. just opposite the Çanakkale, should be returned to the Ottoman Empire. On the ArOn the Armemenniian Issue, the German ambassador suggested that Russia an Issue, the German ambassador suggested that Russia appoint a governor elected by the Great Powers. Cavid Beyappoint a governor elected by the Great Powers. Cavid Bey responded responded that the Ottoman Empire could not accept a governor elected by the that the Ottoman Empire could not accept a governor elected by the Great Powers. Cavid BeyGreat Powers. Cavid Bey also complained to him about Russia’s ralso complained to him about Russia’s refefuussal al of the British officers who would work in the region. He considered that of the British officers who would work in the region. He considered that Wangenheim and de Giers should collaborate and resolve this issue to-Wangenheim and de Giers should collaborate and resolve this issue to-gether. Wangenheim told Cavid Beygether. Wangenheim told Cavid Bey that the Germans had started to be-that the Germans had started to be-come interested and involved in the Armecome interested and involved in the Armeniniaann Issue. He praised the tal-Issue. He praised the tal-ents of the Armenians living in the villages. He stated that Germany ents of the Armenians living in the villages. He stated that Germany would not leave the issue to Russia alone, and if Russia wanted to seize would not leave the issue to Russia alone, and if Russia wanted to seize any place in Anatolia, Germany would oppose Russia. Though Russia any place in Anatolia, Germany would oppose Russia. Though Russia would not want a nwould not want a neieigghhbor like Germany, Wangenheim considered that bor like Germany, Wangenheim considered that Russia's Armenian policy must change.Russia's Armenian policy must change.882

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met the grand vizier. His aim was to carry out the negotia-met the grand vizier. His aim was to carry out the negotia-tions with Russia by himself. Cavid Beytions with Russia by himself. Cavid Bey considered that, if Said Halim considered that, if Said Halim Pasha conducted the negotiatiPasha conducted the negotiationonss,, the Ottoman government would ob-the Ottoman government would ob-tain fewer advantages. Not only was Said Halim Pasha a rather amiable tain fewer advantages. Not only was Said Halim Pasha a rather amiable person, but he also did not have comprehensive information about oth-person, but he also did not have comprehensive information about oth-er negotiations such as those with the French or Germans. Following er negotiations such as those with the French or Germans. Following this, Cavid Bethis, Cavid Beyy mmeet Talat Bey, and they discussed the Armenian issue. t Talat Bey, and they discussed the Armenian issue.

882 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IIRuznâmesi II, 101, 101--5.5.

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Talat Bey asked for Krikor Zöhrap Efendi and Hallacyan Efendi to be in-

Talat Bey asked for Krikor Zöhrap Efendi and Hallacyan Efendi to be in-termediaries between the Ottoman government and the Armenian soci-termediaries between the Ottoman government and the Armenian soci-ety. According to Hallacyan Efendi, the Armenians insisted on detety. According to Hallacyan Efendi, the Armenians insisted on deterermmiin-n-ing the issue. Cavid Beying the issue. Cavid Bey warned Talat Bey about Wangenheim’s offer, warned Talat Bey about Wangenheim’s offer, which seemed appropriate but could cause harm when adopted. Cavid which seemed appropriate but could cause harm when adopted. Cavid BeyBey told Talat Bey that he should warn Said Halim Pasha about this.told Talat Bey that he should warn Said Halim Pasha about this.883

The Foreign Ministry formed a special commission

The Foreign Ministry formed a special commission ttoo examine the examine the OttomanOttoman--French agreement, which had been initialed by Cavid BeyFrench agreement, which had been initialed by Cavid Bey. The . The commission members were Halil Bey, Osman Nizami Pasha, Talat Bey, commission members were Halil Bey, Osman Nizami Pasha, Talat Bey, Rifat Bey, Mahmud Pasha, and Ahmet Izzet Pasha. On September 25, Rifat Bey, Mahmud Pasha, and Ahmet Izzet Pasha. On September 25, they accepted the articles related to ththey accepted the articles related to the e BBllack Sea railways.ack Sea railways.884 Although Although there were disputes over certain articles, Cavid Beythere were disputes over certain articles, Cavid Bey, who as we know , who as we know was a successful orator and negotiator, successfully eliminated the criti-was a successful orator and negotiator, successfully eliminated the criti-cisms of the agreement. During one of the meetings, Osman Nizami Pa-cisms of the agreement. During one of the meetings, Osman Nizami Pa-sha, the ministsha, the ministerer oof public works, objected to the Rayakf public works, objected to the Rayak--Lida railway Lida railway line construction and suggested that France construct another railway line construction and suggested that France construct another railway line in a different part of the Empire. Cavid Beyline in a different part of the Empire. Cavid Bey got angry because, ac-got angry because, ac-cording to him, the minister did not understand the politicacording to him, the minister did not understand the political l ffaactor in ctor in the financial negotiations, namely that Syria and other territories were the financial negotiations, namely that Syria and other territories were not equal in France's eyes. The MPs also objected to the "farming issue." not equal in France's eyes. The MPs also objected to the "farming issue." Cavid BeyCavid Bey claimed that their objections were too late. Meanwhile, the claimed that their objections were too late. Meanwhile, the Ottoman government wanted tOttoman government wanted to o mmaake some changes to the French ke some changes to the French agreements; however, there was a direct message from Paris that none agreements; however, there was a direct message from Paris that none of these changes would be accepted. The commission continued to criti-of these changes would be accepted. The commission continued to criti-cize the agreement. Halil Bey's criticisms were much harsher because of cize the agreement. Halil Bey's criticisms were much harsher because of his politicahis political l ssttance in the CUP. Halil Bey and Cavid Beyance in the CUP. Halil Bey and Cavid Bey were thought of were thought of as "rivals" seeking loans across Europe during the First World War. as "rivals" seeking loans across Europe during the First World War. While Halil Bey pointed to differences between the benefits obtained While Halil Bey pointed to differences between the benefits obtained and the compromises made in the agreements, Cavid Beyand the compromises made in the agreements, Cavid Bey claiclaimemedd that that he was "making a fuss." He stated that this concern should have been he was "making a fuss." He stated that this concern should have been considered much earlier when the negotiations had begun. According to considered much earlier when the negotiations had begun. According to

883 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâmesi IIuznâmesi II,, 106106--7.7.

884 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmRuznâmesi IIesi II, 108, 108--9. 9.

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Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey, the benefits that the Ottoman government obtained in terms , the benefits that the Ottoman government obtained in terms of the numbers were obvious: a 4% risof the numbers were obvious: a 4% rise e iinn customs duties, monopolies, customs duties, monopolies, octroi duties, consumer tax, loans, shares in the Balkan states in the octroi duties, consumer tax, loans, shares in the Balkan states in the OPDA, and later on, the removal of postal concessions, capitulations, OPDA, and later on, the removal of postal concessions, capitulations, railways, et cetera. As Cavid Beyrailways, et cetera. As Cavid Bey writes, "making comparisons is just ob-writes, "making comparisons is just ob-serving thserving the e iisssue from a narrow perspective." Another objection from sue from a narrow perspective." Another objection from the commission was to signing the agreement with France before be-the commission was to signing the agreement with France before be-ginning negotiations with the Germans and the Russians. Cavid Beyginning negotiations with the Germans and the Russians. Cavid Bey stated that the negotiations had already ended with the Russians astated that the negotiations had already ended with the Russians andnd tthat he would go to Berlin very soon.hat he would go to Berlin very soon.885 However, two days later, Halil However, two days later, Halil Bey objected to the agreement being signed before finalizing negotia-Bey objected to the agreement being signed before finalizing negotia-tions with other states. Talat Bey replied that under these conditions, tions with other states. Talat Bey replied that under these conditions, Cavid BeyCavid Bey could not go to Paris again, althcould not go to Paris again, althouougghh he needed to go to he needed to go to France in order to sign and conclude the agreements.France in order to sign and conclude the agreements. Cavid BeyCavid Bey com-com-plains in his diary that it is impossible to be appreciated even after all plains in his diary that it is impossible to be appreciated even after all his hard work.his hard work.886

Talat Bey visited Cavid Bey

Talat Bey visited Cavid Bey and mentioned a possible change in the and mentioned a possible change in the cabinet.cabinet. IIzzzezet Pasha insisted that Cavid Beyt Pasha insisted that Cavid Bey should be the official finance should be the official finance minister. However, Cavid Beyminister. However, Cavid Bey preferred to be the minister of public preferred to be the minister of public works and found it more appropriate to keep Rifat Bey as finance minis-works and found it more appropriate to keep Rifat Bey as finance minis-ter. Talat Bey disregarded Cavid Beyter. Talat Bey disregarded Cavid Bey’s proposal, b’s proposal, beeccaaususe complaints e complaints about the ministry of finance were becoming a target in the news, claim-about the ministry of finance were becoming a target in the news, claim-ing that the ministry was corrupt and its organizational structure weak. ing that the ministry was corrupt and its organizational structure weak. On the same day, September 28, Cavid BeyOn the same day, September 28, Cavid Bey met Michel de Giers, the Rus-met Michel de Giers, the Rus-sian ambassador to Istanbsian ambassador to Istanbuull.. TThey discussed general issues at first. On hey discussed general issues at first. On the railway issue, the Russians’ new formula was to contract out the the railway issue, the Russians’ new formula was to contract out the railway line of Trabzonrailway line of Trabzon--PekeriçPekeriç--SivasSivas--HarputHarput--Diyarbakır. Russia was Diyarbakır. Russia was ready to give up its rights mentioned in the 1900 note in favor of Francready to give up its rights mentioned in the 1900 note in favor of Francee.. OnOn the Armenian Issue, Giers mentioned that the Armenians were in-the Armenian Issue, Giers mentioned that the Armenians were in-sisting on a governor elected by the Great Powers to administer the re-sisting on a governor elected by the Great Powers to administer the re-form process. He warned Cavid Beyform process. He warned Cavid Bey that they were facing revolutionary that they were facing revolutionary

885 Cavid Bey, MeşrutiyetCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IIRuznâmesi II, 16, 1666--6767..

886 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuzRuznâmesi IInâmesi II, 116, 116--17, 125.17, 125.

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fire in Armenia. Cavid Bey

fire in Armenia. Cavid Bey replied that, on the replied that, on the oonnee hhand, accepting a for-and, accepting a for-eign governor elected by the Great Powers would be calamitous for do-eign governor elected by the Great Powers would be calamitous for do-mestic policy. On the other hand, as the Great Powers had shown from mestic policy. On the other hand, as the Great Powers had shown from experience in Eastern Rumelia, Crete, and the Balkans, if Russia would experience in Eastern Rumelia, Crete, and the Balkans, if Russia would intervene in the Armeniintervene in the Armeniaann IsIssue, this would sue, this would serve serve neither neither their own nor their own nor the Armenians’ interests. This situation would result in hostility toward the Armenians’ interests. This situation would result in hostility toward the Empire, which would harm Armenians’ businesses and commercial the Empire, which would harm Armenians’ businesses and commercial activities. In the end, de Giers requested Cavid Beyactivities. In the end, de Giers requested Cavid Bey’s help’s help to solveto solve tthehe Armenian conflict as soon as possible.Armenian conflict as soon as possible.887 This conversation, in turn, This conversation, in turn, shows us how the Armenian problem was intertwined with power poli-shows us how the Armenian problem was intertwined with power poli-tics and financial problems at the international level once again.tics and financial problems at the international level once again.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met the grand vizier and asked hmet the grand vizier and asked him to appim to appooiintnt Cavid BeyCavid Bey as the negotiator in the Russia talks. The next day, Cavid Beyas the negotiator in the Russia talks. The next day, Cavid Bey and M. de and M. de Giers start the negotiations on railways and other economic and fiscal Giers start the negotiations on railways and other economic and fiscal issues. Cavid Beyissues. Cavid Bey accepted that the Ottoman government would estab-accepted that the Ottoman government would estab-lish the railways withlish the railways without usingout using tthehe capital coming from loans. They capital coming from loans. They agreed that the French would construct the Vanagreed that the French would construct the Van--Bitlis line. The Russians Bitlis line. The Russians would establish the lines close to the Iranian border. Russia insisted on would establish the lines close to the Iranian border. Russia insisted on assigning a Russian delegate to the Assembly of the OPDA. They assigning a Russian delegate to the Assembly of the OPDA. They also in-also in-clcluuddeded the issue of customs duties on the agenda.the issue of customs duties on the agenda. There were even There were even more issues in the negotiations, which are noted below. Cavid Beymore issues in the negotiations, which are noted below. Cavid Bey then then met M. Bompard after his visit from M. de Giers. He claimed that the met M. Bompard after his visit from M. de Giers. He claimed that the Russian delegate to the OPDA was France's iRussian delegate to the OPDA was France's idea. Accordea. Accorddinging to Bompard, to Bompard, France wanted to preclude Russian demands over the Empire. Moreo-France wanted to preclude Russian demands over the Empire. Moreo-ver, now it was impossible to refuse France. Cavid Beyver, now it was impossible to refuse France. Cavid Bey understood that understood that it was a sine qua non for France. Cavid Beyit was a sine qua non for France. Cavid Bey states, "You are proposing states, "You are proposing things that we never cothings that we never commit to." mmit to." OOn tn the issue of the Aegean islands, he issue of the Aegean islands, Cavid BeyCavid Bey insisted that they wanted to solve the problem peacefully, but insisted that they wanted to solve the problem peacefully, but if not, he stated that the Empire would struggle for control of them. if not, he stated that the Empire would struggle for control of them.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met the director of the IOB Istanbul branch, Mr. Arthur met the director of the IOB Istanbul branch, Mr. Arthur Nias. He aNias. He asskedked for a 300,000for a 300,000--lira loan from the Ottoman Bank in order lira loan from the Ottoman Bank in order

887 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IIRuznâmesi II, 109, 109--116. 116.

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to demobilize the soldiers of the Balkan Wars. Mr. Nias said that the

to demobilize the soldiers of the Balkan Wars. Mr. Nias said that the bank would respond positively to this move, and therefore, he would bank would respond positively to this move, and therefore, he would recommend this to the bank’s administration.recommend this to the bank’s administration.888 TaTalat Bey colat Bey connsidesidered red aligning with Bulgaria under a trade agreement, which would be nego-aligning with Bulgaria under a trade agreement, which would be nego-tiated by Cavid Beytiated by Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey met Talat Bey and several Bulgarian dip-met Talat Bey and several Bulgarian dip-lomats such as Andrei Tochev, the Bulgarian representative in Istanbul. lomats such as Andrei Tochev, the Bulgarian representative in Istanbul. Cavid BeyCavid Bey wondered how they wondered how they felt consifelt considderinering that five or six months g that five or six months before they were planning to come to Istanbul as victors. Now, they before they were planning to come to Istanbul as victors. Now, they seemed to have forgotten how they had fought against the Ottomans. He seemed to have forgotten how they had fought against the Ottomans. He assessed that this kind of a political cooperation would draw them clos-assessed that this kind of a political cooperation would draw them clos-er to er to the Empirethe Empire’’s grs greatest enemies. eatest enemies.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey began official negotiations with Mr. de Giers in the Rus-began official negotiations with Mr. de Giers in the Rus-sian embassy in Büyükdere, Istanbul, on October 11, 1913. Although sian embassy in Büyükdere, Istanbul, on October 11, 1913. Although they had informally discussed most of these issues, there was a long list they had informally discussed most of these issues, there was a long list of clauses to disof clauses to discuss, fromcuss, from custcustoms duties to stamps, from the official oms duties to stamps, from the official price of French bread (Francalı) to the monopoly over oil and alcohol, as price of French bread (Francalı) to the monopoly over oil and alcohol, as well as appointing a Russian delegate to the Assembly of the OPDA. On well as appointing a Russian delegate to the Assembly of the OPDA. On the issue of the OPDA, Cavid Beythe issue of the OPDA, Cavid Bey argued the following poiargued the following points and madnts and made e anan unexpected offer. If the OPDA would accept a Russian delegate, they unexpected offer. If the OPDA would accept a Russian delegate, they would also have to have Dutch, Belgian, British, or American delegates. would also have to have Dutch, Belgian, British, or American delegates. Therefore, the assembly of the OPDA would be like a small parliament Therefore, the assembly of the OPDA would be like a small parliament that could not solve any issuesthat could not solve any issues. Because t. Because the Ohe Ottoman Empire could not ttoman Empire could not authorize a change in the ‘Muharrem Decree,’ the right to appoint a new authorize a change in the ‘Muharrem Decree,’ the right to appoint a new delegate belonged to syndicates, not the states. Therefore, the Russian delegate belonged to syndicates, not the states. Therefore, the Russian government should apply to the syndicates. If the ‘Muharrem Decree’ government should apply to the syndicates. If the ‘Muharrem Decree’ were were to change, to change, otheother countries would ask for more changes, such as r countries would ask for more changes, such as Germany being president of the OPDA. In the end, Cavid BeyGermany being president of the OPDA. In the end, Cavid Bey offered that offered that if the Russians supported the Ottoman Empire’s finance minister be-if the Russians supported the Ottoman Empire’s finance minister be-coming the president of the OPDA, they could assist thecoming the president of the OPDA, they could assist the Russians iRussians in n ththeir quest to obtain membership of the OPDA in return.eir quest to obtain membership of the OPDA in return.889

888 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi Ruznâmesi IIII, 118, 118--24. 24.

889 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâmuznâmeesi IIsi II,, 131131--37.37.

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In addition to the fiscal issues, de Giers asks for a concession on

In addition to the fiscal issues, de Giers asks for a concession on churches. St. Petersburg wanted the Russian negotiations to extend into churches. St. Petersburg wanted the Russian negotiations to extend into the religious sphere, including discussions onthe religious sphere, including discussions on Assyrian cAssyrian churchurches con-hes con-verted to Orthodoxy and plans to convert Greek churches into Russian verted to Orthodoxy and plans to convert Greek churches into Russian churches. Cavid Beychurches. Cavid Bey refused to hand over the churches, because the refused to hand over the churches, because the Russian and Greek religious institutions were very different from each Russian and Greek religious institutions were very different from each other. other.

Mr. Nias, Director

Mr. Nias, Director of the IOB of the IOB IstaIstanbul branch office, informed Cavid nbul branch office, informed Cavid BeyBey by letter that the IOB could not find any financiers for the Ottoman by letter that the IOB could not find any financiers for the Ottoman loan regarding the soldiers' demobilization due to delays in the armi-loan regarding the soldiers' demobilization due to delays in the armi-stice with Greece. Cavid Beystice with Greece. Cavid Bey was bothered by this news from the was bothered by this news from the bank, bank, especespeciallially since the government had asked for a relatively small amount y since the government had asked for a relatively small amount of money.of money.890 The next day he visited Sir Adam Block, to ask for a loan The next day he visited Sir Adam Block, to ask for a loan from the OPDA. Sir Adam stated that the OPDA could only loan 100,000 from the OPDA. Sir Adam stated that the OPDA could only loan 100,000 liras in return for a loan guarantee. Moliras in return for a loan guarantee. Moreover, thereover, the OPDOPDA would borrow A would borrow the money bit by bit due to the risk of war, which could break out any the money bit by bit due to the risk of war, which could break out any moment. Sir Adam would also like to be sure that the money would be moment. Sir Adam would also like to be sure that the money would be spent on soldiers' demobilization. They hesitated to give money to the spent on soldiers' demobilization. They hesitated to give money to the Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire in case of in case of a waa war with Greece. Moreover, the Ottoman r with Greece. Moreover, the Ottoman economic situation did not seem bright, especially its cash flow. economic situation did not seem bright, especially its cash flow.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey also worried about Enver Bey’s health problems. After be-also worried about Enver Bey’s health problems. After be-coming a colonel on October 15, 1913, he struggled with appendicitis. coming a colonel on October 15, 1913, he struggled with appendicitis. HHe was havine was having a g a hard time, and the doctors were quite anxious. He hard time, and the doctors were quite anxious. He would have successful surgery on December 18, 1913. Cavid Beywould have successful surgery on December 18, 1913. Cavid Bey noted noted that “we were all shaking in the face of a loss that would be worse than that “we were all shaking in the face of a loss that would be worse than any kind.”any kind.”891

On October, 20, 1913, Cavid Bey

On October, 20, 1913, Cavid Bey came tcame to terms wito terms with Ruh Russia on a ssia on a railway agreement. They agreed that there would not be any railway railway agreement. They agreed that there would not be any railway line constructed parallel to the Trabzonline constructed parallel to the Trabzon--Pekeric line in the east, close to Pekeric line in the east, close to the Russian border. However, the issues regarding the Russian delegate the Russian border. However, the issues regarding the Russian delegate

890 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuzRuznâmesinâmesi IIII, 147, 147..

891 CaviCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet d Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IIRuznâmesi II, 148. Aydemir, Ş.S.2003. Makedonya’dan , 148. Aydemir, Ş.S.2003. Makedonya’dan Ortaasya’ya Enver Paşa, 1909Ortaasya’ya Enver Paşa, 1909--11914914, Vol II. I, Vol II. Istanbul: Remstanbul: Remzzi Kitabevi, p: 418i Kitabevi, p: 418--20. 20.

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to the OPDA remai

to the OPDA remained ambiguoned ambiguous. us. The Russians forced the Ottoman The Russians forced the Ottoman government to commit to accepting the Russian delegate.government to commit to accepting the Russian delegate.892

At the end of September 1913, Russia and Germany reached an At the end of September 1913, Russia and Germany reached an agreement on the Armenian Issue. They agreed on the appointment of agreement on the Armenian Issue. They agreed on the appointment of two Inspectors General ftwo Inspectors General for both theor both the MusMuslim and nonlim and non--Muslim communi-Muslim communi-ties, to select and dismiss the high officials, established an elective ties, to select and dismiss the high officials, established an elective council for each community in equal numbers, and supervision by the council for each community in equal numbers, and supervision by the Great Powers, through their ambassadors. Nevertheless, after a short Great Powers, through their ambassadors. Nevertheless, after a short while,while, Talat Bey Talat Bey askeasked Sir Robert Graves and Sir Richard Crawford, who d Sir Robert Graves and Sir Richard Crawford, who were serving as advisers in the Customs and Finance departments, to were serving as advisers in the Customs and Finance departments, to accept the offices of inspectoraccept the offices of inspector--general in the Eastern provinces for five general in the Eastern provinces for five years.years.893 However, once again, the British governmenHowever, once again, the British government did not at did not accecceppt Ta-t Ta-lat Bey’s offer. Cavid Beylat Bey’s offer. Cavid Bey offered to appoint a chief inspector to the re-offered to appoint a chief inspector to the re-gion as the last option left, and as a fait accompli for the British. Though gion as the last option left, and as a fait accompli for the British. Though Talat Bey agreed with him, the main problem was the lack of competent Talat Bey agreed with him, the main problem was the lack of competent officers to appoiofficers to appoint as inspent as inspectoctorrs.s. The disorganization of the bureaucra-The disorganization of the bureaucra-cy, including the ministries and the lack of human capital, was the CUP's cy, including the ministries and the lack of human capital, was the CUP's primary problem as of 1913. I consider that the government policies in primary problem as of 1913. I consider that the government policies in 1912, mainly Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha and Kamil Pasha's pol1912, mainly Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha and Kamil Pasha's policies, had icies, had dedeststroyed the progress royed the progress achieved since the beginning of theachieved since the beginning of the Second Con-Second Con-stitutional Periodstitutional Period. The modernization and capacity building of the state . The modernization and capacity building of the state apparatus that the Unionists aimed to achieve was beyond repair by apparatus that the Unionists aimed to achieve was beyond repair by 1913. According to Cavid Bey1913. According to Cavid Bey's diaries, this was 's diaries, this was to beto become a majocome a majorr prproblem in the years ahead. Cavid Beyoblem in the years ahead. Cavid Bey writes that the state of the bu-writes that the state of the bu-reaucracy was topsyreaucracy was topsy--turvy. The ministry of foreign affairs was also suf-turvy. The ministry of foreign affairs was also suf-fering from disorganization. Most of the state offices were the same. fering from disorganization. Most of the state offices were the same. While the grand vizier insisWhile the grand vizier insisted oted on controllin controllinngg fforeign affairs, Cavid Beyoreign affairs, Cavid Bey suggested that he should find an undersecretary to help organize the suggested that he should find an undersecretary to help organize the ministry. As Cavid Beyministry. As Cavid Bey's closest colleague in the CUP, Talat Bey was pas-'s closest colleague in the CUP, Talat Bey was pas-sionately focused on the islands issue. He insisted that Rhodes, Lesbsionately focused on the islands issue. He insisted that Rhodes, Lesbos, os,

892 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâmesi IIuznâmesi II, 161, 164., 161, 164.

893 Bayur, Bayur, Türk İnTürk İnkîlâkîlâbı bı TarihTarihi, II/IIIi, II/III, p: 149., p: 149.

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and Chios shnd Chios shoouuldld not be given to the Greeks.not be given to the Greeks.894 Talat Bey sought ways to Talat Bey sought ways to strengthen the Ottoman navy. He had meetings with various companies strengthen the Ottoman navy. He had meetings with various companies from different countries. He agreed to order six torpedo boats from a from different countries. He agreed to order six torpedo boats from a company in Livorno, and purchased a Marco dcompany in Livorno, and purchased a Marco dreadnreadnought from ought from tthhe e Ital-Ital-ian government. This deal would make the Ottoman Empire and Greece ian government. This deal would make the Ottoman Empire and Greece equal powers in the Aegean Sea. Moreover, after the arrival of the bat-equal powers in the Aegean Sea. Moreover, after the arrival of the bat-tleships Reşadiye and Osmantleships Reşadiye and Osman--ı Evvel from Britain, the Empire might ı Evvel from Britain, the Empire might dominate Greece in terms of dominate Greece in terms of maritmaritime power. ime power. CCaavivid Beyd Bey evaluated this evaluated this agreement as a threat to the loan agreement: the IOB and OPDA hesitat-agreement as a threat to the loan agreement: the IOB and OPDA hesitat-ed to give small amounts of money to the Ottoman government when ed to give small amounts of money to the Ottoman government when there was the danger of war with Greece. Cavid Beythere was the danger of war with Greece. Cavid Bey requested that Talat requested that Talat Bey keep Bey keep this agreement asthis agreement as a a state secret during the loan negotia-state secret during the loan negotia-tions.tions.895

At the beginning of October 1913, the CUP held its annual Congress

At the beginning of October 1913, the CUP held its annual Congress in Istanbul. Though Tunaya mentions that Cavid Beyin Istanbul. Though Tunaya mentions that Cavid Bey was busy seeking a was busy seeking a loan in Paris, according to his diaries, he was in Istaloan in Paris, according to his diaries, he was in Istanbul those days. nbul those days. TTununaya mentions that there was little news about the Congress in İkdam aya mentions that there was little news about the Congress in İkdam and even in Tanin. The 1913 Congress was an essential congress at the and even in Tanin. The 1913 Congress was an essential congress at the beginning of a massive transformation in politics and society, especially beginning of a massive transformation in politics and society, especially in urban areas.in urban areas.896 The ConThe Congress had a natiogress had a nationnalalist and antiist and anti--imperialist imperialist discourse for the first time and emphasized the significance of Turkism discourse for the first time and emphasized the significance of Turkism and nationalism in various fields such as education and the economy. and nationalism in various fields such as education and the economy. Though Cavid BeyThough Cavid Bey wrote nothing specifically about this, intellectuals wrote nothing specifically about this, intellectuals such as Yusuf Akçsuch as Yusuf Akçuurara were enthusiastic about the paradigm shiftwere enthusiastic about the paradigm shift. Ac-. Ac-cording to cording to Tunaya, the party's antiTunaya, the party's anti--imperialist discourse extended to the imperialist discourse extended to the economic arena. In contrast to this Congress, the negotiation process economic arena. In contrast to this Congress, the negotiation process led by Cavid Beyled by Cavid Bey was an example of pure impewas an example of pure imperialism par excerialism par excellllenence. Itce. It

894 Heller,Heller, British Policy Towards The Ottoman Empire 1908British Policy Towards The Ottoman Empire 1908--19141914, 89, 89--90.90.

895 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznuznâmesi IIâmesi II, 16, 160. 0.

896 TunayaTunaya,, Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler VolTürkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat v3 İttihat ve Tere Teraakki, Bkki, Bir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın,ir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Bir Bir Partinin TarPartinin Tarih, ih, 292. Hak292. Hakan Yavuz “Warfare and Natioan Yavuz “Warfare and Nationnalism,” in alism,” in War & Nationalism The War & Nationalism The Balkan Wars, 1912Balkan Wars, 1912--1913, and Their Sociopolitical Implicati1913, and Their Sociopolitical Implicationonss, , ed. M. Hakaned. M. Hakan Yavuz and Yavuz and IIssa Blumi, (Utah: The University oa Blumi, (Utah: The University of Utah Pressf Utah Press, 201, 20133), 75.), 75.

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is possible to argue that 191

is possible to argue that 19133--19141914 was still a hybrid period coveringwas still a hybrid period covering old and new concepts but forging on to the new. As mentioned in the old and new concepts but forging on to the new. As mentioned in the previous sections, the Empire fundamentally changed after its defeat in previous sections, the Empire fundamentally changed after its defeat in the Balkan Wars. Fthe Balkan Wars. For the first timor the first time,e, tthe idea of the motherland and a na-he idea of the motherland and a na-tional economy had entered the CUP's discourse. In terms of developing tional economy had entered the CUP's discourse. In terms of developing the national economy, the Agricultural Bank (Ziraat Bank) pioneered a the national economy, the Agricultural Bank (Ziraat Bank) pioneered a reform project in agriculture, new credit opportunities for freform project in agriculture, new credit opportunities for farmers, and armers, and the the esestatablishment of credit financing. Improvements to the industry blishment of credit financing. Improvements to the industry were also on the list. Implementing the Industrial Promotional Law was were also on the list. Implementing the Industrial Promotional Law was one of the main aims of the CUP. The Unionists also aimed to increase one of the main aims of the CUP. The Unionists also aimed to increase the number of local economic organithe number of local economic organizations for diffzations for differerenent occupations. t occupations. Moreover, the CUP had let the members of these organizations become Moreover, the CUP had let the members of these organizations become members of the party. This decision enabled the CUP to act as a bridge members of the party. This decision enabled the CUP to act as a bridge between the economic actors and the state. This attempt was something between the economic actors and the state. This attempt was something new in the Onew in the Ottoman Empire: tttoman Empire: thehe sstate was now open to tate was now open to most ofmost of its peo-its peo-ple via the CUP. Membership of a local economic organization meant ple via the CUP. Membership of a local economic organization meant having a stake in the Ottoman economy. This would accelerate social having a stake in the Ottoman economy. This would accelerate social mobilization throughout the Empire, especially in the Great War, mobilization throughout the Empire, especially in the Great War, witwith h mamany longny long--lastilasting effects.ng effects.

In sum, we may argue that by 1913 a new era had begun for the CUP

In sum, we may argue that by 1913 a new era had begun for the CUP and the whole country. This era had itsand the whole country. This era had its ownown policies, discourses, meth-policies, discourses, meth-ods, and meansods, and means conducted conducted mmostly ostly by the by the decisiondecision--mamaking teking team of the am of the CUPCUP..897 I argue that “sI argue that “saving the empire” haaving the empire” had a different meaning in 1913 d a different meaning in 1913 than in 19than in 1908.08. BBy 1913, “saving the empire” could be likened to “saving y 1913, “saving the empire” could be likened to “saving the state,” which has a more unified identity in nationality and culture. the state,” which has a more unified identity in nationality and culture. While 1908While 1908––1913 was a much more liberal, inclusive period in 1913 was a much more liberal, inclusive period in which which the legislaturthe legislature had relative freedom and superiority, e had relative freedom and superiority, thethe 11913913––1918 1918 singlesingle--party era featured less opposition but a weak parliament. The party era featured less opposition but a weak parliament. The

897 The methods had chThe methods had changed in both theanged in both the civcivil and mil and military fields. As mentioneilitary fields. As mentionedd above, above, local organizations were boosted to trigger social mobilization. On the military filocal organizations were boosted to trigger social mobilization. On the military fieleld, d, the Special the Special OrganizationOrganization ((TeşkilatTeşkilat--ı Mahsusaı Mahsusa) of Enver Pa) of Enver Pasha looked msha looked much much moore likre like a e a secret service of secret service of a modern state, wa modern state, which was unihich was unique in terms of its existenque in terms of its existencce and mete and meth-h-ods, compared to other empires. ods, compared to other empires.

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economic policies would be more protectionist and inward

economic policies would be more protectionist and inward--oriented. oriented. The idea of creating an Ottoman bourgeoisie waThe idea of creating an Ottoman bourgeoisie was transformed into ts transformed into that hat of creating a Muslim bourgeoisie, anof creating a Muslim bourgeoisie, and nd nowow, the CUP had even more , the CUP had even more power to achieve this. Though this was something counter to Cavid power to achieve this. Though this was something counter to Cavid BeyBey’s principles, he preferred to be a Unionist and keep quiet about his ’s principles, he preferred to be a Unionist and keep quiet about his liberal tendencies. Nevertheliberal tendencies. Nevertheless, of course, theless, of course, these were times of war.se were times of war.

At the end of Octo

At the end of Octoberber 11913, Cavid Bey913, Cavid Bey was preparing to go to Berlin was preparing to go to Berlin for the Francofor the Franco--German talks. Before his departure, he met German am-German talks. Before his departure, he met German am-bassador Baron von Wangenheim, and they begin to talk about the key bassador Baron von Wangenheim, and they begin to talk about the key issues of tissues of the negotiations. Thehe negotiations. These included opening German schools in se included opening German schools in ththe Oe Ottttoman Empire; Germany’s request for a second delegate on the oman Empire; Germany’s request for a second delegate on the OPDA if Russia was going to insist on the delegate issue; and foreign in-OPDA if Russia was going to insist on the delegate issue; and foreign in-spectorspector--generals, regarding the Armenian issue. Cavid Beygenerals, regarding the Armenian issue. Cavid Bey ttold old Wangenheim that Wangenheim that the Ottoman government was not willing tthe Ottoman government was not willing to ao assssign a ign a foreign inspector to the region. The Ottoman government would choose foreign inspector to the region. The Ottoman government would choose its own delegates. Cavid Beyits own delegates. Cavid Bey proclaimed, “we will announce the situa-proclaimed, “we will announce the situa-tion to the public opinion of the civilized worltion to the public opinion of the civilized world and appoint our cid and appoint our civil vil servants by ourselves. Nevertheless,servants by ourselves. Nevertheless, wewe wwill not allow even the smallest ill not allow even the smallest form of European control. Europe cannot make us a toy and does not form of European control. Europe cannot make us a toy and does not have any means for that.” Wangenheim responded that the rise in cus-have any means for that.” Wangenheim responded that the rise in cus-toms duty would be relatetoms duty would be related to this issue. Cavd to this issue. Cavid Beyid Bey replied, “We have replied, “We have received guaranreceived guaranteetees s on the 4% increase of customs duties from each on the 4% increase of customs duties from each state at a prohibitive cost. However, the Great Powers could not give it state at a prohibitive cost. However, the Great Powers could not give it up.” According to Cavid Beyup.” According to Cavid Bey, Wangenheim was not well, Wangenheim was not well--informed about informed about thethe Armenian issue. He Armenian issue. He had based his argument on the Berlin Trehad based his argument on the Berlin Treatyaty, , which allowed for control over the region.which allowed for control over the region.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey participated in the negotiations with Admiral Yet and Mr. participated in the negotiations with Admiral Yet and Mr. Vincent Caillard, who had been sent on behalf of the British firms Arm-Vincent Caillard, who had been sent on behalf of the British firms Arm-strong andstrong and Vickers to establisVickers to establish a shipyard in Izmit. Cavid Beyh a shipyard in Izmit. Cavid Bey carriedcarried ouout t the negotiations, but he was critical of the British company's condi-the negotiations, but he was critical of the British company's condi-tions. Cavid Beytions. Cavid Bey thought that the conditions outlined in the contract thought that the conditions outlined in the contract were too severe, such as the company's monopoly of thwere too severe, such as the company's monopoly of the shipyard for 30 e shipyard for 30 yeyears. As the negotiations proceeded, he fars. As the negotiations proceeded, he founound d this length of time too this length of time too

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long and disproportionate to the company's services. He told them this

long and disproportionate to the company's services. He told them this frankly.frankly.898

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey made an exciting offer to Said Halim Pasha. Cavid Beymade an exciting offer to Said Halim Pasha. Cavid Bey asked to be assigned aasked to be assigned as the ambassador to s the ambassador to Paris, where all the primary Paris, where all the primary financial tfinancial tranransasactions were made. Rifat Pasha could move to London. He ctions were made. Rifat Pasha could move to London. He argued that this was a good idea, since France was the most critical of argued that this was a good idea, since France was the most critical of the Ottoman Empire's economic partners. He noted that Said Halimthe Ottoman Empire's economic partners. He noted that Said Halim Pa-Pa-sha agreed on thisha agreed on this matter. Said Halim Pasha mentioned a ps matter. Said Halim Pasha mentioned a privrivatate re-e re-quest from the Russian ambassador concerning the Armenian issue. Ac-quest from the Russian ambassador concerning the Armenian issue. Ac-cording to the Russians' request, the Ottoman government would ask cording to the Russians' request, the Ottoman government would ask the Great Powers to assign two General Inspectors to the Great Powers to assign two General Inspectors to the region. These the region. These ininspectors would be assigned for five yearspectors would be assigned for five years, s, anand after the expiration d after the expiration date, their tenure would be extended. The inspectors would offer the date, their tenure would be extended. The inspectors would offer the government the judges and officers they wanted to be assigned. They government the judges and officers they wanted to be assigned. They would also have the authorizatiwould also have the authorization to dismiss officeon to dismiss officers. The general local rs. The general local assemblies should assemblies should be be didivided fiftyvided fifty--fifty between Muslim and nonfifty between Muslim and non--Muslims. According to Cavid BeyMuslims. According to Cavid Bey, the Grand Vizier’s response to the , the Grand Vizier’s response to the Russians was wellRussians was well--prepared: "though we would like to benefit from the prepared: "though we would like to benefit from the assistance oassistance of Europe, we would if Europe, we would in no sense and under no circumstanc-n no sense and under no circumstanc-es, les, let et itit infringe the independence of our country and let it sustain a infringe the independence of our country and let it sustain a loss of sovereignty." The main negotiations and discussions between the loss of sovereignty." The main negotiations and discussions between the Ottoman government and the Great Powers would be carriedOttoman government and the Great Powers would be carried out con-out con-cerning the cerning the articles and conditions above. articles and conditions above.

Cavid BCavid Beyey sesent a memorandum to Talat Bey concerning the de-nt a memorandum to Talat Bey concerning the de-mands from the government to conduct negotiations on the following mands from the government to conduct negotiations on the following issues: Authorization for negotiations with Germany considering works issues: Authorization for negotiations with Germany considering works and loaand loans; announcement of ns; announcement of the decision considering the signing of the decision considering the signing of agagrereements with the French; return of the verified version of the ements with the French; return of the verified version of the agreement from the Ministry of Public Works; an authorization for the agreement from the Ministry of Public Works; an authorization for the contracts of the French specialists; sending Muhtar Bey, thcontracts of the French specialists; sending Muhtar Bey, the general e general

898 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II,Ruznâmesi II, 169169--881. 1.

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manager of

manager of the railways, with Cavid Beythe railways, with Cavid Bey to Berlin;to Berlin; asassisigning a secretary gning a secretary to Cavid Beyto Cavid Bey and Muhtar Bey; the issue of travel expenses.and Muhtar Bey; the issue of travel expenses.

The Ottoman government authorized Cavid Bey

The Ottoman government authorized Cavid Bey to both conduct ne-to both conduct ne-gotiations and sign the agreements. Though the cabingotiations and sign the agreements. Though the cabinet would approve et would approve thethe final agreements, he had the authority final agreements, he had the authority to to gogo back and forth and back and forth and move freely without debating every issue with Istanbul. Nevertheless, move freely without debating every issue with Istanbul. Nevertheless, the cabinet disapproved of the travel budget he had prepared for his the cabinet disapproved of the travel budget he had prepared for his long trip. The cabinet’s objectilong trip. The cabinet’s objection hurt Cavid Beyon hurt Cavid Bey. H. He noted in his diary e noted in his diary that this was the fthat this was the firsirst t time in his life that he was talking about his per-time in his life that he was talking about his per-sonal financial issues: "I had told Talat that because I will have to visit sonal financial issues: "I had told Talat that because I will have to visit many cities and have to make more expenses for private loans, I amany cities and have to make more expenses for private loans, I asked sked for much more ffor much more for travel expenses and daily wages, whicor travel expenses and daily wages, which sh shohould be at uld be at the same level with Hakkı Pasha." He also talked to the grand vizier the same level with Hakkı Pasha." He also talked to the grand vizier about this issue. Talat said that rather than increasing his travel expens-about this issue. Talat said that rather than increasing his travel expens-es and daily wages, they would decreases and daily wages, they would decrease Hakkı Pasha's expee Hakkı Pasha's expenses. Cavid nses. Cavid BeyBey did not believe him and did not believe him and thothougught that his colleagues had found his ht that his colleagues had found his demands too high and, therefore, rejected them, and Talat Bey was hid-demands too high and, therefore, rejected them, and Talat Bey was hid-ing this situation. Cavid Beying this situation. Cavid Bey complained that the members of the cabi-complained that the members of the cabi-net thought that he was jealous of Hakkı Pasha. Cavid Beynet thought that he was jealous of Hakkı Pasha. Cavid Bey complains complains about the sitabout the situation in his diary: "They assign the most significant loan uation in his diary: "They assign the most significant loan agreement to me, exceeding 30 million Ottoman agreement to me, exceeding 30 million Ottoman lliras. Unlike me, who iras. Unlike me, who does not have a moral compass, a man could find a way to earn thou-does not have a moral compass, a man could find a way to earn thou-sands of liras very easily. They know that I would not do suchsands of liras very easily. They know that I would not do such a thinga thing…… my debt consisted of 150 liras, which got even bigger during this period. my debt consisted of 150 liras, which got even bigger during this period. However, it is not worth pondering this. I am angry at my friends' ap-However, it is not worth pondering this. I am angry at my friends' ap-proach to meproach to me." In the end, Talat Bey succeeded in providing Cavid Bey." In the end, Talat Bey succeeded in providing Cavid Bey with what he aswith what he askked of him and offed of him and officially approved his travel expenses icially approved his travel expenses and daily wages.and daily wages.899

On October 27, 1913, the government announced that Cavid Bey

On October 27, 1913, the government announced that Cavid Bey was was assigned to negotiations in Berlin. Before leaving for Berlin on October assigned to negotiations in Berlin. Before leaving for Berlin on October 29, 1913, Cavid Bey29, 1913, Cavid Bey dealt with many issues. Adealt with many issues. Ass he noted in his he noted in his diary, diary,

899 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, II,Ruznâme, II, 173173--83.83.

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though he hoped to rest a little bit in Istanbul after the busy and stress-

though he hoped to rest a little bit in Istanbul after the busy and stress-ful days in Paris, he was more tired in Istanbul and did not have time for ful days in Paris, he was more tired in Istanbul and did not have time for himself. In the last days in Istanbul, he met German ambassador himself. In the last days in Istanbul, he met German ambassador Wangenheim. They dWangenheim. They diiscussed the Armenscussed the Armenian issue, which would un-ian issue, which would un-doubtedly be one of the most vital political issues accompanying the doubtedly be one of the most vital political issues accompanying the loan agreement in Berlin. Wangenheim stated that the Russians were loan agreement in Berlin. Wangenheim stated that the Russians were committed to formally protecting the Armenians after the Adana Inci-committed to formally protecting the Armenians after the Adana Inci-dent. dent.

Cav

Caviid Beyd Bey also met thalso met the French ambassador, M. Bompard. The main e French ambassador, M. Bompard. The main issue with the French was the detention issue related to the judiciary. At issue with the French was the detention issue related to the judiciary. At last, the Ottoman government and France agreed on whether or not last, the Ottoman government and France agreed on whether or not there would be room for French citizens in Ottoman jailsthere would be room for French citizens in Ottoman jails.. Cavid BeyCavid Bey also also ccomplained about the Great Powers’ positions on the Armenian Ques-omplained about the Great Powers’ positions on the Armenian Ques-tion to M. Bompard. Though insisting on reform, Britain had not provid-tion to M. Bompard. Though insisting on reform, Britain had not provid-ed any officers to the Ottoman Empire as it had promised. Russia was ed any officers to the Ottoman Empire as it had promised. Russia was also insisting on reforms in the realso insisting on reforms in the reggion, though it waion, though it was financially sup-s financially sup-porting the Kurds and Armenians to lead an insurrection. Cavid Beyporting the Kurds and Armenians to lead an insurrection. Cavid Bey admitted that the Ottoman governments had mishandled this issue, but admitted that the Ottoman governments had mishandled this issue, but he accused Europe of not behaving sincerely towards the Empire. he accused Europe of not behaving sincerely towards the Empire. Bompard replied, “I sBompard replied, “I seee that you are sue that you are suffering, my dear (azizim).” How-ffering, my dear (azizim).” How-ever, Cavid Beyever, Cavid Bey informed Talat Bey about his conversation with M. informed Talat Bey about his conversation with M. Bompard and warned him to assign inspector generals before it was too Bompard and warned him to assign inspector generals before it was too late. late.

Until his last day in Istanbul, he continued the negotiations wi

Until his last day in Istanbul, he continued the negotiations witth Mr. h Mr. Caillard onCaillard on the Izmit shipyard issue. Cavid Beythe Izmit shipyard issue. Cavid Bey's main concern was to 's main concern was to change the article related to the duration of privilege, which was 30 change the article related to the duration of privilege, which was 30 years. Caillard was worried about Cavid Beyyears. Caillard was worried about Cavid Bey leaving Istanbul, because, leaving Istanbul, because, as he said, there was no one else withas he said, there was no one else with whom he could diswhom he could discuss this issue. cuss this issue. Cavid BeyCavid Bey asked Mr. Crawford, the British undersecretary in the Minis-asked Mr. Crawford, the British undersecretary in the Minis-try of Finance, to deal with this issue, but Crawford refused because he try of Finance, to deal with this issue, but Crawford refused because he did not support the agreement due to its oppressive monopoly condi-did not support the agreement due to its oppressive monopoly condi-

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tion.

tion.900 Cavid Cavid BBeyey appreciated Crappreciated Crawford's sincerity and his straightfor-awford's sincerity and his straightfor-ward language and approach. Interestingly, the Germans were also ward language and approach. Interestingly, the Germans were also aware of this agreement. aware of this agreement.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met Said Halim Pasha, Talat Bey, and Mahmud Muhtar Pa-met Said Halim Pasha, Talat Bey, and Mahmud Muhtar Pa-sha to discuss the navy issue. Wangenheim sentsha to discuss the navy issue. Wangenheim sent a private letter a private letter to the to the Grand Vizier about the Izmit project. If the Ottoman government grant-Grand Vizier about the Izmit project. If the Ottoman government grant-ed Britain a 30ed Britain a 30--year concession for building the ships of the Ottoman year concession for building the ships of the Ottoman navy, this would be putting the navy under the influence of Britain for navy, this would be putting the navy under the influence of Britain for such a long period. such a long period. CCavid Beyavid Bey offered offered to guarantee contracts to Britain to guarantee contracts to Britain for a certain number of ships. Nevertheless, for the rest of the orders, for a certain number of ships. Nevertheless, for the rest of the orders, the Ottoman government would be free to apply to other countries. This the Ottoman government would be free to apply to other countries. This offer was accepted by the Grand Vizier, Talat Bey, and Mahmuoffer was accepted by the Grand Vizier, Talat Bey, and Mahmudd Pasha. Pasha.

Cavid B

Cavid Beyey, in line with his traditions, met the ambassadors of the , in line with his traditions, met the ambassadors of the Great Powers one by one. When he met Mr. Giers, he told him that the Great Powers one by one. When he met Mr. Giers, he told him that the Paris Commission might be delayed and, in return, Cavid BeyParis Commission might be delayed and, in return, Cavid Bey stated that stated that he could deal with the share of the dhe could deal with the share of the deebt that the Balkabt that the Balkan states should n states should pay before the opening of the Commission. Cavid Beypay before the opening of the Commission. Cavid Bey took the train to took the train to Berlin on the evening of October 29, 1913. He stopped in Sofia where Berlin on the evening of October 29, 1913. He stopped in Sofia where the undersecretary at the the undersecretary at the MinsterMinster of Foreign Affairs of Bulgaria came to of Foreign Affairs of Bulgaria came to greet Cavigreet Cavidd BeyBey at the Sofiaat the Sofia train station. By train station. By coincidencecoincidence, Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey bumped intobumped into the Prime Minister of Bulgaria, Mr. Radoslavof, at the sta-the Prime Minister of Bulgaria, Mr. Radoslavof, at the sta-tion. In his diary, he criticizes the prime minister’s French and adds that tion. In his diary, he criticizes the prime minister’s French and adds that his face lacked any sign of intellihis face lacked any sign of intelligence.gence.901 CertCertainly, Cavid Beyainly, Cavid Bey had had a a harsh way of criticizing people, especially for their level of intelligence harsh way of criticizing people, especially for their level of intelligence and for their French language skills.and for their French language skills.

4.3.8 In Berlin: Financial Independence vs Armenian ReformIn Berlin: Financial Independence vs Armenian Reform

As mentioned above, Cavid Bey

As mentioned above, Cavid Bey left for Berlin on theleft for Berlin on the evening of Oevening of October ctober 29, 1913. He s29, 1913. He stopped in Vienna first to meet Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha and topped in Vienna first to meet Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha and

900 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II,Ruznâmesi II, 182182--992.2.

901 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 193.193.

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Salem Efendi. Salem Efendi told him that there was still an option of the

Salem Efendi. Salem Efendi told him that there was still an option of the Empire receiving an international loan from Paris. Cavid BeyEmpire receiving an international loan from Paris. Cavid Bey was sur-was sur-prised and asked himself prised and asked himself how the Frenchow the French could consider apprh could consider approving of oving of such a large loan after all these compromises they had made. The Otto-such a large loan after all these compromises they had made. The Otto-man government preferred to obtain loans from the French markets in-man government preferred to obtain loans from the French markets in-stead of the international markets. Cavid Beystead of the international markets. Cavid Bey arrived in Berlin in No-arrived in Berlin in No-vember 1vember 1913. Mahmud M913. Mahmud Muhtar Pasha, son of Guhtar Pasha, son of Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha, azi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha, former Grand Vizier in 1912 and Ottoman ambassador to Berlin, gave former Grand Vizier in 1912 and Ottoman ambassador to Berlin, gave Cavid BeyCavid Bey a warm welcome. Cavid Beya warm welcome. Cavid Bey was anxious to meet him, be-was anxious to meet him, be-cause they had belonged to opposite blocs in domestic affairs since cause they had belonged to opposite blocs in domestic affairs since 1912. In his 1912. In his diary, Cavid Beydiary, Cavid Bey writwrites that journalists and photographers es that journalists and photographers surrounded him in Berlin. Both the Germans and the French were pay-surrounded him in Berlin. Both the Germans and the French were pay-ing attention to the negotiations in Berlin. He notes that up to eight or ing attention to the negotiations in Berlin. He notes that up to eight or ten photographers were waiting for him in frten photographers were waiting for him in front of the buont of the building. They ilding. They followedfollowed Cavid BeyCavid Bey, though he tried to escape from them, and according , though he tried to escape from them, and according to him, they to him, they —— not him not him —— were worth taking photographs of. He also were worth taking photographs of. He also appreciated the German photographers’’ seriousness, because neither appreciated the German photographers’’ seriousness, because neither the Turks nor the Frenchthe Turks nor the French could resistcould resist laughing at this sitlaughing at this situation.uation.902

The next day he met Mr. Gwinner and Mr. Helfferich to discuss gen-

The next day he met Mr. Gwinner and Mr. Helfferich to discuss gen-eral issues such as the Russian delegate to the Ottoman PDA, Britain's eral issues such as the Russian delegate to the Ottoman PDA, Britain's contract, loans, et cetera. Mr. Helfferich informed Cavid Beycontract, loans, et cetera. Mr. Helfferich informed Cavid Bey that he that he would cwould carry out the arry out the negotiations with Mr.negotiations with Mr. Zimmerman, the Ministry of Zimmerman, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs undersecretary in Berlin. Thereupon, Cavid BeyForeign Affairs undersecretary in Berlin. Thereupon, Cavid Bey met Mr. met Mr. Zimmerman without delay. They mainly discussed the Aegean Islands Zimmerman without delay. They mainly discussed the Aegean Islands and Armenian issues. Cavid Beyand Armenian issues. Cavid Bey asked whether there was anasked whether there was an option of option of bibilateral reconciliatiolateral reconciliation with Greece. Zimmerman's response was nega-n with Greece. Zimmerman's response was nega-tive, and that the issue had to be resolved by the Great Powers. During tive, and that the issue had to be resolved by the Great Powers. During his first visit to Zimmerman, Cavid Beyhis first visit to Zimmerman, Cavid Bey raised the following key points: raised the following key points: the lack of peace and security emthe lack of peace and security emerging from Rerging from Russia’s policies in sussia’s policies in sup-up-porting both the Kurds and Armenians in the region; Russia’s objections porting both the Kurds and Armenians in the region; Russia’s objections to the railways, mainly the Baghdad Railway, passing through the East-to the railways, mainly the Baghdad Railway, passing through the East-

902 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmeRuznâmesi II, si II, 191191--92 92

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ern provinces; the threat of execution of the Ottoman leaders if there

ern provinces; the threat of execution of the Ottoman leaders if there were a mwere a massacre in thassacre in the region; Russia share region; Russia sharing the bulk of the responsi-ing the bulk of the responsi-bility in any incident. According to Cavid Beybility in any incident. According to Cavid Bey, the Sublime Porte showed , the Sublime Porte showed its goodwill by asking Sir Edward Grey for British inspectors in the re-its goodwill by asking Sir Edward Grey for British inspectors in the re-gion, but he refused after accepting the offer, dugion, but he refused after accepting the offer, due to Russia’se to Russia’s concerns. concerns. Regarding Regarding the decision to assign European inspectors from small states, the decision to assign European inspectors from small states, Cavid BeyCavid Bey stated that he saw no benefit in hiring such men who had no stated that he saw no benefit in hiring such men who had no influence even in Europe. He added that the Empire had asked for in-influence even in Europe. He added that the Empire had asked for in-spectors from Britain bspectors from Britain because they wecause they wanted Europe to underanted Europe to understand what stand what was going on. According to the Ottoman government plan, they assigned was going on. According to the Ottoman government plan, they assigned officers to the region, and they would never accept European control officers to the region, and they would never accept European control and intervention in the region. Zimmerman asserted that Russia was and intervention in the region. Zimmerman asserted that Russia was involinvolved with the ved with the Armenian Question becArmenian Question because the Armenian had asked ause the Armenian had asked directly for their assistance on this issue. Cavid Beydirectly for their assistance on this issue. Cavid Bey responded that alt-responded that alt-hough maybe a few Armenians might have initiated the Russian inter-hough maybe a few Armenians might have initiated the Russian inter-ference, generally the Armenians were unaware of their ference, generally the Armenians were unaware of their autonomy. He autonomy. He asserted that if the asserted that if the Ottoman government resolved the disputes over Ottoman government resolved the disputes over land, security, and justice, the Armenian Question would be solved.land, security, and justice, the Armenian Question would be solved.903 Though Arthur Zimmerman seemingly agreed with Cavid BeyThough Arthur Zimmerman seemingly agreed with Cavid Bey, he added , he added that the Germans should be involved in ththat the Germans should be involved in the Armenian Que Armenian Question, because estion, because RussiRussia would never want to return with empty hands, and for this rea-a would never want to return with empty hands, and for this rea-son, their excessive demands should be limited by the Germans. Finally, son, their excessive demands should be limited by the Germans. Finally, Cavid BeyCavid Bey thanked him and stated that they would not make any con-thanked him and stated that they would not make any con-cessions in return forcessions in return for all these efall these efforts. forts.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey rereceived two telegrams from Talat Bey, the first telling of ceived two telegrams from Talat Bey, the first telling of the Empire’s need for money from the Ottoman PDA, because they had the Empire’s need for money from the Ottoman PDA, because they had no money to pay the salaries before the Bayram holiday. In his second no money to pay the salaries before the Bayram holiday. In his second telegram, he informed Cavidtelegram, he informed Cavid BeyBey that thethat the government had decidgovernment had decided to ed to purchase a dreadnought that was previously ordered by Brazil from the purchase a dreadnought that was previously ordered by Brazil from the British company Armstrong. He also informed Cavid BeyBritish company Armstrong. He also informed Cavid Bey that they were that they were planning to buy an Italian dreadnought called the Saint Marco and six planning to buy an Italian dreadnought called the Saint Marco and six

903 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IRuznâmesi II,I, 19199.9.

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more to

more torpedoes for trpedoes for two million liras. Whiwo million liras. While the treasury was empty, le the treasury was empty, they would raise the money through property taxes, which would they would raise the money through property taxes, which would amount to around five million liras. Talat Bey asked Cavid Beyamount to around five million liras. Talat Bey asked Cavid Bey to do his to do his best to realize this plan. Cavid Beybest to realize this plan. Cavid Bey noted that it was bothnoted that it was both an impossiblan impossible e and irrational planand irrational plan to purchase every dreadnought before Greece could. to purchase every dreadnought before Greece could. With every purchase, the Empire would stand to lose a war against With every purchase, the Empire would stand to lose a war against Greece. He was against entering such an arms race with Greece.Greece. He was against entering such an arms race with Greece.904 Moreover, the loans and dreadnoughts werMoreover, the loans and dreadnoughts were connected. e connected. Cavid BeyCavid Bey was was anxiousanxious that the new orders would endanger the loan process if the that the new orders would endanger the loan process if the French heard about them. He did not want to face an incident like that French heard about them. He did not want to face an incident like that of 1910. That is why he cautioned the Sublime Porte, especially Talat of 1910. That is why he cautioned the Sublime Porte, especially Talat Bey, to keep these neBey, to keep these negotiations cogotiations confidential and announnfidential and announce them only ce them only after receiving a loan.after receiving a loan.905

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey had his first meeting at Deutsche Bank with Gwinner, had his first meeting at Deutsche Bank with Gwinner, Helfferich, and Huguenin. In November 1913, the main issues relating to Helfferich, and Huguenin. In November 1913, the main issues relating to OttomanOttoman--German relations were as follows: German relations were as follows:

▪ The inThe interest rate oterest rate on the Baghdad Railwayn the Baghdad Railway should be 5% and the should be 5% and the company’s profit margin should be 15%, the same as in the company’s profit margin should be 15%, the same as in the agreement with France. agreement with France.

▪ The negotiations between the French and German governments The negotiations between the French and German governments on the Halepon the Halep--Maskanah Railway line Maskanah Railway line

▪ The rapid construction The rapid construction of the Hanikiof the Hanikin and Baghdad Railwayn and Baghdad Railway lines lines

▪ The DiyarbakThe Diyarbakıır line and Ankara, Kayseri, and Sivas lines, which r line and Ankara, Kayseri, and Sivas lines, which were very significant in military terms were very significant in military terms

▪ The Bolu railway lineThe Bolu railway line

▪ The BaghdadThe Baghdad--Basra railway line Basra railway line

▪ The docksThe docks

▪ The contents of the concessions for the ports according to the The contents of the concessions for the ports according to the French and GermaFrench and Germany request for the rny request for the rights to the ports from ights to the ports from Silifke to Lazkiye.Silifke to Lazkiye.

904 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II,Ruznâmesi II, 201.201.

905 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 226.226.

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▪ Germany’s commitment to building the Mersin docks under the Germany’s commitment to building the Mersin docks under the same terms and conditions as the French.same terms and conditions as the French.

After three hours of negotiations, Cavid Bey

After three hours of negotiations, Cavid Bey writes that "according to writes that "according to my experience, thesemy experience, these negotiations will nnegotiations will not be easy and quick."ot be easy and quick."906 The The OttomanOttoman--German negotiations would be coordinated with Istanbul, Par-German negotiations would be coordinated with Istanbul, Par-is, and London. In terms of the issues, the German negotiations were not is, and London. In terms of the issues, the German negotiations were not carried out on their own; the Ottomancarried out on their own; the Ottoman--French contract, FrenchFrench contract, French--GermanGerman contract, Britishcontract, British--GGerman contract, the peace negotiations between Tur-erman contract, the peace negotiations between Tur-key and Greece, and Armenian Reform were all hanging on these nego-key and Greece, and Armenian Reform were all hanging on these nego-tiations. Therefore, Cavid Beytiations. Therefore, Cavid Bey spent some part of his time correspond-spent some part of his time correspond-ing with various people on different issues. In thiing with various people on different issues. In this context, the Frencs context, the French h tried to postpone the loan until after the peace agreement between Tur-tried to postpone the loan until after the peace agreement between Tur-key and Greece and the Financial Conference in Paris. The French news-key and Greece and the Financial Conference in Paris. The French news-papers such as Echopapers such as Echo de Parisde Paris, , Le MatinLe Matin, and , and Le JournalLe Journal, published "semi, published "semi--official" news on the pofficial" news on the postponement of the lostponement of the loan. Count Vitali, who dealt oan. Count Vitali, who dealt with the railway business on behalf of the French government, stated with the railway business on behalf of the French government, stated that the French markets changed dramatically after Cavid Beythat the French markets changed dramatically after Cavid Bey's left Par-'s left Par-is. It seems that if Cavid Beyis. It seems that if Cavid Bey was in Germany, the French were anxiwas in Germany, the French were anxious, ous, and vice versa.and vice versa. As mentioned above, the FrenchAs mentioned above, the French--Ottoman agreement Ottoman agreement was related to Germany's demands from the Ottoman Empire. To cite was related to Germany's demands from the Ottoman Empire. To cite the most significant issue, the Baghdad Railway, during the negotiations the most significant issue, the Baghdad Railway, during the negotiations Mr. Gwinner was anxious that the French had gaiMr. Gwinner was anxious that the French had gained many more ad-ned many more ad-vantvantages over the Anatolian and Syrian railways. The Germans estimat-ages over the Anatolian and Syrian railways. The Germans estimat-ed that the French had received undue advantages. They aimed to con-ed that the French had received undue advantages. They aimed to con-vince the parliament to allow them to build a railway to Basra at a vince the parliament to allow them to build a railway to Basra at a reasonable price. Though Cavid Beyreasonable price. Though Cavid Bey trtried to explain why tied to explain why the Ottoman he Ottoman government had to make additional promises to France, the Germans government had to make additional promises to France, the Germans wanted to receive the same advantages. According to Cavid Beywanted to receive the same advantages. According to Cavid Bey, the , the Germans' main goal was to obtain a concession for the railways in Germans' main goal was to obtain a concession for the railways in BaghdadBaghdad--Syar and Syria: inSyar and Syria: in other words, concesother words, concessions for a second Bagh-sions for a second Bagh-dad Railway. They tried to hinder the French from obtaining the conces-dad Railway. They tried to hinder the French from obtaining the conces-

906 Cavid Bey, MeşrutiCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet yet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 196196--204.204.

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sion during the time of the Ottoman government's difficult financial sit-

sion during the time of the Ottoman government's difficult financial sit-uation.uation.907

During Cavid Bey

During Cavid Bey’s stay in Berlin, there was a paradigm shift ’s stay in Berlin, there was a paradigm shift after after the arrival the arrival oof the French negotiators, M. Cambon and M. Klapka, in Ber-f the French negotiators, M. Cambon and M. Klapka, in Ber-lin. This incident increased the tension in Berlin because, as Mr. Hu-lin. This incident increased the tension in Berlin because, as Mr. Hu-guenin told Cavid Beyguenin told Cavid Bey, Deutsche Bank was very skeptical of Cavid Bey, Deutsche Bank was very skeptical of Cavid Bey. . They believed that Cavid BeyThey believed that Cavid Bey had already had already agreed on the termagreed on the termss with the with the French and that he aimed to object to the German demands and cheat French and that he aimed to object to the German demands and cheat them. Thus, Cavid Beythem. Thus, Cavid Bey followed a very open policy in the negotiations, followed a very open policy in the negotiations, such as reading some parts of the correspondence between him and such as reading some parts of the correspondence between him and Hakkı Pasha. NeverthelesHakkı Pasha. Nevertheless, that behavior ds, that behavior diid not ease Germany's skep-d not ease Germany's skep-ticism. Huguenin told Zimmerman that if Cavid Beyticism. Huguenin told Zimmerman that if Cavid Bey had an uncompro-had an uncompro-mising attitude, he would go so far as to abruptly cut off the negotia-mising attitude, he would go so far as to abruptly cut off the negotia-tions.tions.908

The Germans' concerns continued to increase day by day due to var-

The Germans' concerns continued to increase day by day due to var-iousious reasons such as treasons such as thhe purchases of Standard Oil, the American oil e purchases of Standard Oil, the American oil company that bought land as extensive as 15,000 m2 around Iskende-company that bought land as extensive as 15,000 m2 around Iskende-run Port, to build oil storehouses. The Germans asked Cavid Beyrun Port, to build oil storehouses. The Germans asked Cavid Bey to in-to in-tervene for the sake of the Ottoman government. They recotervene for the sake of the Ottoman government. They recommended mmended nationaliznationaliziing the area for the construction of military bases. The Ger-ng the area for the construction of military bases. The Ger-mans argued that when the Ottomans put a monopoly on the oil into mans argued that when the Ottomans put a monopoly on the oil into force with the Americans, the Ottoman government would have to pay force with the Americans, the Ottoman government would have to pay compensation to Standard Oil. For this reasoncompensation to Standard Oil. For this reason, they asserted th, they asserted thaat Cavid t Cavid BeyBey should have prevented this earlier. Cavid Beyshould have prevented this earlier. Cavid Bey committed to writing committed to writing to Istanbul.to Istanbul.909 There were many issues, such as that the Germans had There were many issues, such as that the Germans had made plans about some places and informed Cavid Beymade plans about some places and informed Cavid Bey, including the , including the steps he should take or steps he should take or sometimes as over sometimes as over tthe Mersinhe Mersin––Adana and Ye-Adana and Ye-

907 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 212, 220, 235212, 220, 235. .

GermanGerman ttalks are also carrying oalks are also carrying out inut in London, wLondon, whihich also affech also affecctts the talks in Berlin, s the talks in Berlin, such as such as combining thcombining the raie raillway liway lines of Aydin and Anatones of Aydin and Anatolia Railway line lia Railway line or navigator navigation ion rights on lakes Eğridir rights on lakes Eğridir and Beysehirand Beysehir. . Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 232232. .

908 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Meşrutiyet RuzRuznâmesnâmesi II, i II, 236236--3737..

909 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IIRuznâmesi II, , 240240--41.41.

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nice

nice--Mersin railway issues, they were reinterpreting Cavid BeyMersin railway issues, they were reinterpreting Cavid Bey's offer 's offer according to their own plans. Cavid Beyaccording to their own plans. Cavid Bey was surprised by their actions; was surprised by their actions; he even writes in his diary, "I felt distrusted."he even writes in his diary, "I felt distrusted."

One of the intersectin

One of the intersecting issues between tg issues between thhe French and German in-e French and German in-terests was that of the ports between Lazkiye and Silifke. Even though terests was that of the ports between Lazkiye and Silifke. Even though they already had railway concessions north of Trablusgarp, Germany’s they already had railway concessions north of Trablusgarp, Germany’s primary purpose was to connect their railway to the docks. They also primary purpose was to connect their railway to the docks. They also did nodid not want to leave Sit want to leave Sillifke to Austria or Italy. The Germans used to ifke to Austria or Italy. The Germans used to compare the French and German benefits from the Syrian railways and compare the French and German benefits from the Syrian railways and Baghdad Railways. During the negotiations, they asked if the Ottoman Baghdad Railways. During the negotiations, they asked if the Ottoman government did not understand the importance of Germangovernment did not understand the importance of Germany's three or y's three or four four hharbors, because they had fewer concessions than the French. arbors, because they had fewer concessions than the French. Cavid BeyCavid Bey, at the end of the discussions, told the Germans that he would , at the end of the discussions, told the Germans that he would prove that the Germans had better concessions according to the num-prove that the Germans had better concessions according to the num-bers. He told the German team that thebers. He told the German team that they could not have ay could not have anny rights in Jaf-y rights in Jaf-fa, Iskenderun, or Haifa. He pointed out that politics was central to the fa, Iskenderun, or Haifa. He pointed out that politics was central to the negotiations. negotiations.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey replied that Germany’s place in the Empire was of high replied that Germany’s place in the Empire was of high importance due to the Baghdad Railway, and it was in vain that importance due to the Baghdad Railway, and it was in vain that they they considered that soconsidered that somme other state would replace Germany. e other state would replace Germany. However, Helfferich resented Cavid BeyHowever, Helfferich resented Cavid Bey’s words and replied, "’s words and replied, "I I do not think that we are quickdo not think that we are quick--temperedtempered." Cavid Bey." Cavid Bey stated, "stated, "not not you, but Germany!you, but Germany!””910

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met Mr. Zimmerman to discuss various issuemet Mr. Zimmerman to discuss various issues from the s from the economyeconomy to politics. The issues related to the economy and contracts to politics. The issues related to the economy and contracts included navigation on the Shatt alincluded navigation on the Shatt al--Arab and on the Tigris and Euphra-Arab and on the Tigris and Euphra-tes; the timeline of the commercial agreement for the 4% rise in cus-tes; the timeline of the commercial agreement for the 4% rise in cus-toms duties; the renewal of commercial toms duties; the renewal of commercial agreements; alcohoagreements; alcoholl imports imports into Turkey; the difficulties of oil and tobacco exporters; a German into Turkey; the difficulties of oil and tobacco exporters; a German company that wanted to build a private port in Basra or Baghdad; issues company that wanted to build a private port in Basra or Baghdad; issues concerning schools, sanctuary, and citizenship; securing German oil in-concerning schools, sanctuary, and citizenship; securing German oil in-

910 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâRuznâmesi II, mesi II, 245245--46. 46.

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terests and Russi

terests and Russian shares; the poran shares; the portts between Silifke and Lazkiye; the s between Silifke and Lazkiye; the railway line between Halep and Meskene; giving priority for the orders railway line between Halep and Meskene; giving priority for the orders concerning the navy to Britain for 30 years of monopoly. On political concerning the navy to Britain for 30 years of monopoly. On political issues, the Armenian Question was the most important one in issues, the Armenian Question was the most important one in the dis-the dis-cussions becussions bettween Zimmerman and Cavid Beyween Zimmerman and Cavid Bey. According to the new . According to the new plan, two councils for the two communities would be established, and plan, two councils for the two communities would be established, and two inspector generals would be assigned. Their duration in office two inspector generals would be assigned. Their duration in office would be ten years. The inspector generals shouldwould be ten years. The inspector generals should take decisions totake decisions to the the local councils. If a dispute occurred, Istanbul would be the judge but local councils. If a dispute occurred, Istanbul would be the judge but could take decisions to the Great Powers' ambassadors in Istanbul. The could take decisions to the Great Powers' ambassadors in Istanbul. The officers and judges must be appointed by the inspector general and lo-officers and judges must be appointed by the inspector general and lo-cal councils. Accordincal councils. According to Cavid Beyg to Cavid Bey, th, theese conditions were heavier than se conditions were heavier than the previous ones. His suspicion is obvious: "We do not want you to the previous ones. His suspicion is obvious: "We do not want you to make another Macedonia in Anatolia," he writes. Cavid Beymake another Macedonia in Anatolia," he writes. Cavid Bey pointed out pointed out that the collaboration on the Armenian issue between Germany and that the collaboration on the Armenian issue between Germany and RuRussia, while exceptssia, while exceptiional, was specifically related to the Baghdad Rail-onal, was specifically related to the Baghdad Rail-way issue. The Russian ambassador even announced to the Great Pow-way issue. The Russian ambassador even announced to the Great Pow-ers that the rise in customs duties would not be accepted before the ers that the rise in customs duties would not be accepted before the Armenian issue was settled. Zimmerman was anxious thaArmenian issue was settled. Zimmerman was anxious that Russia may t Russia may causecause incidents in the provinces if they did not settle this issue. In re-incidents in the provinces if they did not settle this issue. In re-sponse, Cavid Beysponse, Cavid Bey stated that the Ottoman government was not afraid of stated that the Ottoman government was not afraid of Russian attacks and was ready to keep the peace in the region. Moreo-Russian attacks and was ready to keep the peace in the region. Moreo-ver, he states that on the fiscver, he states that on the fiscal issue, "Europe al issue, "Europe iis more advantageous for s more advantageous for us, and for this reason, I do not think that they [the Russians] would us, and for this reason, I do not think that they [the Russians] would sacrifice their interests for the Armenians. As a result, these kinds of sacrifice their interests for the Armenians. As a result, these kinds of announcements will remain as a threat."announcements will remain as a threat."

In the meantime, Cavid Bey

In the meantime, Cavid Bey hahad a new problem ind a new problem in the situation of the situation of the French market, which was rapidly shrinking. This situation affected the French market, which was rapidly shrinking. This situation affected the Ottoman loan in terms of the amount and its interest rate. The the Ottoman loan in terms of the amount and its interest rate. The French might decrease the amount to 300 or 350 million liras. Cavid French might decrease the amount to 300 or 350 million liras. Cavid BeyBey’s greater’s greater concern was the rconcern was the riise in the loan's interest rate, from 4% to se in the loan's interest rate, from 4% to

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4.5%, which would be challenging for the Ottoman government to re-

4.5%, which would be challenging for the Ottoman government to re-pay.pay.911

As expected, Mr. Cambon arrived in Berlin on November 13, 1913.

As expected, Mr. Cambon arrived in Berlin on November 13, 1913. Zimmerman told Cavid BeyZimmerman told Cavid Bey that Mr. Cambon’s arrival was onlythat Mr. Cambon’s arrival was only to assist to assist in thein the negotiations between the Ottomans and Germany.negotiations between the Ottomans and Germany.912 However, the However, the next day, Cavid Beynext day, Cavid Bey visited Mr. Cambon and discovered why Mr. Cambon visited Mr. Cambon and discovered why Mr. Cambon had arrived in Berlin: to reshape the Ottomanhad arrived in Berlin: to reshape the Ottoman--French agreements. Mr. French agreements. Mr. Cambon stated that the Ottoman Bank wanCambon stated that the Ottoman Bank wanted to modify thted to modify thee agreement agreement initialed on September 11. The French delegates wanted to discuss the initialed on September 11. The French delegates wanted to discuss the details in Berlin, together with German delegates. Cavid Beydetails in Berlin, together with German delegates. Cavid Bey found this found this incident very worrisome. They wanted to discuss the division of the incident very worrisome. They wanted to discuss the division of the loan between the Oloan between the Ottoman Bank and ttoman Bank and tthe Ottoman PDA. In the end, the he Ottoman PDA. In the end, the Armenian issue came to the table. Cavid BeyArmenian issue came to the table. Cavid Bey repeated his key argu-repeated his key argu-ments and added that the Ottoman government was capable of instigat-ments and added that the Ottoman government was capable of instigat-ing an insurrection, although Russian agents should not be involved in ing an insurrection, although Russian agents should not be involved in thisthis issue.issue.

After Mr

After Mr.. Cambon’s arrival, Cavid BeyCambon’s arrival, Cavid Bey’s agenda mainly focused on the ’s agenda mainly focused on the FrenchFrench--German and OttomanGerman and Ottoman--German negotiations. Both were interre-German negotiations. Both were interre-lated issues concerning common points for each party. The Germans lated issues concerning common points for each party. The Germans were very demanding in the negotiations. For examwere very demanding in the negotiations. For example, for the newple, for the new railway lines, they asked for 99 years of concessions and wanted to ex-railway lines, they asked for 99 years of concessions and wanted to ex-tend the period for older lines including those to Ankara, Konya, and Bo-tend the period for older lines including those to Ankara, Konya, and Bo-lu. According to Cavid Beylu. According to Cavid Bey, the Germans wanted to add new benefits to , the Germans wanted to add new benefits to the basket while preservingthe basket while preserving the old ones. Pthe old ones. Prrior to Mr. Cambon’s arrival, ior to Mr. Cambon’s arrival, France and Germany had already started talks on the following issues: France and Germany had already started talks on the following issues: The extension of the construction period of the Baghdad Railway; the The extension of the construction period of the Baghdad Railway; the Ottoman PDA bonds; the allocation of 3Ottoman PDA bonds; the allocation of 3––4% of the revenues of the rail-4% of the revenues of the rail-waways for general nys for general neecessities; the internationalization of borrowing; and cessities; the internationalization of borrowing; and keeping the Lazkiyekeeping the Lazkiye--Silifke line attached to the Baghdad Railway in or-Silifke line attached to the Baghdad Railway in or-der to reach the Mediterranean coast. On the last point, they could not der to reach the Mediterranean coast. On the last point, they could not

911 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuRuznâmesi II, znâmesi II, 246246--53. 53.

912 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 253.253.

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agree on the provisions for the Baghdad Rai

agree on the provisions for the Baghdad Railway and Anatolilway and Anatoliaan railways n railways in exchange.in exchange.

During the meeting on November 15, Cavid Bey

During the meeting on November 15, Cavid Bey told Mr. Gwinner told Mr. Gwinner that Germanthat German--Russian cooperation on the Armenian issue had harmed Russian cooperation on the Armenian issue had harmed Istanbul. For this reason, the Ottoman Empire would not act according Istanbul. For this reason, the Ottoman Empire would not act according to the European deto the European demands. He asked mands. He asked MMr. Gwinner to act on behalf of the r. Gwinner to act on behalf of the German government to support the Ottoman government.German government to support the Ottoman government.913

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey received a telegram from Talat Bey concerning the Arme-received a telegram from Talat Bey concerning the Arme-nian issue on November 19, 1913. The telegram stated that the Grand nian issue on November 19, 1913. The telegram stated that the Grand Vizier was inclineVizier was inclined to accept inspd to accept inspeectors from small and impartial coun-ctors from small and impartial coun-tries chosen by Europe, and to employ them as Ottoman officers, alt-tries chosen by Europe, and to employ them as Ottoman officers, alt-hough the majority of the cabinet was opposed to this. If the Empire ob-hough the majority of the cabinet was opposed to this. If the Empire ob-jected to this offer totally, they should deliberate the additionajected to this offer totally, they should deliberate the additional l challenges whichallenges whicch would be created by the Russians and Bulgarians in h would be created by the Russians and Bulgarians in domestic and international politics.domestic and international politics.914

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey had a hectic schedule while in Berlin. He wrote letters or had a hectic schedule while in Berlin. He wrote letters or telegrams to the Grand Vizier, Talat Bey, Rifat Bey, and Mr. Crawford on telegrams to the Grand Vizier, Talat Bey, Rifat Bey, and Mr. Crawford on variouvarious issues. He wass issues. He was constantly in touch with Hakkı Pasha in London constantly in touch with Hakkı Pasha in London and Rifat Pasha in Paris. He was aware of all of the international negoti-and Rifat Pasha in Paris. He was aware of all of the international negoti-ations covering both economic and political issues. In terms of the An-ations covering both economic and political issues. In terms of the An-gloglo--German talks, the construction of ports in BaGerman talks, the construction of ports in Baghdad and Basra ghdad and Basra hhad ad priority. In terms of the Frenchpriority. In terms of the French--German talks, the HalepGerman talks, the Halep--Meskene rail-Meskene rail-way line was the most crucial point. Mr. Helfferich and Mr. Gwinner way line was the most crucial point. Mr. Helfferich and Mr. Gwinner were exhausted by the heavy demands of the French. Cavid Beywere exhausted by the heavy demands of the French. Cavid Bey pointed pointed out that an accord could serveout that an accord could serve the aims of thethe aims of the Ottoman government and Ottoman government and the provisioning issue could be solved, as the Germans would let the the provisioning issue could be solved, as the Germans would let the French railway reach Sivas, and the French would let the German rail-French railway reach Sivas, and the French would let the German rail-way reach Ergani. The Germans, of course, asked for an early privilege way reach Ergani. The Germans, of course, asked for an early privilege for the for the Ergani mines. DuErgani mines. Durring this meeting, Cavid Beying this meeting, Cavid Bey read the telegram read the telegram concerning the Armenian issue from the Sublime Porte. According to concerning the Armenian issue from the Sublime Porte. According to the telegram, the responsibility for implementing reforms did not be-the telegram, the responsibility for implementing reforms did not be-

913 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmRuznâmesi IIesi II, , 252588--6161. .

914 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuzRuznâmesi II, nâmesi II, 2275.75.

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long to the Empire. The Ottoman government would be indepe

long to the Empire. The Ottoman government would be independent in ndent in choosinchoosingg officials from neutral countries. In the evening, Cavid Beyofficials from neutral countries. In the evening, Cavid Bey at-at-tended a dinner at the house of Mr. Zimmerman on November 20, 1913. tended a dinner at the house of Mr. Zimmerman on November 20, 1913. At the dinner, Cavid BeyAt the dinner, Cavid Bey and Zimmerman had a long talk on the same and Zimmerman had a long talk on the same issue. Zimmerman described Cavid Beyissue. Zimmerman described Cavid Bey as aas a “radical” for h“radical” for hiis approach to s approach to this issue. Cavid Beythis issue. Cavid Bey articulated that they did not want to create another articulated that they did not want to create another Macedonia or Rumelia in Anatolia. Cavid BeyMacedonia or Rumelia in Anatolia. Cavid Bey explained the situation to explained the situation to him very honestly and gave insightful information. Cavid Beyhim very honestly and gave insightful information. Cavid Bey pointed pointed out the imout the impact of this isspact of this issuue on domestic politics. He explained that the e on domestic politics. He explained that the intervention of the Great Powers would mean the fall of the govern-intervention of the Great Powers would mean the fall of the govern-ment, which would cause chaos in the country. Zimmerman warned ment, which would cause chaos in the country. Zimmerman warned Cavid BeyCavid Bey that the Armenians would not keep quiet. In reply to hthat the Armenians would not keep quiet. In reply to him, im, Cavid BeyCavid Bey sasaiid that there were Armenians working in favor of the Em-d that there were Armenians working in favor of the Em-pire and, at the same time, against Russia. Cavid Beypire and, at the same time, against Russia. Cavid Bey also added that it also added that it was tough to resolve such a critical issue before the opening of parlia-was tough to resolve such a critical issue before the opening of parlia-ment.ment.915 Mr. Cambon also joined this conveMr. Cambon also joined this conversation and statrsation and stateed that the d that the Ottoman government must make concessions. Cavid BeyOttoman government must make concessions. Cavid Bey responded that responded that this was impossible. Cambon said, “If both Germany and France are this was impossible. Cambon said, “If both Germany and France are pointing out the same thing, it means that it is something good.” To this, pointing out the same thing, it means that it is something good.” To this, Cavid BeyCavid Bey replied, “replied, “This happens verThis happens veryy rarely!” The three of them rarely!” The three of them laughed. Cavid Beylaughed. Cavid Bey also met Mr. Rosenberg, an officer in the German also met Mr. Rosenberg, an officer in the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs, to discuss the islands and the Armenian is-Ministry of Foreign Affairs, to discuss the islands and the Armenian is-sue, during the dinner. Rosenberg said that they were aware that the sue, during the dinner. Rosenberg said that they were aware that the islislands might be a ands might be a rreason for war in the Ottoman Empire.eason for war in the Ottoman Empire.916

After dinner with European representatives from various countries,

After dinner with European representatives from various countries, Cavid BeyCavid Bey received a detailed telegram from Talat Bey the next day. He received a detailed telegram from Talat Bey the next day. He underlined the fact that if they could not eliminate the Armeniunderlined the fact that if they could not eliminate the Armenian chal-an chal-

915 DuringDuring the autumn of 1913, tthe autumn of 1913, the CUP declared the CUP declared that thhat the general elections would bee general elections would be held held in the winter of 1913/1914. After the elections, the parliament opened on May 14, in the winter of 1913/1914. After the elections, the parliament opened on May 14, 1914.1914. TheThe RefoReform Actrm Act, whic, which the goh the goververnnmmeent signed on February 8, 1914, nt signed on February 8, 1914, solved the solved the AArmenirmeniaan Quesn Question. This was signed tion. This was signed before the openinbefore the opening of tg of the parliament. Ahmad, F. he parliament. Ahmad, F. İttİttihat Teraki (1908ihat Teraki (1908--1914),1914),212.212.

916 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 276276--83.83.

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lenge in

lenge in ddomestic politics, they should accept the European interven-omestic politics, they should accept the European interven-tion. In terms of the Russian financial challenge, Talat Bey pointed out tion. In terms of the Russian financial challenge, Talat Bey pointed out that the Europeans couldthat the Europeans could not give up the benefits they were getting not give up the benefits they were getting from the Ottoman government. Cavid Beyfrom the Ottoman government. Cavid Bey cconveyed the messonveyed the messaagges that es that he had relayed to his counterparts in Berlin, and asked Talat Bey to send he had relayed to his counterparts in Berlin, and asked Talat Bey to send some delegates to Berlin that were equal in status to Zöhrap Efendi and some delegates to Berlin that were equal in status to Zöhrap Efendi and Varteks Efendi.Varteks Efendi.917

The budget deficit and the situation of the treasury were quite dir

The budget deficit and the situation of the treasury were quite dire e and complicatand complicateded. Istanbul needed cash in fragmentized small amounts. . Istanbul needed cash in fragmentized small amounts. On November 25, Talat Bey asked Cavid BeyOn November 25, Talat Bey asked Cavid Bey to borrow 1 million liras to borrow 1 million liras from Deutsche Orient Bank as soon as possible for the country's sake. from Deutsche Orient Bank as soon as possible for the country's sake. Mr. Helfferich told Cavid BeyMr. Helfferich told Cavid Bey that he would talthat he would talk to France abok to France aboutut making making an urgent payment to Turkey. Cavid Beyan urgent payment to Turkey. Cavid Bey received information from Mr. received information from Mr. Bloch about the recent debts of the Ottoman Empire.The debt relating Bloch about the recent debts of the Ottoman Empire.The debt relating to the Ottoman PDA was 1,193,675 liras, which would be paid back on to the Ottoman PDA was 1,193,675 liras, which would be paid back on November 20. The Empire November 20. The Empire was planning towas planning to ppay back 230,000 liras be-ay back 230,000 liras be-fore November 1 and 190,000 liras on March 1. For the next year, fore November 1 and 190,000 liras on March 1. For the next year, 773,645 Liras would be transferred as a continuing debt.773,645 Liras would be transferred as a continuing debt.918 Meanwhile, Meanwhile, Mr. Helfferich's attempts at reconciliation were yielding fruit. Mr. Klapka Mr. Helfferich's attempts at reconciliation were yielding fruit. Mr. Klapka mentmentioned that bonsioned that bons dde tresor transactions amounted to 18 million liras e tresor transactions amounted to 18 million liras at a 7% interest rate. Nevertheless, this money would not go directly at a 7% interest rate. Nevertheless, this money would not go directly into the treasury, as it first had to pay off the Empire’s debts. If the Ot-into the treasury, as it first had to pay off the Empire’s debts. If the Ot-toman government first paid some shares of toman government first paid some shares of both its publicboth its public ddebts and ebts and what it owed to the Ottoman PDA, then only 1.5 million liras would be what it owed to the Ottoman PDA, then only 1.5 million liras would be left for the treasury. Cavid Beyleft for the treasury. Cavid Bey stated that these conditions were diffi-stated that these conditions were diffi-cult for the Sublime Porte. He also stated that while the Greeks, Serbs, cult for the Sublime Porte. He also stated that while the Greeks, Serbs, and Bulgarians and Bulgarians had finalized thad finalized theheir loan agreements with the Great Pow-ir loan agreements with the Great Pow-ers, it was also strange that the Ottomans could still not get a loan de-ers, it was also strange that the Ottomans could still not get a loan de-spite their vast compromises. Cavid Beyspite their vast compromises. Cavid Bey informed Talat Bey that he informed Talat Bey that he would sign the contract with Deutsche Orient Bank to give the awould sign the contract with Deutsche Orient Bank to give the assur-ssur-

917 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâmesiuznâmesi IIII,, 228383--8585

918 CavCavid Bey,id Bey, Meşrutiyet Meşrutiyet RuznâmRuznâmesi Iesi III, 302, 302..

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ances he ha

ances he had d already been asked for. However, there was no way to find already been asked for. However, there was no way to find a few hundred thousand liras in Berlin.a few hundred thousand liras in Berlin.

Meanwhile, the negotiations with Deutsche Bank continued

Meanwhile, the negotiations with Deutsche Bank continued throughout the last week of November, 1913. On November 23, 1913, throughout the last week of November, 1913. On November 23, 1913, Cavid BeyCavid Bey attendedattended a meeting at Da meeting at Deueutsche Bank. Mr. Helfferich put for-tsche Bank. Mr. Helfferich put for-ward an offer on the railway lines. However, this offer was not accepted, ward an offer on the railway lines. However, this offer was not accepted, and they continued to negotiate. The most challenging negotiations and they continued to negotiate. The most challenging negotiations concerned the prices of railway lines per km. They met on Novembconcerned the prices of railway lines per km. They met on November 26 er 26 once agaionce again.n. Muhtar Bey, the manager of the railways, accompanied Muhtar Bey, the manager of the railways, accompanied Cavid BeyCavid Bey to the negotiations. Deutsche Bank’s new offer covered the to the negotiations. Deutsche Bank’s new offer covered the prices for the general lines as well as the Ulukışlaprices for the general lines as well as the Ulukışla--KayseriKayseri--Sivas, Sivas, UlukışlaUlukışla--Sivas, and AnkaraSivas, and Ankara--Kayseri lines. They oKayseri lines. They offered two figuffered two figureres: on s: on guarantees and construction prices. Helfferich’s offer is shown in the guarantees and construction prices. Helfferich’s offer is shown in the table below,with interest up to December and the issues not related to table below,with interest up to December and the issues not related to the railways relatd to the current talks (the railways relatd to the current talks (mevaddmevadd--ı müteharrike dahil ı müteharrike dahil olmaksızınolmaksızın).).

Guarante

Guaranteee Price of conPrice of conststructionruction Destination of the RailwaysDestination of the Railways

12,380

12,380 197,000197,000 The General LinesThe General Lines

11,560

11,560 185,000185,000 UlukışlaUlukışla--KayseriKayseri--SivasSivas

10,310

10,310 165,000165,000 UlukışlaUlukışla--SivasSivas

13,430

13,430 215,000215,000 AnkaraAnkara--KayseriKayseri919

Table

Table 1.1 Deutsche1.1 Deutsche Bank’s offer for railway linesBank’s offer for railway lines ((NovemNovembber 1913er 1913)). .

Cavi

Cavid d BeyBey and Muhtar Bey found these prices very high according to and Muhtar Bey found these prices very high according to their calculations. Moreover, Cavid Beytheir calculations. Moreover, Cavid Bey stated that these lines were gen-stated that these lines were gen-erally easier to construct than the Sivas lines given to the French. The erally easier to construct than the Sivas lines given to the French. The negotiations on prices continued negotiations on prices continued without any tanwithout any tangigible results. The ble results. The Germans wanted the RayakGermans wanted the Rayak--Lida line, which had formerly been very Lida line, which had formerly been very

919 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmRuznâmesi IIesi II, , 295295

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profitable; the negotiations froze after the Germans compared their po-

profitable; the negotiations froze after the Germans compared their po-sition to that of the French. However, as Cavid Beysition to that of the French. However, as Cavid Bey stated, the fiscal con-stated, the fiscal con-ditions of thditions of these agreements ese agreements wewere very different from each other. While re very different from each other. While the Ottoman government gave the French state bonds, the stock bonds the Ottoman government gave the French state bonds, the stock bonds issued to the Germans could be sold at a 4.5% interest rate a few years issued to the Germans could be sold at a 4.5% interest rate a few years later, which was more profitable for the Germans. When Cavlater, which was more profitable for the Germans. When Cavid Beyid Bey spelled spelled ouout these issues, even Mr. Helfferich accepted the reality of the t these issues, even Mr. Helfferich accepted the reality of the situation. However, the negotiations with the Germans were still tenser situation. However, the negotiations with the Germans were still tenser than those with the French. The Germans raised their voices, left the than those with the French. The Germans raised their voices, left the room, took more breaks. However, room, took more breaks. However, Cavid BeyCavid Bey beliebelieveved that there was d that there was still time to come to terms with the two groups.still time to come to terms with the two groups.920

The German military visit to Istanbul resulted in an international

The German military visit to Istanbul resulted in an international crisis that affected the financial negotiations. A German commander in crisis that affected the financial negotiations. A German commander in the Straits directly threatened Ruthe Straits directly threatened Russia's interestssia's interests,s, and for this reason, and for this reason, this issue also disturbed France, Russia's ally. The French daily Echo de this issue also disturbed France, Russia's ally. The French daily Echo de Paris evaluated this issue as a matter concerning all of Europe on No-Paris evaluated this issue as a matter concerning all of Europe on No-vember 27, 1913. According to the French press, Istanbul, a city of ca-vember 27, 1913. According to the French press, Istanbul, a city of ca-pitupitulations and emblations and embasassies, could not be protected by a German com-sies, could not be protected by a German com-mander. According to Cavid Beymander. According to Cavid Bey, this kind of news was published under , this kind of news was published under Russian pressure from its most influential ambassador, Mr. Izvolsky. Russian pressure from its most influential ambassador, Mr. Izvolsky. Meanwhile, even the French journalists whom Cavid BeyMeanwhile, even the French journalists whom Cavid Bey memet in Berlin t in Berlin werwere e complaining about the Russian influence over the French press, complaining about the Russian influence over the French press, particularly Le Temps.particularly Le Temps.921

On December 27, 1913, Cavid Bey

On December 27, 1913, Cavid Bey continued negotiations with continued negotiations with Deutsche Bank representatives, which took around four and a half Deutsche Bank representatives, which took around four and a half hours. The German team put hours. The German team put the Baghdad Raithe Baghdad Railwlway project's new condi-ay project's new condi-tions forward. This meeting was very tense. During the meeting, the tions forward. This meeting was very tense. During the meeting, the Germans once again claimed that the French had obtained tremendous Germans once again claimed that the French had obtained tremendous benefits and that their position would cause trouble with the public. benefits and that their position would cause trouble with the public. They also clThey also claimed that Britaimed that Britaiain had obtained vast concessions on naviga-n had obtained vast concessions on naviga-tion rights. Cavid Beytion rights. Cavid Bey again emphasized that the benefits Germany was again emphasized that the benefits Germany was

920 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 294294--9595

921 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 312312--13.13.

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obtaining were greater than those of the French. Mr. Helfferich stated,

obtaining were greater than those of the French. Mr. Helfferich stated, "We want what is possible from you; but you ask impossib"We want what is possible from you; but you ask impossible things from le things from usus." Cavid Bey." Cavid Bey replied, "We asked for nothing impossible from you." Mr. replied, "We asked for nothing impossible from you." Mr. Helfferich left the room. Cavid BeyHelfferich left the room. Cavid Bey told Mr. Gwinner that they should told Mr. Gwinner that they should carry on negotiations with relative silence and moderation: "Until today, carry on negotiations with relative silence and moderation: "Until today, even on the issues we diseven on the issues we disagree on, we weagree on, we werere always friendly, and you always friendly, and you have to do the same again, especially when you have a guest in your have to do the same again, especially when you have a guest in your home." However, Helfferich returned to the room to continue the meet-home." However, Helfferich returned to the room to continue the meet-ing. Cavid Beying. Cavid Bey comments in his diary that "it would be wiser for them if comments in his diary that "it would be wiser for them if theythey did not tell wdid not tell whahat they told.”t they told.”922 In the end, the meeting lasted until In the end, the meeting lasted until eight o'clock in the evening without any concrete results. According to eight o'clock in the evening without any concrete results. According to Cavid BeyCavid Bey, what the Germans asked for was like a second Baghdad Rail-, what the Germans asked for was like a second Baghdad Rail-way contract, which he did not dare sign. way contract, which he did not dare sign.

Cav

Cavid Beyid Bey receivedreceived aa call from Muhtar Pasha on various issues, in-call from Muhtar Pasha on various issues, in-cluding Bogos Nubar Pasha's arrival in Berlin. According to Muhtar Pa-cluding Bogos Nubar Pasha's arrival in Berlin. According to Muhtar Pa-sha, Nubar Pasha had visited the Russian ambassador before visiting sha, Nubar Pasha had visited the Russian ambassador before visiting Muhtar Pasha last. Nubar Pasha claimed that the Grand VizMuhtar Pasha last. Nubar Pasha claimed that the Grand Vizier had ac-ier had ac-ceptecepted d that the Ottoman government would choose the inspectors from that the Ottoman government would choose the inspectors from among the lists of the European states. He also claimed that Cavid Beyamong the lists of the European states. He also claimed that Cavid Bey had avoided meeting him. Cavid Beyhad avoided meeting him. Cavid Bey writes in his diary that they had writes in his diary that they had met once in Paris, but that after undemet once in Paris, but that after understanding that rstanding that itit was impossible to was impossible to change his mind, he did not try to meet him. Cavid Beychange his mind, he did not try to meet him. Cavid Bey thought that thought that Nubar Pasha believed that the inspector general should stay in Istanbul. Nubar Pasha believed that the inspector general should stay in Istanbul. Cavid BeyCavid Bey found Bogos Nubar Pasha misguided in his ideas.found Bogos Nubar Pasha misguided in his ideas.923 Cavid BeyCavid Bey sent a telsent a telegram to Talat egram to Talat BeBey related to his concern about Nubar Pasha's y related to his concern about Nubar Pasha's claim. He also asked for further information. While dealing with these claim. He also asked for further information. While dealing with these issues, Mr. Crawford sent him a telegram and asked whether he might issues, Mr. Crawford sent him a telegram and asked whether he might secure a loan in Berlin. The financial situation was blsecure a loan in Berlin. The financial situation was bleak in Istanbuleak in Istanbul. . Cavid BeyCavid Bey was also helpless in his efforts to change the general situation was also helpless in his efforts to change the general situation in Berlin.in Berlin.924

922 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmesRuznâmesii IIII,, 319319--25.25.

923 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznRuznâmesiâmesi II, II, 33227.7.

924 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâRuznâmesi Imesi II, I, 328.328.

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Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met Mr. Zimmerman on November 28. What is interesting met Mr. Zimmerman on November 28. What is interesting is that Zimmermann had given a note to Cavid Beyis that Zimmermann had given a note to Cavid Bey on the rise in cus-on the rise in cus-toms duties. The Germtoms duties. The Germans had accepteans had accepted d the increase of 4% from June the increase of 4% from June 28, 1914 to December 31, 1917. They would also implement a most28, 1914 to December 31, 1917. They would also implement a most--favoredfavored--nation tariff on Ottoman goods. He also brought extra demands nation tariff on Ottoman goods. He also brought extra demands to discuss with Cavid Beyto discuss with Cavid Bey, such as the tax on sugar, the German schools, , such as the tax on sugar, the German schools, et et cetera. They alcetera. They alsoso requested a solution to the issues by exchanging requested a solution to the issues by exchanging finalized notes because they would bring these issues up in parliament. finalized notes because they would bring these issues up in parliament. Cavid BeyCavid Bey also expressed his concern about the German military mis-also expressed his concern about the German military mis-sion. They also discussed the Armenian issue. Cavision. They also discussed the Armenian issue. Cavid Beyd Bey handed hihanded him m a a copy of the article on the Armenian issue that had been published in copy of the article on the Armenian issue that had been published in Tanin and stated that it reflected public opinion. He stated that nobody Tanin and stated that it reflected public opinion. He stated that nobody could understand why Germany and Russia were standing together; could understand why Germany and Russia were standing together; understandably, Russia would deunderstandably, Russia would delight in ruininlight in ruining g the Empire, but why the Empire, but why Germany?Germany?925 An article related to Cavid BeyAn article related to Cavid Bey’s position had also been ’s position had also been published in Le Temps. The article discussed his position on the Arme-published in Le Temps. The article discussed his position on the Arme-nian issue and the German military mission. According to Le Temps, nian issue and the German military mission. According to Le Temps, Cavid BeyCavid Bey had ahad agreed to acceptgreed to accept aa German commander but resisted the German commander but resisted the Armenian Reform Act. The French press once again escalated the situa-Armenian Reform Act. The French press once again escalated the situa-tion against Cavid Beytion against Cavid Bey and the Ottoman government. Cavid Beyand the Ottoman government. Cavid Bey also also participated in the monthly meeting of the Germanparticipated in the monthly meeting of the German--Asian Foundation. Asian Foundation. HeHe was invited towas invited to ttalk with Mr. Zimmerman. He noted that he firmly de-alk with Mr. Zimmerman. He noted that he firmly de-fended his argument on the Armenian issue. He told Zimmerman that, if fended his argument on the Armenian issue. He told Zimmerman that, if he had advocated for the Russian claims, he would move away from his he had advocated for the Russian claims, he would move away from his moral compass. He considered that Zimmerman was trmoral compass. He considered that Zimmerman was trying to play foying to play for r time on this issue.time on this issue.926

The negotiations in Berlin continued without any solution and with

The negotiations in Berlin continued without any solution and with mutual threats between the parties.mutual threats between the parties.927 In his letter, Rifat Pasha from Par-In his letter, Rifat Pasha from Par-is also complained that the Francois also complained that the Franco--German talks were prolonged, alt-German talks were prolonged, alt-hough he trihough he tried to speed theed to speed them m up. He was also aware that the Ottomanup. He was also aware that the Ottoman--

925 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 330.330.

926 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 331331--32.32.

927 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmesRuznâmesii IIII,, 337.337.

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German talks were not going very well. He was pessimistic about the

German talks were not going very well. He was pessimistic about the loan for 700 million liras. Rifat Bey had consulted Cavid Beyloan for 700 million liras. Rifat Bey had consulted Cavid Bey on the on the preparations for the budget. The budget deficit outlined in thepreparations for the budget. The budget deficit outlined in the 1914 1914 budget wabudget was s less than that of previous years, because the military budget less than that of previous years, because the military budget was two million liras lower. Nevertheless, the main problem was the in-was two million liras lower. Nevertheless, the main problem was the in-crease in retirement pay. Under these conditions, Talat Bey rebuked crease in retirement pay. Under these conditions, Talat Bey rebuked Cavid BeyCavid Bey for his point of view on the for his point of view on the purchasing of apurchasing of a nnew dreadnought, ew dreadnought, the Rio de Janeiro, which would subsequently become the Sultan Os-the Rio de Janeiro, which would subsequently become the Sultan Os-man. Talat Bey instructed Cavid Beyman. Talat Bey instructed Cavid Bey to find 1 million liras because, ac-to find 1 million liras because, ac-cording to him, it was meaningless to discuss the situation of the islands cording to him, it was meaningless to discuss the situation of the islands if they did if they did not purchase thnot purchase the e Rio or another dreadnought from Italy. As Rio or another dreadnought from Italy. As Heller states, the Great Powers and especially Britain, from which the Heller states, the Great Powers and especially Britain, from which the Empire had purchased the dreadnoughts, were aware of the Ottoman Empire had purchased the dreadnoughts, were aware of the Ottoman government's intentions. For this reason, they did not changegovernment's intentions. For this reason, they did not change their poli-their poli-cy rcy regegarding the islands. arding the islands.

These incidents had implications in the loan processes as Mr.

These incidents had implications in the loan processes as Mr. Parker, representing the Foreign Secretary stated "financial pres-Parker, representing the Foreign Secretary stated "financial pres-sure would lead the Turks away from any adventurous foreign sure would lead the Turks away from any adventurous foreign policy."policy."928

An essential piece of

An essential piece of information oninformation on tthe Armenian issue arrived via he Armenian issue arrived via a telegram from Talat Bey. In Istanbul, a Unionist group including Talat a telegram from Talat Bey. In Istanbul, a Unionist group including Talat Bey had met with Armenian deputies, the meeting including Hallaçyan Bey had met with Armenian deputies, the meeting including Hallaçyan Efendi, Malumyan Efendi, Varteks Efendi, Talat Bey, Halil Bey, and MEfendi, Malumyan Efendi, Varteks Efendi, Talat Bey, Halil Bey, and Mithat ithat Şükrü BeyŞükrü Bey. . They met at Halaçyan Efendi’s residence until three o’clock They met at Halaçyan Efendi’s residence until three o’clock in the morning. The Unionists tried to persuade the Armenians to make in the morning. The Unionists tried to persuade the Armenians to make reforms without Europe’s intervention. According to Talat Bey’s tele-reforms without Europe’s intervention. According to Talat Bey’s tele-gram, the Unionists offered the Armeniansgram, the Unionists offered the Armenians the following the following coconditions: The nditions: The CUP would accept the Armenian community’s conditions on elections, CUP would accept the Armenian community’s conditions on elections, and the numbers of policemen, and officers; consultants from neutral and the numbers of policemen, and officers; consultants from neutral countries would be assigned to the Eastern provinces; the Armenians countries would be assigned to the Eastern provinces; the Armenians would not ask for Ruswould not ask for Russian assistancesian assistance aany more. Talat Bey agreed to give ny more. Talat Bey agreed to give

928 Heller, Heller, British Policy TBritish Policy Towards owards thethe OOttomattomann EmpirEmpire 1908e 1908--19141914, 119. , 119.

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authority of governance to the consultants from the neutral states and

authority of governance to the consultants from the neutral states and proportional representation of Armenians on local councils as well as in proportional representation of Armenians on local councils as well as in the police force. He also wanted to tell the ambassadors fromthe police force. He also wanted to tell the ambassadors from the Great the Great PowePowersrs about this agreement.about this agreement.929

The conflict over the German mission exploded into the internation-

The conflict over the German mission exploded into the internation-al arena. Rifat wrote a letter to Cavid Beyal arena. Rifat wrote a letter to Cavid Bey mentioning direct threats from mentioning direct threats from M. Pichon and M. Paleologue regarding support for Italian and Austrian M. Pichon and M. Paleologue regarding support for Italian and Austrian demdemands and, of coands and, of coururse, the delaying of loans. Cavid Beyse, the delaying of loans. Cavid Bey's notes are es-'s notes are es-sential to understand his point of view on these matters. According to sential to understand his point of view on these matters. According to him, this was not a question of the German command of the Ottoman him, this was not a question of the German command of the Ottoman army but a matter of national sovereignty. Russia, army but a matter of national sovereignty. Russia, which objected which objected toto the the appointment of an inspector from a strong country, naturally objected appointment of an inspector from a strong country, naturally objected to a German commander at the head of the Ottoman army. According to to a German commander at the head of the Ottoman army. According to Cavid BeyCavid Bey, a German general and eight to ten Germans accompanying , a German general and eight to ten Germans accompanying him did not mean that the Germhim did not mean that the German possessed than possessed the e whole Ottoman army. whole Ottoman army. He noted that these were the ideas of Izvolsky in Paris. Cavid BeyHe noted that these were the ideas of Izvolsky in Paris. Cavid Bey claimed that the French were linking these incidents to each other, claimed that the French were linking these incidents to each other, when they were not related. Russia's pressure on France insulted the when they were not related. Russia's pressure on France insulted the honor and dignihonor and dignity of his countty of his countryry..930 Following this, Cavid BeyFollowing this, Cavid Bey gave an gave an interview in Le Temps in which he defended himself against the reports interview in Le Temps in which he defended himself against the reports of his conduct. In addition to these issues, Cavid Beyof his conduct. In addition to these issues, Cavid Bey's letter to Talat Bey 's letter to Talat Bey also allows us to understand his consideration of the also allows us to understand his consideration of the Great Powers. Great Powers. FFirirst, he mentions in it that he has some concerns about the German st, he mentions in it that he has some concerns about the German schools and institutions' privileges, which might result in capitulations schools and institutions' privileges, which might result in capitulations sooner or later. Secondly, he states that he objects to the purchase of the sooner or later. Secondly, he states that he objects to the purchase of the Rio, because this would Rio, because this would negatively affenegatively affectct negotiations. He also points negotiations. He also points out that there are not enough commanders in the navy. Thirdly, he out that there are not enough commanders in the navy. Thirdly, he points out the miscommunications between the Sublime Porte and Rifat points out the miscommunications between the Sublime Porte and Rifat Pasha in Paris, who is conducting negotiations on the islands. Fourthly, Pasha in Paris, who is conducting negotiations on the islands. Fourthly, hhe asks why the e asks why the MaMartial Court does not judge the commanders defeated rtial Court does not judge the commanders defeated in the Balkan Wars. He mentions that the German Emperor had dis-in the Balkan Wars. He mentions that the German Emperor had dis-

929 Cavid Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 338338--4141. .

930 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 350350--52.52.

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missed Goltz Pasha. Fifthly, he writes that he had told Talat Bey that

missed Goltz Pasha. Fifthly, he writes that he had told Talat Bey that preparing a budget with a budget deficit was as essentpreparing a budget with a budget deficit was as essential as announciial as announcingng the Constitutional regime. He details how his honor was damaged while the Constitutional regime. He details how his honor was damaged while asking for money in Europe. If the Empire has no budget deficit, then asking for money in Europe. If the Empire has no budget deficit, then the tables would turn and the Europeans would be asking them for fa-the tables would turn and the Europeans would be asking them for fa-vors. Sixthly, he writes that hvors. Sixthly, he writes that he has asked Tale has asked Talatat Bey whether they could Bey whether they could give up the German mission at the expense of the Armenian Reform and give up the German mission at the expense of the Armenian Reform and the Russian delegate to the Ottoman PDA. Finally, he voices his opinion the Russian delegate to the Ottoman PDA. Finally, he voices his opinion about the cabinet. According to him, it would be more appropriate to about the cabinet. According to him, it would be more appropriate to assigassign Enver Bey as n Enver Bey as ththe minister of the navy and Cemal Bey as the min-e minister of the navy and Cemal Bey as the min-ister of war. He also adds that they might change all of this and make ister of war. He also adds that they might change all of this and make Cahit Bey a minister. After Cavid BeyCahit Bey a minister. After Cavid Bey's letter to Talat Bey, the French 's letter to Talat Bey, the French newspaper Echo de Paris published an article againewspaper Echo de Paris published an article against the Ottomannst the Ottoman ggov-ov-ernment and claimed that the government was utilizing the German ernment and claimed that the government was utilizing the German military mission in return for the Armenian Reforms, against Russia and military mission in return for the Armenian Reforms, against Russia and France. As Cavid BeyFrance. As Cavid Bey envisaged, the politics of the day were defined envisaged, the politics of the day were defined through these bargainings. In tthrough these bargainings. In the meantime, Cahe meantime, Cavivid Beyd Bey complained complained about the increasing demands of the Germans. On December 2, 1913, he about the increasing demands of the Germans. On December 2, 1913, he met Mr. Huguenin. Cavid Beymet Mr. Huguenin. Cavid Bey stated that he could not accept the condi-stated that he could not accept the condi-tions, which were much more severe than at the beginning of the nego-tions, which were much more severe than at the beginning of the nego-tiations. The netiations. The negotiations had gotiations had ststalled. However, according to Cavid Beyalled. However, according to Cavid Bey, , Huguenin was aware that there was no one else with whom they could Huguenin was aware that there was no one else with whom they could compromise. compromise.

The French press published news about the Armenian Congress.

The French press published news about the Armenian Congress. Against the issue of the German Military Mission, they prAgainst the issue of the German Military Mission, they presented the esented the ArmArmenenian issue and the Treaty of Berlin in 1878 to public opinion. Cavid ian issue and the Treaty of Berlin in 1878 to public opinion. Cavid BeyBey was angry that no Armenian from the Ottoman Empire had partici-was angry that no Armenian from the Ottoman Empire had partici-pated in the Congress in Paris. Cavid Beypated in the Congress in Paris. Cavid Bey met Zimmerman on December met Zimmerman on December 4. Zimmerman told Cavid Bey4. Zimmerman told Cavid Bey that the that the Kaiser, prime mKaiser, prime mininistry, and the istry, and the ministry could not bear the losses of the Baghdad Railway project. He ministry could not bear the losses of the Baghdad Railway project. He underlined the fact that they should find a solution. Cavid Beyunderlined the fact that they should find a solution. Cavid Bey informed informed him about the sacrifice he had made on behalf of the Ottoman govern-him about the sacrifice he had made on behalf of the Ottoman govern-ment; the Germment; the Germans would give ans would give upup the operation and accept 3 million the operation and accept 3 million Liras to construct the Baghdad Railway. Cavid BeyLiras to construct the Baghdad Railway. Cavid Bey stated that the Otto-stated that the Otto-

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man government had not forgotten Germany's political and economic

man government had not forgotten Germany's political and economic support for the Baghdad Railway. He asked them not to demand some-support for the Baghdad Railway. He asked them not to demand some-ththing unfair thating unfair that wwould cause them to revoke the agreement. Cavid Beyould cause them to revoke the agreement. Cavid Bey expected that the Germans would demand a discount on the price of the expected that the Germans would demand a discount on the price of the railway. Cavid Beyrailway. Cavid Bey told Zimmerman that he could not accept their new told Zimmerman that he could not accept their new offer, because he had already made compromises anoffer, because he had already made compromises and that none of d that none of ththe e negotiators could do more. Cavid Beynegotiators could do more. Cavid Bey added that he was obliged to ac-added that he was obliged to ac-count to the parliament and the public. As if he had not heard Cavid Beycount to the parliament and the public. As if he had not heard Cavid Bey, , Zimmerman interjected that the Baghdad Railway company should Zimmerman interjected that the Baghdad Railway company should make more than 10% profit. Zimmermake more than 10% profit. Zimmerman insisted thman insisted thatat that issue could that issue could be solved very quickly through the German military mission. On the be solved very quickly through the German military mission. On the Armenian issue, they discussed the consequences of the Armenian Con-Armenian issue, they discussed the consequences of the Armenian Con-gress. Zimmerman told Cavid Beygress. Zimmerman told Cavid Bey to think of humanity and civilization. to think of humanity and civilization. Cavid BeyCavid Bey gave agave a sharp responsesharp response: : "The Great Powers have benefitted "The Great Powers have benefitted from us very much. If the Great Powers, including Russia, would like to from us very much. If the Great Powers, including Russia, would like to show their humanity, they can give up the benefits obtained from us. show their humanity, they can give up the benefits obtained from us. They could give us our financial independence in return for the They could give us our financial independence in return for the Armeni-Armeni-an reforman reform."." Zimmerman laughed and implied that none of the Great Zimmerman laughed and implied that none of the Great Powers would accept this.Powers would accept this.931

The French team including M. Klapka and M. Ponsü arrived in Berlin

The French team including M. Klapka and M. Ponsü arrived in Berlin on December 5, 1913. M. Klapka informed Cavid Beyon December 5, 1913. M. Klapka informed Cavid Bey that Paris foresaw that Paris foresaw giving the Empire a logiving the Empire a loan in February an in February oror March, but unfortunately not as March, but unfortunately not as large a loan as expected. He said that it might be around 350 million li-large a loan as expected. He said that it might be around 350 million li-ras. The Germans insisted on the acceptance of their new offer and on ras. The Germans insisted on the acceptance of their new offer and on their receiving concessions from the Rayaktheir receiving concessions from the Rayak--Lada railway, which Lada railway, which the the French had French had alalso asked for. Over the next few days, several incidents so asked for. Over the next few days, several incidents overlapped with each other. The Echo de Paris published an article on overlapped with each other. The Echo de Paris published an article on the views of the Italian delegate to the Armenian Congress, Don Dantiya. the views of the Italian delegate to the Armenian Congress, Don Dantiya. In the interview, he stated that Italy sIn the interview, he stated that Italy supported the reupported the refoform project, and if rm project, and if the loan were international, Italy would insist on making the implemen-the loan were international, Italy would insist on making the implemen-tation of the Armenian reform conditional upon receiving the loan. tation of the Armenian reform conditional upon receiving the loan.

931 CaCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet vid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi Ruznâmesi II,II, 364364--67.67.

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Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey complained that the French dailies never interrogated whom complained that the French dailies never interrogated whom they were realthey were really interviewingly interviewing. . Furthermore, Don Dantia had personally Furthermore, Don Dantia had personally obtained a railway concession in Antalya, and thus he was interested in obtained a railway concession in Antalya, and thus he was interested in this issue because Armenians were living in the region. Cavid Beythis issue because Armenians were living in the region. Cavid Bey noted noted his personal bias and remarked that “this is the way hishis personal bias and remarked that “this is the way history is writtentory is written.”.”

As mentioned above, Cavid Bey

As mentioned above, Cavid Bey was under great suspicion in Berlin. was under great suspicion in Berlin. M. Deloncle wanted to meet Cavid BeyM. Deloncle wanted to meet Cavid Bey in Paris, Cologne, or Frankfurt. in Paris, Cologne, or Frankfurt. Cavid BeyCavid Bey preferred to meet him in Frankfurt, because he could not go preferred to meet him in Frankfurt, because he could not go far from Berlin as the negotiafar from Berlin as the negotiations were ongotions were ongoining. He met Mr. Huguenin g. He met Mr. Huguenin the night before his meeting in Frankfurt. Huguenin told him that the night before his meeting in Frankfurt. Huguenin told him that Deutsche Bank had received an anonymous call stating that "Cavid BeyDeutsche Bank had received an anonymous call stating that "Cavid Bey is going to Frankfurt to meet a French man, do not trust him!" This un-is going to Frankfurt to meet a French man, do not trust him!" This un-known persoknown person informed the n informed the babank that they would follow Cavid Beynk that they would follow Cavid Bey the the next morning. Cavid Beynext morning. Cavid Bey adopted a policy based on openness to all par-adopted a policy based on openness to all par-ties. He was again surprised, because he was not aware that espionage ties. He was again surprised, because he was not aware that espionage had reached this degree. He met M. Deloncle in Frankfurt on had reached this degree. He met M. Deloncle in Frankfurt on December December 7, 1917, 1913.3. They discussed the cabinet reshuffle in France. Stephen Pichon, They discussed the cabinet reshuffle in France. Stephen Pichon, the minister of foreign affairs, was replaced by Gaston Doumergue. the minister of foreign affairs, was replaced by Gaston Doumergue. Cavid BeyCavid Bey emphasized that the agreement made with Pichon should still emphasized that the agreement made with Pichon should still be valid. Mr. Deloncle asked for monebe valid. Mr. Deloncle asked for money for the Frency for the French h press, since the press, since the loan agreement with Perrier Bank was about to finish. Cavid Beyloan agreement with Perrier Bank was about to finish. Cavid Bey told told him that the Ottoman government would give bonds to the journalists, him that the Ottoman government would give bonds to the journalists, but they couldnot turn them into cash before the great loan and the end but they couldnot turn them into cash before the great loan and the end of the Parisof the Paris Financial ConfFinancial Confererence. Cavid Beyence. Cavid Bey assessed that there had assessed that there had been nothing serious enough to bring him to Frankfurt for this meet-been nothing serious enough to bring him to Frankfurt for this meet-ing.ing.932

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey makes a note about what in our day would be termed ‘po-makes a note about what in our day would be termed ‘po-litical correctness’ in his diary. In his entry on December 8,litical correctness’ in his diary. In his entry on December 8, 1913, Cavid 1913, Cavid BeBeyy notes that Talat Bey has sent a telegram to Cavid Beynotes that Talat Bey has sent a telegram to Cavid Bey asking for a asking for a correction on his article published in Paris in which he used the term correction on his article published in Paris in which he used the term “black” to describe Arabs. He says that during the Arab reform and ef-“black” to describe Arabs. He says that during the Arab reform and ef-

932 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 369369--72.72.

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forts to stabilize relations wit

forts to stabilize relations with the Arabs, thh the Arabs, the e government should be government should be sensitive to this issue. In general, Cavid Beysensitive to this issue. In general, Cavid Bey, as a liberal person who , as a liberal person who adopted Ottomanism, had no discriminatory or racial discourse. This adopted Ottomanism, had no discriminatory or racial discourse. This was was the accepted way of describing people in the days before political the accepted way of describing people in the days before political correccorrecttness was invenness was inventeted. d.

On the same day, the government signed a loan agreement with Per-

On the same day, the government signed a loan agreement with Per-rier Bank amounting to 350 million liras for 100 million rier Bank amounting to 350 million liras for 100 million francsfrancs of of French treasury bonds at aFrench treasury bonds at a net price of 80%. The bank paid the money net price of 80%. The bank paid the money in cash immediately. However, Rifin cash immediately. However, Rifatat Bey stated iBey stated in n his telegram that, as his telegram that, as Cavid BeyCavid Bey might have guessed, this amount would not be the remedy for might have guessed, this amount would not be the remedy for the treasury's hardships. the treasury's hardships.

On December 8, 1913, Cavid Bey

On December 8, 1913, Cavid Bey again started a long meeting with again started a long meeting with Deutsche Bank. The main problem was that Germany wantedDeutsche Bank. The main problem was that Germany wanted aa profit of profit of 1212%.%. They also wanted a guarantee of 220,000 francs per km. Cavid BeyThey also wanted a guarantee of 220,000 francs per km. Cavid Bey complained that the Germans always raised their demands because of complained that the Germans always raised their demands because of the agreement with the French. For instance, during the meeting, Gwin-the agreement with the French. For instance, during the meeting, Gwin-ner claimed that in 1909, the French ner claimed that in 1909, the French hahad won far mord won far more e concessions than concessions than Cavid BeyCavid Bey claimed they had. The files of the French agreements were claimed they had. The files of the French agreements were brought into the meeting and in the end, they understood that Cavid Beybrought into the meeting and in the end, they understood that Cavid Bey was right on his claim. Cavid Beywas right on his claim. Cavid Bey said they would rather shut up than said they would rather shut up than confirm whatconfirm what hhe said. Althoe said. Althougugh Helfferich said that the Germans were h Helfferich said that the Germans were making sacrifices for the Empire, Cavid Beymaking sacrifices for the Empire, Cavid Bey said that this was not the said that this was not the case. He stated that he could not agree these terms, which he found case. He stated that he could not agree these terms, which he found harmful for his country. Cavid Beyharmful for his country. Cavid Bey stated that he would infostated that he would informrm the Sub-the Sub-lime lime PoPorte, but if they could not agree in Berlin, he would leave, and rte, but if they could not agree in Berlin, he would leave, and they should continue the negotiations with the Ottoman government, they should continue the negotiations with the Ottoman government, who could give more for political reasons. During the meeting, the Ger-who could give more for political reasons. During the meeting, the Ger-mans asked about the Empire’s large lomans asked about the Empire’s large loanan from Perrierfrom Perrier BBank. Cavid Beyank. Cavid Bey emphasized that, due to the delay in payment of the French loan, be-emphasized that, due to the delay in payment of the French loan, be-cause of the Frenchcause of the French--German talks, they had had to borrow this sum to German talks, they had had to borrow this sum to take care of their urgent needs. take care of their urgent needs.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey was bored and exhausted from listening to twas bored and exhausted from listening to thehe Germans Germans talktalk. . He was amazed at how patient he had been at the meetings. Cavid He was amazed at how patient he had been at the meetings. Cavid BeyBey did not even respond when the meeting ended. He complained that did not even respond when the meeting ended. He complained that

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Germany put forward the same issues at every turn, even though the

Germany put forward the same issues at every turn, even though the Empire rejected them every time. Cavid BEmpire rejected them every time. Cavid Beyey stated that stated that ththis was the first is was the first time in his life that he had witnessed such weird negotiations. He com-time in his life that he had witnessed such weird negotiations. He com-mented to Helfferich, "I hope this man who is known as the finance ge-mented to Helfferich, "I hope this man who is known as the finance ge-nius of Germany was not like this when he was young." Huguenin and nius of Germany was not like this when he was young." Huguenin and even Helfferich even Helfferich alalso complainedso complained aabout the situation. The negotiations bout the situation. The negotiations with the Germans were deadlocked. The Germans offered to go to arbi-with the Germans were deadlocked. The Germans offered to go to arbi-tration. Cavid Beytration. Cavid Bey responded, "If you go to the Hague, you will not get responded, "If you go to the Hague, you will not get half of what I gave you." Cavid Beyhalf of what I gave you." Cavid Bey stated that he would makstated that he would make e his final his final offofferer and then would pack his bags. Huguenin asked Cavid Beyand then would pack his bags. Huguenin asked Cavid Bey if he was if he was still willing to accept the French formula, to which Cavid Beystill willing to accept the French formula, to which Cavid Bey agreed. agreed. However, Cavid BeyHowever, Cavid Bey warned that ending negotiations with him did not warned that ending negotiations with him did not mean ending negotiations with the mean ending negotiations with the gogovernment. Thevernment. The ggovernment may overnment may reassess the negotiations in line with its political views. In the mean-reassess the negotiations in line with its political views. In the mean-time, on December 12, 1913, Hakkı Pasha had signed the agreement on time, on December 12, 1913, Hakkı Pasha had signed the agreement on navigation rights with Inchcape. As Grey envisaged, the Germans ruled navigation rights with Inchcape. As Grey envisaged, the Germans ruled the railways, the railways, and the Britishand the British rruled the waves.uled the waves.933

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey was again angry at the news in the French newspapers. was again angry at the news in the French newspapers. L’Echo de Paris wrote that Europe should ask where its money would be L’Echo de Paris wrote that Europe should ask where its money would be spent in exchange for paying the Empire’s debt and argued that Europe spent in exchange for paying the Empire’s debt and argued that Europe should control its money. Cavid Bshould control its money. Cavid Beyey wrote that journalists were not wrote that journalists were not honest. In addition, Le Matin argued that France should hide its money, honest. In addition, Le Matin argued that France should hide its money, since Turkish borrowing would negatively impact Russia. Le Temps and since Turkish borrowing would negatively impact Russia. Le Temps and Figaro reported on the German military delegation in Istanbul. They Figaro reported on the German military delegation in Istanbul. They wrote that wrote that IsIstanbul should settle this issue, not Berlin. They also criti-tanbul should settle this issue, not Berlin. They also criti-cized Cavid Beycized Cavid Bey for not resolving the issue in time. L’Echo de Paris's sto-for not resolving the issue in time. L’Echo de Paris's sto-ry was quite abrupt and personal. According to the article, General Otto ry was quite abrupt and personal. According to the article, General Otto Liman von Sanders was sent to Istanbul because Liman von Sanders was sent to Istanbul because hehe was not popular in was not popular in Germany due to his Jewish roots. A few days later, L’Écho de Paris again Germany due to his Jewish roots. A few days later, L’Écho de Paris again published news about the German military delegation. The article as-published news about the German military delegation. The article as-serted that Russia and France were not afraid to fight against Germany. serted that Russia and France were not afraid to fight against Germany.

933 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 337676--84.84.

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Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey noted that noted that FrFrance had not even fought with Germany over Al-ance had not even fought with Germany over Al-sacesace--Lorraine, so why would they raise a conflict over the German mili-Lorraine, so why would they raise a conflict over the German mili-tary mission?tary mission?

On December 16, 1913, Cavid Bey

On December 16, 1913, Cavid Bey received a telegram from Said received a telegram from Said Halim Pasha asking him to return to Istanbul immediately. TalatHalim Pasha asking him to return to Istanbul immediately. Talat BBey al-ey al-so called him back to Istanbul. They both wanted Cavid Beyso called him back to Istanbul. They both wanted Cavid Bey back in Is-back in Is-tanbul to discuss the heavy fiscal burden. Cavid Beytanbul to discuss the heavy fiscal burden. Cavid Bey considered that his considered that his sudden departure would harm the negotiations with the Germans. He sudden departure would harm the negotiations with the Germans. He had reached a critical decision. He decidhad reached a critical decision. He decideded to depart for Istanbul during to depart for Istanbul during the Christmas holidays, but he also asked to be told the real reasons for the Christmas holidays, but he also asked to be told the real reasons for Talat Bey calling him back to Istanbul. He also offered to discuss the Talat Bey calling him back to Istanbul. He also offered to discuss the German issues in Istanbul. Though Cavid BeyGerman issues in Istanbul. Though Cavid Bey informed Talat Bey that he informed Talat Bey that he would would gogo to Istanbul in the Christmas holidays, Rifat Bey, the minister of to Istanbul in the Christmas holidays, Rifat Bey, the minister of finance, departed from Istanbul to meet Cavid Beyfinance, departed from Istanbul to meet Cavid Bey in Berlin. Cavid Beyin Berlin. Cavid Bey criticized this move, because it could cause much gossip in the French criticized this move, because it could cause much gossip in the French press. According to Cavid Beypress. According to Cavid Bey, Istanbul did n, Istanbul did notot know what it was doing. know what it was doing. He said that he did not expect them to make such an inappropriate deci-He said that he did not expect them to make such an inappropriate deci-sion. sion.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met Mr. Zimmerman for the last time before his departure. met Mr. Zimmerman for the last time before his departure. Overall, Cavid BeyOverall, Cavid Bey’s meetings in Berlin were inconclusive. The Germans ’s meetings in Berlin were inconclusive. The Germans wanted to imwanted to implplement the same conditions as the French, in order to im-ement the same conditions as the French, in order to im-prove their own circumstances. They also increased their demands in prove their own circumstances. They also increased their demands in the hopes of receiving at least 10% of the profits from the Baghdad the hopes of receiving at least 10% of the profits from the Baghdad Railway. Additionally, the Empire’s political issues became theRailway. Additionally, the Empire’s political issues became the mmost crit-ost crit-ical part of the negotiations in Berlin. Cavid Beyical part of the negotiations in Berlin. Cavid Bey discussed the Armenian discussed the Armenian issue as much as financial topics. Nevertheless, they could not reach any issue as much as financial topics. Nevertheless, they could not reach any conclusions on these matters either. Meanwhile, the French arrived in conclusions on these matters either. Meanwhile, the French arrived in Berlin and allowed Cavid BeyBerlin and allowed Cavid Bey tto renegotiate their agreement before its o renegotiate their agreement before its ratification, although this meant that the French would increase their ratification, although this meant that the French would increase their demands. While the Ottoman government's primary needs were rising demands. While the Ottoman government's primary needs were rising and they were borrowing money from smaller banks at a high interest and they were borrowing money from smaller banks at a high interest rate, thrate, the e loan process and the Paris financial conference were consist-loan process and the Paris financial conference were consist-

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ently postponed. Under these circumstances, Cavid Bey

ently postponed. Under these circumstances, Cavid Bey left Berlin on left Berlin on December 20, 1913, at the beginning of the Christmas holidays.December 20, 1913, at the beginning of the Christmas holidays.934

4.3.9 Field Research in IstanbulField Research in Istanbul

While Cavid Bey

While Cavid Bey was preparing to rwas preparing to reteturn to Istanbul, he was informed urn to Istanbul, he was informed that Rifat Bey would come to Berlin. However, he did not change his that Rifat Bey would come to Berlin. However, he did not change his plans and wait for Rifat Bey. Cavid Beyplans and wait for Rifat Bey. Cavid Bey wanted to meet his fellow Union-wanted to meet his fellow Union-ists and the members of the cabinet in Istanbul. Meanwhile, he received ists and the members of the cabinet in Istanbul. Meanwhile, he received a telegrama telegram ffrom Rifat Pasha informing him that the French government rom Rifat Pasha informing him that the French government had decided to give loans to Russia (800 million liras), Serbia (364 mil-had decided to give loans to Russia (800 million liras), Serbia (364 mil-lion liras), and Greece (300 million liras). Cavid Beylion liras), and Greece (300 million liras). Cavid Bey thought that he thought that he should go to Paris directly after his stay in Istanbulshould go to Paris directly after his stay in Istanbul. . He saw no reason to He saw no reason to return to Berlin, because the negotiations were bogged down by Ger-return to Berlin, because the negotiations were bogged down by Ger-many’s demands. His main apprehension was the loan issue, which af-many’s demands. His main apprehension was the loan issue, which af-fected the government's prestige both internationally and domestically. fected the government's prestige both internationally and domestically. He immediately sent a telegramHe immediately sent a telegram tto M. Klapka arguing that issuing other o M. Klapka arguing that issuing other loans before the Ottomans received their loan would harm the Ottoman loans before the Ottomans received their loan would harm the Ottoman Bank's honor.However, he was still not sure about going to Paris. He Bank's honor.However, he was still not sure about going to Paris. He asked whether he should go or not to both M. Klapka and M. Bompard. If asked whether he should go or not to both M. Klapka and M. Bompard. If he couhe couldld not obtain the loan, it would be a political failure for the CUP not obtain the loan, it would be a political failure for the CUP and Cavid Beyand Cavid Bey. However, while he was deliberating the circumstances in . However, while he was deliberating the circumstances in detail, the news about Rifat Bey travelling to Paris made him unsettled. detail, the news about Rifat Bey travelling to Paris made him unsettled. He remarked, “This kind of an odd situation He remarked, “This kind of an odd situation ononly happens in our coun-ly happens in our coun-try.”try.”935 On his way to Istanbul, he met Fethi Bey in Sofia. Fethi Bey stated On his way to Istanbul, he met Fethi Bey in Sofia. Fethi Bey stated that he would prefer to see Cemal Pasha as the minister of war, and this that he would prefer to see Cemal Pasha as the minister of war, and this situation must pass. Unfortunately, there are no further details on this situation must pass. Unfortunately, there are no further details on this significansignificant t issue in Cavid Beyissue in Cavid Bey's diary. 's diary.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey arrived in Istanbul on December 25, 1913. These were arrived in Istanbul on December 25, 1913. These were busy times in Istanbul. In terms of domestic politics, the preparations busy times in Istanbul. In terms of domestic politics, the preparations for the elections was one of the top issues of winter 1913for the elections was one of the top issues of winter 1913––1914. The 1914. The

934 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmesiRuznâmesi II,II, 390 390 -- 416. 416.

935 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 416416--18.18.

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most critical issue w

most critical issue wasas the representation of the Armenian, Greek, and the representation of the Armenian, Greek, and Arab minorities in the parliament. There had been lengthy negotiations Arab minorities in the parliament. There had been lengthy negotiations among the leaders of the minorities and the CUP leaders. Indeed, what among the leaders of the minorities and the CUP leaders. Indeed, what to do with the Empire’s minority subjects became the central issuto do with the Empire’s minority subjects became the central issue e of of the CUP. In terms of the Greeks, the traumatic impact of the defeat in the the CUP. In terms of the Greeks, the traumatic impact of the defeat in the Balkan Wars and the islands situation led to boycotts and the deporta-Balkan Wars and the islands situation led to boycotts and the deporta-tion of Greek citizens from Thrace and Anatolia. The Ottoman govern-tion of Greek citizens from Thrace and Anatolia. The Ottoman govern-ment pursued policies to strengthen its ment pursued policies to strengthen its nanavy, and Europe was alarmed vy, and Europe was alarmed at the prospect of a Grecoat the prospect of a Greco--Ottoman war. The Armenian Question had Ottoman war. The Armenian Question had already been a significant part of the international arena since the Ar-already been a significant part of the international arena since the Ar-menians had applied for aid from Russia in 1912.menians had applied for aid from Russia in 1912.936 Lastly, the Arabs Lastly, the Arabs had organized a conferhad organized a conferenencce on reforms in the summer of 1913 in Paris, e on reforms in the summer of 1913 in Paris, which due to France’s plans in Syria, heightened the Unionists’ anxiety. which due to France’s plans in Syria, heightened the Unionists’ anxiety.

In sum, as a result of the parliamentary elections, 256 deputies were

In sum, as a result of the parliamentary elections, 256 deputies were elected in 1914 during the elections held between January and Apelected in 1914 during the elections held between January and Apririll. . There were 144 Turkish, 84 Arab, 14 Armenian, 13 Greek, and four Jew-There were 144 Turkish, 84 Arab, 14 Armenian, 13 Greek, and four Jew-ish deputies in the Ottoman parliament. The number of Arab deputies ish deputies in the Ottoman parliament. The number of Arab deputies had increased from 68 to 84 compared to the last elections in 1912. had increased from 68 to 84 compared to the last elections in 1912. Both the reform project and the changes in geogBoth the reform project and the changes in geograrapphy and population of hy and population of the Balkan Wars affected this result.the Balkan Wars affected this result.937

Another crucial issue in these days was the position of the German

Another crucial issue in these days was the position of the German military mission in Istanbul. After an international crisis that lasted for military mission in Istanbul. After an international crisis that lasted for a couple of months, Germany had developed a Januaa couple of months, Germany had developed a Januaryry solution that solution that pleased each party. Kaiser Wilhelm promoted Liman von Sanders to pleased each party. Kaiser Wilhelm promoted Liman von Sanders to Marshal in the Ottoman army, and he became too senior to command Marshal in the Ottoman army, and he became too senior to command the Firstthe First--Army Corps. Then, the Kaiser appointed von Sanders as the Army Corps. Then, the Kaiser appointed von Sanders as the InspectorInspector--General of the Army. According General of the Army. According toto Heller, in March 1914, there Heller, in March 1914, there had been 47 officers serving in the German Military Mission, all of had been 47 officers serving in the German Military Mission, all of whom had important tasks and positions.whom had important tasks and positions.938

936 Keiser, Polatel, Schmutz, Keiser, Polatel, Schmutz, “Re“Reform form or Cator Cataclysmaclysm? The ag? The agrreemeemeennt of 8February 1914 t of 8February 1914 regarding tregarding the Ottoman ehe Ottoman easterasternn proviprovinces, 285nces, 285--304. 304.

937 AhmaAhmad,d, Ittihat ve TerIttihat ve Terakki,1akki,1908908--1914 (Jön Türkler),1914 (Jön Türkler), 222299--30.30.

938 Heller, Heller, British Policy Towards The Ottoman Empire 1908British Policy Towards The Ottoman Empire 1908--19141914, 112, 112--16. 16.

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When he arrived in Istanbul, Cavid Bey

When he arrived in Istanbul, Cavid Bey attended a funeral for Hakkı attended a funeral for Hakkı Bey, a professor and one of his friends. ThoughBey, a professor and one of his friends. Though CCaavid Beyvid Bey does not men-does not men-tion his private life or friends in his diary, he notes his sadness upon his tion his private life or friends in his diary, he notes his sadness upon his loss. He depicts his death as a loss for loss. He depicts his death as a loss for the country. the country. 939

The next day, he notes

The next day, he notes in his diary that “political concerns were call-in his diary that “political concerns were call-ing me to work” and pays a visit to Talat Bey. His notes concerning this ing me to work” and pays a visit to Talat Bey. His notes concerning this meeting update us about what was happening in Istanbul in those days. meeting update us about what was happening in Istanbul in those days. One was Liman von Sanders's One was Liman von Sanders's demotion of his title. Cavid Beydemotion of his title. Cavid Bey consiconsid-d-ered that attempting it would be harmful to the government's future at-ered that attempting it would be harmful to the government's future at-tempts and risk the national honor. Although Talat Bey also disagreed tempts and risk the national honor. Although Talat Bey also disagreed with Rifat Bey’s visit to Paris, he brushed off the topic and exclaimed, "It with Rifat Bey’s visit to Paris, he brushed off the topic and exclaimed, "It is already done!" This reaction was tyis already done!" This reaction was typical of Talat Bey; he acted like pical of Talat Bey; he acted like this when he could not or did not want to intervene. Cavid Beythis when he could not or did not want to intervene. Cavid Bey did not did not feel comfortable with this kind of fait accompli. Nevertheless, there feel comfortable with this kind of fait accompli. Nevertheless, there were many situations like this. The purchaswere many situations like this. The purchase of the dreadnought Rio e of the dreadnought Rio was also a kiwas also a kind of a fait accompli according to Cavid Beynd of a fait accompli according to Cavid Bey. He was anx-. He was anx-ious because he knew that France would hear about it very soon, and ious because he knew that France would hear about it very soon, and then the loan issue would become more difficult. He would be the one then the loan issue would become more difficult. He would be the one who had to untie the Gordwho had to untie the Gordian knot. On the Armenian issue, Talatian knot. On the Armenian issue, Talat Bey Bey thought that they would be able to lance the boil and negotiate with the thought that they would be able to lance the boil and negotiate with the Great Powers. Talat Bey told him that the Armenians had demanded a Great Powers. Talat Bey told him that the Armenians had demanded a new compromise with the government. As for the inspector question, new compromise with the government. As for the inspector question, the puthe public needed to see that the Ottoman Emblic needed to see that the Ottoman Empire could choose the in-pire could choose the in-spectors itself. According to the recent plan, they would ask for the spectors itself. According to the recent plan, they would ask for the Great Powers' decision on the inspectors privately, and then the Otto-Great Powers' decision on the inspectors privately, and then the Otto-man government would publicly choose the inspectors andman government would publicly choose the inspectors and declare the declare the names to the Great Powersnames to the Great Powers. On the cabinet reshuffle, Talat Bey told him . On the cabinet reshuffle, Talat Bey told him that the resignation of İzzet Pasha was certain. He knew that Fethi Bey that the resignation of İzzet Pasha was certain. He knew that Fethi Bey supported Cemal Bey becoming the minister of war. However, Talat Bey supported Cemal Bey becoming the minister of war. However, Talat Bey added that Cemal Bey had also added that Cemal Bey had also become a very arrogant person, hardly become a very arrogant person, hardly

939 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmeRuznâmesi si II,II, 4418.18.

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bearable, like Said Halim Pasha. He ended the discussion by telling

bearable, like Said Halim Pasha. He ended the discussion by telling Cavid BeyCavid Bey that Enver Bey was slated to become the minister of war.that Enver Bey was slated to become the minister of war.940

The purchase of the new battleships occupied much of Cavid Bey

The purchase of the new battleships occupied much of Cavid Bey's 's time while in Isttime while in Istanbul. The French had heard about the anbul. The French had heard about the Empire’s plans Empire’s plans to purchase additional dreadnoughts. On December 31, when Cavid Beyto purchase additional dreadnoughts. On December 31, when Cavid Bey met with Mr. Nias at the Ottoman Bank, Mr. Nias had received a telegram met with Mr. Nias at the Ottoman Bank, Mr. Nias had received a telegram informing him that the Ottoman government had purchased the Rioinforming him that the Ottoman government had purchased the Rio de de Janeiro. According to the telegramJaneiro. According to the telegram, the French government might post-, the French government might post-pone the loan. Furthermore, the Ottoman Bank could now only give the pone the loan. Furthermore, the Ottoman Bank could now only give the Empire 100,000 liras with a guaranteed return. Cavid BeyEmpire 100,000 liras with a guaranteed return. Cavid Bey became even became even more nervous. The European political and finanmore nervous. The European political and financial milieu feared a war cial milieu feared a war between Greecbetween Greece and the Ottoman Empire. What was worse was that the e and the Ottoman Empire. What was worse was that the European political circles would support Greece. Moreover, they did not European political circles would support Greece. Moreover, they did not want their loans to the Empire spent on war. Financial control over the want their loans to the Empire spent on war. Financial control over the Ottoman treasury hadOttoman treasury had been on France’s mind for a long timebeen on France’s mind for a long time as, once as, once again, they thought that such moves strengthened their argument for again, they thought that such moves strengthened their argument for controlling where the money would be spent. Therefore, the Ottoman controlling where the money would be spent. Therefore, the Ottoman government felt obliged to reduce the budget of the ministry of war in government felt obliged to reduce the budget of the ministry of war in ththe 1914 budget. This would be Enver Pase 1914 budget. This would be Enver Pasha’s first task when he would ha’s first task when he would start his position on January 4, 1914. Nevertheless, Cavid Beystart his position on January 4, 1914. Nevertheless, Cavid Bey continued continued to emphasize to the French that the dreadnought issue had arisen be-to emphasize to the French that the dreadnought issue had arisen be-cause Europe implemented the wrong policies towacause Europe implemented the wrong policies toward the islands. It rd the islands. It was the Great Powerwas the Great Powers’ policies that had prompted the government to act s’ policies that had prompted the government to act like this. He told M. Bopp that if Europe had paid attention to the Em-like this. He told M. Bopp that if Europe had paid attention to the Em-pire’s interests, then they would not have incurred hefty expenses. He pire’s interests, then they would not have incurred hefty expenses. He wrote to the French miniswrote to the French ministry of foreign affairs that although htry of foreign affairs that although he opposed e opposed it, he had failed to prevent the purchase of the dreadnoughts despite his it, he had failed to prevent the purchase of the dreadnoughts despite his hard work.hard work.941 Cavid BeyCavid Bey delayed his departure from Istanbul. After the delayed his departure from Istanbul. After the dreadnought issue, the French government wanted him to delay his dreadnought issue, the French government wanted him to delay his de-de-parture, and he considered that agreparture, and he considered that agreements with the French had priori-ements with the French had priori-ty (compared to the Germans), and he should go to Paris to finish this ty (compared to the Germans), and he should go to Paris to finish this

940 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâmesi II,uznâmesi II, 418418--220.0.

941 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi Ruznâmesi II, II, 434300--31.31.

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business. On the other hand, he did not want to go to Paris with doubts

business. On the other hand, he did not want to go to Paris with doubts about the loan. about the loan.

Another issue that Cavid

Another issue that Cavid BeyBey dealt with while in Istanbul was hdealt with while in Istanbul was his is negotiations with the Russian embassy. This time, he carried on the ne-negotiations with the Russian embassy. This time, he carried on the ne-gotiations with Mr. Gul’kevich, chargé d’affaires. Cavid Beygotiations with Mr. Gul’kevich, chargé d’affaires. Cavid Bey frankly stat-frankly stat-ed that France had a weapon in its hands, including a financial boycott ed that France had a weapon in its hands, including a financial boycott against the German military mission. Hagainst the German military mission. He claimed that his country could e claimed that his country could not exist for one year without any loan. Cavid Beynot exist for one year without any loan. Cavid Bey stated that he would stated that he would blame Russia for any financial crisis.blame Russia for any financial crisis.942 The next day, he met Mr. de Giers The next day, he met Mr. de Giers and Mr. Gul’kevich together in the Russand Mr. Gul’kevich together in the Russian embassy to discuss various ian embassy to discuss various issues issues such as the Armenian issue, assignment of a Russian delegate to such as the Armenian issue, assignment of a Russian delegate to the Ottoman PDA, and the German military mission. On the Armenian the Ottoman PDA, and the German military mission. On the Armenian issue, they discussed the details of how the inspectors would be as-issue, they discussed the details of how the inspectors would be as-signed. According to signed. According to the recent negotiations, the general ithe recent negotiations, the general inspectors nspectors would be assigned by the Ottoman Empire but their identity would be would be assigned by the Ottoman Empire but their identity would be negotiated privately. If a situation arose such as the vacancy of the office negotiated privately. If a situation arose such as the vacancy of the office in the future, then Europe would assign an inspector “same contin the future, then Europe would assign an inspector “same contest wel-est wel-come so much” (meme Concours Bicome so much” (meme Concours Bienvenue tant). Cavid Beyenvenue tant). Cavid Bey was op-was op-posed to using the word “meme.” The discussions focused on this word. posed to using the word “meme.” The discussions focused on this word. Both sides insisted on their claims. Both sides insisted on their claims.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey invited Zöhrap Efendi and Varteks Efendi to a wedding in invited Zöhrap Efendi and Varteks Efendi to a wedding in Tokatlıyan. Tokatlıyan. He gave no further information about the wedding. They He gave no further information about the wedding. They discussed the details of the reform plan concerning the officers. They discussed the details of the reform plan concerning the officers. They offered to split the number of Muslim and nonoffered to split the number of Muslim and non--MusliMuslim officerm officers fiftys fifty--fifty. fifty. Zöhrap Efendi asked Cavid BeyZöhrap Efendi asked Cavid Bey to transcribe the Armenians’ de-to transcribe the Armenians’ de-mands.mands.943 Interestingly, Cavid BeyInterestingly, Cavid Bey was taking charge of the Armenian was taking charge of the Armenian issue. This situation also indicates his position as a Unionist, a civil Un-issue. This situation also indicates his position as a Unionist, a civil Un-ionist whose intervention in ionist whose intervention in domestic domestic affairs was wider than the schol-affairs was wider than the schol-ars assume. However, it is astonishing that he did not hear about the ars assume. However, it is astonishing that he did not hear about the consequences of the Armenians' deportation in 1915.consequences of the Armenians' deportation in 1915.

942 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II,Ruznâmesi II, 420420--25.25. 943 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi IIRuznâmesi II, , 425425--27.27.

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Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey visited the Grand Vizier on December 30. He told Cavid visited the Grand Vizier on December 30. He told Cavid BeyBey that he wanted to concluthat he wanted to conclude the nede the negotiations with the French first. gotiations with the French first. According to him, the Germans would remain weak if the Ottomans According to him, the Germans would remain weak if the Ottomans signed the agreements with the French. Said Halim Pasha was con-signed the agreements with the French. Said Halim Pasha was con-cerned with the Sivascerned with the Sivas--Harput line, but Cavid BeyHarput line, but Cavid Bey told him that he had no told him that he had no reason to be reason to be worried. worried. Moreover, he underlined the fact that the com-Moreover, he underlined the fact that the com-promise they were making was with the German government, not with promise they were making was with the German government, not with Deutsche Bank. The bank could never secure these advantages by itself. Deutsche Bank. The bank could never secure these advantages by itself. He thought that if they finished the Bagdad Railway business, theHe thought that if they finished the Bagdad Railway business, they could y could gget Germany's support on the islands issue. Cavid Beyet Germany's support on the islands issue. Cavid Bey pointed out that pointed out that this would help them justify the compromises they made with Germany this would help them justify the compromises they made with Germany to the public. On the islands issue, the Grand Vizier was very deter-to the public. On the islands issue, the Grand Vizier was very deter-mined not to accept the British offer, whmined not to accept the British offer, which was lich was leaving the islands to eaving the islands to Greece. The Ottoman Government might wage war against Greece if Greece. The Ottoman Government might wage war against Greece if they were forced to.they were forced to.944

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey made an offer to Gul’kevich, the Russian delegate. Accord-made an offer to Gul’kevich, the Russian delegate. Accord-ing to his offer, the OPDA would accept the minister of finance of the Oing to his offer, the OPDA would accept the minister of finance of the Ot-t-toman gotoman government as an equal among the other delegates, and in re-vernment as an equal among the other delegates, and in re-turn, the Ottoman government would start negotiations with the turn, the Ottoman government would start negotiations with the syndicates for the acceptance of the Russian delegate. Gul’kevich ac-syndicates for the acceptance of the Russian delegate. Gul’kevich ac-cepted this as long as Cavid Beycepted this as long as Cavid Bey would also commit to conviwould also commit to convincing thencing the Germans that they should not demand a second delegate. Germans that they should not demand a second delegate.

According to Cavid Bey

According to Cavid Bey’s diaries, a problem had emerged in Enver ’s diaries, a problem had emerged in Enver Pasha’s asPasha’s assignment to the ministry of war, as İzzet Pasha had changed signment to the ministry of war, as İzzet Pasha had changed his mind about his resignation. But Talat Bey, who supphis mind about his resignation. But Talat Bey, who supported Enver Pa-orted Enver Pa-sha, threatened to resign on the Saturday if Said Halim Pasha could not sha, threatened to resign on the Saturday if Said Halim Pasha could not resolve this issue. After this incident, İzzet Pasha reresolve this issue. After this incident, İzzet Pasha resigned on Thursday, signed on Thursday, January 1, 1914. During the night, Cavid BeyJanuary 1, 1914. During the night, Cavid Bey gathered with his Unionist gathered with his Unionist friends at İbrahim Bey’s house. Enver Bey, Talat Bey, Halil Bey, İsmail friends at İbrahim Bey’s house. Enver Bey, Talat Bey, Halil Bey, İsmail Bey, and Mithat Bey were all at the meeting. Cemal Bey insisted on pro-Bey, and Mithat Bey were all at the meeting. Cemal Bey insisted on pro-moting Enver Bey to bmoting Enver Bey to brigadierrigadier--general. However, although they all general. However, although they all

944 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmeRuznâmesisi IIII,, 428428--29. 29.

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agreed on this promotion, it was not certain. Cavid Bey

agreed on this promotion, it was not certain. Cavid Bey was hopeful was hopeful about Enver. He noted in his diary that he had great ambition and ex-about Enver. He noted in his diary that he had great ambition and ex-citement and hoped that he would do a great job.citement and hoped that he would do a great job.945

The French government s

The French government sent Cavid Beyent Cavid Bey a message that it was not the a message that it was not the right time to go to Paris, because the government was busy with com-right time to go to Paris, because the government was busy with com-plex issues such as the Aegean islands, the German military issue, and plex issues such as the Aegean islands, the German military issue, and the French agreement signed with the previous government. The mes-the French agreement signed with the previous government. The mes-sage was sage was sent by the new prime minister, Gaston Doumergue, who en-sent by the new prime minister, Gaston Doumergue, who en-tered the office on December 9, 1913. Though the fiscal situation was in tered the office on December 9, 1913. Though the fiscal situation was in hardship, the Ottoman government and Cavid Beyhardship, the Ottoman government and Cavid Bey insisted on the return insisted on the return of Midilli (Lesbos) and Sakız (Chios) to the Empire. of Midilli (Lesbos) and Sakız (Chios) to the Empire.

Cav

Cavid Beyid Bey continued to work on the text of the reform act. Mean-continued to work on the text of the reform act. Mean-while, the French press wrote about the dreadnoughts issue. Le Temps while, the French press wrote about the dreadnoughts issue. Le Temps and L’Echo de Paris published articles criticizing the Ottoman govern-and L’Echo de Paris published articles criticizing the Ottoman govern-ment. Cavid Beyment. Cavid Bey also criticized the government for its puralso criticized the government for its purchase of all of chase of all of the dreadnoughts and for not leaving any for Greece. Moreover, battle-the dreadnoughts and for not leaving any for Greece. Moreover, battle-ships, motor torpedo boats, et cetera, were not included in the navy’s ships, motor torpedo boats, et cetera, were not included in the navy’s budget. This attitude toward spending could lead the Empire into bank-budget. This attitude toward spending could lead the Empire into bank-ruptcy. ruptcy.

As mentioned above, E

As mentioned above, Enver Bey’s promotion was not concrete yet. nver Bey’s promotion was not concrete yet. Enver Bey moved against Ahmet İzzet Pasha, who resisted the call to Enver Bey moved against Ahmet İzzet Pasha, who resisted the call to resign. According to the news in Tanin, İzzet Pasha, the minister of war, resign. According to the news in Tanin, İzzet Pasha, the minister of war, had resigned, and Enver Bey would replace him. Izzet Pasha commented had resigned, and Enver Bey would replace him. Izzet Pasha commented ththat he was forced to resign under these circumstances.at he was forced to resign under these circumstances.946 Cavid BeyCavid Bey was hopeful about Enver Bey’s new position and notes in his diary that was hopeful about Enver Bey’s new position and notes in his diary that “He is like an iron hand, which would force most rebels to leave or “He is like an iron hand, which would force most rebels to leave or obey.”obey.”947

During the final days of his stay in Istanb

During the final days of his stay in Istanbul, Cavid Beyul, Cavid Bey continued his continued his negotiations with different parties. The most exciting and unpredictable negotiations with different parties. The most exciting and unpredictable moves came from Russia. Russia wanted to voice its approval of the tar-moves came from Russia. Russia wanted to voice its approval of the tar-

945 Cavid Bey, MeşruCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet tiyet RuzRuznâmesnâmesii II, II, 443232--34.34.

946 Turfan, Turfan, RRiise se of the Young Turof the Young Turks: Poks: Politics, the Military and Olitics, the Military and Ottttoman Collapseoman Collapse,, 531. 531.

947 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmesRuznâmesi II, i II, 434434--36.36.

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iff agreements contingent upon receiving a Russian representative in

iff agreements contingent upon receiving a Russian representative in the OPDA. Cavid the OPDA. Cavid BeyBey disapproved of associating these two issues. Ac-disapproved of associating these two issues. Ac-cording to him, the Ottoman PDA was under the control of the debtors cording to him, the Ottoman PDA was under the control of the debtors rather than the states. For this reason, it was not reasonable to agree rather than the states. For this reason, it was not reasonable to agree with Russia on such an issue. The Russians tried to force Cavid with Russia on such an issue. The Russians tried to force Cavid BeyBey by by every means to get what they wanted. However, Cavid Beyevery means to get what they wanted. However, Cavid Bey tried to rec-tried to rec-oncile with them, because he wanted to come to an agreement with the oncile with them, because he wanted to come to an agreement with the Russians before his departure. During his visit to Gul’kevich, Cavid BeyRussians before his departure. During his visit to Gul’kevich, Cavid Bey talked to him about the Armenian issue talked to him about the Armenian issue and claimed that Russia’s Ar-and claimed that Russia’s Ar-menia policy was deprived of humanity and the laws of civilization. menia policy was deprived of humanity and the laws of civilization. Gul’kevich asserted that Russia wanted to protect the Armenians, but Gul’kevich asserted that Russia wanted to protect the Armenians, but they also wanted to forestall railway construction in the region. Accord-they also wanted to forestall railway construction in the region. Accord-ing to Cavid Beying to Cavid Bey, i, if Russia left the stage, the Ottoman government could f Russia left the stage, the Ottoman government could come to an agreement with the Armenians.come to an agreement with the Armenians.

On the evening of January 6, 1914, Said Halim Pasha organized a

On the evening of January 6, 1914, Said Halim Pasha organized a meeting in which Talat Bey, Enver Pasha, Halil Bey, Mahmud Pasha, Rifat meeting in which Talat Bey, Enver Pasha, Halil Bey, Mahmud Pasha, Rifat Bey, and Cavid BeyBey, and Cavid Bey came tcame together. First, they discussed the issue of the ogether. First, they discussed the issue of the budget, which the cabinet would present in the chamber after its open-budget, which the cabinet would present in the chamber after its open-ing. Cavid Beying. Cavid Bey did not take this meeting seriously and thought that they did not take this meeting seriously and thought that they had decreased the military budget by two million liras for no reashad decreased the military budget by two million liras for no reason. He on. He openly expressed his idea at the meeting. They decided that Cavid Beyopenly expressed his idea at the meeting. They decided that Cavid Bey should leave for Paris as soon as possible. Regarding the Syrshould leave for Paris as soon as possible. Regarding the Syrian rail-ian rail-ways, if the French insisted on receiving concessions from the Haifaways, if the French insisted on receiving concessions from the Haifa--Rayak and LidaRayak and Lida--BeirutBeirut--Şam lines, the goveŞam lines, the government would grant the con-rnment would grant the con-cessions of these lines to France, expect for Haifa. Cavid Beycessions of these lines to France, expect for Haifa. Cavid Bey stated that stated that he did not care about Germany’s reacthe did not care about Germany’s reaction to the French agreement.ion to the French agreement.

After this meeting, he paid a visit to M. Bopp. He told him about the

After this meeting, he paid a visit to M. Bopp. He told him about the reduced military budget. It was vital that he finalize the loan in March, reduced military budget. It was vital that he finalize the loan in March, in order to prepare a proper budget for the next year. His aim in Paris in order to prepare a proper budget for the next year. His aim in Paris was to takewas to take care of the unsettled issues and obtain the loan. M. Bopp care of the unsettled issues and obtain the loan. M. Bopp asked him to postpone his departure due to the change in public opin-asked him to postpone his departure due to the change in public opin-ion toward the Ottoman government following recent developments. ion toward the Ottoman government following recent developments. Cavid BeyCavid Bey stated that he should go to Paris before Berlin; otherstated that he should go to Paris before Berlin; otherwise, the wise, the German agreement would cost them a lot. He stated that the cabinet German agreement would cost them a lot. He stated that the cabinet

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wanted him to be the minister of finance, but he preferred to take office

wanted him to be the minister of finance, but he preferred to take office after the loan agreement. In terms of the political situation, Cavid Beyafter the loan agreement. In terms of the political situation, Cavid Bey was persistent on the islands iswas persistent on the islands issue and insisted that the dreadnoughts sue and insisted that the dreadnoughts were necessary for the defense of the islands. He stated that “they (the were necessary for the defense of the islands. He stated that “they (the Empire) cannot live without the islands” and that they did not need Empire) cannot live without the islands” and that they did not need money to fight. The Ottoman navy would be stronger than the Greek na-money to fight. The Ottoman navy would be stronger than the Greek na-vy.vy.948 As As we might see, Cavid Beywe might see, Cavid Bey’s discourse in international discus-’s discourse in international discus-sions is not so different from Talat Bey's, although he often disagreed sions is not so different from Talat Bey's, although he often disagreed with him and got angry with him in private. Nevertheless, when it came with him and got angry with him in private. Nevertheless, when it came to international negotiations, Cavid Beyto international negotiations, Cavid Bey always followalways followed the govern-ed the govern-ment's discourse and that of the CUP.ment's discourse and that of the CUP.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey made his farewell courtesy visits, including to the sultan, made his farewell courtesy visits, including to the sultan, Mecid Efendi, and the ambassadors, before his departure. He also visit-Mecid Efendi, and the ambassadors, before his departure. He also visit-ed Gul’kevich, who again pushed him on the issue of the Russian ded Gul’kevich, who again pushed him on the issue of the Russian dele-ele-gates to the Ottoman PDA. Though Cavid Beygates to the Ottoman PDA. Though Cavid Bey tried to compromise and tried to compromise and come to terms with Russia, they insisted on associating the issue with come to terms with Russia, they insisted on associating the issue with the tariffs. They also asked the Ottoman government to negotiate with the tariffs. They also asked the Ottoman government to negotiate with the syndicates on behalf of the Russians. On the syndicates on behalf of the Russians. On the Armenian issue, he was the Armenian issue, he was against the community's authority to collect taxes on their own behalf. against the community's authority to collect taxes on their own behalf. M. De Giers accused the Ottoman Empire of not satisfying the Armeni-M. De Giers accused the Ottoman Empire of not satisfying the Armeni-ans; Cavid Beyans; Cavid Bey responded that their Armenian policy was relatively new responded that their Armenian policy was relatively new and that it was a cand that it was a consequence of Russia's Caucasus policies. The Rus-onsequence of Russia's Caucasus policies. The Rus-sians were not in compliance with Ottoman policies. The Russian am-sians were not in compliance with Ottoman policies. The Russian am-bassador did not even pay a courtesy visit to Enver Pasha to congratu-bassador did not even pay a courtesy visit to Enver Pasha to congratu-late him according to diplomatic customs. Cavid Beylate him according to diplomatic customs. Cavid Bey complained that for complained that for the last year, Russia had hampered the Empire’s growth more than any the last year, Russia had hampered the Empire’s growth more than any other Great Power. He added that Turkey would not be divided into other Great Power. He added that Turkey would not be divided into pieces easily; if so, Russia could not take the lion's share. De Giers re-pieces easily; if so, Russia could not take the lion's share. De Giers re-plied that Istanbul should belong to the Ottomanplied that Istanbul should belong to the Ottomans, not one of the Great s, not one of the Great Powers. Cavid BeyPowers. Cavid Bey responded that such a thing could happen only after responded that such a thing could happen only after a world war.a world war.

948 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuRuznâmesiznâmesi II, II, 436436--441.1.

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According to Cavid Bey

According to Cavid Bey’s diary, on January 10, Enver Pasha sent a ’s diary, on January 10, Enver Pasha sent a message to the ambassadors about the reduction in the military budget. message to the ambassadors about the reduction in the military budget. Moreover, heMoreover, he informed the Great Powers that they were neutral and informed the Great Powers that they were neutral and open to taking orders from all countries for the army. Before leaving Is-open to taking orders from all countries for the army. Before leaving Is-tanbul, Cavid Beytanbul, Cavid Bey paid a visit to Mecid Efendi and met Burhaneddin paid a visit to Mecid Efendi and met Burhaneddin Efendi there. The latter was the husband of Cavid BeyEfendi there. The latter was the husband of Cavid Bey’s future ’s future wife. wife. Burhaneddin Efendi was the son of Abdulhamid II. He was married to Burhaneddin Efendi was the son of Abdulhamid II. He was married to Aliye Hanım, and they had a son named Osman Ertuğrul. Cavid BeyAliye Hanım, and they had a son named Osman Ertuğrul. Cavid Bey writes that Burhaneddin Efendi “left a great first impression on us with writes that Burhaneddin Efendi “left a great first impression on us with his smart eyes.”his smart eyes.”949

4.3.10 The Public Debt, 1914The Public Debt, 1914

On Ja

On January 13, 1914, Cavid Beynuary 13, 1914, Cavid Bey departed for Paris. While he was on his departed for Paris. While he was on his way, the Kaiser promoted Liman von Sanders to marshal, and he be-way, the Kaiser promoted Liman von Sanders to marshal, and he be-came general inspector instead of the First Army commander. Cavid Beycame general inspector instead of the First Army commander. Cavid Bey arrived in Paris with one less issue weighing on his shoarrived in Paris with one less issue weighing on his shoulders ulders —— though though new surprises were awaiting him in Paris. new surprises were awaiting him in Paris.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey had his first meeting with the representatives of the Ot-had his first meeting with the representatives of the Ot-toman Bank in Paris. From his first day in Paris, Cavid Beytoman Bank in Paris. From his first day in Paris, Cavid Bey remarked remarked that he saw no light at the end of the tunnel of the Paris loathat he saw no light at the end of the tunnel of the Paris loan process. n process. The French government continued to postpone the loan issue.The French government continued to postpone the loan issue.950 A let-A let-ter came from Deutsche Bank addressed to both Cavid Beyter came from Deutsche Bank addressed to both Cavid Bey and the Ot-and the Ot-toman Bank. The bank threatened that if the Ottomans rejected the toman Bank. The bank threatened that if the Ottomans rejected the agreement, the results would be catastrophic. Tagreement, the results would be catastrophic. There were five main is-here were five main is-sues that Cavid Beysues that Cavid Bey would address while in Paris: the negative impact of would address while in Paris: the negative impact of the German military delegation on French public opinion, the Armenian the German military delegation on French public opinion, the Armenian reform project, the Russian delegate to the OPDA, the Aegean islands reform project, the Russian delegate to the OPDA, the Aegean islands issue, and the Paris Fissue, and the Paris Financial Conference. However, new issues and inancial Conference. However, new issues and problems would be added to this by the French. In 1914, the French problems would be added to this by the French. In 1914, the French stood against Cavid Beystood against Cavid Bey, with new demands in return for the loan. , with new demands in return for the loan.

949 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâmesi II,uznâmesi II, 442442--447.7.

950 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi Ruznâmesi II, II, 454500--52.52.

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Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met M. Doumergue, the French prime minister, for the met M. Doumergue, the French prime minister, for the first time. Thfirst time. This meeting was his first official talks with the French gov-is meeting was his first official talks with the French gov-ernment. They spoke on several issues, covering the current agendas of ernment. They spoke on several issues, covering the current agendas of the Ottoman Empire and Europe. However, in Paris, the loan, the Aegean the Ottoman Empire and Europe. However, in Paris, the loan, the Aegean islands, Italian demands, and France's new demands comeislands, Italian demands, and France's new demands come to the fore. to the fore. As Cavid BeyAs Cavid Bey told Mr. Doumergue regarding the islands issue told Mr. Doumergue regarding the islands issue —— which which he would continue to tell representatives of the Great Powers until the he would continue to tell representatives of the Great Powers until the end end —— he thought that Europe’s decisions were working against the in-he thought that Europe’s decisions were working against the in-terests of the Ottoman Empire. Theterests of the Ottoman Empire. These decisions had paved the way for se decisions had paved the way for OttomanOttoman--Bulgarian cooperation. He noted that while they protested Eu-Bulgarian cooperation. He noted that while they protested Eu-rope’s decisions, this protest would not be a declaration of war. Dou-rope’s decisions, this protest would not be a declaration of war. Dou-mergue said that the Ottoman government's purchase of a warship had mergue said that the Ottoman government's purchase of a warship had fostered a negatfostered a negative opinion of the Empire in France. Cavid Beyive opinion of the Empire in France. Cavid Bey said that said that the issue of the islands had also caused turmoil within Ottoman public the issue of the islands had also caused turmoil within Ottoman public opinion. He added that if the Ottoman government did not buy the opinion. He added that if the Ottoman government did not buy the ships, the Greek government would buy them. Cavid Beyships, the Greek government would buy them. Cavid Bey's impress's impression ion after this first meeting was that the French government would not give after this first meeting was that the French government would not give the loan quickly. During his visit to Paris, Cavid Beythe loan quickly. During his visit to Paris, Cavid Bey met a lot of people met a lot of people from various circles, including Gaston Doumergue, George Clemenceau, from various circles, including Gaston Doumergue, George Clemenceau, and Sir Thomas Barclay, a British liand Sir Thomas Barclay, a British liberal politician. They all believed beral politician. They all believed that the islands would not be returned to the Ottoman Empire.that the islands would not be returned to the Ottoman Empire.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey negotiated with the French about the Ottoman debt. In the negotiated with the French about the Ottoman debt. In the meeting with Steeg and Weil, the date of the loan and its use were dis-meeting with Steeg and Weil, the date of the loan and its use were dis-cussed. Cavid Beycussed. Cavid Bey ststated that the loan would be spent on state affairs ated that the loan would be spent on state affairs such as the civil servants' salaries. The expenditure of the loan would be such as the civil servants' salaries. The expenditure of the loan would be covered by the Ottoman Bank. Weil noted that the French government covered by the Ottoman Bank. Weil noted that the French government should approve where this loan would be used. Cavid Beyshould approve where this loan would be used. Cavid Bey objecteobjected to d to this claim and said that such views, which offended the Ottoman gov-this claim and said that such views, which offended the Ottoman gov-ernment, should not be challenged by the French government. Count ernment, should not be challenged by the French government. Count Vitali stated that the French government might loan the Ottomans 400 Vitali stated that the French government might loan the Ottomans 400 million liras, as long as it does not spend it onmillion liras, as long as it does not spend it on a war. However, Cavid Beya war. However, Cavid Bey

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aimed to borrow 700 million liras, although it may be divided into two

aimed to borrow 700 million liras, although it may be divided into two installments.installments.951

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met another critical person in the French government, M. met another critical person in the French government, M. Joseph Caillaux, the finance minister, on January 20, 1913. They dis-Joseph Caillaux, the finance minister, on January 20, 1913. They dis-cussed acussed almost every issue related to the relations between Europe and lmost every issue related to the relations between Europe and the Ottoman Empire. On the islands issue, they discussed the mutual the Ottoman Empire. On the islands issue, they discussed the mutual claims to the land. However, Cavid Beyclaims to the land. However, Cavid Bey added that the loss of the islands added that the loss of the islands would mean the end of the government, which would cawould mean the end of the government, which would cause anarchy and use anarchy and would not positively impact Europe. On economic issues, it seemed that would not positively impact Europe. On economic issues, it seemed that the French would ask for new concessions. The Russian delegate to the the French would ask for new concessions. The Russian delegate to the Ottoman PDA was still a hotOttoman PDA was still a hot--button issue, but none of the related states button issue, but none of the related states seemed to agree on the issseemed to agree on the issue. Cavid Beyue. Cavid Bey also asked for French officers to also asked for French officers to work in the Ottoman ministry of finance for consultation purposes. work in the Ottoman ministry of finance for consultation purposes. Lastly, he underlined the fact that he would be in the ministry of finance Lastly, he underlined the fact that he would be in the ministry of finance once again very soon, and for this reason, he would have to returnonce again very soon, and for this reason, he would have to return to to Istanbul. He asked to set the date of the next meeting soon Istanbul. He asked to set the date of the next meeting soon —— too soon too soon to finish off the negotiations and obtain the loan. This process would to finish off the negotiations and obtain the loan. This process would take longer than he expected. After this meeting, Cavid Beytake longer than he expected. After this meeting, Cavid Bey sent a tele-sent a tele-gram to Talat Bey asking him to avoid pgram to Talat Bey asking him to avoid purchasing a gunboat. Cavid Beyurchasing a gunboat. Cavid Bey continued to participate in luncheons or dinners given by various peo-continued to participate in luncheons or dinners given by various peo-ple, both men and women. He met French politicians and intellectuals ple, both men and women. He met French politicians and intellectuals on occasion. He noted in his diary, however, that he started to be afraid on occasion. He noted in his diary, however, that he started to be afraid of these kinof these kinds of invitations because, at the end of conversations, the ds of invitations because, at the end of conversations, the price issue might come up. He was also afraid of being questioned about price issue might come up. He was also afraid of being questioned about Ottoman inclinations toward the Germans. He repeated his classic lines: Ottoman inclinations toward the Germans. He repeated his classic lines: that the Ottomans’ frustrations were based on the Frthat the Ottomans’ frustrations were based on the French governments' ench governments' wrongful policies and diplomacy, especially during the 1910 loan opera-wrongful policies and diplomacy, especially during the 1910 loan opera-tion. However, of course, it is natural to ask why he accepted these invi-tion. However, of course, it is natural to ask why he accepted these invi-tations. First of all, the person who invited him was always a member of tations. First of all, the person who invited him was always a member of the French political the French political or financial milieu. During these occasions, promi-or financial milieu. During these occasions, promi-nent figures from the French and European political and financial mi-nent figures from the French and European political and financial mi-

951 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 452452--6161

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lieux came together. Cavid Bey

lieux came together. Cavid Bey had the chance to meet both his coun-had the chance to meet both his coun-terparts and other stakeholders, and he often found himself defending terparts and other stakeholders, and he often found himself defending the Ottoman Empire against French propaganda. the Ottoman Empire against French propaganda.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met Eleftherios Venizelos, the prime minister of Greece, in met Eleftherios Venizelos, the prime minister of Greece, in Paris on January 24, 1914. Sir Thomas Barclay, a British liberal politi-Paris on January 24, 1914. Sir Thomas Barclay, a British liberal politi-cian whom Cavid Beycian whom Cavid Bey had met in Paris, arranged the meeting. Venizelohad met in Paris, arranged the meeting. Venizelos s said that the islands were important to Greece, but that they did not said that the islands were important to Greece, but that they did not have any ambitions on the Anatolian coast and certainly did not want to have any ambitions on the Anatolian coast and certainly did not want to be neighbors with Russia. Cavid Beybe neighbors with Russia. Cavid Bey said that the islands were essential said that the islands were essential because of their population, breadth, abecause of their population, breadth, and political impact. He under-nd political impact. He under-lined the fact that the Greeks in Anatolia would believe the Greek prop-lined the fact that the Greeks in Anatolia would believe the Greek prop-aganda. Cavid Beyaganda. Cavid Bey stated that, due to the islands issue, the Ottoman stated that, due to the islands issue, the Ottoman government was obliged to cooperate with Bulgaria. Venizelos said that government was obliged to cooperate with Bulgaria. Venizelos said that the Greeks had nthe Greeks had never coveted the Anatolian Coast. If a government that ever coveted the Anatolian Coast. If a government that did came into power, it would be a disaster for Greece, because the Ot-did came into power, it would be a disaster for Greece, because the Ot-tomans would win, he said. He said that the Greeks in Anatolia and the tomans would win, he said. He said that the Greeks in Anatolia and the Turks in Macedonia should be exchanged; a commission should Turks in Macedonia should be exchanged; a commission should be es-be es-tablished to appreciate the value of the real estate in both countries, and tablished to appreciate the value of the real estate in both countries, and such an operation should be started, which would last five to ten years. such an operation should be started, which would last five to ten years. Cavid BeyCavid Bey responded that the islands should be under Ottoman control. responded that the islands should be under Ottoman control. According to Venizelos, Enver PaAccording to Venizelos, Enver Pasha was an adventurer, but Talat Bey sha was an adventurer, but Talat Bey and Cavid Beyand Cavid Bey were the Empire’s aspiring young minds. Cavid Beywere the Empire’s aspiring young minds. Cavid Bey also also mentioned the complaints of the Ottomans living in Selanik and their mentioned the complaints of the Ottomans living in Selanik and their negative impact on Istanbul. Cavid Beynegative impact on Istanbul. Cavid Bey's impression of Venizelos is that 's impression of Venizelos is that he was ahe was a man who had acquired the temperament of a Greek or Albani-man who had acquired the temperament of a Greek or Albani-an “millet” like himself. He was smart but not arrogant like the other an “millet” like himself. He was smart but not arrogant like the other Greeks. Greeks.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey received a telegram from Rifat Bey in Istanbul. For 12 received a telegram from Rifat Bey in Istanbul. For 12 weeks, the civil contractors had not received any monweeks, the civil contractors had not received any money. He wanted ey. He wanted Cavid BeyCavid Bey to get an advance on the loan. Cavid Beyto get an advance on the loan. Cavid Bey complained that Is-complained that Is-tanbul did not understand the seriousness of the work in Paris. tanbul did not understand the seriousness of the work in Paris.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey was to carry out negotiations with M. Margerie. According was to carry out negotiations with M. Margerie. According to Cavid Beyto Cavid Bey’s diary, M. Margerie was v’s diary, M. Margerie was very cool during the talks. He did ery cool during the talks. He did not panic or show any anger despite Cavid Beynot panic or show any anger despite Cavid Bey’s threats not to leave ’s threats not to leave

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Paris until the loan was given. On the contrary, he asked for more at

Paris until the loan was given. On the contrary, he asked for more at each step. At last, due to the need for money, Cavid Beyeach step. At last, due to the need for money, Cavid Bey had to accept his had to accept his demands.demands. However, there was a government crisis in France, and Cavid However, there was a government crisis in France, and Cavid BeyBey had to wait until it was over. had to wait until it was over.

After several meetings with French statesmen, Cavid Bey

After several meetings with French statesmen, Cavid Bey hoped that hoped that he would be able to secure a loan amounting to 700 million liras in Feb-he would be able to secure a loan amounting to 700 million liras in Feb-ruary. More realistiruary. More realistically, he wrote that he hoped that they could get 500 cally, he wrote that he hoped that they could get 500 million liras in April, which would fulfill most of the Ottoman govern-million liras in April, which would fulfill most of the Ottoman govern-ment’s needs.ment’s needs.952

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met Wilhelm von Schoen, the German ambassador in Par-met Wilhelm von Schoen, the German ambassador in Par-is for the Francois for the Franco--German talks. The Germans asked the FGerman talks. The Germans asked the French not to rench not to sign the agreement with Cavid Beysign the agreement with Cavid Bey before they had finalized theirs. The before they had finalized theirs. The most controversial topics in these negotiations were the Sivasmost controversial topics in these negotiations were the Sivas--HarputHarput--Ergani and HalepErgani and Halep--Maskanah railway lines. Cavid BeyMaskanah railway lines. Cavid Bey always claimed always claimed that the Germans had no right to ththat the Germans had no right to the Sivase Sivas--HarputHarput--Ergani lines, and if Ergani lines, and if they wished, they could submit the issue to arbitration. On the Halepthey wished, they could submit the issue to arbitration. On the Halep--Maskanah line, the contract to give the French priority had already been Maskanah line, the contract to give the French priority had already been signed. Cavid Beysigned. Cavid Bey always asserted that Deutsche Bank’s conditions were always asserted that Deutsche Bank’s conditions were burdenburdensome. For this reason, he first preferred to finalize the contracts some. For this reason, he first preferred to finalize the contracts with the French. On the other hand, as previously told to the Deutsche with the French. On the other hand, as previously told to the Deutsche Bank representatives, due to French investments in railways from long Bank representatives, due to French investments in railways from long ago, he considered that the French had receivedago, he considered that the French had received greater benefits from greater benefits from the railways. The Germans suggested that the Ottoman government the railways. The Germans suggested that the Ottoman government should give orders for military equipment to Germany instead of France. should give orders for military equipment to Germany instead of France. These orders would be the last step before a significant loan. France's These orders would be the last step before a significant loan. France's last condition would coulast condition would counter this: the French wanted the Ottoman gov-nter this: the French wanted the Ottoman gov-ernment to purchase military equipment from France with the money ernment to purchase military equipment from France with the money they lent to it. However, in return, Istanbul sent him telegrams men-they lent to it. However, in return, Istanbul sent him telegrams men-tioning the urgent need for money for both the army and the country.tioning the urgent need for money for both the army and the country.

France a

France asked the Ottoman government to respond to the Great Pow-sked the Ottoman government to respond to the Great Pow-ers' note on the islands without protesting. They invited the Great Pow-ers' note on the islands without protesting. They invited the Great Pow-

952 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 469469--83.83.

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ers to find a solution to the issue. They should mention that they would

ers to find a solution to the issue. They should mention that they would never threaten the peace in Europe. Cavid Beynever threaten the peace in Europe. Cavid Bey conveyed thconveyed this message to is message to Said Halim Pasha.Said Halim Pasha.953On the one hand, such a solution was vital for the On the one hand, such a solution was vital for the loan because, as mentioned above, one of France’s concerns was that loan because, as mentioned above, one of France’s concerns was that the Ottoman government should not spend the money on war with the Ottoman government should not spend the money on war with Greece. On the other hand, though the GreatGreece. On the other hand, though the Great Powers were asking the Ot-Powers were asking the Ot-toman government not to protest, they felt obliged to protest to some toman government not to protest, they felt obliged to protest to some extent. Otherwise, there would be massive domestic opposition to the extent. Otherwise, there would be massive domestic opposition to the government. Moreover, the Ottomans also deeply cared about the is-government. Moreover, the Ottomans also deeply cared about the is-lands issue. Cavid Beylands issue. Cavid Bey alwalways tried to fully depict the picture from a Un-ays tried to fully depict the picture from a Un-ionist perspective to the French and German state representatives. He ionist perspective to the French and German state representatives. He also optimistically added that, in the future, the Ottomans and Greeks also optimistically added that, in the future, the Ottomans and Greeks would be friends. Although France was afraid of a war between the Ot-would be friends. Although France was afraid of a war between the Ot-tomans and Greeks, they had still asked the Ottomans to buy military tomans and Greeks, they had still asked the Ottomans to buy military equipment from them. It was one of the dilemmas for the French. In the equipment from them. It was one of the dilemmas for the French. In the meantime, the Sublime Porte carried out talks on military orders with meantime, the Sublime Porte carried out talks on military orders with Krupp, the German industrial giant. Cavid BeyKrupp, the German industrial giant. Cavid Bey met Jean Herriot and met Jean Herriot and stated that the Ottoman government did not understand why France stated that the Ottoman government did not understand why France was postponing the loan issue. Therefore, the Ottomans needed to seek was postponing the loan issue. Therefore, the Ottomans needed to seek temporary solutions. During a dinner at the Ottoman embassy, the con-temporary solutions. During a dinner at the Ottoman embassy, the con-troversy of the French cabinet wtroversy of the French cabinet was discussed among the guests. Ray-as discussed among the guests. Ray-mond Poincaré, the French president, stated that France needed to be mond Poincaré, the French president, stated that France needed to be one hundred percent sure that the loan would not be spent on war. one hundred percent sure that the loan would not be spent on war. Cavid BeyCavid Bey responded to Poincaré that, "there is no need to provide responded to Poincaré that, "there is no need to provide money for war; we armoney for war; we are used to fighting without money." Cavid Beye used to fighting without money." Cavid Bey tried tried to secure the first part of the loan for April.to secure the first part of the loan for April.954After the Krupp crisis, After the Krupp crisis, news about the seizure of customs was heard, which was a part of the news about the seizure of customs was heard, which was a part of the Sublime Porte's policies to push the French for the loan. Sublime Porte's policies to push the French for the loan.

Cavid

Cavid BeyBey paid a visit to Georges Clemenceau, the prominent French paid a visit to Georges Clemenceau, the prominent French politician and president. Cavid Beypolitician and president. Cavid Bey found him very fit despite his agefound him very fit despite his age (He was 73 years old in 1914(He was 73 years old in 1914)).. They discussed the islands and the loan They discussed the islands and the loan

953 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Meşrutiyet RRuznâmesiuznâmesi III, I, 484484--88.88.

954 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznRuznâmesiâmesi II, II, 494933--500.500.

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issue. The Great Powers’ note and the loan overlap

issue. The Great Powers’ note and the loan overlapppeed with each other. d with each other. Clemenceau stated that the Cretan policy toward the Ottoman govern-Clemenceau stated that the Cretan policy toward the Ottoman govern-ment was so misguided that it led Greece to ally with other Balkan ment was so misguided that it led Greece to ally with other Balkan states. He also accused the Ottoman government of seeking German states. He also accused the Ottoman government of seeking German support. Cavid Beysupport. Cavid Bey responded to him tresponded to him thhaat this was France's fault, espe-t this was France's fault, espe-cially on issues such as the Baghdad Railway and the 1910 loan opera-cially on issues such as the Baghdad Railway and the 1910 loan opera-tion. The best and most enjoyable part of the conversation was at the tion. The best and most enjoyable part of the conversation was at the end. Clemenceau stated that "it (supporting Greeece) is related to the end. Clemenceau stated that "it (supporting Greeece) is related to the knowledge and knowledge and cciivilization accumulated for thousands of years." Cavid vilization accumulated for thousands of years." Cavid BeyBey asked him about the connection between the Ancient Greeks and asked him about the connection between the Ancient Greeks and the contemporary Anatolian Greeks. Clemenceau responded, "If the the contemporary Anatolian Greeks. Clemenceau responded, "If the Greeks do not like their ancestors, this is all because of the Turks!Greeks do not like their ancestors, this is all because of the Turks!"" Cavid BeyCavid Bey's impression was that he would not change his mind. Clemen-'s impression was that he would not change his mind. Clemen-ceau did not have complex and deep thoughts. Cavid Beyceau did not have complex and deep thoughts. Cavid Bey discerned that discerned that even the newspapers had influenced this great man.even the newspapers had influenced this great man.955

On February 8, 1914, Said Halim Pasha and the Russian diplomat

On February 8, 1914, Said Halim Pasha and the Russian diplomat KKoonnstantin Gul’kevich signed the Armenian Reform Act. Due to the stantin Gul’kevich signed the Armenian Reform Act. Due to the German intervention, the reform act was quite different from Mandel-German intervention, the reform act was quite different from Mandel-stam’s plan. Unlike the first plan, the plan envisaged two sectors and stam’s plan. Unlike the first plan, the plan envisaged two sectors and two inspectortwo inspector--generals. A census would be held in the generals. A census would be held in the ttwwo sectors to o sectors to enable a proportional representation between Christians and Muslims. enable a proportional representation between Christians and Muslims. The inspectorThe inspector--generals would be chosen by Europe, mainly from neutral generals would be chosen by Europe, mainly from neutral countries, after the parties had signed the treaty. Except for the Armeni-countries, after the parties had signed the treaty. Except for the Armeni-ans, none of the other communans, none of the other communiitties were satisfied. The Kurds, who had ies were satisfied. The Kurds, who had lost their political position in the region, started riots in Bitlis in the lost their political position in the region, started riots in Bitlis in the spring of 1914. On April 2, two inspectorspring of 1914. On April 2, two inspector--generals were chosen from generals were chosen from then neutral countries. The Porte chose Mr. Louis C. Westenek (Dutch) then neutral countries. The Porte chose Mr. Louis C. Westenek (Dutch) aanndd Nicolai Hoff (Norwegian). However, when they arrived in Istanbul, Nicolai Hoff (Norwegian). However, when they arrived in Istanbul, they faced many obstacles that emerged mainly due to Talat Bey. they faced many obstacles that emerged mainly due to Talat Bey. Though Mr. Westenek was able to reach the Eastern provinces, Mr. Hoff Though Mr. Westenek was able to reach the Eastern provinces, Mr. Hoff could not arrive in the region. Due to the outbreak ocould not arrive in the region. Due to the outbreak off the Great War, the the Great War, the

955 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmRuznâmesi II, esi II, 507507--9.9.

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inspector

inspector--generals had to leave their home posts and departed for their generals had to leave their home posts and departed for their home countries. On December 31, 1914, the Ottoman government an-home countries. On December 31, 1914, the Ottoman government an-nounced that the Reform Act was invalid.nounced that the Reform Act was invalid.956

The Ottoman government tried to obtain 250,000 liras from

The Ottoman government tried to obtain 250,000 liras from tthhe Ot-e Ot-toman Bank and the Ottoman PDA.toman Bank and the Ottoman PDA.957 Nevertheless, later on, Mr. Sergant Nevertheless, later on, Mr. Sergant from IOB stated that the Ottoman Bank could not loan this amount of from IOB stated that the Ottoman Bank could not loan this amount of money. Cavid Beymoney. Cavid Bey noted in his diary that "even my unbreakable courage noted in his diary that "even my unbreakable courage is shaken."is shaken."958

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey asked Talat Bey to sasked Talat Bey to seennd a note to Russia on the islands. d a note to Russia on the islands. The next day he read the details of the note in the papers. The Ottoman The next day he read the details of the note in the papers. The Ottoman government did not even wait 24 hours, and submitted a response be-government did not even wait 24 hours, and submitted a response be-fore the Greeks. They did not consider that the solution to the issue fore the Greeks. They did not consider that the solution to the issue must be foumust be founnddby peaceful means. Cavid Beyby peaceful means. Cavid Bey criticized the government criticized the government for their undue haste: “In places that need to be rushed, they walk with for their undue haste: “In places that need to be rushed, they walk with fortitude, and in places that come to save time, they rush.” He met M. fortitude, and in places that come to save time, they rush.” He met M. Margerie with Rifat Pasha in Paris. The FrancoMargerie with Rifat Pasha in Paris. The Franco--German aGerman aggrreement was eement was finalized and initialed. This development was in accordance with Ger-finalized and initialed. This development was in accordance with Ger-many's wishes, and they finalized it before the Francomany's wishes, and they finalized it before the Franco--Ottoman talks. Ottoman talks. Cavid BeyCavid Bey asked Margerie for a copy of the agreement because there asked Margerie for a copy of the agreement because there were words and sentences that needed twere words and sentences that needed too be amended. Margerie told be amended. Margerie told Cavid BeyCavid Bey that France had a new list of demands spanning several pag-that France had a new list of demands spanning several pag-es. Cavid Beyes. Cavid Bey, on the other hand, said that the loan should be issued in , on the other hand, said that the loan should be issued in April before discussing the demands. "This is in the hands of Caillaux," April before discussing the demands. "This is in the hands of Caillaux," Margerie said,Margerie said, aadding that the Afuladding that the Afula--Jerusalem railway line was particu-Jerusalem railway line was particu-larly important to him. Margerie also said that among the new demands larly important to him. Margerie also said that among the new demands there were more serious things. This situation annoyed Cavid Beythere were more serious things. This situation annoyed Cavid Bey. .

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey wrote to Talat Bey telling him that the government hwrote to Talat Bey telling him that the government haadd put them in a difficult position. Rifat Pasha and he himself had guaran-put them in a difficult position. Rifat Pasha and he himself had guaran-

956 HansHans--LukaLukas s Kieser et al, Reform or Catalyscm? The agreement of 8 February 1914 Kieser et al, Reform or Catalyscm? The agreement of 8 February 1914 regarding the Ottoman easternregarding the Ottoman eastern provprovinces.inces.”, 295,”, 295, KiKieser,eser, alalaaaatt Pasha: Father of Modern Pasha: Father of Modern TurkeyTurkey, Architect , Architect of of GenocideGenocide, 298, 298--299. 299.

957 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâmesi II, uznâmesi II, 510510--13.13.

958 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 515515--16.16.

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teed the French government that there would be peace. He asked why

teed the French government that there would be peace. He asked why they had responded so quickly without waiting for the Greeks' answer. they had responded so quickly without waiting for the Greeks' answer. The Greeks would now take advantage of this aThe Greeks would now take advantage of this anndd extend the issue by extend the issue by giving a cautious response, which would hurt us, he said. Meanwhile, giving a cautious response, which would hurt us, he said. Meanwhile, Talat Bey informed Cavid BeyTalat Bey informed Cavid Bey that they would get a loan for Edirne, and that they would get a loan for Edirne, and they would choose the loan option from the bank of M. Doumergue, they would choose the loan option from the bank of M. Doumergue, though the conditions were though the conditions were wwoorse than the others. Nevertheless, he was rse than the others. Nevertheless, he was the prime minister of France and they preferred to give this business to the prime minister of France and they preferred to give this business to his bank. In response, Cavid Beyhis bank. In response, Cavid Bey disagreed with accepting a loan from disagreed with accepting a loan from Doumergue's bank. Their prices, including subscription prices, were Doumergue's bank. Their prices, including subscription prices, were vveery high. In the end, Talat Bey postponed this loan. Meanwhile, Cavid ry high. In the end, Talat Bey postponed this loan. Meanwhile, Cavid BeyBey wrote to Talat Bey about his next step: to Istanbul or Berlin? He did wrote to Talat Bey about his next step: to Istanbul or Berlin? He did not want to leave Paris for Berlin before the beginning of the loan nego-not want to leave Paris for Berlin before the beginning of the loan nego-tiations. He also did not want to spendtiations. He also did not want to spend hhis time with Mr. Helfferich. In is time with Mr. Helfferich. In terms of the diplomatic note on the islands, Talat Bey informed Cavid terms of the diplomatic note on the islands, Talat Bey informed Cavid BeyBey that though they had tried to solve the problem through peaceful that though they had tried to solve the problem through peaceful means, he and Enver Pasha revised the note considering public opinion. means, he and Enver Pasha revised the note considering public opinion. He agreed thHe agreed thaatt perhaps they should not have rushed into submitting the perhaps they should not have rushed into submitting the response.response.959

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey heard that Britain and Germany had come to terms over heard that Britain and Germany had come to terms over navigation rights on the Euphrates and the Baghdad Railwaynavigation rights on the Euphrates and the Baghdad Railway. However, . However, there was still no agreement on the there was still no agreement on the İzmirİzmir--Aydın line Aydın line aand Anatolian rail-nd Anatolian rail-way companies. The merger of the two railway lines was being dis-way companies. The merger of the two railway lines was being dis-cussed, but there was still no apparent result. Cavid Beycussed, but there was still no apparent result. Cavid Bey met M. Dou-met M. Dou-mergue to discuss the islands issue and thmergue to discuss the islands issue and the upcoming loan. M. e upcoming loan. M. Doumergue mentioned his disDoumergue mentioned his disappointment about the note, and he asked appointment about the note, and he asked Tanin to publish an article in favor of “peaceful means” to solve the is-Tanin to publish an article in favor of “peaceful means” to solve the is-lands issue. Doumergue asked about the concessions on the Afulalands issue. Doumergue asked about the concessions on the Afula--Jerusalem and Haifa railway lineJerusalem and Haifa railway lines. In terms of Hedjaz, Cavid Beys. In terms of Hedjaz, Cavid Bey stated stated that ththat they could not hurt the feelings of the Muslims. Faced with new ey could not hurt the feelings of the Muslims. Faced with new concessions, Cavid Beyconcessions, Cavid Bey frankly stated that the Empire had nothing left frankly stated that the Empire had nothing left

959 Cavid BeCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet y, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 518518--21.21.

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to give. The new demands that were added to the agreement that was

to give. The new demands that were added to the agreement that was finalizedfinalized in the previous September had put him at a disin the previous September had put him at a disadvantage. The advantage. The parliament would not ratify the agreement before receiving the loan. parliament would not ratify the agreement before receiving the loan. Therefore, the loan should be provided in April. Moreover, the Greek Therefore, the loan should be provided in April. Moreover, the Greek loan should be awarded after the Ottoman loan.loan should be awarded after the Ottoman loan.960

As menti

As mentioned above, Cavid Beyoned above, Cavid Bey followed the Anglofollowed the Anglo--OttomaOttoman talks n talks carried out by Hakkı Pasha in London. They were currently discussing carried out by Hakkı Pasha in London. They were currently discussing the oil monopolies in Mesopotamia. He did not seem to approve of Brit-the oil monopolies in Mesopotamia. He did not seem to approve of Brit-ish participation in the oil monopoly. Hakkı Pasha also asked Cish participation in the oil monopoly. Hakkı Pasha also asked Cavid avid BeyBey's opinion on the navigation issue. Mea's opinion on the navigation issue. Meanwhile, Said Halim Pasha nwhile, Said Halim Pasha asked for Cavid Beyasked for Cavid Bey's assistance on the appointment of a Russian dele-'s assistance on the appointment of a Russian dele-gate to the Ottoman PDA: although Germany was opposed to the idea, gate to the Ottoman PDA: although Germany was opposed to the idea, Russia insisted on it. Cavid BeyRussia insisted on it. Cavid Bey noted the impornoted the importance of this issue. He tance of this issue. He responded that the signresponded that the signing of the agreements with the other Great Pow-ing of the agreements with the other Great Pow-ers could solve the Russian delegate issue.ers could solve the Russian delegate issue.

Another hot

Another hot--button issue before the Great War was the Italian de-button issue before the Great War was the Italian de-mands in Antalya. The Italians offered to leave the islmands in Antalya. The Italians offered to leave the islands in return for ands in return for concessions around Antalya. concessions around Antalya. Talat Bey asked for Cavid BeyTalat Bey asked for Cavid Bey’s opinion on ’s opinion on the issue. Meanwhile, the Frenchthe issue. Meanwhile, the French--German agreement was signed offi-German agreement was signed offi-cially between Mr. Sergant, M. Ponsu, and Mr. Rosenberg. This agree-cially between Mr. Sergant, M. Ponsu, and Mr. Rosenberg. This agree-ment bound both states and their fment bound both states and their financial corporations. In sum, it had inancial corporations. In sum, it had both a poboth a political and financial meaning. Cavid Beylitical and financial meaning. Cavid Bey discussed this with discussed this with Count Vitali, who followed up the railway issue on behalf of the French Count Vitali, who followed up the railway issue on behalf of the French government. Vitali did not think that the contract was disadvantageous government. Vitali did not think that the contract was disadvantageous for Ffor France. According to Vitali: rance. According to Vitali: The Germans declareThe Germans declare that they would that they would demand the Halepdemand the Halep--Iskenderun and Magreb railway lines from the Otto-Iskenderun and Magreb railway lines from the Otto-man governmentman government;; tthe Germans state that they consider asking for con-he Germans state that they consider asking for con-cessions on the Halepcessions on the Halep--Maskanah line, and for the line thaMaskanah line, and for the line that t merges it merges it with the Baghdad Railway. with the Baghdad Railway. The French The French demand a new line that merges demand a new line that merges at the basin of Humusat the basin of Humus--Deir EzDeir Ez--Zor and the Euphrates and Baghdad Zor and the Euphrates and Baghdad Railway. Railway. For each line, both parties want to preserve a region of 60 km.For each line, both parties want to preserve a region of 60 km.

960 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi Ruznâmesi II, II, 524524--28.28.

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Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey heard that the Italians had heard that the Italians had askeasked for concessions in return d for concessions in return for their occupatiofor their occupation and public works investments on the island of n and public works investments on the island of Rhodes. Meanwhile, Britain put pressure on Italy to evacuate the islands Rhodes. Meanwhile, Britain put pressure on Italy to evacuate the islands by March 31. For this reason, Italy had tried to obtain concessions up by March 31. For this reason, Italy had tried to obtain concessions up until that dauntil that day.y.961 Cavid BeyCavid Bey sent a telegram to Talat Bey asking hsent a telegram to Talat Bey asking him to im to demand the return of the islands from Italy at the end of March. demand the return of the islands from Italy at the end of March. MMrr. . Ponsu visited Cavid BeyPonsu visited Cavid Bey and informed him about the details of the and informed him about the details of the FrenchFrench--German agreement on February 15, 1914.German agreement on February 15, 1914.962963 After he read thAfter he read the e ararticles of the agreement, Cavid Beyticles of the agreement, Cavid Bey thanked him,thanked him, because the agree-because the agree-ment, especially the financial aspect, was in line with Ottoman interests. ment, especially the financial aspect, was in line with Ottoman interests. Though Cavid BeyThough Cavid Bey was pleased about the conclusion, Mark Sykes was was pleased about the conclusion, Mark Sykes was quite critical of the agreement. quite critical of the agreement.

961 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâmesi II, uznâmesi II, 528528--31.31.

962 In sum, the agrIn sum, the agreementeement determined that Northern determined that Northern AnAnatolia would be part of the French atolia would be part of the French sphere of influence, and the railways in the region would mergesphere of influence, and the railways in the region would merge witwith the h the BaghdadBaghdad RailwayRailway; Zo; Zonngguldak dock would be builtuldak dock would be built; and ; and the regions the regions throuthrouggh which which the Baghdad h the Baghdad Railway Railway passes were accepasses were accepted apted as the German sphere of infs the German sphere of influluence. In Syria, a French ence. In Syria, a French sphere of influence would be established. Yerasmios, sphere of influence would be established. Yerasmios, Az Gelişmişlik SürecAz Gelişmişlik Sürecindeinde TürkiTürkiye 2 ye 2 -- TanzTanziimatmattan tan II.. Salt Dünya SavaşınaSalt Dünya Savaşına, 110, 1102.2.

963 SSeveral bilateveral bilateral eral FFrancoranco--German talks were heldGerman talks were held throughout the throughout the early early 1910s. They 1910s. They were among the mwere among the most highly contested bilateral debates in Europe at the time. After ost highly contested bilateral debates in Europe at the time. After several gaseveral gatherings in differentherings in different cit cities aties attendedttended by variby various ous ooffficers, German Chancellorficers, German Chancellor BethmBethmanan--Hollweg aHollweg and Kand Kaiiser Wiser Wilhelm II finally appealhelm II finally appeared in one of thred in one of the confe conferences. erences. The chancellor's diThe chancellor's direct speech particularly impressed the old French diplomats such rect speech particularly impressed the old French diplomats such as Jules Cambas Jules Cambon, and France modifon, and France modified ied its deits demands. mands. As a resAs a result,ult, FFrance had won the rance had won the right tright to conso construct the Hatruct the Hamama--HaHallep andep and TrablusgarpTrablusgarp--Homs lineHoms lines. In return, Ges. In return, Germany rmany took much of the French railtook much of the French railway network in the Black Sea Region and agreed to elimway network in the Black Sea Region and agreed to elimi-i-nate industrial zones. nate industrial zones. France was disappoinFrance was disappointed ted that ithat it did nt did not obtaiot obtain thn thee link to the sea link to the sea from the from the HamaHama--HHalep line analep line and a nd a noorthwarrthward extension. Furthermod extension. Furthermore, in 1914, Frare, in 1914, France nce loloaned the Ottoman Empire a laaned the Ottoman Empire a large industrial and military order of artillery, submrge industrial and military order of artillery, subma-a-rines, and destroyers. Thrines, and destroyers. These were given to ofese were given to offsetfset GermaGerman contrn control of thol of the Bae Bagghhdad Raidad Rail-l-way, which enableway, which enabled Germd Germany to contrany to control thol thee routeroute in Northern Syria andin Northern Syria and its link to theits link to the sea isea in Alexandretta and its port n Alexandretta and its port built by the Germans. Bruce L. Fulton, "France and the built by the Germans. Bruce L. Fulton, "France and the End of the Ottoman EmpiEnd of the Ottoman Empire," in re," in The Great PoThe Great Powerswers and tand the End he End of the Oof the Ottomttomaann EmpireEmpire, , ed. Marian Kent ed. Marian Kent (Londo(London: Frank Casn: Frank Cass, 20s, 20005), 135), 1377--54.54.

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Mark Sykes m

Mark Sykes made ade a speech in the British Parliament, stating, "ta speech in the British Parliament, stating, "the he concessions obtained from Turkey means the foundation of a concessions obtained from Turkey means the foundation of a French monopoly in Syria by all means."French monopoly in Syria by all means."964

By 1914, the foreign debts of the Ottoman state had reached 160 million

By 1914, the foreign debts of the Ottoman state had reached 160 million British pounds. The Ottoman stBritish pounds. The Ottoman state ate was again in a serious financial crisis, was again in a serious financial crisis, and itand it became necessary to find new loans in order to pay the principal became necessary to find new loans in order to pay the principal and interest on the old loans. For this reason, the Unionist government and interest on the old loans. For this reason, the Unionist government tried to take advantage of the competition between Germany and tried to take advantage of the competition between Germany and FranFrance tce to sell new bonds and find new loans in the Euroo sell new bonds and find new loans in the European financial pean financial markets. However, this also meant that they were forced to make new markets. However, this also meant that they were forced to make new concessions to the European states for each new loan. France was the concessions to the European states for each new loan. France was the top country from which the Ottoman government sought top country from which the Ottoman government sought to oto obtain a btain a loan and, in return, extend concessionsloan and, in return, extend concessions. As Özdemir sums up, in 1914, . As Özdemir sums up, in 1914, the largest private foreign capital investment in the Ottoman Empire the largest private foreign capital investment in the Ottoman Empire was owned by the French. Overall, the French held a 53.5% share of to-was owned by the French. Overall, the French held a 53.5% share of to-tal private capital in the Empire. Ttal private capital in the Empire. The Ghe Germans held a 32.7% share of to-ermans held a 32.7% share of to-tal private capital private capital and the British a 13.7% share. The foreign powers tal and the British a 13.7% share. The foreign powers placed the largest share of their investments in railways, due to the as-placed the largest share of their investments in railways, due to the as-surances on projected collateral per kilometer. Approximately 93.4% of surances on projected collateral per kilometer. Approximately 93.4% of German iGerman invesnvestments in the Ottoman Empire were in railways. tments in the Ottoman Empire were in railways. The large The large majority of French investments, approximately 75%, were made in ei-majority of French investments, approximately 75%, were made in ei-ther railways or ports. Mines were also a significant area of investment, ther railways or ports. Mines were also a significant area of investment, attracting 3.7 million lira in investments in 1914, witattracting 3.7 million lira in investments in 1914, with thh the French hold-e French hold-ing the greatest share in mining iing the greatest share in mining investments.nvestments.965

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met M. Margerie to discuss the new demands of the met M. Margerie to discuss the new demands of the French government before the loan agreement. The list covered 13 arti-French government before the loan agreement. The list covered 13 arti-cles and their subsections. Cavid Beycles and their subsections. Cavid Bey was opposed to the followwas opposed to the following ing arti-arti-cles: a French manager for the Hedjaz railwcles: a French manager for the Hedjaz railway; merging the Rayakay; merging the Rayak--Ramle line with the ŞamRamle line with the Şam--Hama line; the new lines to the south of HaifaHama line; the new lines to the south of Haifa--Der’a; building railway lines, Der’a; building railway lines, İzmirİzmir--KasabaKasaba--Afyonkarahisar in the south, Afyonkarahisar in the south,

964 Özyüksel, Özyüksel, The The BerlinBerlin--Baghdad RBaghdad Railwayailway and the Ottoman and the Ottoman Empire,Empire, 151151..

965 Özdemir, Özdemir, Osmanlı Devleti Dış Borçları: 1854Osmanlı Devleti Dış Borçları: 1854--1954 Döneminde Yüzyıl Süren C1954 Döneminde Yüzyıl Süren Cendereendere 130130--31.31.

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Anatolia and Bursa

Anatolia and Bursa--Mudanya in the east,Mudanya in the east, MarMarmara and Çanakkale in the mara and Çanakkale in the north, and the Aegeannorth, and the Aegean islands (islands (CezayirCezayir--i Bahri Bahr--i Sefidi Sefid) in the west. Cavid ) in the west. Cavid BeyBey stated that they could not accept these conditions, because it meant stated that they could not accept these conditions, because it meant dividing the country into pieces. The Ottoman government needed room dividing the country into pieces. The Ottoman government needed room to act, anto act, and thd this would trigger the feeling of partition of this would trigger the feeling of partition of the country.e country.966

Margerie listed the demands covering the Çukurova issue, the exten-

Margerie listed the demands covering the Çukurova issue, the exten-sion of the sion of the İzmirİzmir--Kasaba railway line and the companies dealing with Kasaba railway line and the companies dealing with the port of the port of İzmirİzmir, Taksim land and barracks, oil concessio, Taksim land and barracks, oil concessions, ns, et cetera. et cetera. Cavid BeyCavid Bey stated that he would check the list of demands but asked for a stated that he would check the list of demands but asked for a specific date for the loan. Cavid Beyspecific date for the loan. Cavid Bey objected to theobjected to the use of the market use of the market shrinkage argument to further delay the loan, especially while the shrinkage argument to further delay the loan, especially while the French had already approved lFrench had already approved loansoans to other countries. He stressed that to other countries. He stressed that the loan was between the Ottoman and French markets, not the French the loan was between the Ottoman and French markets, not the French government. Cavid Beygovernment. Cavid Bey pointed opointed out the excessiveness of the French de-ut the excessiveness of the French de-mands, which left nothing for the Empire to give in the future. He stated mands, which left nothing for the Empire to give in the future. He stated thatthat FraFrance should also declare that it would not ask for anything in re-nce should also declare that it would not ask for anything in re-turn for future loans. Of course, Margerie objected to this point. The turn for future loans. Of course, Margerie objected to this point. The nenext day, Cavid Beyxt day, Cavid Bey sent telegrams to Mr. Crawford, Talat Bey, Said Halim sent telegrams to Mr. Crawford, Talat Bey, Said Halim Pasha, and Rifat Bey to get information aboPasha, and Rifat Bey to get information about Fut France’s demands over rance’s demands over each article. each article.

On February 24, Cavid Bey

On February 24, Cavid Bey formally began the negotiations with M. formally began the negotiations with M. Margerie. They discussed the same cMargerie. They discussed the same conditions, including removing the onditions, including removing the rise in customs duties, the implementation of the octroi and consump-rise in customs duties, the implementation of the octroi and consump-tion tax, andtion tax, and thethe date and amount of the loan apart from the new de-date and amount of the loan apart from the new de-mands. M. Klapka brought the draft of the loan contract, but some arti-mands. M. Klapka brought the draft of the loan contract, but some arti-cles were absent cles were absent or changed, such as those relating to the collection of or changed, such as those relating to the collection of customs by the Ottoman PDA officers. In the meantime, Talatcustoms by the Ottoman PDA officers. In the meantime, Talat BeyBey sent a sent a telegram to Cavid Beytelegram to Cavid Bey that there was almost no money in Istanbul. He that there was almost no money in Istanbul. He asked about the French demands and wanted Cavid Beyasked about the French demands and wanted Cavid Bey to returto return to Is-n to Is-tanbul. Cavid Beytanbul. Cavid Bey informed Istanbul about the contents of the articles, informed Istanbul about the contents of the articles, according to the briefing he had recaccording to the briefing he had receiveeived from the cabinet. This includ-d from the cabinet. This includ-

966 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuzRuznnââmesi II, mesi II, 541541--44.44.

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ed the extension of the Afula

ed the extension of the Afula--Jerusalem railway line to Nablus and Jerusalem railway line to Nablus and French ownership of the HumsFrench ownership of the Hums--Deir ezDeir ez--ZoZor line, if the Ottoman govern-r line, if the Ottoman govern-ment could not build the line. Cavid Beyment could not build the line. Cavid Bey also disapproved of the offer also disapproved of the offer related to the related to the İzmirİzmir--ÇanakkaleÇanakkale--Havsa line and rejected the oil conces-Havsa line and rejected the oil conces-sions. The French also insisted on new conditions such as on building sions. The French also insisted on new conditions such as on building the port of Haifathe port of Haifa; new lines from the Hicaz line to the Mediterranean ; new lines from the Hicaz line to the Mediterranean and to the East between Rayak Ramle and Homsand to the East between Rayak Ramle and Homs--Ma'an; in the allMa'an; in the allocatocation ion of lines to the French with an extension. The French insisted that they of lines to the French with an extension. The French insisted that they needed engineers in the field and thus the French government needed engineers in the field and thus the French government would would like to appoint the manager of the Hedjaz line.like to appoint the manager of the Hedjaz line.

Count Vitali gave a speech in the ministry of foreign affairs

Count Vitali gave a speech in the ministry of foreign affairs. Wh. When Vi-en Vi-tali insisted on the date of the loan, the officers in the ministry stated tali insisted on the date of the loan, the officers in the ministry stated that "Cavid Beythat "Cavid Bey will finally go from here to Berlin, wherwill finally go from here to Berlin, where he will find e he will find enough money to manage Turkey for three or four months, and then he enough money to manage Turkey for three or four months, and then he will apply to us again." Cavid Bwill apply to us again." Cavid Beyey nnotes in his diary that he doubted the otes in his diary that he doubted the sincerity of these words. He considers that they verbalized these bitter sincerity of these words. He considers that they verbalized these bitter words about him only to obwords about him only to observe the impact on him. Cavid Beyserve the impact on him. Cavid Bey stated stated that he could not stay in Paris for more than one week and needed a that he could not stay in Paris for more than one week and needed a specispecific fic answer from the government immediately after the cabinet answer from the government immediately after the cabinet meeting. He insisted on obtaining the loan at the beginning of April. meeting. He insisted on obtaining the loan at the beginning of April. NevertheleNevertheless, he felt bored under those circumstances. He told Vitali, ss, he felt bored under those circumstances. He told Vitali, "You think that the Turks are good and naïve people wh"You think that the Turks are good and naïve people who aro are ready for e ready for everything; you are mistaken."everything; you are mistaken."

He received a telegram concerning the budget for 1914. The state’s

He received a telegram concerning the budget for 1914. The state’s total debt was 7.2 million total debt was 7.2 million liras. The budget deficit was around 1.5 mil-liras. The budget deficit was around 1.5 mil-lion liras. After Cavid Beylion liras. After Cavid Bey met with Count Vitali, the French gave the met with Count Vitali, the French gave the greegreen light for the Ottoman loan and asked Cavid Beyn light for the Ottoman loan and asked Cavid Bey to apply to the Ot-to apply to the Ot-toman Bank.toman Bank.967 However, France was still concerned about the Otto-However, France was still concerned about the Otto-mans smans spending the money on arms and ordering British dreadnoughts; pending the money on arms and ordering British dreadnoughts; they still wanted to sell military ammunition to the Othey still wanted to sell military ammunition to the Ottomttomans. This situ-ans. This situ-ation was especially evident during Cavid Beyation was especially evident during Cavid Bey’s second trip to Paris. ’s second trip to Paris.

967 Cavid Bey, MeşCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet rutiyet RRuznâmeuznâmesi II, si II, 561561--63.63.

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499

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met M. Margerie to discuss the details of met M. Margerie to discuss the details of the Francothe Franco--Ottoman agreement. Cavid BeyOttoman agreement. Cavid Bey made changes to several articles. For ex-made changes to several articles. For ex-ample, Cavid Beyample, Cavid Bey rejected concessiorejected concessions rns related to the merger of the elated to the merger of the İzmirİzmir--Kasaba and MudanyaKasaba and Mudanya--Bursa railway lines, because it was against Bursa railway lines, because it was against the Ottoman government's freedom of action. He stated that the gov-the Ottoman government's freedom of action. He stated that the gov-ernment would give the concession to whomever they chose but could ernment would give the concession to whomever they chose but could not bound themselves unot bound themselves untilntil that day. He reminded Margethat day. He reminded Margerie that all of rie that all of these concessions and the conditions of the loan still needed to be rati-these concessions and the conditions of the loan still needed to be rati-fied by the cabinet and the sultan in Istanbul. Several other negotia-fied by the cabinet and the sultan in Istanbul. Several other negotia-tions continued, which was not easy for Cavid Beytions continued, which was not easy for Cavid Bey, especially unde, especially under r prpressure from Istanbul.essure from Istanbul.

Meanwh

Meanwhile, there were some exciting developments. Rifat Pasha ile, there were some exciting developments. Rifat Pasha conveyed an unofficial statement, perhaps only gossip, to Cavid Beyconveyed an unofficial statement, perhaps only gossip, to Cavid Bey. Ac-. Ac-cording to the gossip he had heard, Cavid Beycording to the gossip he had heard, Cavid Bey was less powerful in Is-was less powerful in Is-tanbul compared to previous tanbul compared to previous timetimes. Cavid Beys. Cavid Bey was skeptical awas skeptical about bout Cemal Pasha as the source of the gossip, as he might be strengthening Cemal Pasha as the source of the gossip, as he might be strengthening his own position. Nevertheless, Rifat Pasha did not reveal his source. his own position. Nevertheless, Rifat Pasha did not reveal his source. During the negotiations, M. Margerie showed Cavid BeyDuring the negotiations, M. Margerie showed Cavid Bey a copy of Me-a copy of Me-chroutiettechroutiette, th, the newspaper of Şerif Pasha, e newspaper of Şerif Pasha, which would publish his pri-which would publish his pri-vate letter to Talat Bey on the Russian policy and the threat of Mr. de vate letter to Talat Bey on the Russian policy and the threat of Mr. de Giers. According to Margerie, the letter was stolen in Istanbul. Cavid BeyGiers. According to Margerie, the letter was stolen in Istanbul. Cavid Bey warned Talat Bey that someone around him was stealwarned Talat Bey that someone around him was stealing ing his documents. his documents. Cavid BeyCavid Bey concontinued the negotiations on the French contract. They also tinued the negotiations on the French contract. They also discussed other issues such as the implementation of the customs du-discussed other issues such as the implementation of the customs du-ties. At last, they agreed to start the implementation of the duties two ties. At last, they agreed to start the implementation of the duties two months after the agreementmonths after the agreement ententered into force. Cavid Beyered into force. Cavid Bey wwanted the anted the commercial agreement to be subject to "general law." However, Marger-commercial agreement to be subject to "general law." However, Marger-ie hesitated on this issue. There were also ambiguous issues such as the ie hesitated on this issue. There were also ambiguous issues such as the registration of French imports. In terms of the loan, Cavid Beyregistration of French imports. In terms of the loan, Cavid Bey stated stated ththat iat it was a crucial and vital ist was a crucial and vital issue for the Ottoman government. M. sue for the Ottoman government. M. Klapka brought the draft of the loan agreement. Cavid BeyKlapka brought the draft of the loan agreement. Cavid Bey revised this revised this and asked for 800 million Liras. The first part would amount to 500 mil-and asked for 800 million Liras. The first part would amount to 500 mil-lion and the second 300 million. The lion and the second 300 million. The net net priceprice of tof the loan was 94.50% he loan was 94.50% but what but what the Ottoman government would get was 85%. Cavid Beythe Ottoman government would get was 85%. Cavid Bey

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claimed that this margin was worse than the Serbian margin. He wanted

claimed that this margin was worse than the Serbian margin. He wanted to renegotiate it. The French government wanted the Ottoman Empire to renegotiate it. The French government wanted the Ottoman Empire to purchase military equipment frto purchase military equipment from From France. Cavid Beyance. Cavid Bey claimed thatclaimed that since they had decreased the ministry of war's budget, it was not possi-since they had decreased the ministry of war's budget, it was not possi-ble to give them this new order. Cavid Beyble to give them this new order. Cavid Bey stated, "I have to solve the stated, "I have to solve the budget deficit; I dedicated myself to this aim." He complained that the budget deficit; I dedicated myself to this aim." He complained that the French French were were adding new items to the listadding new items to the list each day.each day.968

This was a stressful period for Cavid Bey

This was a stressful period for Cavid Bey. An expected but sudden . An expected but sudden incident added another responsibility on his shoulders. On March 12, incident added another responsibility on his shoulders. On March 12, 1914, Talat Bey sent him a telegram that Rifat Bey had resigned due to 1914, Talat Bey sent him a telegram that Rifat Bey had resigned due to healhealth prth problems and Cavid Beyoblems and Cavid Bey had bechad become the minister of finance. ome the minister of finance. Cavid BeyCavid Bey considered that Rifat Bey had not resigned due to his health considered that Rifat Bey had not resigned due to his health conditions but because of pressure from Talat Bey and Enver Pa-conditions but because of pressure from Talat Bey and Enver Pa-sha.sha.969Nevertheless, Rifat Bey did not send a message to congraNevertheless, Rifat Bey did not send a message to congratulattulate e him. Cavid Beyhim. Cavid Bey received coreceived congratulatory messages from the French offic-ngratulatory messages from the French offic-ers. In return, Cavid Beyers. In return, Cavid Bey stated that he had to return to Istanbul due to stated that he had to return to Istanbul due to his new position.his new position.970 Talat Bey stated that they would wait for Cavid BeyTalat Bey stated that they would wait for Cavid Bey's 's arrival to open the parliament. Iarrival to open the parliament. In then the meantime, he continued the meantime, he continued the nego-nego-tiations, but there were still many points that remained ambiguous in-tiations, but there were still many points that remained ambiguous in-cluding the military orders, the docks in Istanbul, and most importantly, cluding the military orders, the docks in Istanbul, and most importantly, the the İzmirİzmir--Çanakkale railway line. Cavid BeyÇanakkale railway line. Cavid Bey did not want to give any did not want to give any concessconcessions ions because otherwise they wouldbecause otherwise they would be condemned to the com-be condemned to the com-panies' will. On the other hand, France tried to delay the loan as long as panies' will. On the other hand, France tried to delay the loan as long as possible, although Cavid Beypossible, although Cavid Bey insisted on receiving iinsisted on receiving it in April.Talat Bey t in April.Talat Bey asked him to return to Istanbul because being a depasked him to return to Istanbul because being a deputy wuty was a weighty as a weighty responsibility.responsibility. Meanwhile, Cavid BeyMeanwhile, Cavid Bey heard that Armstrong had pre-heard that Armstrong had pre-

968 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 574574--600.600.

969 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâmesi II, Ruznâmesi II, 602602--04.04.

970 İ___DUIT___00008_000095_00İ___DUIT___00008_000095_001_0011_001

According to t

According to thhe de decree oecree of the f the sultan, dsultan, due ue ttoo Rifat Bey's resignation from tRifat Bey's resignation from the ministry he ministry of fiof finnance,ance, Cavid Bey, the exCavid Bey, the ex--miniminister of finance,ster of finance, was apwas appointed to the office. Howevpointed to the office. However, er, until he arrives in Istanbul, Talat Bey, the minister of domestic affairsuntil he arrives in Istanbul, Talat Bey, the minister of domestic affairs, would be the , would be the deputdeputyy miminister nister of finof finance. 10 ance. 10 MarMarcchh 1914. The Grand Vizier, Mehmed1914. The Grand Vizier, Mehmed Said.Said.

A C I V I L U N IO NI S T

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vented the delivery of the battleship Sultan Osman. According to Arif

vented the delivery of the battleship Sultan Osman. According to Arif Bey, the president of war in thBey, the president of war in the ministry of navy stated that this was e ministry of navy stated that this was most probably on orders from themost probably on orders from the BritBritish government.ish government.971

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey's's diaries are not available for several months after March diaries are not available for several months after March 13, 1914. The notebooks covering the period between March 13, 1914, 13, 1914. The notebooks covering the period between March 13, 1914, and August 1, 1914 (noteband August 1, 1914 (notebook numbers: 8ook numbers: 8--114114--23) are lost, according 23) are lost, according to the Türk Tarih Kurumuto the Türk Tarih Kurumu ((TurTurkish kish Historical SocietyHistorical Society)). Ac. Accordcording to the ing to the Ottoman archives, on April 11, 1914, a decreeOttoman archives, on April 11, 1914, a decree--law authorized a loan law authorized a loan agreement amounting to 35.2 million liras. The interest rate on the loanagreement amounting to 35.2 million liras. The interest rate on the loan was 5%. Cavid Beywas 5%. Cavid Bey was authorized by the Council of Ministers to sign was authorized by the Council of Ministers to sign anand excd exchange the agreement. Hehange the agreement. He sigsigned the final version of the Otto-ned the final version of the Otto-manman--French agreement on April 9, 1914.French agreement on April 9, 1914.972973974The 1914 loan is the The 1914 loan is the

971 Cavid Bey, MeşCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet rutiyet RuznâmesRuznâmesi II, i II, 606606--12.12.

972 Düstur,Düstur, TertibTertib--i Sani, Vol 6, p: 35i Sani, Vol 6, p: 351. “A degree Law on the Loan of 35,200 Liras.” Sağlam, 1. “A degree Law on the Loan of 35,200 Liras.” Sağlam, M. H.2011. II. TertiM. H.2011. II. Tertip Düstûr Kılavuzu. Op Düstûr Kılavuzu. Ossmanmanlı Devllı Devleti Meeti Mevzûatı (1908vzûatı (1908--1922), Istan-1922), Istan-bul: Tarih Vakfı Yurbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları,t Yayınları, p: 1p: 1886. Bay6. Bayurur, II, II/III, 431. /III, 431.

973 I__DUIT___00188I__DUIT___00188_000005_000005_001_001_001_001

“From the ministr“From the ministry of war to the Grand vizier. The loan of 1914 amounts to 35 million y of war to the Grand vizier. The loan of 1914 amounts to 35 million two huntwo hundred thousand with adred thousand with a 5% 5% interesinterest ratet rate. .

The degThe degrree related to the first installmee related to the first installment of the lent of the loan aoan ammounts ounts toto twetwentynty--two million two million Liras issued on Liras issued on April 1April 15 April 1914…”5 April 1914…”

974 AccordinAccording to Bayur, the General Agreement’s significant articles are as follows: g to Bayur, the General Agreement’s significant articles are as follows:

““On customs duties: On customs duties: 11-- TThe Frenhe French govch government agreernment agreees to an indefinite continuation s to an indefinite continuation of of the 3 perthe 3 percent cent iincreasncrease e it ait adopted on April dopted on April 25, 1907, and a 25, 1907, and a new founew four percent increase. r percent increase.

InsteInstead of receiving customs on value from goods entering the Ottoman country, thead of receiving customs on value from goods entering the Ottoman country, the French government aFrench government aggreerees to pas to pass a sss a special tarifpecial tarifff. A) this special tariff shall b. A) this special tariff shall be ae acccept-cept-ed bed by they the two gotwo govevernmernments b) shall entnts b) shall enter into force oner into force only one ly one year after its ayear after its annnounce-nounce-ment ment

The French government consented to the imposition of excise duties on objeThe French government consented to the imposition of excise duties on objects such cts such as liquor, as liquor, ooil,il, matchematches, sans, sandpaper, cigadpaper, cigarrettes and playing cards, sugar aettes and playing cards, sugar and colonial nd colonial food food ((such asuch as s spicspices, cocoa, etc.)es, cocoa, etc.) and the establiand the establishment shment of a monopoly, except for thof a monopoly, except for the last e last two.two.

55--66--7 Octroi and income tax adopted by the French. 7 Octroi and income tax adopted by the French.

88-- It hasIt has been accepted that been accepted that FFrenrench Mailch Mail can bcan be used undere used under certain conditions, and certain conditions, and Ottoman Ottoman ouls can be ouls can be used used iin thesn these e postpost offices during offices during this time if somthis time if some condie conditions btions be-e-come true. come true.

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99--1010-- It is about the abolition of capitulations and the acceptance of reviews so tIt is about the abolition of capitulations and the acceptance of reviews so that hat Ottoman trade isOttoman trade is subsubject toject to interinternational lawnational law..

1111-- For the financial and ecFor the financial and economic develonomic developmenopmentt of thof the e OttoOttoman Empire, the man Empire, the French French governmengovernment will t will provide friendly assistance provide friendly assistance to Turkeyto Turkey

1212-- The Ottoman government accepts that it has established a borThe Ottoman government accepts that it has established a borrowing called the rowing called the OtOtttomaoman magnin magnificentficent liquidationliquidation borrowing of 1914 with a five peborrowing of 1914 with a five percent interercent interest rast ratte e and and dedeclarclares that it has aes that it has allocated the kinllocated the kind of ind of income managed and collected bcome managed and collected by the y the OPDA in exchange for this borrowing. At the end of April, the Ottoman BOPDA in exchange for this borrowing. At the end of April, the Ottoman Bank negotank negotiiated ated the rthe reelealease of tse of the firhe first part of 5st part of 5000 million (francs). The release 0 million (francs). The release of the seconof the second pard partt to to ththe e markmarket has been put et has been put forward. Becauseforward. Because of theof the beliefs that the money thatbeliefs that the money that will be will be generated from this financial work has received about the consumablegenerated from this financial work has received about the consumables, the French s, the French governgovernmmentent declardeclares thaes that it cannot t it cannot oobject to this.bject to this.

The General AgrThe General Agreement has teement has two apwo apppendixeendixes.s. FirFirst covers two lest covers two letters. Cavid Beytters. Cavid Bey’s lett’s letter er about the armaments. Rifaabout the armaments. Rifat Pasha’s letter covers that the French consultants will ve t Pasha’s letter covers that the French consultants will ve brought to the dibrought to the directorates as cadastrectorates as cadastrre, e, forest forest and stand statistical.atistical.

The last appendix covers the CavThe last appendix covers the Cavid Bey’s letid Bey’s letter ster sttating ating ththat nat no one can claim o one can claim in the in the future thfuture that Geneat General Agreement’s articles vioral Agreement’s articles violates the sovereignty of the Ottoman Elates the sovereignty of the Ottoman Em-m-pire in the future. pire in the future.

The Subsidiary The Subsidiary Agreement on RailwayAgreement on Railwayss anand Docksd Docks: :

TThe concessiohe concessionn for the Black Sea Region railwafor the Black Sea Region railwaysys

SamsunSamsun--SivasSivas--PekeriPekeriç ç railrailways, the new liways, the new lines to Tokat andnes to Tokat and HarputHarput

SulusaraySulusaray--Yozgat railway Yozgat railway to the water Section line betweenYyeşilırmak and Kızılırmakto the water Section line betweenYyeşilırmak and Kızılırmak

HavzaHavza--Bolu and Bolu and then another line tothen another line towwardards Ereğls Ereğlii

PePekeriçkeriç--trabzotrabzonn railwayrailway

HarputHarput--ErganiErgani--Maden rMaden railway line.ailway line. A neA neww railwrailway linay lines towrds Birlises towrds Birlis and Vanand Van

The sThe same Freame Frennch company, which will be ech company, which will be established in the form of the Ottoman stablished in the form of the Ottoman operating company, will operate these Roperating company, will operate these Railways for 30 yearsailways for 30 years

İzmirİzmir--kakasaba (saba (Turgutlu) raTurgutlu) raiilway: This railway would not be lway: This railway would not be purchased bypurchased by the the ggovernmovernment unent until 1943.til 1943.

İzmirİzmir--Town, MudanyaTown, Mudanya--Bursa rBursa raailway extension (Somailway extension (Soma--BandıBandırma to Bursa) to give the rma to Bursa) to give the French the right of priority under the same conditiFrench the right of priority under the same conditions; The concession ons; The concession tto bo build a uild a coastacoastal railway bel railway bettween ween İzmirİzmir and Çanakkale was alsand Çanakkale was also given to to given to the Frhe Freench.nch.

DamasDamascuscus--Hama RailwayHama Railway: new railways: : new railways: today'stoday's company will build a normalcompany will build a normal--width width railway from Rayak South to the Yafarailway from Rayak South to the Yafa--Jerusalem railway and will be ablJerusalem railway and will be able to extend it e to extend it furthfurtheer. r. As longAs long as thas the Ottoman goe Ottoman govvernment does not agree with thisernment does not agree with this company, itcompany, it willwill not tanot take theke the narrow railway narrow railway it is building bit is building beyond Aeyond Affule beyond Nablus. The Ottoule beyond Nablus. The Ottoman man government will give the same company the right to build the Homsgovernment will give the same company the right to build the Homs--Der ezDer ez--Zor raiZor rail-l-way unless iway unless itt dodoes it ies it itself.tself.

On BeirutOn Beirut--DamascusDamascus--Mezerib railway lineMezerib railway line

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The DamascusThe Damascus--HamaHama railwarailway wouly would not be purchasd not be purchased by the governed by the government unment unttil 1943.il 1943.

Lebanese railwayLebanese railway concession to be extended as Damascusconcession to be extended as Damascus--Hama, Tel AvivHama, Tel Aviv--Trablusgarp Trablusgarp and Beirutand Beirut--Sayda railway concesSayda railway concesssionion to be to be repeatrepeated.ed.

ForFor the Yafathe Yafa--Jerusalem railwayJerusalem railway company to company to deal deal wwith thith the construction e construction of a poof a port in Yafa, rt in Yafa, the the OttomanOttoman government waives the right to reclagovernment waives the right to reclaim this line ahead of time and grants im this line ahead of time and grants the company the right to extenthe company the right to extend the railway to thed the railway to the SeaSea of Loof Lott in thin the future.e future.

DDamascusamascus--Maan and Der'aMaan and Der'a--Hayfa raiHayfa railways and thlways and their teir trributaributaries. These nameies. These names have s have been used to refbeen used to refer to Her to Hiijaz railway.jaz railway.

If the Ottoman governIf the Ottoman government wants to use foreign directors and engineers on the state ment wants to use foreign directors and engineers on the state railwrailways that have receivays that have received Ded Damascuamascuss--Hama Hama and its anneand its annexxes, it will choose them only es, it will choose them only frofrom among the m among the FrencFrenchh..

FoFor the next ten r the next ten years, years, the Ottoman govethe Ottoman government rnment wwill give the entire administration oill give the entire administration of f the Damascusthe Damascus--hayda railway and all its branches to a French generahayda railway and all its branches to a French general manager.l manager.

Ports oPorts of Yaf Yafa, Trfa, Traablusgablusgarp, Ereğli, rp, Ereğli, IInebolu, Hayfa: the concession ofnebolu, Hayfa: the concession of the first fthe first four pour poorts rts wiwill be given to ll be given to a Frenca French company, it wih company, it will makell make the port of Hayfa a French company, the port of Hayfa a French company, but its administration will be provided to the French, who will become the general but its administration will be provided to the French, who will become the general managmanager oer of the f the HHejaz rejaz railway.ailway.

1212 Related to the Istanbul and BeirRelated to the Istanbul and Beirut ports belut ports belongedonged to theto the french companifrench companies. es.

According to theAccording to the appendappendixes of the General Agreement the Freixes of the General Agreement the French government nch government willinform the Russian govenrment to persuade them for the articles betwewillinform the Russian govenrment to persuade them for the articles between 1en 1--9. 9.

AnotheAnother article ofr article of the appendix is about the consumthe appendix is about the consumable place oable place of borf borrrowing.owing. The first The first trantranche of che of borrowing will bborrowing will be used e used for the liquidation of the financial for the liquidation of the financial duurm in the Baduurm in the Bal-l-kan war. That are not intended to be released before the end of 1914 to kan war. That are not intended to be released before the end of 1914 to the the state state bbudget udget and the secoand the seconnd part of the Samsund part of the Samsun--Sivas railwSivas railway and port ay and port agreeagreemments rents require equire the monethe money to bey to be made attempted made attempted to provto provide help. Money provided from customside help. Money provided from customs iin-n-creases will be considered the guarantee of this second tranche of debt.creases will be considered the guarantee of this second tranche of debt.

The OttomaThe Ottoman gon governmevernmennt willt will not preventnot prevent the operation of the agreement rthe operation of the agreement reached eached betwebetween Fren Fraanconco--GeGerman companies rman companies on Febron February 15, 1914.uary 15, 1914.

The OtThe Ottoman government consents to the mergtoman government consents to the merger of the National Bank of Turkey and er of the National Bank of Turkey and the Bank of Thessaloniki. If the first bank does nthe Bank of Thessaloniki. If the first bank does not dot do thiso this work iwork in accordancen accordance with the with the concession to build theconcession to build the Port of SamPort of Samsun, sun, wwhich which was granted to ias granted to it in 19t in 1911, the conce11, the conces-s-sision willon will be given to a French company.be given to a French company.

As fAs for the Badat Railway on both sides of the or the Badat Railway on both sides of the İzmirİzmir--Kasaba Railway, the protection Kasaba Railway, the protection area was area was consconsideredidered an arean area where othea where otherr companies could not build railwcompanies could not build railways.” ays.”

SaiSaid Hald Haliim Pashm Pashaa--Mr. Bompaad AMr. Bompaad Agreemengreement: The most impot: The most important artant articles of this rticles of this agreement belong to tagreement belong to the French institutions as schools, hospitals, churches, et cetera he French institutions as schools, hospitals, churches, et cetera in the Ottoman countryin the Ottoman country. Th. They wiley willl be exbe exempt from alempt from alll kinds of state and municipal takinds of state and municipal tax-x-es and custes and customs doms duuties fties for the goods thor the goods they briney bring.” Bayur, Türk g.” Bayur, Türk İnkılâbİnkılâbı Tarihi, II/III, p: ı Tarihi, II/III, p: 424424--41.41.

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second largest loan following the loan received in 1875.

second largest loan following the loan received in 1875. The Ottoman The Ottoman Empire's actual debt, including floating debts, was 33 millEmpire's actual debt, including floating debts, was 33 million lion liras (in iras (in gold). Most of gold). Most of it wit was borrowed from the French markets. The first as borrowed from the French markets. The first tranch of this consolidated loan was 22 million liras; however, it was in-tranch of this consolidated loan was 22 million liras; however, it was in-sufficient to pay off the Empirsufficient to pay off the Empire’s debts. Moreover, some of this loan had e’s debts. Moreover, some of this loan had already been allocated for Fralready been allocated for French ench investments in public woinvestments in public works.rks. I men-I men-tioned the process of borrowing, especially the stiff negotiations be-tioned the process of borrowing, especially the stiff negotiations be-tween Cavid Beytween Cavid Bey and the French statesmen and financiers, throughout and the French statesmen and financiers, throughout this sethis section. However, I would briefly like to mention the importance of ction. However, I would briefly like to mention the importance of this lthis loan. oan. The bulk of this loan waThe bulk of this loan was uss used to pay the advances received to ed to pay the advances received to cover the costs of the Trablusgarp and Balkan wars, to provide civil cover the costs of the Trablusgarp and Balkan wars, to provide civil servants' salaries that were not paid for four servants' salaries that were not paid for four months, to cover the costs months, to cover the costs of the Baghdad Railway, and to cover the budgof the Baghdad Railway, and to cover the budget deet deficit of 1914. The ficit of 1914. The FrencFrench inh insisted that the loan be used in these areas as specified by law. sisted that the loan be used in these areas as specified by law. After these payments, the Ministry of Finance allocated some money to After these payments, the Ministry of Finance allocated some money to immediately starimmediately start the construction of the Samsunt the construction of the Samsun--Sivas railway and the Sivas railway and the ports of Jaffa anports of Jaffa and Hayd Hayfa. The collateral on thfa. The collateral on the loe loan was the current and an was the current and new customs duties and revenues from the provinces and ports. The new customs duties and revenues from the provinces and ports. The debt was fully paid off in 1962. The net money, which the Ottodebt was fully paid off in 1962. The net money, which the Ottoman Em-man Em-pire would get as cash was 88 Liras per 100 Liras. The Ottomans fipire would get as cash was 88 Liras per 100 Liras. The Ottomans finallynally received the loan from received the loan from FranFrance on May 9, 1914. This loan enabled France ce on May 9, 1914. This loan enabled France to obtain concessions for the new railways in Anatolia and Syria and to obtain concessions for the new railways in Anatolia and Syria and new docks in Yafa, Hayfa, and Trablusgnew docks in Yafa, Hayfa, and Trablusgarp, as well as many other ad-arp, as well as many other ad-vantages.vantages.975

Lastly, I should note the situat

Lastly, I should note the situation oion of the agreements. The Otf the agreements. The Ottomatoman n Empire and France had signed three agreements, all linked to each oth-Empire and France had signed three agreements, all linked to each oth-er. The primary agreement was the General Agreement signed between er. The primary agreement was the General Agreement signed between Cavid BeyCavid Bey andand M. Gaston Doumergue, the French minister of foreign af-M. Gaston Doumergue, the French minister of foreign af-fairs, on April 9fairs, on April 9, 191, 1914. Prior to this, two su4. Prior to this, two subsidbsidiary agreements, “Rail-iary agreements, “Rail-way and public works in Asiatic Turkey” and the “Subsidiary agreement way and public works in Asiatic Turkey” and the “Subsidiary agreement

975 Öztel,Öztel, II. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı MaliyesiII. Meşrutiyet Dönemi Osmanlı Maliyesi, 238, 238--239. Özdemir, Osmanlı Devleti Dış 239. Özdemir, Osmanlı Devleti Dış Borçları:Borçları: 18518544--19541954 DönemiDöneminde Yüzyıl Snde Yüzyıl Süüren Cendere, 123ren Cendere, 123--124124;; Bayur, Bayur, TürTürk İnkılâbı k İnkılâbı TTarihiarihi,, II/IIII/IIII, 431, 431--32. 32.

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on Railways and Docks” were signed by Cavid Bey

on Railways and Docks” were signed by Cavid Bey and M. Doumand M. Doumergue ergue on September 11, 1913, and by Said Halim Pasha and M. Bompard on on September 11, 1913, and by Said Halim Pasha and M. Bompard on DDecembecember 18, 1913, respectiveler 18, 1913, respectively. By. Both entered into force with the Gen-oth entered into force with the Gen-eral Agreement. On June 21, 1914, Cavid Beyeral Agreement. On June 21, 1914, Cavid Bey started the budget negotia-started the budget negotia-tions in the Parliament. In his speech he gavetions in the Parliament. In his speech he gave very long and detailed in-very long and detailed in-formation about the public debt and its long pformation about the public debt and its long procesrocess, covering the s, covering the incidentincidents ans and conflicts in Europe.d conflicts in Europe.976

§ 4.4 The The Finance MinisterFinance Minister on the Brink of the Great Waron the Brink of the Great War

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey returned to Istanbul to serve as the minister of finance. Upon returned to Istanbul to serve as the minister of finance. Upon hishis return, the government of Said Halim Pasha had been in office for return, the government of Said Halim Pasha had been in office for nearnearly onely one year. However, the govyear. However, the governmeernment was still struggling to cope nt was still struggling to cope with the Ottoman Empire and its new imperial form. The Unionists with the Ottoman Empire and its new imperial form. The Unionists were not ready to relinquish the Empire; however, the were not ready to relinquish the Empire; however, the new concepts of new concepts of nationalism were better suited to states, not empires. nationalism were better suited to states, not empires. AdditiAdditionally, the onally, the Ottoman EmpOttoman Empire wire was still an ethnically and religiously multias still an ethnically and religiously multi--cultural cultural empire. The short period between the Balkan Wars and the Great War empire. The short period between the Balkan Wars and the Great War was a conceptual transition pewas a conceptual transition period. The ruling elite's state of mind was riod. The ruling elite's state of mind was still confused and ambiguousstill confused and ambiguous. Poli. Political structures such atical structures such as thes the sultanate sultanate existed alongside a strong political party in power, a national economy, existed alongside a strong political party in power, a national economy, liberalism, Islamic policies, and secularism. After the Great War, liberalism, Islamic policies, and secularism. After the Great War, the Ot-the Ot-toman Empire's collapse gave the Kemalists the chance to establistoman Empire's collapse gave the Kemalists the chance to establish a h a momodern, secular nationdern, secular nation--ststate. ate. Despite the Empire’s sudden transfor-Despite the Empire’s sudden transfor-mation in 1913 and 1914, it was still very early for a nationmation in 1913 and 1914, it was still very early for a nation--state to state to emerge. emerge. Although grew up long before, the inAlthough grew up long before, the intellectual roots of the Re-tellectual roots of the Re-publican Era had found a crack to come to thepublican Era had found a crack to come to the surfasurface after the Balkan ce after the Balkan Wars. Wars. ThThe new government booste new government boosteed national solidarity in variod national solidarity in various fields, us fields, including society, education, and the economy. On the other hand, they including society, education, and the economy. On the other hand, they tried to balancetried to balance minority issues, including launching a reform program minority issues, including launching a reform program

976 MilletMillet Meclisi Zabıt CMeclisi Zabıt Ceridesieridesi, Devre: 3, , Devre: 3, Cilt:Cilt: 1, İnikad: 251, İnikad: 25,, 8 Ju8 June, 1330 (21 June 1914), ne, 1330 (21 June 1914), 555555--579579

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to satisfy the A

to satisfy the Arab narab nationalists, not fullytionalists, not fully successuccessful. In the sprisful. In the spring of ng of 1914, just before Cavid B1914, just before Cavid Beyey's arrival in Istanbul, the Islamic Boycott 's arrival in Istanbul, the Islamic Boycott caused thousands of Anatolian Greeks to flee to Greece. Acaused thousands of Anatolian Greeks to flee to Greece. As mentioned s mentioned above, the Armenian Reform Act occupied the government's agabove, the Armenian Reform Act occupied the government's agenda ienda in n 1913 and the beginning of 1913 and the beginning of 1914. Although th1914. Although the Act e Act satisfied the Armeni-satisfied the Armeni-ans, ans, it increased polarization between Muslims and Armenians, espe-it increased polarization between Muslims and Armenians, espe-cially in the Eastern provinces, just befocially in the Eastern provinces, just before the Great War. In the econom-re the Great War. In the econom-ic field, local Muslim merchants were gric field, local Muslim merchants were gradualladually uniting and y uniting and strengthening strengthening their hold over ttheir hold over the ecohe economy. The CUP was the mainomy. The CUP was the main actor n actor whowho helped them organize, whether or not they were members of the helped them organize, whether or not they were members of the Committee. The national econoCommittee. The national economy was gaining visibility both on the my was gaining visibility both on the streets and in the press. The newstreets and in the press. The newspaperspapers and periodicals covering ts and periodicals covering the he economy sucheconomy such as The as The Economics (İktisadiyyatEconomics (İktisadiyyat Mecmuası) argued for a Mecmuası) argued for a stronger national economy and protectionism. This was the current sit-stronger national economy and protectionism. This was the current sit-uation of thuation of the Empire when Cavid Beye Empire when Cavid Bey returned to Istanbul. His main returned to Istanbul. His main task was to comptask was to complete tlete the budget for 1914.he budget for 1914.

According to the minute

According to the minutess of theof the Parliament, on July 4, the parliament Parliament, on July 4, the parliament began negotiations on the budget of 1914.began negotiations on the budget of 1914.977 Cavid BeyCavid Bey, as the minister , as the minister of finance, made a of finance, made a speech on behalf of the government. He gave general speech on behalf of the government. He gave general information about tinformation about the curhe current fiscal situation and the budget itself.rent fiscal situation and the budget itself. He He begbegaan his speech with the Empire’s n his speech with the Empire’s defeat in the Balkan Wars. He un-defeat in the Balkan Wars. He un-derlined how deep this loss was for the country but also gave a derlined how deep this loss was for the country but also gave a message message of hope and resilience to the audience. As usual, he was an impof hope and resilience to the audience. As usual, he was an impressivressive e orator, speaking fluent Ottoman. His parlorator, speaking fluent Ottoman. His parliaiamentarmentary speeches also re-y speeches also re-vealed his character as a politician, as he discussed both political devel-vealed his character as a politician, as he discussed both political devel-opments and financial issues. opments and financial issues.

Cavid

Cavid BeyBey then explained why Mahmud Şevket Pasha had decided to then explained why Mahmud Şevket Pasha had decided to receive a coreceive a consolidnsolidated loan from France. The first thing he dated loan from France. The first thing he didid was twas to o extend the duration of the foreign companies' terms, in order to get extend the duration of the foreign companies' terms, in order to get some money for the Anatolian railways, the lighthoussome money for the Anatolian railways, the lighthouses, aes, and the Taksim nd the Taksim barracks. The most controversial issue was the monopoly obarracks. The most controversial issue was the monopoly of Régif Régie To-e To-

977 MMZC, MMZC, Devre: Devre: 33, İçtima Senesi: 1, , İçtima Senesi: 1, Cilt:Cilt: 1, 1, İ: 25, İ: 25, 21 H21 Haziaziranran 11330 (330 (44 July July 1911914), 4), 555555--5579. 79.

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bacco. Cavid Bey

bacco. Cavid Bey stated that he was alsstated that he was also o againsagainst the extension of the t the extension of the concession and that he supported the state’s monopoly in the tobacco concession and that he supported the state’s monopoly in the tobacco business. However, the need forbusiness. However, the need for monemoney to recapture Edirne forced the y to recapture Edirne forced the government to extend the Régie’s monopgovernment to extend the Régie’s monopoly. Toly. Though they had negotiat-hough they had negotiat-ed the agreement fored the agreement for ttwo yeawo years, they finally had to accept the extension rs, they finally had to accept the extension of the concession. According to Cavid Beyof the concession. According to Cavid Bey, before the Balkan Wars, the , before the Balkan Wars, the region region was twas the most fertile region for tobacco production. However, he most fertile region for tobacco production. However, most of that lamost of that land wasnd was now lost. He stated that during this perionow lost. He stated that during this period,d, some some associations hindered the Ottoman government from obtaining loans associations hindered the Ottoman government from obtaining loans from France. He emphasized that the Ottoman government nefrom France. He emphasized that the Ottoman government needed eded money for the army; otherwise, the army could not be mobilized to re-money for the army; otherwise, the army could not be mobilized to re-capcapture Eture Edirne. Cavid Beydirne. Cavid Bey underlined the fact that tunderlined the fact that thehe govergovernment had nment had extended the Régie's concession while he was in Paris. Despite Cavid extended the Régie's concession while he was in Paris. Despite Cavid BeyBey’s efforts to convince the French governm’s efforts to convince the French government, ent, France claimed that it France claimed that it could not get involved in a private company's bucould not get involved in a private company's businesssiness. He was disap-. He was disap-pointed that the Régie did nopointed that the Régie did not t pay thpay the 1.5 million all at once and initially e 1.5 million all at once and initially paid only 500,000 liras. The rest would be paid to the Ottoman govern-paid only 500,000 liras. The rest would be paid to the Ottoman govern-ment each yearment each year fromfrom its revenues. its revenues.

In terms of the consolidated loan, Cavid Bey

In terms of the consolidated loan, Cavid Bey stated thastated that the t the govern-govern-ment’s primary goal was to secure thement’s primary goal was to secure the EEmpire’mpire’s future. He described the s future. He described the many preparations they had made for the loan negotiations. First of all, many preparations they had made for the loan negotiations. First of all, they cooperated with ththey cooperated with the Free French press to increase their leverage. They nch press to increase their leverage. They wanted to ensure that the newanted to ensure that the news orgws organizations supported the claims of anizations supported the claims of the Ottothe Ottomaman goven government. He had heard from various officers that the rnment. He had heard from various officers that the Great Powers wanted financial control in return for the loan; thereforeGreat Powers wanted financial control in return for the loan; therefore, , thethe loan amount decreased to from 400loan amount decreased to from 400--500,000 liras instead of 500,000 liras instead of 700,000 lir700,000 liras. Caas. Cavid Beyvid Bey emphasized that the financiers and emphasized that the financiers and ththe Frene French ch politicians wanted financial control of the Ottoman Empire. Their goal politicians wanted financial control of the Ottoman Empire. Their goal was to deprive the Ottoman government of a strongwas to deprive the Ottoman government of a strong armyarmy and navy.and navy.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey emphasized that it was also not easy to manage theemphasized that it was also not easy to manage the Otto-Otto-mman Empire, especially since the state’s revan Empire, especially since the state’s revenenues haues had been reduced due d been reduced due to the shrinkage of its territory. He argued that the Empire should in-to the shrinkage of its territory. He argued that the Empire should in-crease its revenue without any outcrease its revenue without any outside side financial control. He explained financial control. He explained how Anatolia's resources were rich but how Anatolia's resources were rich but untoucuntouched. Although the Otto-hed. Although the Otto-

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man government was de

man government was deprprived oived of investment tools, it is had sincerity f investment tools, it is had sincerity and goodwill on its side. He stated that they should reform the Ottoman and goodwill on its side. He stated that they should reform the Ottoman fiscal systfiscal system anem and make agreements to improve its public works net-d make agreements to improve its public works net-work, such as the railwork, such as the railways, ways, docks, and roads. The Ottoman government docks, and roads. The Ottoman government cocoululd saved save its reputation and preserve the Empire for the generations to its reputation and preserve the Empire for the generations to come. As Mehmet Arısan points out, Cavid Beycome. As Mehmet Arısan points out, Cavid Bey’s words also re’s words also reflectflected ed “the formidable struggle of the Unionists to save the Ottoman state as “the formidable struggle of the Unionists to save the Ottoman state as reflective of a wish to restore the empire’s lreflective of a wish to restore the empire’s losost dignt dignity to avoid the huge ity to avoid the huge weight of losing an empire.”weight of losing an empire.”978

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey told the parliament about the talks with France that had told the parliament about the talks with France that had begubegun in n in February 1913. France had insisted on making a consolidated February 1913. France had insisted on making a consolidated loan. The Ottomans had planned to obtain a loan in October 1loan. The Ottomans had planned to obtain a loan in October 191913, but3, but the Ottoman government had to postpone this due to the reshuffling of the Ottoman government had to postpone this due to the reshuffling of the French cabinet, among other reasons, including tthe French cabinet, among other reasons, including the Gehe German military rman military mission. Afterward, they needed two to three months to restart the ne-mission. Afterward, they needed two to three months to restart the ne-gotiations with the new French governgotiations with the new French governmement. Thnt. The developments in Janu-e developments in Janu-ary, February, and March hindered him from negotiating the loan, which ary, February, and March hindered him from negotiating the loan, which was for 800 million liras. Accwas for 800 million liras. Accordinording to Cavid Beyg to Cavid Bey, even the people they , even the people they had trusted produced propaganda against the Ottoman government. had trusted produced propaganda against the Ottoman government. The Ottoman governmThe Ottoman governmenent's opt's opponents in Europe, particularly Russia, ponents in Europe, particularly Russia, had claimed that they would spend the money from the loan on the mili-had claimed that they would spend the money from the loan on the mili-tary. He also tary. He also emphaemphasized the fact that the Ottoman government's loan sized the fact that the Ottoman government's loan was much better than the Russian, Greek, and Serbian loans. He re-was much better than the Russian, Greek, and Serbian loans. He re-mindeminded d the pathe parliament that, in order to obtain such a large sum, the Ot-rliament that, in order to obtain such a large sum, the Ot-toman government had had to give assurances. Cavid Beytoman government had had to give assurances. Cavid Bey shared theshared the detadetails of the loan, including its installments, with the deputies. The first ils of the loan, including its installments, with the deputies. The first installment was 500 million liras, and anotherinstallment was 500 million liras, and another 1100 mil00 million liras of it lion liras of it would be paid in advance. The interest on the advance was lower than would be paid in advance. The interest on the advance was lower than the interest on the loan. According tthe interest on the loan. According to Cavo Cavid Beyid Bey, this was the largest , this was the largest loan that France could afford. The conditions of the loan were the best loan that France could afford. The conditions of the loan were the best under these circumsunder these circumstatances. nces. In return for the loan, the French would re-In return for the loan, the French would re-

978 Mehmet Arısan, “Loss of the Lost,” 722. Mehmet Arısan, “Loss of the Lost,” 722.

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ceive tax revenue from

ceive tax revenue from İzmirİzmir and customs tax revenue from Trabzon and customs tax revenue from Trabzon and Istanbul. and Istanbul. HowevHowever, the government would obtain less money com-er, the government would obtain less money com-pared to the actual agreement, due to the high interest rates and debts. pared to the actual agreement, due to the high interest rates and debts. CCavavid Beyid Bey thanked the French government in his speech. He stated that thanked the French government in his speech. He stated that the government paid back its debts via treasury bonds and advathe government paid back its debts via treasury bonds and advances.nces. Then, he gave information about the rest of the debts. He stated that the Then, he gave information about the rest of the debts. He stated that the government was trying to pay off its domesticgovernment was trying to pay off its domestic aand intnd international debt ernational debt with the new loan, but the amount was insufficient. He stated that loans with the new loan, but the amount was insufficient. He stated that loans were not only financial interactiowere not only financial interactions buns but also political operations. They t also political operations. They not only asked for money and interest but also political benefits. He not only asked for money and interest but also political benefits. He stated that whoestated that whoevever giver gives money can invest in public works.s money can invest in public works.

Moreover, he highlighted the crisis in the European markets. It was

Moreover, he highlighted the crisis in the European markets. It was the first crisis sithe first crisis since tnce the 1870s. He stated that the value of money on the he 1870s. He stated that the value of money on the markets was costly due to the Balkan Wars situation. He underlined thmarkets was costly due to the Balkan Wars situation. He underlined the e fact tfact that all of the markets were intertwined with each other, and he hat all of the markets were intertwined with each other, and he was anxious about the future. He mentioned that the timing was anxious about the future. He mentioned that the timing of thof the loan e loan was successful. He gave further information about the Paris financial was successful. He gave further information about the Paris financial conference and the indemnity from Trablusgaconference and the indemnity from Trablusgarprp. In t. In terms of the Paris erms of the Paris financial conference, his point was also essential for us to understand financial conference, his point was also essential for us to understand the events detailed in the next cthe events detailed in the next chaptehapter, the Lausanne negotiations in r, the Lausanne negotiations in 19221922--1923. Unlike the future events in Lausanne, Cavid Bey1923. Unlike the future events in Lausanne, Cavid Bey claimed claimed this time that the Bathis time that the Balklkan staan states should pay their share, which amounted tes should pay their share, which amounted to 23to 23––24 million liras. The indemnity from Trablusgarp and Benghazi 24 million liras. The indemnity from Trablusgarp and Benghazi was held by was held by the Othe OPDA and had still not been paid to the Ottoman gov-PDA and had still not been paid to the Ottoman gov-ernment. Cavid Beyernment. Cavid Bey also informed the deputies about the state’s agree-also informed the deputies about the state’s agree-mmenents witts with the Great Powers. According to him, the most significant h the Great Powers. According to him, the most significant success of the government was to raise customs duties. This woulsuccess of the government was to raise customs duties. This would be d be implemented two months after the signature of the French agreement. implemented two months after the signature of the French agreement. After a long briefing, he ended his budget speech. After a long briefing, he ended his budget speech.

The parhe parliament approved the 1914 budget after a long debate. The liament approved the 1914 budget after a long debate. The budget expenses budget expenses werewere 3,401,203,401,2000,396 piastre. The incomes outlined i,396 piastre. The incomes outlined in n ththe budget totaled 3,260,749,078 piastre. The largest change from the e budget totaled 3,260,749,078 piastre. The largest change from the

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previous year’s budget was the reduction in the budge

previous year’s budget was the reduction in the budget t of thof thee ministry ministry of war.of war.979

Although the Ottoman Empire had received the first installment of

Although the Ottoman Empire had received the first installment of the French loans, a severe economic crthe French loans, a severe economic crisisisis had begun in July. A group of had begun in July. A group of members from both the Chamber of Commerce and a delegation of members from both the Chamber of Commerce and a delegation of bankers requested a moratoribankers requested a moratoriumum fromfrom the government. In a period of the government. In a period of two to three days, Wiener Bank Verein was forced to withdraw all of its two to three days, Wiener Bank Verein was forced to withdraw all of its assets, which gravelassets, which gravely afy affected the markets. Cavid Beyfected the markets. Cavid Bey thought that it was thought that it was necessary to call a meeting of the parliament and act on the moratoriumnecessary to call a meeting of the parliament and act on the moratorium pproposroposaal, even though it was a Sunday. According to Cavid Beyl, even though it was a Sunday. According to Cavid Bey, there , there would be so many attacks on the banks on the Monday that therwould be so many attacks on the banks on the Monday that there woe would uld be no money left in the banks by the evening.be no money left in the banks by the evening.980 Cavid BeyCavid Bey and his team and his team prepared the draft law, but many of the deputiprepared the draft law, but many of the deputieses objeobjeccted to it. The fol-ted to it. The fol-lowing day, the Unionist government decided to prorogue the parlia-lowing day, the Unionist government decided to prorogue the parlia-ment and announced a moratorium by decrment and announced a moratorium by decree.ee.

On August 28, 1914, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and

On August 28, 1914, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife Sophie were assassinated by a Serbian nationalishis wife Sophie were assassinated by a Serbian nationalist.t. ThisThis incident incident brought the Austriabrought the Austria--Hungary Empire and Russia to the brink of war. Hungary Empire and Russia to the brink of war. Germany, the ally of Austria had intervened in Germany, the ally of Austria had intervened in the the conflict. This is conflict. This is known as the July Crisis in European history, which opened the age of known as the July Crisis in European history, which opened the age of catastrophe between 1914 and1945.catastrophe between 1914 and1945. On JOn Juuly 28, 1914, Austria de-ly 28, 1914, Austria de-clared war on Serbia and this clared war on Serbia and this setset--inin motion the First World War. During motion the First World War. During the era of the alliances, ththe era of the alliances, the Ote Ottoman Empire was trying to find the best toman Empire was trying to find the best for herself to preserve her territory and win back the losses of the re-for herself to preserve her territory and win back the losses of the re-cent pastcent past. . ThougThoughh they approached the Entente Powers, and in May Ta-they approached the Entente Powers, and in May Ta-lat Bey had visited the tzar and Mr. Sazanov in Livadia, at lat Bey had visited the tzar and Mr. Sazanov in Livadia, at the tzar’sthe tzar’s susummermmer residence, none of the Entente Powers had given the assuranc-residence, none of the Entente Powers had given the assuranc-es the Unionists had sought. Although Germany was not very es the Unionists had sought. Although Germany was not very ininterestteresteed d or optimistic about the situation of the Ottoman Empire, Kaiser Wilhelm or optimistic about the situation of the Ottoman Empire, Kaiser Wilhelm II changed his mind about an alliance due to the II changed his mind about an alliance due to the inteintervention of Mr. rvention of Mr.

979 T.C. MaliT.C. Maliye Bye Bakaakanlığnlığı,ı, OsmOsmanlı Bütçeleanlı Bütçelerri (1909i (1909--1918),1918), 358358--359. 359.

980 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, IIRuznâme, II, 613., 613.

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Wangenheim. However, a group of the Unionists and Mr. Wangenheim

Wangenheim. However, a group of the Unionists and Mr. Wangenheim reached an alliance agreement behind clreached an alliance agreement behind clososed dooed doorrs. s.

On the morning of August 2, when Cavid Bey

On the morning of August 2, when Cavid Bey went to the Grand Vi-went to the Grand Vi-zier's mansion to sign the moratorium law, he found Mr. zier's mansion to sign the moratorium law, he found Mr. WebeWeber from the r from the German embassy waiting there. The Grand Vizier was hurriedly writing German embassy waiting there. The Grand Vizier was hurriedly writing something down, and Enver Pasha, Talat Bsomething down, and Enver Pasha, Talat Beyey, and , and HHalil Bey were also alil Bey were also there. Cavid Beythere. Cavid Bey, sensing an extraordinary situation, asked Talat what , sensing an extraordinary situation, asked Talat what had happened. Talat Bey said thathad happened. Talat Bey said that he he could not tell him. Cavid Beycould not tell him. Cavid Bey was was surprised at this answer and immediately asked Talat Bey whether they surprised at this answer and immediately asked Talat Bey whether they had allied with had allied with GeGermany.rmany. The Grand Vizier handed Weber the paper he The Grand Vizier handed Weber the paper he had signed, and the Unionists entered the Grand Vizier’s office. Cavid had signed, and the Unionists entered the Grand Vizier’s office. Cavid BeyBey consiconsideredered that they would not be so stupid as to keep secrets from d that they would not be so stupid as to keep secrets from their cabinet members. The Grand Vizier read out the paper totheir cabinet members. The Grand Vizier read out the paper to tthe Un-he Un-iioonists in the room. It announced an Alliance between Germany and the nists in the room. It announced an Alliance between Germany and the Ottoman Empire. Cavid BeyOttoman Empire. Cavid Bey listened to the Grand Vizierlistened to the Grand Vizier in in shock, as he shock, as he read out the terms of the agreement, which were as follows: read out the terms of the agreement, which were as follows:

In the battle between Serbia and Austria

In the battle between Serbia and Austria--HungaHungaryry, both, both sides to declare sides to declare absolute neutrality.absolute neutrality.

The German military mission to remain in the Ottoman Empire. In return,

The German military mission to remain in the Ottoman Empire. In return, the Empire tothe Empire to ensensure that this delegation be active in the battle de fac-ure that this delegation be active in the battle de fac-to.to.

The pact to be for five years. Then to last another five year

The pact to be for five years. Then to last another five years,s, proviprovidded ed neither side objected.neither side objected.

The pact to be valid as soon as signed by the two parties' representatives

The pact to be valid as soon as signed by the two parties' representatives (Grand Vizier and Wang(Grand Vizier and Wangenheenheim), and the final documents signed by the im), and the final documents signed by the sovereigns to be exchanged within a month.sovereigns to be exchanged within a month.

In any war between Russia and the

In any war between Russia and the OtOttoman toman EEmpire, Germany to defend mpire, Germany to defend the Empire’s territory with arms if necessary.the Empire’s territory with arms if necessary.

When they asked for Cavid Bey

When they asked for Cavid Bey’s opinion, he could n’s opinion, he could not aot answer because nswer because he was still in shock. He stated that he could not decide on such an es-he was still in shock. He stated that he could not decide on such an es-sential issue instantly. He observesential issue instantly. He observed d that tthat thhe others were happy to be-e others were happy to be-come an ally of a Great Power. Cavid Beycome an ally of a Great Power. Cavid Bey was very worried. Moreover, was very worried. Moreover, when he learned that Talat Bewhen he learned that Talat Bey any and Enver Pasha had known about this d Enver Pasha had known about this issue for four days and they had met in Yeniköy without informing him, issue for four days and they had met in Yeniköy without informing him,

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this saddened

this saddened hihim. He m. He nnoted in his diary that “if only the situation were oted in his diary that “if only the situation were not very delicate.” Cavid Beynot very delicate.” Cavid Bey was still not aware that the agreement hadwas still not aware that the agreement had alralready been signed.eady been signed.

During the evening, Cavid Bey

During the evening, Cavid Bey went to Enver Pasha's home with Ta-went to Enver Pasha's home with Ta-lat Bey. On the way, Cavid Beylat Bey. On the way, Cavid Bey told Tatold Talalat Bey t Bey tthat this situation would hat this situation would cause hardship. He suspected that the Germans would not send troops cause hardship. He suspected that the Germans would not send troops to the Ottoman Empire. If theyto the Ottoman Empire. If they werwere subjected to an attack by Russia, e subjected to an attack by Russia, the country would be devastated. If the German victory was not abso-the country would be devastated. If the German victory was not abso-lute, or if the Rlute, or if the Rusussians sians wwon, the Ottoman Empire would be wiped off the on, the Ottoman Empire would be wiped off the map. In response, Talat Bey stated that if the Germans were victorious, map. In response, Talat Bey stated that if the Germans were victorious, they they woulwould not hurt us. Clearly, he did not want to be held responsible. d not hurt us. Clearly, he did not want to be held responsible. Cavid BeyCavid Bey understood from his behavior that the agreemenunderstood from his behavior that the agreement t had alhad alrready eady been signed, and they were afraid of his resignation. When they were been signed, and they were afraid of his resignation. When they were out of the car, Talat Bey asked, "What do we do? out of the car, Talat Bey asked, "What do we do? It iIt is over; the Grand Vi-s over; the Grand Vi-zier has signed it; it is our destiny." Cavid Beyzier has signed it; it is our destiny." Cavid Bey responded that he did not responded that he did not bow down to fate. Halil bow down to fate. Halil BeBey and y and CCemal Pasha were also in Enver Pasha's emal Pasha were also in Enver Pasha's house. Cemal also heard of this incident after the fact, like Cavid Beyhouse. Cemal also heard of this incident after the fact, like Cavid Bey. . Cavid BeyCavid Bey unundersderstood that neither Talat Bey nor Halil Bey clearly un-tood that neither Talat Bey nor Halil Bey clearly un-derstood the meaning of the agreement. According to Cavid Beyderstood the meaning of the agreement. According to Cavid Bey, while, while tthere where weere no conditions in our favor in the agreement, the future of the re no conditions in our favor in the agreement, the future of the state was in Germany’s hands.state was in Germany’s hands.981

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey and Talat Bey viand Talat Bey visitesited Said Halim Pasha. After Cavid Beyd Said Halim Pasha. After Cavid Bey expressed his concerns, Said Halim Pasha asked them to leave these is-expressed his concerns, Said Halim Pasha asked them to leave these is-sues to his medsues to his mediaiation. tion. CCavid Beyavid Bey was nervous about the Grand Vizier’s was nervous about the Grand Vizier’s promise; however, he saw no reason to say anything. Talat Bey’s only promise; however, he saw no reason to say anything. Talat Bey’s only answers answers onlyonly was to purse his lips. Cavid Beywas to purse his lips. Cavid Bey said that Germany had not said that Germany had not made any specific commitments related to the war with Russiamade any specific commitments related to the war with Russia. . Follow-Follow-iing the conversation, Talat Bey was not as excited as he had been in the ng the conversation, Talat Bey was not as excited as he had been in the morning. Meanwhile, news from London also arrived smorning. Meanwhile, news from London also arrived statitatinng that Brit-g that Brit-

981 Aydemir, Enver Aydemir, Enver Paşa, IIPaşa, II, 520, 520--527.527. TThhis is anecdote in anecdote in Cavid BeyCavid Bey’’s s diaries also points out diaries also points out the changing character of the decisionthe changing character of the decision--making prmaking process in the CUP. ocess in the CUP. As ZAs Zürchürcher er under-under-scores, wscores, while Hhile Halil Bey was included, Cavid Bey alil Bey was included, Cavid Bey was was excluded.excluded. ZZürcher, ürcher, ““YouYounng Turk g Turk GovernanceGovernance,” 908,” 908--912. 912.

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ain would not give up its ships. Moreover, the Ottoman ambassador had

ain would not give up its ships. Moreover, the Ottoman ambassador had already handed over the money without already handed over the money without rreeceivinceivingg the ships.the ships.982

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey's notes from August 4, 1914, include a meeting about a 's notes from August 4, 1914, include a meeting about a telegram to be sent to the Germans. A draft ltelegram to be sent to the Germans. A draft list ist covering five articles was covering five articles was prepared: prepared:

The Ottoman Empire not to act before Bulgaria acted. Romania's neu-

The Ottoman Empire not to act before Bulgaria acted. Romania's neu-trality should btrality should bee assureassuredd..

The border of Eastern Anatolia should be expanded to enable communi-

The border of Eastern Anatolia should be expanded to enable communi-cation with the Caucasus Muslims. Expanding the bordercation with the Caucasus Muslims. Expanding the border witwith Rumelia h Rumelia up to territory occupied by Turks. up to territory occupied by Turks.

The abolishment of both financial and judicial capitulations and com-

The abolishment of both financial and judicial capitulations and com-mittimittinngg to coto connvince the other states of the abolishment of the capitula-vince the other states of the abolishment of the capitula-tions in the pretions in the pre--war period. war period.

Were the enemy to enter Ottoman lan

Were the enemy to enter Ottoman land, td, there could be no peace con-here could be no peace con-cluded before the invaders leave Ottoman territory.cluded before the invaders leave Ottoman territory.

Sharing war reparations.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey notes inotes inn his dihis diaary that they should have thought of these ry that they should have thought of these points before they signed the agreement. In the meantime, the market points before they signed the agreement. In the meantime, the market was also in was also in greagreat distress and shrinking. In the days following the mora-t distress and shrinking. In the days following the mora-torium, the banks were outraged. There were police everywhere. Ttorium, the banks were outraged. There were police everywhere. Thhee EmpirEmpiree’s cash shortage and the number of banknotes in circulation be-’s cash shortage and the number of banknotes in circulation be-came a concern. Cavid Beycame a concern. Cavid Bey claimed that two million pounds werclaimed that two million pounds were wie with-th-drawn and hidden from the banks and the market within a few days. On drawn and hidden from the banks and the market within a few days. On the other hand, the ministers were not aware of athe other hand, the ministers were not aware of annyything;thing; they only they only talked about neutrality.talked about neutrality.983

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey notes in his diary on August 10 that the warships of Ger-notes in his diary on August 10 that the warships of Ger-many, Goeben and Bresmany, Goeben and Breslau,lau, had entered Canakkale without encounter-had entered Canakkale without encounter-ing resistance from the Ottoman government. There could have been an ing resistance from the Ottoman government. There could have been an incident thincident thaatt wouldwould have violated this degree of impartiality, according have violated this degree of impartiality, according to Cavid Beyto Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey believed that the Germans had the right to entbelieved that the Germans had the right to enter er ffriendly territory, having signed the alliance agreement, as they careful-riendly territory, having signed the alliance agreement, as they careful-

982 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, IIRuznâme, II,, 613613--616.616.

983 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, IIRuznâme, II, 616, 616--17.17.

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ly implemented their plans to bring the Ottomans

ly implemented their plans to bring the Ottomans iinto thnto thee war. He as-war. He as-sessed that those who had not thought about it before could not avoid sessed that those who had not thought about it before could not avoid thinking of it now. Wangenheim was threatthinking of it now. Wangenheim was threateningening the government. The the government. The Unionists offered to buy the ships. The government informed the news-Unionists offered to buy the ships. The government informed the news-papers that they had bought thpapers that they had bought thee ships ships ffoor 80 million Liras. This situa-r 80 million Liras. This situa-tion showed his friends that the road to friendship is not without tion showed his friends that the road to friendship is not without thorns, he said. During tthorns, he said. During these hese days, the situation in Istanbul was tumul-days, the situation in Istanbul was tumul-tuous as was Cavid Beytuous as was Cavid Bey's personal world. He was always squaring off 's personal world. He was always squaring off about the about the aacccountscounts wwith his fellow Unionists. The matter of the ships ith his fellow Unionists. The matter of the ships continued for three or four days. He found the Grand Vizier on his continued for three or four days. He found the Grand Vizier on his side.side.984

Fin

Finally, the Germans agreed to hoist the Ottoman flag and entered Is-ally, the Germans agreed to hoist the Ottoman flag and entered Is-tanbul. The French, British, and Russian ambassadors wtanbul. The French, British, and Russian ambassadors weerre the e the oonnly ly ones who had made a declaration against this incident. However, they ones who had made a declaration against this incident. However, they did not insist on the ships did not insist on the ships leaving Istanbul. Cavleaving Istanbul. Cavid Beyid Bey criticizes Enver criticizes Enver Pasha: "The Germans want us to join the war as soon as possible, and Pasha: "The Germans want us to join the war as soon as possible, and Enver is ready to be thrown intEnver is ready to be thrown intoo the fithe firree. Enver is most loyal to his pro-. Enver is most loyal to his pro-fession; he wants to either sink or swim." Enver Pasha seemed fully con-fession; he wants to either sink or swim." Enver Pasha seemed fully con-fident in a German fident in a German victorvictory. All he thought about was walking alongside y. All he thought about was walking alongside them and joining his fate to theirs. Talat's enthusiasm for the war was them and joining his fate to theirs. Talat's enthusiasm for the war was aallmost gmost goonne. The Ottoman government had two conditions for entering e. The Ottoman government had two conditions for entering the war: Bulgaria's entrance into the war on the German side anthe war: Bulgaria's entrance into the war on the German side and Ro-d Ro-mamania’s neutrality. Talat Bey and Halil Bey went to Bucharest to con-nia’s neutrality. Talat Bey and Halil Bey went to Bucharest to con-vince Romania to take part in the alliance with Germvince Romania to take part in the alliance with Germaanny. Buly. Bulggaaria's po-ria's po-sition was a priority for the Empire. According to Cavid Beysition was a priority for the Empire. According to Cavid Bey, if the , if the Bulgarians did not enter the war and Germany Bulgarians did not enter the war and Germany did nodid not win a victory t win a victory against the French, then Enver would not be able to move on.against the French, then Enver would not be able to move on.985

The

The MMinistry of inistry of WWarar imposedimposed war taxes onwar taxes on tthe whohe whollee of the country. of the country. This situation caused many complaints among local and foreign busi-This situation caused many complaints among local and foreign busi-nessmen. Cavid Beynessmen. Cavid Bey wrote that the miniswrote that the minister ofter of war and the cabinet did war and the cabinet did not think about the country's needs in any way. He said that the city's not think about the country's needs in any way. He said that the city's

984 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâRuznâmme, IIe, II, 613, 613--16.16.

985 CavCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet id Bey, Meşrutiyet RuzRuznnâme, Iâme, III,, 620, Aydemir, 620, Aydemir, EnverEnver Paşa, II,Paşa, II, 536536--442. 2.

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needs and people’s hu

needs and people’s hunngger werer weree not considered. Because of the war not considered. Because of the war taxes, many shop owners stopped importing products. The war taxes taxes, many shop owners stopped importing products. The war taxes affected affected the import the import and expand export of goods, even those in the ships already ort of goods, even those in the ships already in the ports. in the ports.

The ministry of war began censoring the press. The paper

The ministry of war began censoring the press. The paperss only only mmeentntioned the German military expeditions. There was no news from ioned the German military expeditions. There was no news from French sources. M. Bompard complained that the Ottoman goveFrench sources. M. Bompard complained that the Ottoman government rnment did not obey the rules of neutrality. He stated that the Ottoman govern-did not obey the rules of neutrality. He stated that the Ottoman govern-ment would enter the war very soon. Cavid Beyment would enter the war very soon. Cavid Bey rreeplied,plied, “A“As long as I am s long as I am in the cabinet, I will stop the war supporters.”in the cabinet, I will stop the war supporters.” Meanwhile, Cavid BeyMeanwhile, Cavid Bey met the Great Powers' ambassadors anmet the Great Powers' ambassadors and triedd tried to convince them that to convince them that there was a clash within the cabinet over the war. The Great Powers' there was a clash within the cabinet over the war. The Great Powers' ambassadors all declared tambassadors all declared thahat thet theyy wwould protect the Ottoman Empire's ould protect the Ottoman Empire's sovereignty. However, Cavid Beysovereignty. However, Cavid Bey responded that an oral declaration was responded that an oral declaration was never enough. Canever enough. Cavid Beyvid Bey believed that Said Halim Pasha did not support believed that Said Halim Pasha did not support the war. Halil Bey was also skeptical. On the financial side, the Ottothe war. Halil Bey was also skeptical. On the financial side, the Ottomaman n PDAPDA wawas very pessimistic about the situation. Cavid Beys very pessimistic about the situation. Cavid Bey thought that thought that they were exaggerating the situation, but even he admittedthey were exaggerating the situation, but even he admitted that tthat the he state’s income would decrease by seven or eight million liras if the Ot-state’s income would decrease by seven or eight million liras if the Ot-tomans joined the war. Cavid Beytomans joined the war. Cavid Bey's counterpa's counterpartrts in s in PPararis, including is, including Count Vitali, sent messages advising the Ottoman Empire to remain Count Vitali, sent messages advising the Ottoman Empire to remain neutral. Said Halim Pasha asked Cavid Beneutral. Said Halim Pasha asked Cavid Beyy to meto meet the ambassadors of et the ambassadors of the Triple Entente in order to abolish the capitulations. He considered the Triple Entente in order to abolish the capitulations. He considered that they might obtain tthat they might obtain thihis kins kindd oof advantage in return for staying neu-f advantage in return for staying neu-tral.tral.986 However, Cavid BeyHowever, Cavid Bey was indecisive about how he would correlate was indecisive about how he would correlate this with the this with the German German agreement. According to him, the influence of the agreement. According to him, the influence of the antiwar supporters had increased. antiwar supporters had increased.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey met M. Mallet, Mr. Konsmet M. Mallet, Mr. Konsttanantin tin GGulul’kevich, and M. Bompard. ’kevich, and M. Bompard. He told him that they should give written assurances to the Ottoman He told him that they should give written assurances to the Ottoman Empire and abolish the econoEmpire and abolish the economic andmic and judicial capitulations. He claimed judicial capitulations. He claimed that the Germans had offered them perfect conditions, and the war sup-that the Germans had offered them perfect conditions, and the war sup-

986 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, IIRuznâme, II, 621, 621--25.25.

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porters were

porters were oonene hunhunddrered percent sure about a German victory. How-d percent sure about a German victory. How-ever, he also added that there was still hope in the air. Russia put for-ever, he also added that there was still hope in the air. Russia put for-ward thward the fact e fact that they also had conditions for such an alliance, includ-that they also had conditions for such an alliance, includ-ing total neutrality and the German military mission withdraing total neutrality and the German military mission withdrawwining frg froom m the Empire. Mallet evaluated the offer as the offer of a victor state to a the Empire. Mallet evaluated the offer as the offer of a victor state to a defeated one. Britain was frustrated at the hdefeated one. Britain was frustrated at the harm thaarm that the war had al-t the war had al-ready caused to commerce. Cavid Beyready caused to commerce. Cavid Bey stated that the Ottomans wanted stated that the Ottomans wanted the Triple Entente powers to abolithe Triple Entente powers to abolissh h capicapittululations. Mallet stated that ations. Mallet stated that they found the judges incompetent to give decisions on the foreign citi-they found the judges incompetent to give decisions on the foreign citi-zens. Cavid Beyzens. Cavid Bey repliedreplied that tthat they had already abolished the capitula-hey had already abolished the capitula-tions in the territory left to the Serbs, Bulgarians, and Greeks in the Bal-tions in the territory left to the Serbs, Bulgarians, and Greeks in the Bal-kan Wkan Waarsrs. Ma. Malllelet warned Cavid Beyt warned Cavid Bey that if Britain waged war on Greece, that if Britain waged war on Greece, they would do the same to the Ottoman Empire. Bompard leant towarthey would do the same to the Ottoman Empire. Bompard leant toward d aboliabolishing the fiscal capitulations, and giving a written warrant to pro-shing the fiscal capitulations, and giving a written warrant to pro-tect the Ottoman Empire's sovereignty.tect the Ottoman Empire's sovereignty.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey rerennewewed ted thhe e law of ‘military service by payment’ against a law of ‘military service by payment’ against a strong objection from the cabinet members. He got angry with the ar-strong objection from the cabinet members. He got angry with the ar-my; he my; he claimedclaimed that they needed money for the army but that they abol-that they needed money for the army but that they abol-ished every regulation to ensure money flowed into the Empire. ished every regulation to ensure money flowed into the Empire. HHe e was was aalslso mad about the war taxes, the call for mobilization, et cetera. He had o mad about the war taxes, the call for mobilization, et cetera. He had already stopped every kind of payment from the stalready stopped every kind of payment from the state.ate.987 TThe Central he Central Committee wanted to meet with Cavid BeyCommittee wanted to meet with Cavid Bey, to get information about the , to get information about the current financial situation. The firscurrent financial situation. The firstt iissuessue wawas the quarrel between the s the quarrel between the ministries of finance and war. Cavid responded to the accusation that ministries of finance and war. Cavid responded to the accusation that the ministry of finance dthe ministry of finance did not id not allocate money to the army. He stated allocate money to the army. He stated that there was no money in the treasury, that the timing of the mobiliza-that there was no money in the treasury, that the timing of the mobiliza-tion wastion was teterribrriblle,e, and he himself had only learned about it two days be-and he himself had only learned about it two days be-fore. In brief, the state did not have adequate resources to pay 800fore. In brief, the state did not have adequate resources to pay 800,000 ,000 sosoldiers: they may go naked and hungry. Secondly, he responded to the ldiers: they may go naked and hungry. Secondly, he responded to the accusation that the moratorium was made in favor oaccusation that the moratorium was made in favor off tthe bhe baanknks, which s, which harmed the people financially. Cavid Beyharmed the people financially. Cavid Bey responded that they should responded that they should

987 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, IIRuznâme, II, 627, 627--30.30.

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not believe in rumors. According to his expl

not believe in rumors. According to his explanationanation, none of the banks , none of the banks had sent gold outside the country. It was futile to force the banks to pay; had sent gold outside the country. It was futile to force the banks to pay; by that logic they shoby that logic they shouuldld alsalsoo fforce the merchants to pay. Bankruptcies orce the merchants to pay. Bankruptcies might happen, but they should protect the banks in order to save the might happen, but they should protect the banks in order to save the market. He smarket. He stated ttated that he would regulate the moratorium during the hat he would regulate the moratorium during the extension of the moratorium conditions. Thirdly and lastly, he gave hiextension of the moratorium conditions. Thirdly and lastly, he gave hiss oopinipinioonsns about the war. He mentioned the negotiations with the Triple about the war. He mentioned the negotiations with the Triple Entente. Cavid BeyEntente. Cavid Bey opposed a war with Russia. He stated thaopposed a war with Russia. He stated that if het if he had had been informed about the alliance with Germany before it was signed, he been informed about the alliance with Germany before it was signed, he would have done his best to restrain them would have done his best to restrain them ffrorom sim siggnining it. He openly ng it. He openly stated that the war was against the country’s interests; moreover, it stated that the war was against the country’s interests; moreover, it would lead the country into disastwould lead the country into disaster. He er. He believed that the Romanians believed that the Romanians would stay neutral in the war. The Central Committee (CC) mentioned would stay neutral in the war. The Central Committee (CC) mentioned that the conflict insithat the conflict insidde e the the ccababinet had created a negative image of the inet had created a negative image of the government. Cavid Beygovernment. Cavid Bey notes in his diary that, “the CC is right: but notes in his diary that, “the CC is right: but whose faultwhose fault is it?is it?””

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey received a copy of the agreement that Talat Bey had received a copy of the agreement that Talat Bey had signed with the Bulgarians. Bulgaria would mobilize whsigned with the Bulgarians. Bulgaria would mobilize wheenenever ver iit t thought was the best time. However, Cavid Beythought was the best time. However, Cavid Bey considered that Bulgaria considered that Bulgaria did not want to commit to this agreement and woulddid not want to commit to this agreement and would ratherrather maintain maintain their freedom of movement. Romania did not want to commit to any-their freedom of movement. Romania did not want to commit to any-thing in writing. According to Cavid Beything in writing. According to Cavid Bey, Sa, Saiid d HaliHalimm PPasha did not sup-asha did not sup-port entering the war; instead, he wanted to follow the Romanians and port entering the war; instead, he wanted to follow the Romanians and avoid entering the war. Cavid Beyavoid entering the war. Cavid Bey ccriticizriticized him for his lack of foresight; ed him for his lack of foresight; it was Said Halim Pasha himself who had signed the contract with the it was Said Halim Pasha himself who had signed the contract with the Germans. The UnGermans. The Uniiononistsists clclaimed that Germany had cheated them in re-aimed that Germany had cheated them in re-gard to their alliance with Bulgaria and Romania. gard to their alliance with Bulgaria and Romania.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey notes in his diary notes in his diary that ththat the Empire’s financial situation was e Empire’s financial situation was terrible. The army asked for more money every day, and they had terrible. The army asked for more money every day, and they had stopped payment. Thstopped payment. Thoosese worworkkining on construction projects did not re-g on construction projects did not re-ceive their salaries. The central government wanted to make new mili-ceive their salaries. The central government wanted to make new mili-tary orders amoutary orders amounting tnting to 34,000 liras each day. They also asked for o 34,000 liras each day. They also asked for cannons, animals, and military equipment that amounted to hundreds cannons, animals, and military equipment that amounted to hundreds of thoof thouusasands nds oof f liras. Cavid Beyliras. Cavid Bey complained that they were asking for complained that they were asking for

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this though they knew that the government was penniless. Cavid Bey

this though they knew that the government was penniless. Cavid Bey worked worked on the regulation of the moratorium with Salem Efendi. Accord-on the regulation of the moratorium with Salem Efendi. Accord-ing to his notes, during the moratorium, the banks paid 7ing to his notes, during the moratorium, the banks paid 7550,0,000 000 lliriras to as to people; before the moratorium, they paid 1,200,000 liras. However, the people; before the moratorium, they paid 1,200,000 liras. However, the merchants paid only 22,000 liras.merchants paid only 22,000 liras.988

In the me

In the meantime,antime, Cavid BeyCavid Bey continued to work very hard under continued to work very hard under these circumstances. On September 5, 1914, Cavid Beythese circumstances. On September 5, 1914, Cavid Bey, Enver Bey, and , Enver Bey, and TalaTalatt BBey dey diiscscussed the payments of the OPDA. Enver Bey objected to ussed the payments of the OPDA. Enver Bey objected to receiving installments from the Perrier Bank or the OPDA. Cavid Beyreceiving installments from the Perrier Bank or the OPDA. Cavid Bey statedstated that he would continue to pay off the state’s debts first, because that he would continue to pay off the state’s debts first, because paying the state’s debt meant protecting the statepaying the state’s debt meant protecting the state''s s honohonorr. . Cavid BeyCavid Bey told them that he must first pay off the state’s debt and then give the told them that he must first pay off the state’s debt and then give the remaining amount to the army. He told Eremaining amount to the army. He told Enver Benver Bey to find a new minister y to find a new minister of finance if he disagreed with him. He told Enver Pasha, "If you recruit of finance if he disagreed with him. He told Enver Pasha, "If you recruit 800,000 soldiers fo800,000 soldiers forr tthe ahe arrmymy only on principle; this is also the same for only on principle; this is also the same for me. I will not drag the country into a disaster. You have to think about me. I will not drag the country into a disaster. You have to think about ththe counte country tomorrow." As Cavid Beyry tomorrow." As Cavid Bey asserted in various interrogations asserted in various interrogations at the courtat the court--martial in 1919 and the Independence Tribumartial in 1919 and the Independence Tribunnalal in in 1192926, he 6, he did not support the war; on the contrary, he opposed it. According to his did not support the war; on the contrary, he opposed it. According to his diary, he shared his thoughts with the otdiary, he shared his thoughts with the other Uniher Unionists on every occa-onists on every occa-sion.sion.989

On September 9, 1914, the Ottoman government abolished the ca-

On September 9, 1914, the Ottoman government abolished the ca-pitulations. Cavid Beypitulations. Cavid Bey also woalso worrkeked ond on ththis issue with Count Ostrorog is issue with Count Ostrorog and Hüseyin Cahit Bey. Cavid Beyand Hüseyin Cahit Bey. Cavid Bey and Hüseyin Cahit Bey drafted the text and Hüseyin Cahit Bey drafted the text of the decision. On of the decision. On the samthe same day, Said Halim Pasha submitted a note to e day, Said Halim Pasha submitted a note to all of the ambassadors of the Ottoman government, telling them that all of the ambassadors of the Ottoman government, telling them that they wthey weerere aboabollisishing all financial, administrative, and judicial capitula-hing all financial, administrative, and judicial capitula-tions as of October 1, 1914, though the ambassadors protested agtions as of October 1, 1914, though the ambassadors protested against ainst tthe decision due to the multilateral character of the capitulations. In he decision due to the multilateral character of the capitulations. In September, the Ottoman government also increaseSeptember, the Ottoman government also increasedd ccustoustomms s duties to duties to 15%. By a decree law of October 15, 1914, the capitulations also be-15%. By a decree law of October 15, 1914, the capitulations also be-

988 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznRuznâme, Iâme, III, 631, 631--35.35.

989 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuzRuznâme, IInâme, II, 64, 6422--43.43.

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came invalid in terms of the domestic law.

came invalid in terms of the domestic law.990 After After receiving the note, all receiving the note, all of the Great Powers’ ambassadors gathered at Said Halim Pasha's office. of the Great Powers’ ambassadors gathered at Said Halim Pasha's office. Unsurprisingly, Cavid Unsurprisingly, Cavid BBeyey argarguueded with Mr. Wangenheim. According to with Mr. Wangenheim. According to Cavid BeyCavid Bey, Mr. Wangenheim was furious and was barking instead of talk-, Mr. Wangenheim was furious and was barking instead of talk-ing. They quarreling. They quarrelled forled for around two hours. He notes in his diary that around two hours. He notes in his diary that those who supported Germany should have watched this scene. those who supported Germany should have watched this scene. Wangenheim sWangenheim sttatated ted thhatat they should not have done something like this they should not have done something like this without consulting with him first. He said that if the British and French without consulting with him first. He said that if the British and French navies navies came to the mouth of the straits, the Germans would not help the came to the mouth of the straits, the Germans would not help the Ottoman government. He threatened that the German milOttoman government. He threatened that the German miliitatary mry miissssion ion would leave Istanbul the next day. Cavid Beywould leave Istanbul the next day. Cavid Bey replied, "However you replied, "However you wish!" Finally, Wangenheim told Cavid Beywish!" Finally, Wangenheim told Cavid Bey that thethat the OttomaOttoman Empire n Empire would never enter the war and would not keep its word; the Ottomans’ would never enter the war and would not keep its word; the Ottomans’ main aim was to fight against Greece, bumain aim was to fight against Greece, butt GGermaermanny y would have nothing would have nothing to do with this. At the end of the meeting, Cavid Beyto do with this. At the end of the meeting, Cavid Bey was not surprised was not surprised at Wangenheim’s reaction, whicat Wangenheim’s reaction, which was th was the worst of all the ambassadors. he worst of all the ambassadors. The next day they met again at the Grand Vizier’s office. According to The next day they met again at the Grand Vizier’s office. According to Cavid BeyCavid Bey, Wa, Wanngegenheinheimm wwas very calm, because he had been informed as very calm, because he had been informed that the Triple Entente was committed to abolishing the capitulations if that the Triple Entente was committed to abolishing the capitulations if the Othe Ottoman ttoman Empire stayed neutral. This was the game of the Unionists; Empire stayed neutral. This was the game of the Unionists; they had abolished the capitulations within the scope of ththey had abolished the capitulations within the scope of thee nnegotegotiia-a-ttions with the Triple Entente. ions with the Triple Entente.

While Cavid Bey

While Cavid Bey advocated for the advantages of staying neutral in advocated for the advantages of staying neutral in the war, he also struggthe war, he also struggled witled with financial issues, as usual. Paying the in-h financial issues, as usual. Paying the in-stallments of the debts was one of his policy goals, in addition to saving stallments of the debts was one of his policy goals, in addition to saving tthehe honhonoor r of the state. Enver Pasha called for a cabinet meeting in order of the state. Enver Pasha called for a cabinet meeting in order to request an additional two million liras per month for to request an additional two million liras per month for the armthe army. In re-y. In re-turn, Cavid Beyturn, Cavid Bey stated that he could not give money that was not there. stated that he could not give money that was not there. According to Cavid BeyAccording to Cavid Bey, even the reven, even the revenuue e fromfrom ththe war taxes would not e war taxes would not help under these circumstances. Cavid Beyhelp under these circumstances. Cavid Bey stated that people could not stated that people could not afford to pay these taxes. Fafford to pay these taxes. Finally,inally, they agreed to allocate 500,000 liras to they agreed to allocate 500,000 liras to

990 TopToprrakak,, Türkiye’de Milli İTürkiye’de Milli İktisat (1908ktisat (1908--918918),), 227.227.

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the army. However, in return Cavid Bey

the army. However, in return Cavid Bey also accepted that the military also accepted that the military officofficeersrs migmighht t take the fiscal tithe (aşartake the fiscal tithe (aşar--ı mali) as the war tax, it would ı mali) as the war tax, it would be included up to this amount.be included up to this amount.991

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey also conducted talks with the ambassadors after they re-also conducted talks with the ambassadors after they re-sponded to the note on abolishing the capitulations. The French ambas-sponded to the note on abolishing the capitulations. The French ambas-sador’s note statedsador’s note stated ththat Fat Frranance could not accept such a force éxecutive. ce could not accept such a force éxecutive. While the French demonstrated their disappointment, Russia’s reaction While the French demonstrated their disappointment, Russia’s reaction was milder. Cavid Beywas milder. Cavid Bey joined the cabinet meeting in Said Halim Pasha’s joined the cabinet meeting in Said Halim Pasha’s office. The cabinet discussed the position of Admiral Souchonoffice. The cabinet discussed the position of Admiral Souchon, w, who who waas s the commander of the two warships and receiving orders only from the the commander of the two warships and receiving orders only from the German headquarters. Under these circumstances, Enver Pasha’s offer German headquarters. Under these circumstances, Enver Pasha’s offer for the launch of the Ottoman navy with two German battleships in the for the launch of the Ottoman navy with two German battleships in the Black Sea was not accepted. Though EnveBlack Sea was not accepted. Though Enver Pr Pashaasha ininsisted that Souchon sisted that Souchon had promised not to attack Russia, none of the cabinet members be-had promised not to attack Russia, none of the cabinet members be-lieved him. The cabinet stated that if Admiral Souchon entered the Black lieved him. The cabinet stated that if Admiral Souchon entered the Black Sea and bombarded Russian commercial or military bases there, they Sea and bombarded Russian commercial or military bases there, they would not take responwould not take responsibsibilitilityy. . They discussed the next steps as to They discussed the next steps as to whether or not the German ships could enter the Black Sea. Although whether or not the German ships could enter the Black Sea. Although Enver Pasha did not let Admiral Souchon sail into the Black Sea, he also Enver Pasha did not let Admiral Souchon sail into the Black Sea, he also knew that he could not stop him by force. The cabinet decided to sendknew that he could not stop him by force. The cabinet decided to send HaHalil lil BBeyey to inform the Germans in order not to lose their trust and to inform the Germans in order not to lose their trust and sympathy. They also discussed the capitulations at this meeting. If the sympathy. They also discussed the capitulations at this meeting. If the Great Powers agreed to abolish the economic capitulations immediately, Great Powers agreed to abolish the economic capitulations immediately, they would extend the duration of the judicthey would extend the duration of the judicialial capcapiitutulations. lations.

Until their entrance into the Great War, the Unionists continued to

Until their entrance into the Great War, the Unionists continued to clash during the meetings of the Central Committee. Enver Pasha con-clash during the meetings of the Central Committee. Enver Pasha con-demned Cavid Beydemned Cavid Bey and Cemal Pasha for not supporting the Empire’s en-and Cemal Pasha for not supporting the Empire’s en-trance into the war. According to trance into the war. According to EnvEnver Per Paashsha, the main reason that Bul-a, the main reason that Bul-garia stayed neutral was because of Cavid Beygaria stayed neutral was because of Cavid Bey and Cemal Pasha. Cavid and Cemal Pasha. Cavid BeyBey stated that he would not meet the Bulgarian ambassador any more. stated that he would not meet the Bulgarian ambassador any more. Cavid BeyCavid Bey noted in his diary that although Enver Bey wanted to enter noted in his diary that although Enver Bey wanted to enter

991 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, IIRuznâme, II, 646, 646--5151

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the war on t

the war on the he GermGermaan n side, he never took into consideration the possi-side, he never took into consideration the possi-ble financial and military disadvantages. ble financial and military disadvantages.

On the evening of September 20, Cavid Bey

On the evening of September 20, Cavid Bey learned that the ships learned that the ships had already sailed into the Black Sea. Next day, Cavid Beyhad already sailed into the Black Sea. Next day, Cavid Bey heard from Mr. heard from Mr. Toschev, the BulToschev, the Bulgargarian ian aambmbassador to Istanbul, that the Goeben had assador to Istanbul, that the Goeben had sailed into the Black Sea.sailed into the Black Sea.992 Cavid BeyCavid Bey then met Cemal Pasha upon his then met Cemal Pasha upon his invitation. But Souchon changed his mind and returned to Istanbul. invitation. But Souchon changed his mind and returned to Istanbul. Cavid BeyCavid Bey noted in his diary that, if the ships had not returned to Isnoted in his diary that, if the ships had not returned to Istan-tan-bul,bul, hehe would have resigned immediately. The danger was over for now, would have resigned immediately. The danger was over for now, and the government would continue negotiations with the Great Powers and the government would continue negotiations with the Great Powers on the conditions of neutrality and abolition. Finally, October 1, on the conditions of neutrality and abolition. Finally, October 1, 1914,1914, arrived, and the capitulations were officiarrived, and the capitulations were officiallally ay abbololished throughout the ished throughout the whole of the Ottoman Empire. Only the judicial capitulations whole of the Ottoman Empire. Only the judicial capitulations remained,remained, e.g., if a foreigner was arrested, they would be summoned to the Sub-e.g., if a foreigner was arrested, they would be summoned to the Sub-lime Porte. The government decided to lay off the foreign consultant lime Porte. The government decided to lay off the foreign consultant representatives frepresentatives fromrom ththee HHealth Commission. If the delegates of the ealth Commission. If the delegates of the Great Powers wished to stay, they may continue to work as Ottoman of-Great Powers wished to stay, they may continue to work as Ottoman of-ficers. Another significant issue was the postal service. The postal ser-ficers. Another significant issue was the postal service. The postal ser-vices were also nationalized, and the opening of foreign post bagvices were also nationalized, and the opening of foreign post bags bs be-e-cacamme e a new issue. However, Britain accepted their being opened by the a new issue. However, Britain accepted their being opened by the Ottoman officers. Ottoman officers.

The government also negotiated with the German government to ob-

The government also negotiated with the German government to ob-tain a loan. The Germans proposed loans within the scope of the alli-tain a loan. The Germans proposed loans within the scope of the alli-ance between the Ottoman Empire ance between the Ottoman Empire andand GeGerrmamany. They offered to give ny. They offered to give five million liras each year at a 5% interest rate starting in 1915. This five million liras each year at a 5% interest rate starting in 1915. This sum would be given each year on December 31. At the beginning of Oc-sum would be given each year on December 31. At the beginning of Oc-tober 1914, the ambassadors of the Triple Entente were very anxious tober 1914, the ambassadors of the Triple Entente were very anxious and pessimisand pessimistictic. O. Onn OOctober 29, 1914, Mr. Crawford told Cavid Beyctober 29, 1914, Mr. Crawford told Cavid Bey that that Britain had recalled its officers back to Britain because they were ex-Britain had recalled its officers back to Britain because they were ex-pecting an Ottoman assault on Egypt. Said Halim Pasha then called on pecting an Ottoman assault on Egypt. Said Halim Pasha then called on Cavid BeyCavid Bey for. Enver Pasha and İbrahim Bey were also in hifor. Enver Pasha and İbrahim Bey were also in his os offifficce e when when

992 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, IIRuznâme, II, 656, 656--58. 58.

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he arrived. When Cavid Bey

he arrived. When Cavid Bey entered the room, Said Halim Pasha read entered the room, Said Halim Pasha read out a telegram stating that the battle in the Black Sea had started. The out a telegram stating that the battle in the Black Sea had started. The Grand Vizier asked, “What are you hiding from me?” Cavid BeyGrand Vizier asked, “What are you hiding from me?” Cavid Bey respond-respond-ed, “I knew that it would happen, ed, “I knew that it would happen, I tI toldold yoyou this before, and therefore, I u this before, and therefore, I have nothing more to say.” Enver Pasha was smiling in a way that left no have nothing more to say.” Enver Pasha was smiling in a way that left no doubt that he knew what was happening. Then Talat Bey entered; it doubt that he knew what was happening. Then Talat Bey entered; it seems that he did not know what was happening. But Cavid Beyseems that he did not know what was happening. But Cavid Bey did not did not believebelieve hihim. m. HHe e was sure that Cemal, Talat, and Enver, who were soon to was sure that Cemal, Talat, and Enver, who were soon to be known as the triumvirate, knew about this incident, because they be known as the triumvirate, knew about this incident, because they showed no sign of surprise or worry in their faces. The only option they showed no sign of surprise or worry in their faces. The only option they offered was to call back the battleships. Said Haloffered was to call back the battleships. Said Halim im PasPashha a stated that stated that since he had not been informed about this, the war supporters should since he had not been informed about this, the war supporters should lead the cabinet from now on. Enver Pasha claimed that he had also not lead the cabinet from now on. Enver Pasha claimed that he had also not known about it. known about it.

When Cavid Bey

When Cavid Bey returned home, M. Bompard called him on the returned home, M. Bompard called him on the phone. Neither manphone. Neither man bebelielievveded that the Russians had attacked the Otto-that the Russians had attacked the Otto-mans. Bompard considered that it had been planned earlier and that mans. Bompard considered that it had been planned earlier and that Enver Pasha was involved in it. He was surprised that Talat Bey, such a Enver Pasha was involved in it. He was surprised that Talat Bey, such a clever man, became an instrument in this game. Cavid Beyclever man, became an instrument in this game. Cavid Bey was decisivwas decisive e aand nd rragaged against the war supporters until the end. ed against the war supporters until the end.

The next day, the Grand Vizier did not participate in the Bayram hol-

The next day, the Grand Vizier did not participate in the Bayram hol-iday ceremony, in open defiance of the Unionists’ support for the war. In iday ceremony, in open defiance of the Unionists’ support for the war. In contrast, everybody in the palace was having a great time contrast, everybody in the palace was having a great time andand coconnsisider-der-ing themselves the victors of the war. In the evening, the cabinet and the ing themselves the victors of the war. In the evening, the cabinet and the CC members met in Said Halim Pasha’s office. Cavid BeyCC members met in Said Halim Pasha’s office. Cavid Bey told them that told them that he was against the alliance with Germany. He said that if they entered he was against the alliance with Germany. He said that if they entered the war, he would resign frothe war, he would resign from om offifficce.e. During this period, the strongest During this period, the strongest opposition to Cavid Beyopposition to Cavid Bey came from Dr. Nazım. He stated that he had no came from Dr. Nazım. He stated that he had no right to resign, and this was not compatible with right to resign, and this was not compatible with CUP policy or with par-CUP policy or with par-tisanship. He added that if he objected to this, he should have objectisanship. He added that if he objected to this, he should have objectedted whwhenen tthe Goeben arrived. Nobody could change his mind. They assihe Goeben arrived. Nobody could change his mind. They assigned gned him to write an official letter to the Russian ambassador with Halil Bey, him to write an official letter to the Russian ambassador with Halil Bey, but Cavid Beybut Cavid Bey did not accept this. He wrote in his diary, “How can we did not accept this. He wrote in his diary, “How can we agree on the text of the note while we agree on the text of the note while we areare soso ddivivided?” He also told Talat ided?” He also told Talat

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Bey and Cemal Bey privately that

Bey and Cemal Bey privately that he would resign. Cavid Beyhe would resign. Cavid Bey noted that, noted that, although they would like to enter the war, the Caucasus army would not although they would like to enter the war, the Caucasus army would not be ready until six weeks later. He asked why they were in such a hurry be ready until six weeks later. He asked why they were in such a hurry to go to go to to warwar. . WhWhy did they drag the country into a disaster in the winter-y did they drag the country into a disaster in the winter-ttime? Cavid Beyime? Cavid Bey notes in his diary that “nobody doubts the graveness of notes in his diary that “nobody doubts the graveness of the danger… There is no doubt that this means war…”the danger… There is no doubt that this means war…”993

From October 30 on, Cavid Bey

From October 30 on, Cavid Bey did not intervene in governmental did not intervene in governmental ississuesues ddirirectly. He only paid a visit to M. Bompard. M. Bompard was ectly. He only paid a visit to M. Bompard. M. Bompard was about to leave Istanbul. After discussing political issues, Bompard won-about to leave Istanbul. After discussing political issues, Bompard won-dered whether or not the last five years' efforts had come to nothing. dered whether or not the last five years' efforts had come to nothing. Until the last round of negotiations, he thougUntil the last round of negotiations, he thought ht thathat t ththey were working ey were working for the development of the Ottoman Empire.for the development of the Ottoman Empire. Cavid BeyCavid Bey responded that responded that he was also sorry that all of his work had ended up like this. The next he was also sorry that all of his work had ended up like this. The next day the Unionists, including Cemal Pasha, Midhat Şükrü, and Rıza Tevfik, day the Unionists, including Cemal Pasha, Midhat Şükrü, and Rıza Tevfik, visited him at hovisited him at home.me. DrDr. . NaNazım paid him a visit also. He accused Cavid zım paid him a visit also. He accused Cavid BeyBey of betrayiof betraying the CUP. According to Dr. Nazım, his resignation meant ng the CUP. According to Dr. Nazım, his resignation meant that he opposed the Committee's decision. The CUP had kept Cavid that he opposed the Committee's decision. The CUP had kept Cavid BeyBey’s resignation from the public. Dr. Nazım said that this was for ’s resignation from the public. Dr. Nazım said that this was for CavCavidid BBeyey’s benefit, since a patriotic young man could kill him w’s benefit, since a patriotic young man could kill him with a revolver. ith a revolver. He accused Cavid BeyHe accused Cavid Bey of leaving the government because of his close of leaving the government because of his close relations with the French. Dr. Nazım said that people would remember relations with the French. Dr. Nazım said that people would remember Cavid BeyCavid Bey as a "traitor” (hain çıfıt) as a "traitor” (hain çıfıt) andand hhe e also believed it. The people of also believed it. The people of Biga, which he representedBiga, which he represented in the Parliament, may not want him as their in the Parliament, may not want him as their deputy any more. Cavid noted in his diary that he was relatively quiet deputy any more. Cavid noted in his diary that he was relatively quiet during the conversation, though he often ridiculed Dr. Nazım in the way during the conversation, though he often ridiculed Dr. Nazım in the way hehe lolookokeded at him. Only Hüseyin Cahit and Zöhrap Efendi appreciated at him. Only Hüseyin Cahit and Zöhrap Efendi appreciated Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s decision. Zöhrap Efendi visited Cavid Bey’s decision. Zöhrap Efendi visited Cavid Bey at his house. On at his house. On November 4, 1914, the newspapers at last published news of his resig-November 4, 1914, the newspapers at last published news of his resig-nation. Cavid Beynation. Cavid Bey received information from his old received information from his old frifrienend d Kani Bey that Kani Bey that people might harm him. However, he thought tpeople might harm him. However, he thought that nobody would dare hat nobody would dare to. Cavid Beyto. Cavid Bey noted in his diary that there had been many rumors in Is-noted in his diary that there had been many rumors in Is-

993 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmRuznâme, IIe, II, 671, 671--7788..

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tanbul upon his resignation. Dr. Nazım was the worst slanderer of

tanbul upon his resignation. Dr. Nazım was the worst slanderer of Cavid’s name; he told others of hCavid’s name; he told others of his is ‘b‘betetrayal’ and insulted his Jewish rayal’ and insulted his Jewish heritage, even calling him "David" Efendi. Cavid Beyheritage, even calling him "David" Efendi. Cavid Bey noted thanoted that a single t a single incident that they did not like was enough to tarnish that person’s repu-incident that they did not like was enough to tarnish that person’s repu-tation. Throughout his extensive diaries, this was the first time that hitation. Throughout his extensive diaries, this was the first time that his s iidedentntity had become an issue of discussion like this. Moreover, the per-ity had become an issue of discussion like this. Moreover, the per-son who had insulted him thson who had insulted him the most was Dr. Nazıme most was Dr. Nazım from Selanik. It is al-from Selanik. It is al-so interesting to evaluate the position of dönmeler in the CUP. Regard-so interesting to evaluate the position of dönmeler in the CUP. Regard-lesless os of their religious background, they were asf their religious background, they were as ccommitted to being ommitted to being Unionists as their Muslims fellows. Unionists as their Muslims fellows.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey talked to someone called Adntalked to someone called Adnan, who visited him. This an, who visited him. This person could be Adnan Adıvar, but there is no precise information on person could be Adnan Adıvar, but there is no precise information on this. Adnan Bey mentithis. Adnan Bey mentioneoned that Talat Bey was saying that Cavid Beyd that Talat Bey was saying that Cavid Bey wwas as wrong to resign. According to Talat Bey, he should have stayed in his po-wrong to resign. According to Talat Bey, he should have stayed in his po-sition, because dusition, because due to the actions of e to the actions of Cavid BeyCavid Bey there had been two there had been two riots riots against against the CUP the CUP in 1909 and 1911. The opposition targeted Caviin 1909 and 1911. The opposition targeted Cavid Bd Beyey and his identity in both incidents. Caand his identity in both incidents. Cavivid Beyd Bey disagreed that he was the disagreed that he was the only reason for both attempts at counteronly reason for both attempts at counter--revolution. revolution.

Meanwhi

Meanwhile, Cavid Beyle, Cavid Bey did not entirely stop pursuing his interest in did not entirely stop pursuing his interest in financial matters. He met with Salem Efendi at his housefinancial matters. He met with Salem Efendi at his house toto discuss the discuss the Ottoman Bank’s decision to iOttoman Bank’s decision to issssue more banknotes. Talat Bey planned to ue more banknotes. Talat Bey planned to give five million liras to the Ottoman Bank in exchangive five million liras to the Ottoman Bank in exchange for 15 million ge for 15 million liras in banknotes. Although this was nearly impossible, Talat Bey did liras in banknotes. Although this was nearly impossible, Talat Bey did not want to accept this. Cavnot want to accept this. Cavid id BeyBey also wrote a note to Talat Bey about also wrote a note to Talat Bey about hohow the Germans should supply the money the Ottoman government w the Germans should supply the money the Ottoman government needed. Cavid Beyneeded. Cavid Bey told him that told him that his behavior surprised and disappoint-his behavior surprised and disappoint-ed him. Talat Bey was likely to have been angry at Cavid Beyed him. Talat Bey was likely to have been angry at Cavid Bey; his steps ; his steps indirectindirectly ly went against Cavid Beywent against Cavid Bey’s advice. Neverthe’s advice. Nevertheleless, ten days later, ss, ten days later, Talat Bey paid Cavid BeyTalat Bey paid Cavid Bey a visit to discuss the financial issues. Cavid Ba visit to discuss the financial issues. Cavid Beyey convinced him to issue banknotes amounting to 15 million liras in re-convinced him to issue banknotes amounting to 15 million liras in re-turn for 5 million liras of gold. Cavid Beyturn for 5 million liras of gold. Cavid Bey memet Mt Mr. Wangenheim for lunch r. Wangenheim for lunch on November 14. Ton November 14. Thihis meeting indicates that he had not distanced him-s meeting indicates that he had not distanced him-self from the financial business of the Ottoself from the financial business of the Ottoman Empire. Mr. Pritz and Mr. man Empire. Mr. Pritz and Mr. Kühlman, undersecretaries in the German embassy in London, were al-Kühlman, undersecretaries in the German embassy in London, were al-

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so present at the lun

so present at the lunch.ch. Wangenheim wanted to directly resolve anWangenheim wanted to directly resolve and d deal with the economic issues during the war. First off, he told Cavid Beydeal with the economic issues during the war. First off, he told Cavid Bey that, although thethat, although they knew that he had great sympathy for France, the y knew that he had great sympathy for France, the Germans wanted him to remain in office. Germany’s main concerns Germans wanted him to remain in office. Germany’s main concerns werwere te that the delays in the financial measures hat the delays in the financial measures anand foreign ownership of d foreign ownership of the Ottoman Bank, railways, and other companies. It was obvious that the Ottoman Bank, railways, and other companies. It was obvious that tthe Germans wanted to change ownership of the investments belonging he Germans wanted to change ownership of the investments belonging to the Triple Entente. London had already confiscato the Triple Entente. London had already confiscatedted their branch of their branch of the Ottoman Bank, and Isthe Ottoman Bank, and Istatanbul should do the same. They want to es-nbul should do the same. They want to es-tablish a commission within the ministry of finance ttablish a commission within the ministry of finance to directly control o directly control financial matters. But Cavid Beyfinancial matters. But Cavid Bey did not favor such harsh changes to the did not favor such harsh changes to the market. Cavid Beymarket. Cavid Bey also dialso did nd not favor the confiscation of foreign compot favor the confiscation of foreign compa-a-nnies that were not facilitating the war; in terms of the railways, the ies that were not facilitating the war; in terms of the railways, the French and British offiFrench and British officers might be laid off at most. In terms of the Ot-cers might be laid off at most. In terms of the Ot-toman Bank, he told Wangenheim that the bank could not send money toman Bank, he told Wangenheim that the bank could not send money ooutsutside the country, and the Ottoman governmeide the country, and the Ottoman governmentnt ordered the money to ordered the money to be kept in the country. He directly stated that he did not support Ger-be kept in the country. He directly stated that he did not support Ger-mman control of the Ottoman Bank. The Germans also prefered that the an control of the Ottoman Bank. The Germans also prefered that the Ottoman government pay the loan coupons of the GerOttoman government pay the loan coupons of the Germanmans and Austri-s and Austri-ans, but not to the Triple Enans, but not to the Triple Entetente citizens.nte citizens.994 The nationalization or The nationalization or Germanification of the Ottoman Bank and OPDA would be oGermanification of the Ottoman Bank and OPDA would be one of the ne of the hottest topics for Cavid Beyhottest topics for Cavid Bey during the Great War. during the Great War.

§ 4.5 Chapter SummaryChapter Summary

This chapter, titled "The Negotiator,"

This chapter, titled "The Negotiator," covcovers the period between the ers the period between the coup d'état oncoup d'état on January 23, 1913 and the Ottoman Empire's entrance in-January 23, 1913 and the Ottoman Empire's entrance in-to the Great War on October 29, 1914. Thto the Great War on October 29, 1914. This period was a hectic one for is period was a hectic one for both Cavid Beyboth Cavid Bey and the Ottoman Empire. Cavid Beyand the Ottoman Empire. Cavid Bey mainly dealt with mainly dealt with the official negotiathe official negotiatiotions in Berlin, London, and Paris on behalfns in Berlin, London, and Paris on behalf of the Ot-of the Ot-

994 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, IIRuznâme, II, 683, 683--95.95.

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toman government. In 1913, he was only 37 years old: young in terms of

toman government. In 1913, he was only 37 years old: young in terms of age and experage and experience compared to his counterparts in Europe. During his ience compared to his counterparts in Europe. During his time in Europe, he mettime in Europe, he met many European diplomats and financiersmany European diplomats and financiers, a, as s well as the politicians who led their cwell as the politicians who led their coountries into the Great War includ-untries into the Great War includ-ing Winston Churchill, George Clemenceau, and Raymond Poincaing Winston Churchill, George Clemenceau, and Raymond Poincaré. The ré. The reasons and the scope of these negotiations have been evaluated in de-reasons and the scope of these negotiations have been evaluated in de-tatail throughout this chapter. However, I il throughout this chapter. However, I wanwant to emphasize their signifi-t to emphasize their signifi-cance and impcance and impllications for the Ottoman Empire here. ications for the Ottoman Empire here.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey departed Istanbul and arrived in Europe on Mdeparted Istanbul and arrived in Europe on March 3, arch 3, 1913, and he returned to Istanbul after he signed the loan agreement 1913, and he returned to Istanbul after he signed the loan agreement wiwith France on April 11, 1914. He had gonth France on April 11, 1914. He had gone te to Europe to help solve the o Europe to help solve the Great Powers' Great Powers' cconflicts surrounding their investment projects such as onflicts surrounding their investment projects such as the Baghdad Railway and, in return, tothe Baghdad Railway and, in return, to get the Great Powers to agree to get the Great Powers to agree to raise the Ottoman customs duties by 4% and prraise the Ottoman customs duties by 4% and provide a consolidated ovide a consolidated loan, which the Otloan, which the Ottomtoman Empire needed. As Hobsbawm's quotationan Empire needed. As Hobsbawm's quotation points out, in the global ocean, especially in the lead up to World War I, points out, in the global ocean, especially in the lead up to World War I, all states were shall states were sharks. As a financier and negotiator for the Empire, arks. As a financier and negotiator for the Empire, Cavid BeyCavid Bey certainly faced tcertainly faced the sharks' bites. However, the main quehe sharks' bites. However, the main questistion on of this chapter is whether Cavid Beyof this chapter is whether Cavid Bey tthhought of the Great Powers as the ought of the Great Powers as the sharks, or was it business as usual for him in the age of emsharks, or was it business as usual for him in the age of empires. Was he pires. Was he perhaps a shark himself? Because the Ottoman economy was stuck, perhaps a shark himself? Because the Ottoman economy was stuck, it is it is clear that he could not have beenclear that he could not have been a a shark himself; instead, he was a fish shark himself; instead, he was a fish trytryiing not to be bitten. Cavid Beyng not to be bitten. Cavid Bey complained very often that the endless complained very often that the endless and ceaseless demands oand ceaseless demands of the Great Powers were dividing the country f the Great Powers were dividing the country into de facto spheres of influenceinto de facto spheres of influence. These attempts could be described as . These attempts could be described as a da dress rehearsal for Sykesress rehearsal for Sykes--Picot (1916) andPicot (1916) and the Sèvres Agreement the Sèvres Agreement (1920(1920). Cavid Bey). Cavid Bey’s voice merely reflected his concerns on the situation’s voice merely reflected his concerns on the situation. . However, due to the situation of the Ottoman economy and the oppor-However, due to the situation of the Ottoman economy and the oppor-tunity to rtunity to raise the customs duties, he accepted aaise the customs duties, he accepted alll ol of Europe’s demands, f Europe’s demands, especially those of tespecially those of thhe French. He could only resist financial control over e French. He could only resist financial control over the Ottoman finances in terms of the trthe Ottoman finances in terms of the treasury and controlling how the easury and controlling how the money obtained by debts was spend and repaid. Wemoney obtained by debts was spend and repaid. We cannot be sure cannot be sure about how the other Unabout how the other Uniionionists perceived the agreements that Cavid Bsts perceived the agreements that Cavid Beeyy concluded or their implications for the Empire. Parvus Efendi had concluded or their implications for the Empire. Parvus Efendi had

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raised his voice in oppos

raised his voice in opposition to this loan agreement. He criticized the ition to this loan agreement. He criticized the whole loan negotiation and the whole loan negotiation and the loan itself in his articles. Parvus Efloan itself in his articles. Parvus Efeendindi claimed that the securities, the method,claimed that the securities, the method, and the outcome of the loan and the outcome of the loan might be harmful to the finances of the Ottoman Empire and its inmight be harmful to the finances of the Ottoman Empire and its inde-de-pendence, as mentioned above. A month after the loan agreements, the pendence, as mentioned above. A month after the loan agreements, the UnionistUnionists also sought to secure an alliance wis also sought to secure an alliance witth Gh Germany in May 1914 ermany in May 1914 for the inevitable Grefor the inevitable Greaat War to come; this indicates that they neither t War to come; this indicates that they neither trusted these agreements nor the temporary attrusted these agreements nor the temporary atmosphere of peace in mosphere of peace in Europe.Europe.

In the wake of the Great War, the economic, financ

In the wake of the Great War, the economic, financial, political, and ial, political, and military rivalriesmilitary rivalries amoamong the Great Powers both deepened and becng the Great Powers both deepened and becaame me increasingly intertwined. Progress in technology and communication increasingly intertwined. Progress in technology and communication accelerated with the boaccelerated with the boom of the Second Industrial Revolution, and the om of the Second Industrial Revolution, and the rise of Social Darwinism fed thrise of Social Darwinism fed the imperial race. During the turn of e imperial race. During the turn of the the twtwentiethentieth century, the world map was reshapcentury, the world map was reshapeed, particularly in Africa. d, particularly in Africa. However, styles and approaches toward imperialism and colonialism However, styles and approaches toward imperialism and colonialism also began to change. Apart from the direct control enabled by military also began to change. Apart from the direct control enabled by military power ipower in the colonies, informal and financian the colonies, informal and financiall cocontrol over nonntrol over non--European European territories led toterritories led to the establishment of imperial spheres of influence. The the establishment of imperial spheres of influence. The Great Powers adopted this policy in vGreat Powers adopted this policy in various regions such as the Otto-arious regions such as the Otto-man Empire, Egypt, and Venezuela. man Empire, Egypt, and Venezuela.

In the age of

In the age of empires, while political concerns beempires, while political concerns beccameame increasingly increasingly intertwined with economic cointertwined with economic conncerns, international financial corpora-cerns, international financial corpora-tions began operating in the field alongside the state.tions began operating in the field alongside the state. The Baghdad The Baghdad Railway is one example of such cooperation. Due to the complex net-Railway is one example of such cooperation. Due to the complex net-work and structure of the global econwork and structure of the global econoomy my between 1880 and 1914, between 1880 and 1914, Britain, Germany’s Britain, Germany’s mmain adversary in Europe since the beginning of the ain adversary in Europe since the beginning of the century, actually helped Berlin solve its century, actually helped Berlin solve its conflicts in the Ottoman Empire conflicts in the Ottoman Empire on several occasions. The resolution of conflicon several occasions. The resolution of conflicts outside of Europe ts outside of Europe through economicthrough economic andand financial compromises was also a tool forfinancial compromises was also a tool for defus-defus-ing political tensions in Europe.ing political tensions in Europe. The negotiations in which Cavid BeyThe negotiations in which Cavid Bey was involved develwas involved developed within this context. oped within this context.

In terms of the Ottoman Empire, the negotiations hel

In terms of the Ottoman Empire, the negotiations held in 1913 and d in 1913 and 1914 had two dimension1914 had two dimensionss. Fi. Firstly, negotiations were conducted be-rstly, negotiations were conducted be-

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tween

tween the Ottoman Empire and each of the Great Powers, including the Ottoman Empire and each of the Great Powers, including Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Italy, and Austria. Secondly, the Great Italy, and Austria. Secondly, the Great Powers negotiated amongst themselves toPowers negotiated amongst themselves to solve their conflicts on huge solve their conflicts on huge invesinvesttmentments such as the Baghdad Railway, docks, oil,s such as the Baghdad Railway, docks, oil, et cetera. The et cetera. The agreements detailed in this chapter concluded complicated and conten-agreements detailed in this chapter concluded complicated and conten-tious negotious negotiations just before the Great War. However, none of the nego-tiations just before the Great War. However, none of the nego-tiations were ratitiations were ratifed by the relevant parliaments befofed by the relevant parliaments beforre the the war broke e war broke out. The considerable time andout. The considerable time and effort that Cavid Beyeffort that Cavid Bey spent on these ne-spent on these ne-gotiations was reduced to nothing. As he confessed to gotiations was reduced to nothing. As he confessed to M. Bompard, no M. Bompard, no one, including Cavid Beyone, including Cavid Bey, expected such a large, expected such a large--scale war betweescale war between the n the Great Powers. The negotiation Great Powers. The negotiation pprocerocess had proved that although the ss had proved that although the belligerenbelligerentt countries could be reconciled on conflicts such as the Bagh-countries could be reconciled on conflicts such as the Bagh-dad Railway, such cooperation wasdad Railway, such cooperation was not enough to prevent a war inside not enough to prevent a war inside Europe.Europe.995

As mentioned above, between 1880 a

As mentioned above, between 1880 and 1914, the Great Powers also nd 1914, the Great Powers also used used ttheirheir financial capacity to control other countfinancial capacity to control other countrries and regions out-ies and regions out-side Europe, including the Ottoman Empire. These attempts were par-side Europe, including the Ottoman Empire. These attempts were par-tially stially successful during this period. As the Ottoman Empire's need for uccessful during this period. As the Ottoman Empire's need for cash increased, cash increased, especially in 1914, the Great Powersespecially in 1914, the Great Powers’’ lislist of demands t of demands grew longer. Although the Gregrew longer. Although the Greaat Powers were never able to establish t Powers were never able to establish direct financial control over Ottoman state finances, tdirect financial control over Ottoman state finances, they tried to de-hey tried to de-termine where the Ottoman government would spend its money. Cavitermine where the Ottoman government would spend its money. Cavid d BeyBey, as seen above, was acutely aw, as seen above, was acutely awaare ore of this situation, and he was con-f this situation, and he was con-stantly distantly dissturbed by this issue. The French were particularly successful turbed by this issue. The French were particularly successful in prolonging the negotiations in prolonging the negotiations with the Empire in order to get more with the Empire in order to get more concessions and oppress the Sublime Porte.concessions and oppress the Sublime Porte. The height of French finan-The height of French finan-cial inflcial influuenceence over the Empire was seen when the French over the Empire was seen when the French mmanaged to anaged to obtain concessions from the Hedjaz Railway, which not only competed obtain concessions from the Hedjaz Railway, which not only competed with the Frenchwith the French railway line but had also been established through do-railway line but had also been established through do-

995 BaBayyur, ur, Türk İnkılâbı TTürk İnkılâbı Tarihiarihi, II/III, p, II/III, p: 411: 411--55. 55.

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nations from the Empire’s

nations from the Empire’s Muslim population, as it had been bMuslim population, as it had been buuilt ilt on on sacred lands.sacred lands.996

The Great Powers also co

The Great Powers also commpeted with each other over the conces-peted with each other over the conces-sions in the Empire. By 1914, the negotiations resulted sions in the Empire. By 1914, the negotiations resulted in de facto in de facto spheres of influence under the guise of the Great Powers’ investmenspheres of influence under the guise of the Great Powers’ investment t zones. The Francozones. The Franco--German negotiatiGerman negotiatioons, ns, for example, could not finish at for example, could not finish at one time one time bbecause German financiers, representatives of Deutsche Bank, ecause German financiers, representatives of Deutsche Bank, wanted to receive the same conceswanted to receive the same concessions as the French. On the one hand, sions as the French. On the one hand, while the Unionist government had to accewhile the Unionist government had to accept these harshly imposed pt these harshly imposed conditions,conditions, thisthis helped boost nationalism, solidarity, andhelped boost nationalism, solidarity, and protectionism protectionism within the Empire. On the other hand, because within the Empire. On the other hand, because Cavid BeyCavid Bey, Hakkı Pasha, , Hakkı Pasha, Said HaliSaid Halim Pasha, and Talat Bey accepted the heavy demands of the m Pasha, and Talat Bey accepted the heavy demands of the Great Powers on the Empire’s behalf without much resistancGreat Powers on the Empire’s behalf without much resistancee, the cen-, the cen-tral dilemma of the Unionist government prior to the Great War was tral dilemma of the Unionist government prior to the Great War was how they could save the state. how they could save the state. The Empire was in urgent need of The Empire was in urgent need of money money to close the budget deficit and would thus provide as many concessions to close the budget deficit and would thus provide as many concessions as it could, in order to receive this money. The government had to in-as it could, in order to receive this money. The government had to in-crease its income, which was bounded by the Great Powers' approval of crease its income, which was bounded by the Great Powers' approval of raisingraising customs duties. Cavid Beycustoms duties. Cavid Bey explaiexplained these conditions very brief-ned these conditions very brief-ly in his budget talk in 1914. He also thanked France, which although it ly in his budget talk in 1914. He also thanked France, which although it had strictly forced him into accepting the harsh negotiation terms, es-had strictly forced him into accepting the harsh negotiation terms, es-pecially between January and April 1914, had alsopecially between January and April 1914, had also financed major loans financed major loans for the Empfor the Empire. Fortunately, the outbreak of the Great War had rescued ire. Fortunately, the outbreak of the Great War had rescued the Unionist government from these agreements and, more importantly, the Unionist government from these agreements and, more importantly, had given the Empire the chance to abolish the capitulations and estab-had given the Empire the chance to abolish the capitulations and estab-lish the national economlish the national economy. y.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey fought with Europe fought with Europe both at the negotiation table and in both at the negotiation table and in the press. The European press was relentless and manipulative during the press. The European press was relentless and manipulative during this period. Furthermore, public opinion, which was steered by the jin-this period. Furthermore, public opinion, which was steered by the jin-goistic press, was increasingly affecting the ggoistic press, was increasingly affecting the governments' policies. This overnments' policies. This

996 Önder KocatürkÖnder Kocatürk,, OsmanlıOsmanlı--İngiliz İlişkilerinin Dönİngiliz İlişkilerinin Dönüm Noktası (1914üm Noktası (1914--1918) Sorunları 1918) Sorunları Çözme Çabaları İlişkilerin Kopması VoÇözme Çabaları İlişkilerin Kopması Vol Il II (1913I (1913--191914)14),, Istanbul: BIstanbul: Booğaziçi Yayınları, ğaziçi Yayınları, 202013), 14213), 142--222222

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was se

was seen in many cases in Europe from the Boer War to the Dreyfus en in many cases in Europe from the Boer War to the Dreyfus Case. Cavid BeyCase. Cavid Bey, who had given interviews to the press from the first day , who had given interviews to the press from the first day of the July Revolution, was of the July Revolution, was awareaware of the power of the press in world pol-of the power of the press in world pol-itics. He alitics. He also haso had experienced the wrath of the prd experienced the wrath of the press in both Paris and ess in both Paris and London in 1910. For this reason, he prepared himself to encounter the London in 1910. For this reason, he prepared himself to encounter the French and British press during the 1913 and 1914 negotiations. Cavid French and British press during the 1913 and 1914 negotiations. Cavid BeyBey was perhaps the first Ottoman statesman who investedwas perhaps the first Ottoman statesman who invested in pin public ublic relations in the hope of chrelations in the hope of changing public opinion in Europe. However, anging public opinion in Europe. However, although the government allocated money for public relations in Paris although the government allocated money for public relations in Paris and London, and Cavid Beyand London, and Cavid Bey met with several journalists and even hired met with several journalists and even hired an intermediary for this operation, an intermediary for this operation, the Othe Ottomans could not get what ttomans could not get what they hthey had hoped for from the press. ad hoped for from the press.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey carried out negotiations with various parties by himself carried out negotiations with various parties by himself including with the French and the Germans. Cavid Beyincluding with the French and the Germans. Cavid Bey was known as a was known as a francophile, which had raised doubts in Berlin. He wafrancophile, which had raised doubts in Berlin. He was nots not evaluated as evaluated as an objective and nean objective and neutral negotiator in Germany, although according to utral negotiator in Germany, although according to his diaries, he prioritized finishing the negotiations to raise the customs his diaries, he prioritized finishing the negotiations to raise the customs duties and obtain the loan above all other loyalties. The French govern-duties and obtain the loan above all other loyalties. The French govern-ment, which had the ment, which had the largelargest financial investments in the Ost financial investments in the Ottoman Em-ttoman Em-pire, would eventually provide the loan. It was for this reason that Cavid pire, would eventually provide the loan. It was for this reason that Cavid BeyBey's priority was negotiations with the French. German demands could 's priority was negotiations with the French. German demands could not compete with the French. not compete with the French.

As mentioned above, other agreemen

As mentioned above, other agreements wets were signed between the re signed between the Empire and Empire and the Great Powers, including the Ottomanthe Great Powers, including the Ottoman--Russian agree-Russian agree-ment on October 29, 1913. According to the agreement, Russia gave all ment on October 29, 1913. According to the agreement, Russia gave all the railway lines west of the Vanthe railway lines west of the Van--Bitlis line to the French, but only Rus-Bitlis line to the French, but only Rus-sia could build the rasia could build the railwayilway lines in the east. Even the Ottolines in the east. Even the Ottoman Empire man Empire could not build or outsource any railway construction. On February 15, could not build or outsource any railway construction. On February 15, 1914, the Franco1914, the Franco--German agreement was signed. According to Bayur, German agreement was signed. According to Bayur, “In Anatolia, the German share will be located south of that of France“In Anatolia, the German share will be located south of that of France. . ThiThis region is generally located to s region is generally located to the west of the Beyşehirthe west of the Beyşehir--AfyonkarahisarAfyonkarahisar--Bursa line. In Syria, the German territory reaches 60 km Bursa line. In Syria, the German territory reaches 60 km south of the Iskenderunsouth of the Iskenderun--HalepHalep--Meskene line. In Anatolia, the privileges Meskene line. In Anatolia, the privileges of mines in Bolu and Ergani were given to Germanyof mines in Bolu and Ergani were given to Germany and and Sivas' privilege Sivas' privilege

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to the French. F

to the French. France and the Germans agreed to control the Ottoman rance and the Germans agreed to control the Ottoman finances together.” The Italians asked for concessions in the region finances together.” The Italians asked for concessions in the region around Antalya. They signed an agreement on March 6, around Antalya. They signed an agreement on March 6, 1914,1914, with Brit-with Brit-ain concerning privileges in tain concerning privileges in the Ahe Antalya region. ntalya region.

In 1913, Hakkı

In 1913, Hakkı Pasha carried out the negotiations with Britain, and Pasha carried out the negotiations with Britain, and Cavid BeyCavid Bey also went to London from time to time to assist him. The An-also went to London from time to time to assist him. The An-gloglo--Ottoman agreement was signed on July 29, 1913. It covered the in-Ottoman agreement was signed on July 29, 1913. It covered the in-crease in the customs duties crease in the customs duties and and the new regulationthe new regulations in Shatts in Shatt--alal--AArab rab and Basra in Britain's favor. This agreement also included subsidiary and Basra in Britain's favor. This agreement also included subsidiary agreements covering different issues such as navigation on the Euphra-agreements covering different issues such as navigation on the Euphra-tes and Tigris rivers (concluded December 19, 1913) and foreign citi-tes and Tigris rivers (concluded December 19, 1913) and foreign citi-zens' legal zens' legal rights in the Empirights in the Empire (concluded Ore (concluded October 21, 1913). Mean-ctober 21, 1913). Mean-while, both counwhile, both countries negotiated on the Aydın railways. On December tries negotiated on the Aydın railways. On December 12, 1913, Hakkı Pasha had signed an agreement with James Lyle Mac-12, 1913, Hakkı Pasha had signed an agreement with James Lyle Mac-kay, Earl of Inchcape, on navigation privileges on both the Euphratkay, Earl of Inchcape, on navigation privileges on both the Euphrates es and Tigris. Latand Tigris. Later on, the Ottoer on, the Ottoman and British governments made two man and British governments made two momore agreements dated March 26, re agreements dated March 26, 1914,1914, and April 3, 1914. The first one and April 3, 1914. The first one dealt with various commercial issues such as monopolies on beverages dealt with various commercial issues such as monopolies on beverages and oil or lighthouses. The latter was about tand oil or lighthouses. The latter was about the he İzmirİzmir--Aydın railway and Aydın railway and its exits extension and connection witension and connection with the Anatolith the Anatoliaa--Baghdad Railway. Ulti-Baghdad Railway. Ulti-mately, on the eve of the Great War, the complicated and contentious mately, on the eve of the Great War, the complicated and contentious negotiations were completed. negotiations were completed.

These agreements not only covered economic and financial issue

These agreements not only covered economic and financial issues s but also privileges and investmbut also privileges and investments. However, there was more to the ents. However, there was more to the ststoory than that. Although these financial tools were essential to domi-ry than that. Although these financial tools were essential to domi-nating the Ottoman Empire, the Great Powers' political ambitions nating the Ottoman Empire, the Great Powers' political ambitions clouded the whole process. The Great Powers not onlclouded the whole process. The Great Powers not only struggled for y struggled for their own aims butheir own aims but also strived to meet their allies’ got also strived to meet their allies’ goaals. Political sidels. Political side--issues always accompanied the negotiations.issues always accompanied the negotiations.

The critical problems of this period were internationalized after the

The critical problems of this period were internationalized after the Balkan Wars and had become a precondition for the Balkan Wars and had become a precondition for the Ottoman Empire to Ottoman Empire to signing treatiesigning treaties. The Armenian issue took form and becs. The Armenian issue took form and becaame an interna-me an interna-tional conflict. Cavid Beytional conflict. Cavid Bey's diaries also depict how this issue became 's diaries also depict how this issue became part of the discussions on international finance. When Cavid Beypart of the discussions on international finance. When Cavid Bey was in was in

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Europe, he often discussed

Europe, he often discussed the Armenian issue more than the the Armenian issue more than the agree-agree-ments on financial details. The Arments on financial details. The Armmenian Reform Act was a major ob-enian Reform Act was a major ob-stacle for the Ottoman Empire, and the government was stuck between stacle for the Ottoman Empire, and the government was stuck between domestic and international politics. It might be argued that the Armeni-domestic and international politics. It might be argued that the Armeni-an issue staran issue started in 1913 as a result of internted in 1913 as a result of international diplomacy. The dip-ational diplomacy. The dip-lomats, politlomats, politiicians, and financiers were acutely aware that the tension cians, and financiers were acutely aware that the tension around the issue might lead to a massacre sooner or later. These kinds around the issue might lead to a massacre sooner or later. These kinds of interventions increased the trauma and anxiety of tof interventions increased the trauma and anxiety of the ruling elite in he ruling elite in the Empire regthe Empire regarding its future. While the Armenian Qarding its future. While the Armenian Quuestion had a estion had a human rights component for the Great Powers, it was also a part of their human rights component for the Great Powers, it was also a part of their imperialist competition. The issue had two dimensions: first, the impe-imperialist competition. The issue had two dimensions: first, the impe-rialist competition to domirialist competition to dominate Anatolia and Mesopotamia andnate Anatolia and Mesopotamia and, second, , second, taking more concessions in retaking more concessions in retturn for reconciliation between the two urn for reconciliation between the two communities. Germany eventually got involved in the issue alongside communities. Germany eventually got involved in the issue alongside Russia. After the Armenian Reform Act was signed in February 1914, Russia. After the Armenian Reform Act was signed in February 1914, the Aegeathe Aegean Islands became the next major in Islands became the next major issue on the Great Powers’ ssue on the Great Powers’ agenda. The Ragenda. The Ruussian delegate to the OPDA was another major issue that ssian delegate to the OPDA was another major issue that Cavid BeyCavid Bey dealt with at this time, although it could not be solved before dealt with at this time, although it could not be solved before the outbreak of the Great War.the outbreak of the Great War.

Last but not least, th

Last but not least, the Great Powers’ final maneuver wae Great Powers’ final maneuver was France’s at-s France’s at-tempt to control the milittempt to control the militaary spending of the Ottoman Empire. Due to ry spending of the Ottoman Empire. Due to the crisis between the Ottoman Empire and Greece, which created a the crisis between the Ottoman Empire and Greece, which created a perception in Europe that there might be a war between them, the perception in Europe that there might be a war between them, the French govFrench government wanted to prevent the Empernment wanted to prevent the Empire from purchasing mil-ire from purchasing mil-itary equipment itary equipment wwith the money that France had lent. When the French ith the money that France had lent. When the French government lost all hope of achieving financial control over the Otto-government lost all hope of achieving financial control over the Otto-man Empire, they forced Cavid Beyman Empire, they forced Cavid Bey to order French military equto order French military equipment ipment before leaving Paris. Thisbefore leaving Paris. This became intertwined with the concessionbecame intertwined with the concessionss Cavid BeyCavid Bey had given to the Great Powers on behalf of the Ottoman gov-had given to the Great Powers on behalf of the Ottoman gov-ernment.ernment.

Was the Unionist government aware that the country was on a knife

Was the Unionist government aware that the country was on a knife--edgeedge——that its future was linked with ththat its future was linked with the position and will of the Great e position and will of the Great Powers? Were they aware that in 1913 thPowers? Were they aware that in 1913 thee Great Powers had the ability Great Powers had the ability to choose whether the Ottoman Empire would collapse or survive? The to choose whether the Ottoman Empire would collapse or survive? The

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Great Powers’ influence certainly increased the existential anxiety

Great Powers’ influence certainly increased the existential anxiety among the Empire’among the Empire’s ruling elites before the First s ruling elites before the First World War. However, World War. However, this situation had this situation had aalso led to the creation of a new raison d’etre for the lso led to the creation of a new raison d’etre for the Unionists. The xenophobic anxiety in Anatolia that was inherited from Unionists. The xenophobic anxiety in Anatolia that was inherited from the Balkan Wars survived until the Republican Era, and it the Balkan Wars survived until the Republican Era, and it became one of became one of the major tools in the major tools in establishing the nationestablishing the nation--state state —— despitedespite its high cost its high cost to human rights. The Unionists were also aware that a European war to human rights. The Unionists were also aware that a European war was very close, and the most critical issue was choosing an ally with was very close, and the most critical issue was choosing an ally with which to enter the war. If the Ewhich to enter the war. If the Empire was to become one of the vimpire was to become one of the victors of ctors of the war, perhaps it could get the war, perhaps it could get rrid of all of these questions. In sum, the Un-id of all of these questions. In sum, the Un-ionist policies prioritized saving the state, although this sometimes ionist policies prioritized saving the state, although this sometimes went hand in hand with the Great Powers' imperialist policies.went hand in hand with the Great Powers' imperialist policies.

It is

It is possible to trace the trauma of lpossible to trace the trauma of losing the Balkans and Selanik osing the Balkans and Selanik from Cavifrom Cavidd BeyBey’s diaries. On many occasions he does not hide the deep ’s diaries. On many occasions he does not hide the deep suffering that he felt after their loss. These sentiments also reflect the suffering that he felt after their loss. These sentiments also reflect the CUP’s disappointment and (in)ability to confrontCUP’s disappointment and (in)ability to confront its failures since 1908. its failures since 1908. Cavid BCavid Beyey is often reminded of the joy of the is often reminded of the joy of the RRevolution in contrast to evolution in contrast to the dark days of the Balkan Wars. The period before the Balkan Wars the dark days of the Balkan Wars. The period before the Balkan Wars began with the Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha government, which is re-began with the Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha government, which is re-counted in counted in detaildetail in Cavid Bin Cavid Beyey’s memoir. In fact, he started ’s memoir. In fact, he started the budget the budget speech on July 4, speech on July 4, 1914,1914, by mby mentioning this period and its consequences. entioning this period and its consequences. After the Balkan Wars, the Empire was transformed in every aspect: po-After the Balkan Wars, the Empire was transformed in every aspect: po-litical, social, and economic. However, Cavid Beylitical, social, and economic. However, Cavid Bey was in Europe while was in Europe while tthese changes were carried out by hese changes were carried out by the Unionist government. We really the Unionist government. We really do ndo not know how Cavid Beyot know how Cavid Bey observed and evaluated these changes, but observed and evaluated these changes, but in the end, he followed the rules of the CUP, though he did not feel very in the end, he followed the rules of the CUP, though he did not feel very comfortable with the new circumstances which wcomfortable with the new circumstances which were bound up with na-ere bound up with na-tionalism. tionalism.

During this period, the CUP made monuring this period, the CUP made monumenumental decisions on the fu-tal decisions on the fu-ture of the Empire.ture of the Empire.997 However, Cavid BeyHowever, Cavid Bey had had excludedexcluded on many of on many of these moments while in Europe, including the coup d’état of January 23, these moments while in Europe, including the coup d’état of January 23,

997 ZürchZürcheer, “Yor, “Young Turk Gung Turk Goovernancevernance””, , 897897--913.913.

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the Empire’s entrance int

the Empire’s entrance into the war and alliance with Germao the war and alliance with Germany, and the ny, and the bombardment of Russibombardment of Russiaan n basebases. According to his diary, Cavid Beys. According to his diary, Cavid Bey sup-sup-ported the CUP’s fundamental actions such as the putsch. From the be-ported the CUP’s fundamental actions such as the putsch. From the be-ginning of 1913, the military cadres and other civilians who had a mili-ginning of 1913, the military cadres and other civilians who had a mili-tary tary character such as Talat Bey domincharacter such as Talat Bey dominated the CUP and the Unionist ated the CUP and the Unionist gogovverernmennment. It might be argued that Mahmud Şevket Pasha was the ide-t. It might be argued that Mahmud Şevket Pasha was the ide-al representation of Ottoman culture as both a soldier and statesman al representation of Ottoman culture as both a soldier and statesman who governed the state during its final hour. While Cavid Beywho governed the state during its final hour. While Cavid Bey was al-was al-ways a part of the ruling elite, as an expert and, of ways a part of the ruling elite, as an expert and, of ccouourse,rse, a loyal Union-a loyal Union-ist, his absence from Istanbul was used as a convenient excuse to ex-ist, his absence from Istanbul was used as a convenient excuse to ex-clude him from many decisions to which he might object, including the clude him from many decisions to which he might object, including the German alliance. Cavid BeyGerman alliance. Cavid Bey’s resignation after the entrance of the Otto-’s resignation after the entrance of the Otto-man Empire into the Great man Empire into the Great WWarar waswas a surprise for all. a surprise for all.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey led the antiled the anti--war camp in the government between August war camp in the government between August 2 and October 29, 1914. Said Halim Pasha changed his mind about the 2 and October 29, 1914. Said Halim Pasha changed his mind about the war through his determination, and Talat Bey softened his attitude. Ac-war through his determination, and Talat Bey softened his attitude. Ac-cording to Cavid Beycording to Cavid Bey, th, thee OOttomttoman Empire was neither militarily nor an Empire was neither militarily nor economically ready for a European war. Moreover, he had just signed economically ready for a European war. Moreover, he had just signed the debt agreements himself. He thought that under these conditions, the debt agreements himself. He thought that under these conditions, his country would now enter the development process. When he his country would now enter the development process. When he learned of thelearned of the AuAugustgust 2 agreement with the Germans, he was the first 2 agreement with the Germans, he was the first and the only person who noticed that there had been no specific finan-and the only person who noticed that there had been no specific finan-cial commitment made to the Ottoman Empire. During this time, he con-cial commitment made to the Ottoman Empire. During this time, he con-tinued to meet with the Great Powers' ambassadors on behalf of ttinued to meet with the Great Powers' ambassadors on behalf of thhe e govegovernment.rnment.

Most importantly, Cavid Bey

Most importantly, Cavid Bey was trying to keep afloat the Ottoman was trying to keep afloat the Ottoman financial system, which had declared a moratorium. Despite all his ob-financial system, which had declared a moratorium. Despite all his ob-jections, he did not resign from the cabinet until the Ottoman Empire jections, he did not resign from the cabinet until the Ottoman Empire finally entered the war. He supportefinally entered the war. He supportedd tthe ahe abolition of capitulations, bolition of capitulations, which he was always against. However, the bombing on October 29 was which he was always against. However, the bombing on October 29 was a red line for him. His resignation drew many reactions within the or-a red line for him. His resignation drew many reactions within the or-ganization. He did not meet with Talat Bey for a short time; Dr. Nazim ganization. He did not meet with Talat Bey for a short time; Dr. Nazim threatened himthreatened him.. HHis iis identity as a dentity as a DönmeDönme resurfaced again at this critical resurfaced again at this critical moment. As he believed that it was not in the Ottoman Empire’s interest moment. As he believed that it was not in the Ottoman Empire’s interest

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to go to war, he also violated the debt agreement that the Ottoman Em-

to go to war, he also violated the debt agreement that the Ottoman Em-pire had received in exchange for not going to war for pire had received in exchange for not going to war for aa yyear ear and a half. and a half. Despite his resignation, Cavid BeyDespite his resignation, Cavid Bey was still a Unionist and bound to his was still a Unionist and bound to his duty to the state. If he was not in office, he would continue his duty as a duty to the state. If he was not in office, he would continue his duty as a shadow minister, conducting the Ottoman Empire’s financial affairs, shadow minister, conducting the Ottoman Empire’s financial affairs, which we will see inwhich we will see in ththe nee next chapter. xt chapter.

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Conclusion: A Civil Unionistonclusion: A Civil Unionist

War is too serious matter to be left to the sol-ar is too serious matter to be left to the sol-diers.diers.

–

– George ClemenceauGeorge Clemenceau998

his

his chapter covers two different sections. The first part covers the chapter covers two different sections. The first part covers the life span of Cavid Beylife span of Cavid Bey from the Great from the Great War (1914 War (1914 –– 1918) 1918) until he until he lost his life in 1926. Secondly, it clost his life in 1926. Secondly, it covers the conclusive marks of the overs the conclusive marks of the whole diswhole dis--sertation. The first part of this chapter consists of the very sertation. The first part of this chapter consists of the very critical pecritical pe--riod of Turkey from 1914 to 1926, which covers the Great riod of Turkey from 1914 to 1926, which covers the Great War, the NaWar, the Na--tiontional Independence Waal Independence War, the Lausanne Treaty, the founda-r, the Lausanne Treaty, the founda-tion of the tion of the Republic, and the Independence Tribunal. These incidents all Republic, and the Independence Tribunal. These incidents all might cover another chapter. In this dissertation, they briefly analyzed might cover another chapter. In this dissertation, they briefly analyzed along the axis of Cavid Beyalong the axis of Cavid Bey’s biography.’s biography.

998 “L“La guerre! C’est une chose trop gravea guerre! C’est une chose trop grave popour la cour la confiernfier à des militaà des militaiires.” res.” GeGeorge orge ClemenceauClemenceau

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§ 5.1 Cavid Bey in the Cavid Bey in the Great War Great War

It is p

It is possible to divide the Great ossible to divide the Great WWaar period in Cavid Beyr period in Cavid Bey's life into 's life into two differtwo differeennt periods. The first period, 1914t periods. The first period, 1914––1917, 1917, mainly mainly covers Cavid covers Cavid BeyBey's negotiations in Vienna and Berlin for the loans. During this p's negotiations in Vienna and Berlin for the loans. During this peeriod, riod, he was distanced he was distanced fromfrom the wthe war economy's domesar economy's domestic tic components that components that werewere intinteerrtwined with nationalist policies and priorittwined with nationalist policies and prioritiiees. Instead, he s. Instead, he mainly dealt with the international aspectmainly dealt with the international aspectss of war finances. The seof war finances. The seccond ond ppeeriod, 1917riod, 1917––1918, begins with his assignment as the minister of fi-1918, begins with his assignment as the minister of fi-nance. Inance. In this sen this secction, I tion, I benefited once again from thbenefited once again from thee diaries that he diaries that he kept daily, although the scokept daily, although the scoppee of this section is relatively narrowof this section is relatively narrowerer than than the previous chapters. the previous chapters.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey's journal covering the Great War years, Vol: III's journal covering the Great War years, Vol: III,,999 sheds sheds light on significant issuelight on significant issues. First of all, is. First of all, it is possible to observe howt is possible to observe how tthe he negotiationsnegotiations werewere carried out with alliescarried out with allies dduring the Great War period. uring the Great War period. The The intentionsintentions of the German and Austrian statesmen and financiers of the German and Austrian statesmen and financiers werewere undeniableundeniable:: ttheir main concern heir main concern waswas to return the order of the to return the order of the ca-ca-pitulations in tpitulations in the posthe post--war era. The course war era. The course ooff events events inin Ottoman fOttoman fiinanc-nanc-es, German and Austes, German and Austrriian demands, Cavid Beyan demands, Cavid Bey's resi's resisstance to some spe-tance to some spe-cific points, cific points, and and the loan negotiations carrthe loan negotiations carriedied out by various chaout by various channnels nels are are eessential to understand the background ossential to understand the background of the war financesf the war finances. One of . One of the most critical athe most critical assppectsects isis that Cavid Beythat Cavid Bey's diar's diariesies depict the depict the UUnnionists ionists as havingas having givegivenn secret promises to German statesmen rsecret promises to German statesmen reegarding the ca-garding the ca-pitulations.pitulations.

Both Cavid Beyoth Cavid Bey and especially the Unionist deputies in Iand especially the Unionist deputies in Isstanbul, led tanbul, led by Hby Hüseyin Cahit Bey, üseyin Cahit Bey, put pressure on the Unionistput pressure on the Unionist ggoverovernnmentment to clari-to clari-fy the fy the agreemenagreementt with thewith the GGermansermans. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey's diaries also crystallize 's diaries also crystallize the political incidents and conflicts in Ithe political incidents and conflicts in Isstanbul. Furthermore, his meet-tanbul. Furthermore, his meet-ings with his fellow Unionists, even those in ings with his fellow Unionists, even those in Berlin, help us uBerlin, help us understand nderstand the complexity of the complexity of rreelations and ventures inside the CUP. In sumlations and ventures inside the CUP. In sum,, his dia-his dia-

999 MehmedMehmed CavidCavid Bey. Bey. MeşrutMeşrutiiyet Rûznamesi, yet Rûznamesi, Vol. IVol. I, edited , edited byby Hasan BabacHasan Babacan anan andd ServeServet t Avşar. Ankara: Türk Avşar. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, Tarih Kurumu, 202014. 14.

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ry widens our perspective about the p

ry widens our perspective about the poolitical concerns and complexity litical concerns and complexity of the Great War in the Oof the Great War in the Otttoman Empire.toman Empire.

Following

Following Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s’s resignation just after tresignation just after thehe Empire’sEmpire’s entraentrance nce ininto the Great War, Talato the Great War, Talatt Bey became the minister of finance. Cavid BeBey became the minister of finance. Cavid Beyy was the shadow minister, active mainly in international fwas the shadow minister, active mainly in international fiinance nance andand economic relations with economic relations with the Empire’s athe Empire’s allies. Talat Bey was shaping the llies. Talat Bey was shaping the wartime wartime domestic domestic economyeconomy along along with Kara with Kara Kemal rather than Cavid Kemal rather than Cavid BeyBey.. CCavid Beavid Beyy was aware that the economic policiewas aware that the economic policiess were iwere immplemented plemented without his consent or even without asking without his consent or even without asking for for his ideahis ideass. Accor. Accordding to ing to his agenda, Talat Bey became his agenda, Talat Bey became the sole governor ofthe sole governor of the domestic econo-the domestic econo-my, whimy, whichch becamebecame intertwintertwinedined with with new new ideologideologiesies andand nnew targew targets to ets to transform the economic structutransform the economic structurree of the Ottoman Empire under the of the Ottoman Empire under the eex-x-traordinarytraordinary conditions of the war. His exclusion oconditions of the war. His exclusion occcurred because of the curred because of the difference difference inin their primary ideological atheir primary ideological appproach proach toto thethe economy as economy as seen seen duringduring the Balkan Wars. the Balkan Wars.

Cav

Cavidid BeyBey’s ’s diary also reveals the domestic confldiary also reveals the domestic confliiccts inside the CUP. ts inside the CUP. During the war, the Central Committee members, including Cavid BeyDuring the war, the Central Committee members, including Cavid Bey, , were frustrated with the militarized character of the CUP and its poli-were frustrated with the militarized character of the CUP and its poli-cies. cies. The distance betwThe distance between the civil and militaristeen the civil and militarist ffigures igures of the Commit-of the Commit-tee became even more apptee became even more appaarrent during the war years. Cavid Beyent during the war years. Cavid Bey’s dis-’s dis-satisfaction with Halil Bey also reflects this situation. Although Halil Bey satisfaction with Halil Bey also reflects this situation. Although Halil Bey was a civil man, a lawyer, he sided with the was a civil man, a lawyer, he sided with the militarist part omilitarist part of the gov-f the gov-ernment. He was amoernment. He was amongng the smthe small circle knowing the entrance to thall circle knowing the entrance to thee war. Although Cavid Beywar. Although Cavid Bey was in Berlin, the government dispatched Halil was in Berlin, the government dispatched Halil Bey to Berlin for political issues. After his resignment, he was confined Bey to Berlin for political issues. After his resignment, he was confined with the financialwith the financial issues and excluissues and excluded from the Cabinet works. ded from the Cabinet works. ThThese ese incincidents point to the separation, dispuidents point to the separation, disputtee, and contest between the Un-, and contest between the Un-ionists under the superiority of the war and military cadres in macro ionists under the superiority of the war and military cadres in macro and micro politics.and micro politics.

After the shock of Cavid Bey

After the shock of Cavid Bey’s resignation, h’s resignation, he started to worke started to work for the for the governmentgovernment as the sas the shahadow mindow minister, as mentioned aboveister, as mentioned above. In mid. In mid--NovNoveemmber 1914, after meeting the Unionist leaders, Cavid Beyber 1914, after meeting the Unionist leaders, Cavid Bey was was grantedgranted wide authority in the negotiations and transactions. The top wide authority in the negotiations and transactions. The top issue on his agenda issue on his agenda waswas the urgentthe urgent need for cash. Tneed for cash. The government’s he government’s

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priimary concmary concerern was tn was to issue 15 million o issue 15 million llirairass inin paper monepaper moneyy in return in return for five million for five million inin gold gold from thefrom the IOB. According to Cavid BeyIOB. According to Cavid Bey, the army , the army could macould mannageage withwith this money for eight to ten months. Cavid Beythis money for eight to ten months. Cavid Bey's idea 's idea was to spwas to spend the money on tend the money on the army's needs, because althe army's needs, because althohough theugh the state’s istate’s inncome would decrease becauscome would decrease becausee of the war, public expenses of the war, public expenses would not increase. Awould not increase. Allthough the other Unionists though the other Unionists wantedwanted to consult to consult with Enver Pasha, Cavid Beywith Enver Pasha, Cavid Bey thoughtthought that Enver Pasha has no idea abthat Enver Pasha has no idea about out how to fhow to fiinancenance the war. It is interesting the war. It is interesting toto observobserve Cavid Beye Cavid Bey turn turn against Enver Bey wiagainst Enver Bey witthhin such a short period. Cavid Beyin such a short period. Cavid Bey ddidid not intenot inter-r-vene in decisions about the economy but rather helpvene in decisions about the economy but rather helpeded the government the government with issues related to third pawith issues related to third parrties. ties.

Cavid B

Cavid Beyey’s main concern ’s main concern is whetheris whether the Germans addethe Germans added d definitdefinitivive e articles on the future financial narticles on the future financial neeeds of the Ottoman Empire eds of the Ottoman Empire duringduring the the wwar. ar. However, there is no concrete wording on the future financial oper-However, there is no concrete wording on the future financial oper-ations between the two allies. ations between the two allies. This situation also indiThis situation also indicates that the cates that the neeneeds of the Empire would be mds of the Empire would be metet daily daily rather than an elaborated plan. rather than an elaborated plan. The goThe govvernment’s main aim was to accumulate gold for the expenses of ernment’s main aim was to accumulate gold for the expenses of the army. In order to meet thethe army. In order to meet the army’sarmy’s daily needs, only the Ottoman daily needs, only the Ottoman Bank had Bank had to to iisssue paper money. Thsue paper money. The bank still had te bank still had two general manag-wo general manag-ers in Istaers in Istanbnbul, Briul, Brittish Arthur Nias and French Louis Steeish Arthur Nias and French Louis Steegg, who would , who would soon become the target of the Deutsche Bank and the Anatolian Rail-soon become the target of the Deutsche Bank and the Anatolian Rail-road Company.road Company.1000 The Ottoman Bank refused to act according to the The Ottoman Bank refused to act according to the will of the goverwill of the governnmenment, including provit, including providing advances during the wading advances during the war.r. It It waswas apparent that the bank apparent that the bank soon soon would notwould not have any role in the gov-have any role in the gov-ernment’s ecernment’s ecoonomic plans. Cavid Beynomic plans. Cavid Bey worked hard to preserve the worked hard to preserve the bank’s bank’s positionposition during the war. His main aim was to preserve relations during the war. His main aim was to preserve relations betwbetween the IOB and theen the IOB and the Ottoman goe Ottoman govvernment so thaernment so that t internainternational fi-tional fi-nancial institutions could ennancial institutions could enddure in the posture in the post--war era. Cavid Beywar era. Cavid Bey played a played a significantsignificant role role inin protectprotectinging the the IOB and OPDA from the German and IOB and OPDA from the German and Ottoman goverOttoman governnments’ attempts ments’ attempts atat seizseizureure..1001 At the bAt the beginning of the eginning of the

1000 Trumpener, Trumpener, GGeermany and the Ottoman Emrmany and the Ottoman Empire 1914pire 1914--19181918, p: 273., p: 273.

1001 Edhem Eldem Edhem Eldem Osmanlı Bankası Tarihi,Osmanlı Bankası Tarihi, (Istanbul: O(Istanbul: Osmanlı Bankassmanlı Bankası Aı Araştırmaraştırma MerkeMerkezi zi ve ve TürkiyTürkiyee Ekonomik ve Toplumsal Tarih VEkonomik ve Toplumsal Tarih Vakakfı, 1999), 3fı, 1999), 30101--303044..

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war, Cavid Beyr, Cavid Bey asks the goverasks the governmnment to ent to authorize the OPDA to issue authorize the OPDA to issue money in rmoney in reeturn for gold.turn for gold.1002 However, the OPDA does not have reserve However, the OPDA does not have reserve funds during thfunds during thisis ppeeriod, and the IOB only has a few thousand riod, and the IOB only has a few thousand llira in ira in cash after paying the indemnity from cash after paying the indemnity from the the TripolitanianTripolitanian War. The gov-War. The gov-ernment immedernment immediiaatetely haltly halted the OPDA’s payments in order to proed the OPDA’s payments in order to provvide ide these funds to the Othese funds to the Otttoman government. Cavid Beytoman government. Cavid Bey is against borrowing is against borrowing this money, bthis money, beecause the debtors might ask for their money after the war. cause the debtors might ask for their money after the war.

Once again, the

Once again, the Germans are suspiGermans are suspicious of Cavid Beycious of Cavid Bey and his and his susupport pport ffor France. The Germans were afraid thaor France. The Germans were afraid thatt Cavid BeyCavid Bey would convince the would convince the Ottoman government to preserve the IOB. Cavid BeyOttoman government to preserve the IOB. Cavid Bey tells Mr. Wassetells Mr. Wasser-r-man, a German banker who was sent to Istanbul by Berlin to observe man, a German banker who was sent to Istanbul by Berlin to observe the Empire’s finanthe Empire’s financial issues, that supportincial issues, that supporting g the Frethe French cannot make nch cannot make him forget his countryhim forget his country''s interests. However, he adds that he does not see s interests. However, he adds that he does not see any benefit to damaging another country without reason.any benefit to damaging another country without reason.1003 Cavid BeyCavid Bey notes in his diary in November 1914 that Germnotes in his diary in November 1914 that Germany aims to controany aims to control the l the bank via the Ottoman bank via the Ottoman gogovernmenvernment and a German consultant at and a German consultant asssigned to signed to tthe bank.he bank.1004 Cavid BeyCavid Bey informs Mr. Nias, the British manager of the IOB, informs Mr. Nias, the British manager of the IOB, that the Germans want to confiscate the bank. He advises him to provide that the Germans want to confiscate the bank. He advises him to provide a sevena seven--million lira million lira advance in return advance in return for the five million in golfor the five million in gold.d. Cavid Cavid BeyBey warns the Istanbul branch of the Iwarns the Istanbul branch of the IOOB of the German plan to confis-B of the German plan to confis-cate, liquidate, and found a committee on the bank. While the Germans cate, liquidate, and found a committee on the bank. While the Germans are skeptical of Cavid Beyare skeptical of Cavid Bey, they also ask him to return to the , they also ask him to return to the office of the office of the miniminister of finance. According ster of finance. According toto Cavid Cavid BeyBey's diaries, Germany has eco-'s diaries, Germany has eco-nomic annomic andd political plans for Turkey. He concludes this after several political plans for Turkey. He concludes this after several conversations with German officers including Mr. Kühconversations with German officers including Mr. Kühllmann, undersec-mann, undersec-retary of the German embassy, Mr. Wretary of the German embassy, Mr. Wassermann, and Mr.assermann, and Mr. Weitz. These Weitz. These

1002 TrTrumpener, umpener, Germany and tGermany and the Ottoman Emphe Ottoman Empirire 1914e 1914--19181918, 276. Se, 276. Seee also “Maliyye Nazırı also “Maliyye Nazırı CaCavid Bey’İn Meclisvid Bey’İn Meclis--i Ayan’da Osmanlı Bankası ve İtibari Ayan’da Osmanlı Bankası ve İtibar--ı Milli Bankası üzriı Milli Bankası üzrine ko-ne ko-nuşması”nuşması”, i, in Toprakn Toprak, , İttiİttihad vehad ve TerakTerakkki ve Cihan Harbi, Savaş Ekonomi ve Cihan Harbi, Savaş Ekonomi i ve Türkiye’dve Türkiye’de e DevDevlletçilietçilikk, 377, 377--381.381.

1003 TrumpeneTrumpener also gives ir also gives infnformation about Cavidormation about Cavid Bey's postBey's post--war concerns war concerns from the from the sources of the German archives. Trumpener, sources of the German archives. Trumpener, Germany and the OttomaGermany and the Ottoman Empire 1914n Empire 1914--19191818, 274, 274--275.275.

1004 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III, 99..

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plans have se

plans have seveveral ral comcomponents, such asponents, such as becoming a partner ofbecoming a partner of the Suez the Suez CanalCanal after a successful expedition to Egypt. after a successful expedition to Egypt.

In his notes from November 19, n his notes from November 19, 1914,1914, Cavid BeyCavid Bey complains about complains about Talat Bey and the CUP's chauvinist policies Talat Bey and the CUP's chauvinist policies in Istanbul.in Istanbul.1005 TalaTalat Bey t Bey wants to destroy all Fwants to destroy all Frerench cornch corporations in the Empire. This makes porations in the Empire. This makes CCaavvid Beyid Bey anxious about the future.anxious about the future.1006 Talat Bey’s behavior is also the Talat Bey’s behavior is also the outcome of the crisis with the IOB. The bank rejects the government’s outcome of the crisis with the IOB. The bank rejects the government’s proposal to issue five miproposal to issue five million llion llirasin papeirasin paper money in return for five mr money in return for five miil-l-lion lion lliira in gold. The bank does not trust tra in gold. The bank does not trust thhee government, because they government, because they might withdraw the gold from the bank. Cavid Beymight withdraw the gold from the bank. Cavid Bey notes in his dnotes in his diiary ary that he also cannot trust the government after examining its new polthat he also cannot trust the government after examining its new poli-i-cies. Cavid Beycies. Cavid Bey nnotes in his diary that Talatotes in his diary that Talat BBey has ey has claimed that he claimed that he would take any measurwould take any measuree,, legal or illegal, to solve the Empire’s prolegal or illegal, to solve the Empire’s prob-b-lems.lems.1007 Cavid BeyCavid Bey tries to mediate with the IOB and the Ottoman gotries to mediate with the IOB and the Ottoman gov-v-ernment. He also openly tells Mr. Steeg, the Frenchernment. He also openly tells Mr. Steeg, the French manager of the IOmanager of the IOB B Istanbul branch, that seriIstanbul branch, that seriouous probls problems will arise if the bank does not ems will arise if the bank does not aapppprove this deal. However, the government continues to voice its drove this deal. However, the government continues to voice its de-e-sire to confiscate the IOB. On November 28, 1914, Enver Pasha, Talat sire to confiscate the IOB. On November 28, 1914, Enver Pasha, Talat Bey, Halil Bey, and Mithat ŞBey, Halil Bey, and Mithat Şükrü meet with Cavükrü meet with Cavid Beyid Bey. Enver Pasha . Enver Pasha comes tocomes to CCavid Beavid Beyy's house for the first time. The gove's house for the first time. The government plans to rnment plans to purchase the IOB in order to confiscate its funds.purchase the IOB in order to confiscate its funds. They would pay for the They would pay for the bank after the war. Enver Pasha is against the Germans’ economic pene-bank after the war. Enver Pasha is against the Germans’ economic pene-trattration, and for this ion, and for this reason, reason, he he asks Cavid Beyasks Cavid Bey toto mmanage tanage the bank. He is he bank. He is also surprised that Halalso surprised that Halil Bey approves of this idea as a person of the law. il Bey approves of this idea as a person of the law. Cavid BeyCavid Bey belbelieves that the German ambassador and Mr. Wasseieves that the German ambassador and Mr. Wasserrmann mann were the key figures behind these ideas. On Dwere the key figures behind these ideas. On December 4, 1914, Cecember 4, 1914, Cavid avid BeyBey met Talat Bey at a met Talat Bey at a clclub. Talub. Talat Bey tells him that the cabinet has at Bey tells him that the cabinet has de-de-cided to establish a state bank. Halil Bey proposes cided to establish a state bank. Halil Bey proposes that Cavid Bthat Cavid Beyey take take up theup the presidency (presidency (nezaretnezaret) of the bank on behalf of the ) of the bank on behalf of the ggrand rand vviizier.zier.1008

1005 Aksakal,Aksakal, HarbHarb--i Umumi Umumi Eşiğindei Eşiğinde Osmanlı DeOsmanlı Devleti Son Savavleti Son Savaşışına Nasıl Girdi?,na Nasıl Girdi?, 212.212.

1006 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmeRuznâme, III, III, 12., 12.

1007 Cavid Bey, MeşCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet rutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III, 15.15.

1008 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznRuznâme, Iâme, IIII,I,19.19.

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During the early

During the early days of the Great days of the Great War, the Germans had three pWar, the Germans had three prri-i-mary comary concerns regarding the Empire’s banking ncerns regarding the Empire’s banking issues: the foundation of issues: the foundation of a new bank, issuing paper money, and thea new bank, issuing paper money, and the situation of the Ottoman situation of the Ottoman Bank. From time to time, the Germans were aggressive in discussionBank. From time to time, the Germans were aggressive in discussionss on on these three issuesthese three issues. On December 11, Talat Bey . On December 11, Talat Bey asasks Caviks Cavid Beyd Bey to ask the to ask the Ottoman Bank to issueOttoman Bank to issue paper money in return for gold amounting paper money in return for gold amounting 500,000 500,000 llirairass. Talat Bey . Talat Bey states that if the bank would disagree, the gostates that if the bank would disagree, the gov-v-ernment will respond with force. According to ernment will respond with force. According to hishis notes, Cavid Beynotes, Cavid Bey had had brought up establishing abrought up establishing a nnew bankew bank instead of confiscating the Ottoman instead of confiscating the Ottoman BBank.ank.1009 Talat Bey asks Cavid BeyTalat Bey asks Cavid Bey to be the president of the Oto be the president of the Otttoman toman BankBank as tas the French and British managers were no longer welcome in he French and British managers were no longer welcome in the state bank.the state bank.1010 However, TalaHowever, Talat Bey also offers t Bey also offers the same position to the same position to someone someone elelse. Cavse. Cavid Beyid Bey is disappointed when hearing this disappointed when hearing this, because Tis, because Ta-a-lat Bey used to consult with him on financial issueslat Bey used to consult with him on financial issues. He feels that the . He feels that the Central Committee (CC) played a crucial role in this situation.Central Committee (CC) played a crucial role in this situation.1011 HoHow-w-ever, asever, as usual, everythingusual, everything changes rapidlychanges rapidly, and soon af, and soon afteter tr the Che CC dC deecidecidedd to select the managers insidto select the managers inside the bank. Nevertheless, Mr. Wae the bank. Nevertheless, Mr. Wassserman serman insists on ainsists on asssigning Cavidsigning Cavid BeyBey to a senior position within the bank.to a senior position within the bank.1012 Cavid BeyCavid Bey provides information for the cabinet on thprovides information for the cabinet on the new cie new cirrculation culation concerning paper money. As heconcerning paper money. As he nnotes inotes in his diary, he again tells the cab-his diary, he again tells the cab-inetinet members that it is best that the cash come into circulmembers that it is best that the cash come into circulaation throution through gh the OPDA. The gold received from Germany and revenue from the war the OPDA. The gold received from Germany and revenue from the war taxes would be used as colltaxes would be used as collateral. Enver Pashateral. Enver Pasha asserts that they must a asserts that they must purcpurchahase the se the Ottoman Bank during the war; in fact, Ottoman Bank during the war; in fact, most of the minis-most of the minis-ters preferred to make the transaction through thters preferred to make the transaction through the Ottoman Bank. How-e Ottoman Bank. How-ever, Cavid Beyever, Cavid Bey convinces them otherwise. At last, they dconvinces them otherwise. At last, they deecide to make cide to make the trthe transaction through ansaction through the OPDA.the OPDA.1013

1009 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmeRuznâme, III, III,,2626--27.27.

1010 Trumpener, Trumpener, Germany Germany and the Ottomaand the Ottoman n Empire 1914Empire 1914--19181918, 277, 277..

1011 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III,1919--30.30.

1012 Cavid Bey, MCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet eşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III,3232--3.3.

1013 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmRuznâmee, III,, III,3333--4.4.

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On February 23, 19

On February 23, 191515, Cavid, Cavid BeyBey departs for Vienna with Hüseyin departs for Vienna with Hüseyin CCahit and Mr. Wasserman to discuss the financial issues with alliedahit and Mr. Wasserman to discuss the financial issues with allied countries.countries.1014 However, Cavid BeyHowever, Cavid Bey's mind is very much occupied with 's mind is very much occupied with the ongoing battle in Çanakkathe ongoing battle in Çanakkale (Gallipoli Cample (Gallipoli Campaign). He notes in his aign). He notes in his diary diary ththat everat everyone is concerned with the army’s lackyone is concerned with the army’s lack of munitions. In of munitions. In Vienna, Cavid BeyVienna, Cavid Bey met with Mr. Burian, the Austrmet with Mr. Burian, the Austrian delegate to the ian delegate to the OPDA.OPDA.1015 In return for an AustrianIn return for an Austrian--German loan amounting to 150 mil-German loan amounting to 150 mil-lion lion ffrancsrancs, the Austrians as, the Austrians ask for privileges. According tk for privileges. According to o Cavid BCavid Beyey the the issues rissues reegarding the privilegesgarding the privileges should be discussed after the war. Cavid should be discussed after the war. Cavid BeyBey's observation of Vie's observation of Vienna is that the Austrian statesmen and financi-nna is that the Austrian statesmen and financi-ers are pessimistic and lack confidence in the warers are pessimistic and lack confidence in the war. They largely bel. They largely believe ieve that Çanakkale will fallthat Çanakkale will fall sshortly.hortly. Cavid BeyCavid Bey notes in his diary that nobnotes in his diary that nobody ody aapppreciates the sacrifice the Ottoman Empire had made. He notepreciates the sacrifice the Ottoman Empire had made. He notes, “what s, “what a reward for usa reward for us..””1016 Since resigning from the cabinet, he Since resigning from the cabinet, he had beenhad been more more distanced and cridistanced and critical of his Uniontical of his Unionists friends and colleagues. ists friends and colleagues. HeHe waswas seseemingly oemingly offfended by them.fended by them.

On March 6,

On March 6, 1915, Cavid Bey1915, Cavid Bey arrives in Berlin. The Germans promise arrives in Berlin. The Germans promise Cavid BeyCavid Bey tthat Berlin would not ask for concessions. hat Berlin would not ask for concessions. After several meet-After several meet-ings, ings, at last, Cavid Beyat last, Cavid Bey meets Mr. Hmeets Mr. Helfferich, Secrelfferich, Secreetatary of State of thery of State of the Treasury, to discuss financial issues on March 14, 1915. Meanwhile, Treasury, to discuss financial issues on March 14, 1915. Meanwhile, Cavid BeyCavid Bey receives news from Istanbul that the Ottreceives news from Istanbul that the Ottooman army is gaining man army is gaining grogrounund in Çad in Çanakkale War. He notes in his diary thanakkale War. He notes in his diary that “we are going crazy t “we are going crazy with joywith joy.”.”1017 In the meantimIn the meantime, Mr. Helfferich e, Mr. Helfferich agrees that the OPDA agrees that the OPDA should issue more cash instead of the Ottoman Bank. The Germans also should issue more cash instead of the Ottoman Bank. The Germans also ask the Ottoman government to issue their payments foask the Ottoman government to issue their payments for r the Anathe Anatolian tolian railways. Cavid Beyrailways. Cavid Bey offers to poffers to pay them after the government ray them after the government receives the eceives the advancadvance from the OPDA. He from the OPDA. Halil Bey arrives in Berlin upon Cavid Beyalil Bey arrives in Berlin upon Cavid Bey’s ur-’s ur-gent call to meet the Bulgarian delegation in Berlin. Still, the Bulgarian gent call to meet the Bulgarian delegation in Berlin. Still, the Bulgarian

1014 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâmuznâmee, III,, III, 56. 56.

1015 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâme, III,uznâme, III,37.37.

1016 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III,4040--1.1.

1017 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III, Ruznâme, III, 4444--5.5.

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position in the war is

position in the war is aambiguoumbiguous.s.1018 Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s and Halil Bey’s views ’s and Halil Bey’s views on Germany are quite differenton Germany are quite different. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey is criis critical of Halil Beytical of Halil Bey’s un-’s un-questionable support for the German position.questionable support for the German position.1019

In March 1915, the heavy bombardment of Çanakkale (Gallipoli) by

In March 1915, the heavy bombardment of Çanakkale (Gallipoli) by the Entente Powers began. the Entente Powers began. ThThere wasere was much commotion in Istanbul over much commotion in Istanbul over the cthe campaign. The Ottoman governmenampaign. The Ottoman government was also discusst was also discussing moving the ing moving the capcapital to Anatolia, likely to Konya. Many Unionists had started to move ital to Anatolia, likely to Konya. Many Unionists had started to move from Istanbul to different cities around Anatolia. Many city dwellers al-from Istanbul to different cities around Anatolia. Many city dwellers al-sso o consideconsidered leaving Istanbul and moving to thered leaving Istanbul and moving to the Asian side of the city Asian side of the city or somor somewhere else in Anaewhere else in Anatolia.tolia.1020 While the While the ssultan was anxious about ultan was anxious about leaving Istanbul, the Unionists did not see this as an important issue. leaving Istanbul, the Unionists did not see this as an important issue. Cavid BeyCavid Bey suspected that once they would leavesuspected that once they would leave IIstanbulstanbul, they might not , they might not return.return.1021

During the Ç

During the Çanakkale (Gallipoli) Campaign,anakkale (Gallipoli) Campaign, the French requesthe French request a t a meeting with Cmeeting with Cavid Beyavid Bey in order to discuss the possibility of separate in order to discuss the possibility of separate peace talks. Records of these talks can be found in both Cavid Beypeace talks. Records of these talks can be found in both Cavid Bey's d's diia-a-ry and archivary and archival l sourcessources..1022 Cavid BeyCavid Bey met Mr. Ponsu, the vice pmet Mr. Ponsu, the vice president resident of the committee of Fof the committee of French foreign affarench foreign affairs and reporter oirs and reporter of the budget of f the budget of the the navy. According to both sources, Cavid Beynavy. According to both sources, Cavid Bey deduced that Mr. Thédeduced that Mr. Théo-o-phile Delcassé, French minister of foreign affairs, phile Delcassé, French minister of foreign affairs, waswas cogcogninizant ofzant of this this sseecret meeting. The Germans cret meeting. The Germans werewere also aware of this meeting. Galso aware of this meeting. German erman spies closelspies closely follow Cavid Beyy follow Cavid Bey. Mr. Ponsu starts the discussion by e. Mr. Ponsu starts the discussion by em-m-phasiphasizzing that the Entente powers enter Çanakkale, (Gallipoli) and for ing that the Entente powers enter Çanakkale, (Gallipoli) and for this reason, the Ottoman governmethis reason, the Ottoman governmentnt shouldshould take measures to reduce take measures to reduce

1018 BBOA_HR_SYS_OA_HR_SYS_____02102105_0008_05_0008_003003

1019 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III, 5050..

1020 Ahmet ReAhmet Refik Afik Alltınay tınay İki Komite İki Kıtal (İki Komite İki Kıtal (Ankara: KebikeAnkara: Kebikeç ç Yayınları, 1999), 10Yayınları, 1999), 10--1111;; Ahmet Nedim Servet Tör, Ahmet Nedim Servet Tör, Nevhîz’in Günlüğü “DefterNevhîz’in Günlüğü “Defter--i Hâtırâti Hâtırât” (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi ” (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları: 2Yayınları: 2010), 183010), 183--18187 (7 (DiDiary enary entry Matry March 14rch 14, , 1915,1915, and March 17, 1915, and March 17, 1915, MarchMarch 19,19, 11915).915).

1021 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Ruznâme, III, III, 37.37.

1022 BOABOA_H_HR_SYS___02105_0008_01R_SYS___02105_0008_0155, ,

BOA_HR_SYS___02105_0008_011. BOA_HR_SYS___02105_0008_011.

Cavid Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III,5050--44

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its humanitar

its humanitarian and military losses. He alian and military losses. He also mentions cooperso mentions cooperation and ation and a comproa compromise between France and the Ottoman Empire. Cavid Beymise between France and the Ottoman Empire. Cavid Bey asks asks why the French are interested in entering Çanakkale (Gallipoli). Mr. why the French are interested in entering Çanakkale (Gallipoli). Mr. Ponsu says blunPonsu says bluntltly that y that the French are interested in obtainingthe French are interested in obtaining a share a share from the partition offrom the partition of Turkey. In returnTurkey. In return, Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey firmlyfirmly states that the states that the Ottoman government will not make a separate peace agreement with Ottoman government will not make a separate peace agreement with France, Britain, and Russia. Cavid BeyFrance, Britain, and Russia. Cavid Bey states that the Empirestates that the Empire wwill ill cocon-n-tinue the “struggle of life and death,tinue the “struggle of life and death, which they decided to pursue which they decided to pursue on on the first day (the first day (of the war).” He cof the war).” He continues, “even if you captured Istanbul, ontinues, “even if you captured Istanbul, we would continue the war in Anatolia.” Mr. Ponsu adds that if the Ewe would continue the war in Anatolia.” Mr. Ponsu adds that if the En-n-tente forces enter Çanakkale, thtente forces enter Çanakkale, the e city wocity would gain international status. uld gain international status. AAllthougthough the meeting with Mr. Ponsu wh the meeting with Mr. Ponsu was inconclusive, tas inconclusive, the Entente he Entente forces forces try to understand Istanbul's situation and whether or not there is try to understand Istanbul's situation and whether or not there is the possibility of crossing the straits and capturing Istanbul. In his dithe possibility of crossing the straits and capturing Istanbul. In his dia-a-ririeses and hiand his note to the Sublime Porte, Cavid Beys note to the Sublime Porte, Cavid Bey mentions that Mr. mentions that Mr. Ponsu reprePonsu represents only a few Fsents only a few French politicians rench politicians who consider that the who consider that the French government is too interested in Çanakkale (Gallipoli), although it French government is too interested in Çanakkale (Gallipoli), although it is not directly related to French interests. Meis not directly related to French interests. Meananwhile, while, the French gothe French gov-v-ernment is organizing a ernment is organizing a fullfull--fledged propaganda campaifledged propaganda campaign to mobilize gn to mobilize pubpublic opinion to suplic opinion to support pushing the Balkan states to mobilize against port pushing the Balkan states to mobilize against AuAusstriatria--Hungary. Cavid BeyHungary. Cavid Bey adds that even if the Triple Entente would adds that even if the Triple Entente would pass through the straipass through the straitsts, Brita, Britain’s domination of the Middle East wouin’s domination of the Middle East would ld eveevenntually conflict with Frtually conflict with French interests in ench interests in the region. He poithe region. He points out nts out that the interests of France and the Ottoman Empire are close to each that the interests of France and the Ottoman Empire are close to each other. Cavid Beyother. Cavid Bey claims that even if the Germans leave Anvers, thclaims that even if the Germans leave Anvers, the e BriBrit-t-ishish willwill not leave not leave PasPas--dede--Calais. Cavid Calais. Cavid BeyBey claims that if the Entente claims that if the Entente Powers would invadPowers would invade Istanbul, they e Istanbul, they wwould likely use the city in eould likely use the city in ex-x-change for taking back Belgium from the Germans.change for taking back Belgium from the Germans.1023 As mentioned As mentioned above, the talks remained inconclusive and ended above, the talks remained inconclusive and ended afafter theter the Turkish viTurkish vic-c-tory in Çanakkale (Gallipotory in Çanakkale (Gallipoli).li).

1023 BOABOA DH_SFR_DH_SFR__00470_00098_00470_00098_00_001_001. 1_001. Cemal PCemal Pasasha ha asks inasks infformation from Talat Bey, ormation from Talat Bey, the mthe mininister of intister of interiorerior affairaffairs about the peace talks about the peace talk between the Fbetween the Frerench and Cavid Bey. nch and Cavid Bey.

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In Berlin, April 1915, Cav

In Berlin, April 1915, Cavid Beyid Bey tries to setries to settle the details ttle the details oof two rf two re-e-lated operations: the emission of money and borrowing gold from Gelated operations: the emission of money and borrowing gold from Ger-r-many in return.many in return.1024 On April 20, the second loan agreement between On April 20, the second loan agreement between Ottoman Empire and Germany was signedOttoman Empire and Germany was signed, , despitedespite the Austrothe Austro--Hungarian concerns andHungarian concerns and somsome technical pre technical problems. Cavid Beyoblems. Cavid Bey succeeded succeeded in finalizing the treatyin finalizing the treaty.. The loan amounted to 8,140,000 The loan amounted to 8,140,000 llirairass..1025 TThis his loan would be consumed in a very short periodloan would be consumed in a very short period,, and the Ottoman gov-and the Ottoman gov-ernment would apply to Geernment would apply to Gerrmany fmany foror a new a new loan only six months later. loan only six months later. It waIt was s notnot a good surpra good surprise for ise for the Wilhemstrasse.the Wilhemstrasse.1026

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey travels to the travels to the FFrench war zone in Charleville, beyond Arench war zone in Charleville, beyond Al-l-sace in the Western Front with the German military staff on April 21.sace in the Western Front with the German military staff on April 21.1027 In his diary, Cavid BeyIn his diary, Cavid Bey describdescribeses seeingseeing empty French villages with empty French villages with burneburned buid buildings. Olderldings. Older men, women, and children were on the roads. men, women, and children were on the roads. Though tThough thhey were far away from the front, the view of the war was teey were far away from the front, the view of the war was ter-r-rible. Cavid Beyrible. Cavid Bey’s notes in his diary help us to understand the Empire’s ’s notes in his diary help us to understand the Empire’s animosityanimosity ttoward Foward France at this time. rance at this time. He noted:He noted:

Whe

When the Balkan staten the Balkan states occupied our lands, they evaluated this s occupied our lands, they evaluated this as a Germanas a German defeat and a French victory. Mdefeat and a French victory. My heart trembled with y heart trembled with a vengeance when I remembered how the French celebrated the a vengeance when I remembered how the French celebrated the Balkan Wars.Balkan Wars.1028

Duri

During this visit,ng this visit, CavCavid Beyid Bey was invited to a recepwas invited to a reception bytion by Kaiser WiKaiser Willhelm helm IIII and General Falkenhayn. After and General Falkenhayn. After a a twotwo--day visit, he waday visit, he wass back in Berlin back in Berlin on April 23, 1915. On April 26, Cavid Beyon April 23, 1915. On April 26, Cavid Bey received the Aig Rouge medal received the Aig Rouge medal from the German Chancellor.from the German Chancellor.1029

1024 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III, 6060--4.4.

1025 Trumpener, Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire 1914Germany and the Ottoman Empire 1914--19181918, , 278. 278. ÖzaÖzavcı, “Wvcı, “War Finaar Finances”nces”, , 66--77..

1026 Trumpener, Trumpener, Germany and the OGermany and the Ottttoman Empire oman Empire 19141914--11918918, 2, 279.79.

1027 BOA_HR_SYS__021BOA_HR_SYS__02105_00008_00705_00008_007

1028 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III, 65.65.

1029 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III,6363--6.6.

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New constructi

New construction on the on on the BaghBaghdad dad RailwayRailway line comes to the goline comes to the gov-v-ernmenternment’s agenda in April’s agenda in April 19151915. A new railway line was planned to . A new railway line was planned to reach the Tareach the Tauurus Mountains in order to aid the Egypt expedition. It rus Mountains in order to aid the Egypt expedition. It would cost two million would cost two million llirairass. The money would be paid to the . The money would be paid to the Baghdad Baghdad RailwayRailway company usingcompany using monmoney from the loan of the Germaey from the loan of the German goven goverrn-n-ment, and the Otment, and the Ottoman government would continue to pay the 6 petoman government would continue to pay the 6 per-r-cent icent innterest rate on the loan. While Talat Bey and Enver Pasha support terest rate on the loan. While Talat Bey and Enver Pasha support this new constructionthis new construction——although they express that this is largely although they express that this is largely bbe-e-cause of Gercause of Germanymany’s demands’s demands——Cavid BeyCavid Bey objects objects to theto the latter condition.latter condition. AccorAccordding to Cavid Beying to Cavid Bey, once the Ottoman government a, once the Ottoman government acccepts paying cepts paying the ithe innterest, they will have to accept all of the company's demands. terest, they will have to accept all of the company's demands. Cavid BeyCavid Bey is not in a rush to settle the issue, is not in a rush to settle the issue, because the Otbecause the Ottomatoman gon gov-v-ernment does not want toernment does not want to spendspend the borrowed monethe borrowed money on investments. y on investments. In order to support the government’sIn order to support the government’s payment on the railway, he bpayment on the railway, he be-e-lieves that Germany should increase the amount of the loan.lieves that Germany should increase the amount of the loan.1030 He aHe as-s-sesses that Germany’s approach to tsesses that Germany’s approach to the Ottoman govhe Ottoman governmernment is the same ent is the same as during theas during the prepre--wwar period: a depenar period: a dependent relationship based on loans, dent relationship based on loans, high ihigh innterest rates,terest rates, and investments. Furthermore, building a railway and investments. Furthermore, building a railway with tunnels during the war was unnecessarily costly, especially when with tunnels during the war was unnecessarily costly, especially when the construthe construction of the nction of the new lew line would not meet military nine would not meet military needs.eeds.1031

By 1915, the

By 1915, the BaghBaghdad Railwaydad Railway already reached Pozantı to the north already reached Pozantı to the north of thof thee Taurus Mountains. There was an urgent Taurus Mountains. There was an urgent need need for a tunnel to pass for a tunnel to pass through to the southern side of the Taurus Mountains, to Dorak. Hthrough to the southern side of the Taurus Mountains, to Dorak. Hoowwev-ev-er, another obstacle laid ahead: there was no traer, another obstacle laid ahead: there was no transit through the nsit through the AAmanos Mountmanos Mountains onto İslahiye station. İslahiye connecains onto İslahiye station. İslahiye connectted to ed to HalepHalep, , Syria, joining the Damascus and Hedjaz railway and Medina. Connecting Syria, joining the Damascus and Hedjaz railway and Medina. Connecting the railway at these two points would constructthe railway at these two points would construct a direct railway link a direct railway link from Istanbul to Palestine. Alfrom Istanbul to Palestine. Although Cavid Beythough Cavid Bey sstarttarteded thethe nnegotiations egotiations on the railway’s construction on the railway’s construction iin 1915, the lines n 1915, the lines werewere not built until the not built until the end of the war. As Özyüksel states, “until October 1918, it was not poend of the war. As Özyüksel states, “until October 1918, it was not pos-s-

1030 Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, VolMeşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol III, 68III, 68--9,9, TrTrumpenerumpener, , GermaGermany anny and the Od the Otttoman Empirtoman Empire1914e1914--1918, 1918, 294294--95.95.

1031 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III, 6969..

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sible for a tra

sible for a train (from Istanbul) to reach in (from Istanbul) to reach HalepHalep directly.” Later, a directly.” Later, a third third connection wconnection was built bas built beettween the Taurus and Amanos Mountains to ween the Taurus and Amanos Mountains to eaeassily reach the ily reach the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway..1032

At the beginning of May, Cavid Bey

At the beginning of May, Cavid Bey departs for Vienna and Berlindeparts for Vienna and Berlin to to discuss financial negotiationdiscuss financial negotiations and the construction of new lines of the s and the construction of new lines of the Baghdad RaiBaghdad Railwaylway around Taurusaround Taurus in order in order ttoo dispatch soldiers for the dispatch soldiers for the Egypt expeditioEgypt expeditionn..1033 He discusses loan negotiations with He discusses loan negotiations with the the Austrian Austrian bonbonddholders of the OPDA. Cavid Beyholders of the OPDA. Cavid Bey signs the loan agreement with Bar-signs the loan agreement with Bar-on Burianon Burian, Austrian representative of the OPDA. Cavid Bey, Austrian representative of the OPDA. Cavid Bey also also frfre-e-quently quently meets Mmeets Mr. Toschevr. Toschev——tthe Bulgarian representative in Istanbul, he Bulgarian representative in Istanbul, wwhhom Cavid Beyom Cavid Bey often met in Istanbul during the crisis between August often met in Istanbul during the crisis between August 2 and October 292 and October 29——while in Vienna. Cavid Beywhile in Vienna. Cavid Bey had deduced that had deduced that BuBullgar-gar-ia would not hastily enter the war, and his meetia would not hastily enter the war, and his meetings and talks witings and talks with Mr. h Mr. TochTocheevv affirmed this. Mr. Tochev affirmed this. Mr. Tochev aldo aldo gives a pigives a pieece of remarkable infoce of remarkable infor-r-mation to Cavid Beymation to Cavid Bey. According to this information, Talat Bey . According to this information, Talat Bey knew knew aboutabout the Black Sea incidentthe Black Sea incident thatthat causedcaused thethe Empire’sEmpire’s entrance entrance ininto the to the wwarar before it had happbefore it had happenedened. He tells Cav. He tells Cavid Beyid Bey thathatt he came across The came across Taalat lat Bey at the Istanbul mBey at the Istanbul muunicipanicipallity, where Talat Bey told him that “we de-ity, where Talat Bey told him that “we de-cided to move with the Germans decisively.” Mr. Tochev and Cavid Beycided to move with the Germans decisively.” Mr. Tochev and Cavid Bey believe thatbelieve that Cemal PCemal Paasha was also informed about this incident.sha was also informed about this incident.1034

Cavid Beyavid Bey decides tdecides to go to Iso go to Isttaanbul to meet Talat Bey to discuss the nbul to meet Talat Bey to discuss the BaghBaghddad Railwayad Railway issue. He arrives in Istanbul on May 11, issue. He arrives in Istanbul on May 11, 1915,1915, and and stays in Istanbul for ten days. Although the deportation of Armenianstays in Istanbul for ten days. Although the deportation of Armenians s began on April 24, 1915, there was no comment relatbegan on April 24, 1915, there was no comment related to this incidened to this incident t in Cavid in Cavid BeBeyy’s diary. Instead, his notes during this’s diary. Instead, his notes during this period cover the Operiod cover the Ot-t-tomans’ apprehension concerning the Italian and Romanian involvtomans’ apprehension concerning the Italian and Romanian involve-e-ment in the war. Cavid Beyment in the war. Cavid Bey observes that peopleobserves that people are very anxious in the are very anxious in the city. Cavid Beycity. Cavid Bey notes commennotes comments about Enver Pasts about Enver Pasha in his dha in his diaiary. Sait ry. Sait Halim Pasha complains to Cavid BHalim Pasha complains to Cavid Beeyy that he has no role in the goverthat he has no role in the govern-n-

1032 Özyüksel, Özyüksel, ThThe Berline Berlin--Baghdad RailwBaghdad Railwaay and the Ottoman Empirey and the Ottoman Empire, , 116363..

1033 BOA_ BEO_004355_326582_001_001. The Cabinet decided Cavid Bey to BOA_ BEO_004355_326582_001_001. The Cabinet decided Cavid Bey to dispatch tdispatch to o BBerlin toerlin to make make the nethe negotiatgotiatiions for Baghdad Raions for Baghdad Railway.lway.

1034 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III,7171--3.3.

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ment anymore. The state of emergency left him lacking authority, and

ment anymore. The state of emergency left him lacking authority, and the military had undertakethe military had undertaken the power to govern. Sait Halim Pasha asks n the power to govern. Sait Halim Pasha asks Cavid BeCavid Beyy, “Where are the , “Where are the conquerconquerorors s ofof the Caucasus and Egypt?” rthe Caucasus and Egypt?” re-e-ferring to thferring to thee enthusiasm of Enver Pasha and Cemal Pasha’s goals in the enthusiasm of Enver Pasha and Cemal Pasha’s goals in the prepre--war period. Mr. Wangenheim also complains about the indepenwar period. Mr. Wangenheim also complains about the independ-d-ent actent actions of the Turkish military and Enver's excessive naions of the Turkish military and Enver's excessive nationationallism in ism in both both Persia (AcePersia (Acemimistan) and the Caucasus.stan) and the Caucasus.1035

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey meets meets EEnver Pasha to discuss the new railway lines that nver Pasha to discuss the new railway lines that were to be constructed for the military. He finds that Enver Pasha is owere to be constructed for the military. He finds that Enver Pasha is op-p-timistic timistic about the outcome of the war. They discuss the Taurusabout the outcome of the war. They discuss the Taurus and antiand anti--Taurus (Taurus (Aladağlar) Aladağlar) reregion. The government decides to budget 20gion. The government decides to budget 200,000 0,000 llirairass for the remaining main line of the railway and the cofor the remaining main line of the railway and the connstruction of struction of narrower lines. However, Cavid Beynarrower lines. However, Cavid Bey asserts that the asserts that the ccost of the railway ost of the railway is much more than the current contract. The phrais much more than the current contract. The phrassining of the cog of the conntrtract is act is ambiguous. Cavid Beyambiguous. Cavid Bey also criticizalso criticizes the government for bes the government for beeing in a rush ing in a rush to complete this project. Enver Pasha suggests that Halil Bey carry out to complete this project. Enver Pasha suggests that Halil Bey carry out the negotiations in the negotiations in oorder to expedite them; however, the cabinet decides rder to expedite them; however, the cabinet decides that Cavid Beythat Cavid Bey shoshould insteaduld instead rereturn to Berlin, because it is hard to ne-turn to Berlin, because it is hard to ne-ggotiate this issue in Istanbul. Another pressing debate at this moment otiate this issue in Istanbul. Another pressing debate at this moment was the debate over opening the straits to Russia. Mr. Wangewas the debate over opening the straits to Russia. Mr. Wangennheim asks heim asks whether the Ottoman government would allow Ruwhether the Ottoman government would allow Russsia to pass frsia to pass from the om the StraStraiitsts to the Mediterranean. Cavid Beyto the Mediterranean. Cavid Bey respondsresponds that they would if only that they would if only Russia, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire could come to a joint agree-Russia, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire could come to a joint agree-ment. He assumes that Germany will conment. He assumes that Germany will concclude an agreement on this is-lude an agreement on this is-sue with Russia instead.sue with Russia instead.1036

After a short bu

After a short but busy stayt busy stay inin Istanbul, Cavid BeyIstanbul, Cavid Bey arrives in Berlin onarrives in Berlin on May 23. He meets Mr. Helfferich to discuss the railway issue, and they May 23. He meets Mr. Helfferich to discuss the railway issue, and they come to an informal agreement. According to their oral agcome to an informal agreement. According to their oral agrreement, the eement, the expense of the mainline belongs to the company; the expensexpense of the mainline belongs to the company; the expenses resultines resultingg ffrom the war belong to the Ottoman governmrom the war belong to the Ottoman governmentent..1037 Cavid BeyCavid Bey begins begins

1035 IItaly entered ttaly entered thehe war on May 23, 1915, owar on May 23, 1915, onn the side of the Allies.the side of the Allies.

1036 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III,7575--8.8.

1037 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuRuznâznâme, III,me, III, 8282

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railway negotiations with Deutsche Ba

railway negotiations with Deutsche Bank. Mr. Gwinner presents their nk. Mr. Gwinner presents their proposal. However, it seems that this plan would taproposal. However, it seems that this plan would takeke time, because the time, because the bank does not know the cbank does not know the cost of the raiost of the raillway line. way line. Cavid BeyCavid Bey considers considers that this business will harm the Ottthat this business will harm the Ottooman government.man government.

The first note in Cavid Bey

The first note in Cavid Bey’s d’s diary related to the deportation of the iary related to the deportation of the Armenians appears on June 14. Zöhrap EfendiArmenians appears on June 14. Zöhrap Efendi's's son wrote to Cavid Beyson wrote to Cavid Bey asking for his helpasking for his help in organizingin organizing his familyhis family’s departure to Europe. He ’s departure to Europe. He mentions that his father and Varteks Efendi were arrested and sent mentions that his father and Varteks Efendi were arrested and sent Konya. ZöhKonya. Zöhrap Efendi’s son also wrote to Halil Bey, who sent a telegram rap Efendi’s son also wrote to Halil Bey, who sent a telegram to Istanbul. Accordito Istanbul. Accordingng to Cavid Beyto Cavid Bey's diary, Halil Bey sent a tel's diary, Halil Bey sent a telegram to egram to TalatTalat Bey concerBey concerning the arrest and exile of two deputies under these ning the arrest and exile of two deputies under these circumstances, which he assessed would destroy thecircumstances, which he assessed would destroy the government's government's honor. Cavid Beyhonor. Cavid Bey notes that although Halil Bey is not content with tnotes that although Halil Bey is not content with thihis s kind of treatment, he has no power (persokind of treatment, he has no power (personally) to channally) to change the situge the situation. ation. Meanwhile, Halil Bey was assigned to the Ministry of Foreign Meanwhile, Halil Bey was assigned to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs be-Affairs be-causecause the Unionists had fthe Unionists had faailed to facilitate international relations. Cavid iled to facilitate international relations. Cavid BeyBey comments that while it was comments that while it was eveviident that Sait Halim Pasha could not dent that Sait Halim Pasha could not conducconduct the country't the country's foreign rs foreign relations, it was also a surprise that Halil elations, it was also a surprise that Halil Bey would become the minister of foreign affairs.Bey would become the minister of foreign affairs.1038

Cavid Be

Cavid Beyy continues his negotiations despite his lack of trust in continues his negotiations despite his lack of trust in German politics. He greeGerman politics. He greetsts their words with caution. Istanbul asks fortheir words with caution. Istanbul asks for more loans tomore loans to conduct exconduct expeditions. In the meantime, Cavid Beypeditions. In the meantime, Cavid Bey conticontin-n-ues the ues the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway negotiations with both Deutsche Bannegotiations with both Deutsche Bankk and and Karl Helfferich, the German Minister of the Treasury. Muhtar Bey also Karl Helfferich, the German Minister of the Treasury. Muhtar Bey also accompaccompananiies Cavid Beyes Cavid Bey. The Germans want to . The Germans want to findfind a na new bank, which ew bank, which would issuewould issue banknotes valued at three times the amount of gold it banknotes valued at three times the amount of gold it would keep. The new bank would be used to issuewould keep. The new bank would be used to issue mmoney. According to oney. According to Cavid BeyCavid Bey, the Germans still consider, the Germans still considereded seizseizinging the Ottoman Bthe Ottoman Banankk. Cavid . Cavid BeyBey adviadvisses Talat Bey es Talat Bey to tellto tell EnverEnver Pasha Pasha to to applyapply for loanfor loanss ddiirectly to rectly to the general staff by himself.the general staff by himself.1039

1038 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III,8484--55

1039 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III, 89. 89.

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Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey receives a letter from Hüseyin Cahit Bey concernireceives a letter from Hüseyin Cahit Bey concerningng Zöhrap Efendi and Varteks Efendi. He mentions the sad state of their Zöhrap Efendi and Varteks Efendi. He mentions the sad state of their wives. He wives. He foforrwards Mrs. Zöhrap’s letter to Cavid Beywards Mrs. Zöhrap’s letter to Cavid Bey askasking him to ming him to me-e-didiate the relate the release of her husband. Cavid Beyease of her husband. Cavid Bey notes in his diary, “But, to notes in his diary, “But, to whom should I say something? If it were juwhom should I say something? If it were justst an investigation, then they an investigation, then they would not take them to Diyarbakır from Istanbul.” Awould not take them to Diyarbakır from Istanbul.” Accccoording to his drding to his diia-a-ry, Cavid Beyry, Cavid Bey writes a lettwrites a letter to Talat Ber to Talat Bey concerningey concerning Zöhrap Efendi and Zöhrap Efendi and Varteks Efendi. He writes to Varteks Efendi. He writes to Talat BeyTalat Bey thatthat though he thinksthough he thinks the Armthe Arme-e-nian question nian question isis over, over, the events that have enfolded the events that have enfolded create an ambigcreate an ambigu-u-ous situation for the futurous situation for the future.e.

Hüseyin Cahit writes to Cavid Bey

Hüseyin Cahit writes to Cavid Bey and inforand informs him about ms him about the gothe gov-v-ernmenernment’s policies. He complains that the government acts without cot’s policies. He complains that the government acts without con-n-sidering the consequences; then, only asidering the consequences; then, only aftfterer,, they try to fix their mithey try to fix their mis-s-takes. For instance, they put a new tax on the insttakes. For instance, they put a new tax on the institituutions helping the tions helping the children of martyrs, whicchildren of martyrs, which is under thh is under the authority oe authority of the OPDA, without f the OPDA, without informing the OPDA. According to Cavid Beyinforming the OPDA. According to Cavid Bey, these hasty actions make , these hasty actions make everything moeverything morere complicated.complicated.1040 Every new policy decision in Istanbul Every new policy decision in Istanbul is made in a rush, without is made in a rush, without ththiinking about the outcomes. Although Cavid nking about the outcomes. Although Cavid BeBeyy is known asis known as the shadow mthe shadow minister, he does not know about inister, he does not know about allall the the gogovvernment’s decisionsernment’s decisions,, according to his diary. according to his diary.

During the

During the loanloan negotiations the German ministry of foreign affairs negotiations the German ministry of foreign affairs announces that they haveannounces that they have sstopptopped loaning out gold, even to Austria. ed loaning out gold, even to Austria. MeanwMeanwhile, Istahile, Istanbul is very anxnbul is very anxious about both the loans and railways. ious about both the loans and railways. The Germans make the loan conditional on establishing a newThe Germans make the loan conditional on establishing a new bankbank. T. Ta-a-lat Bey writes to Cavid Beylat Bey writes to Cavid Bey that the Germans are obsessed with the bank that the Germans are obsessed with the bank iissssue. ue. According to Cavid BeyAccording to Cavid Bey’s diary, Talat Bey r’s diary, Talat Bey responds, “esponds, “While trying While trying to to abolish the Ottoman Bank, it is not proper to establish a Geabolish the Ottoman Bank, it is not proper to establish a Gerrman man Bank. Let us establish a National Bank. Let us establish a National Bank.Bank.” ” Cavid BeyCavid Bey responds to Tresponds to Taalat Bey lat Bey and gives instructions in the letter to Faland gives instructions in the letter to Falkekenhaynhayn from Enver Pasha. He n from Enver Pasha. He writes, “The foundatwrites, “The foundation of theion of the bank will take bank will take time, but the government time, but the government urgently needs at least three million liraurgently needs at least three million lirass. It is not possible to open a . It is not possible to open a

1040 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuRuzznâme, III,nâme, III, 8989--9090

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bank ank before November. If the bank were established as agreed upon, we before November. If the bank were established as agreed upon, we would obtain would obtain adadvancvances from the bank. However, it is not right es from the bank. However, it is not right to link thto link the e bank and advabank and advance issues during the war.”nce issues during the war.”1041 Although the Germans Although the Germans pupush hsh hard for the foundation of the bank, the Oard for the foundation of the bank, the Ottttoman oman govergovernment as-nment as-serts that the bank issue cannot be related to the loan issue. serts that the bank issue cannot be related to the loan issue. Under the Under the conditions of war and while Cavid Beyconditions of war and while Cavid Bey is away from Istanbul, it seis away from Istanbul, it seems ems that that the the EEmmpire’s financial issues are nearly out of control.pire’s financial issues are nearly out of control.1042 At last, At last, two different otwo different offffers ers emerge emerge at the end of the negotiations held at the end of the negotiations held in Istan-in Istan-bubul and Berlin. Cavid Beyl and Berlin. Cavid Bey continues talks with Deutsche Bank. The bank continues talks with Deutsche Bank. The bank issue is also handled in the same meeissue is also handled in the same meetings. Altings. Althouthough the Ottoman gov-gh the Ottoman gov-ernment coernment connsiders purchasing the bank once it has been estabsiders purchasing the bank once it has been establilishedshed, , therethere is no concrete decision on the partis no concrete decision on the part of the Otof the Ottoman government. toman government. Everything proceeds according to Germany’s needs and demands. The Everything proceeds according to Germany’s needs and demands. The Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway compancompany avoids y avoids payipaying the expenses that it will incur ng the expenses that it will incur during the war. Cavid Beyduring the war. Cavid Bey insists that Germinsists that Germanans pas pay at ley at least 4 million lira ast 4 million lira of the company’s of the company’s war expenswar expenses.es.

The war cabinet in Istanbul wants to purchase the Ottoman Bank i

The war cabinet in Istanbul wants to purchase the Ottoman Bank in-n-stead of establishing a new bank. Howstead of establishing a new bank. However, Cavever, Cavid Bid Beyey objects to this objects to this project for many reasons, including the necessity of the shproject for many reasons, including the necessity of the sharareholeholders' ders' aapproval and the operational field ofpproval and the operational field of the Ottomthe Ottoman Bank. He is sure that an Bank. He is sure that if they would take over the bank, there would be no competent men to if they would take over the bank, there would be no competent men to manage the bmanage the bank. Moreank. Moreoverover, the consequences of the war are unknown. , the consequences of the war are unknown. He warns Talat Bey in a letter thatHe warns Talat Bey in a letter that iit mat may be hay be hard to find money after the rd to find money after the war if thwar if they would cey would confiscate or purchase the IOB. However, now, they onfiscate or purchase the IOB. However, now, they can utilize the IOB credits. He argues that the war encocan utilize the IOB credits. He argues that the war encouraged thuraged the goe gov-v-ernment to take extensive economic steps such as opening a bank, ernment to take extensive economic steps such as opening a bank, building raibuilding railwlways ays and porand ports, et cetera. He writes, “If the gots, et cetera. He writes, “If the government hvernment had ad such power and could not notice it until today, then they lack intellsuch power and could not notice it until today, then they lack intelli-i-gence." He warns him that if the gence." He warns him that if the new bank new bank had had issued banknotes in rissued banknotes in re-e-turn for treasury bonds, it would be a disaster for themturn for treasury bonds, it would be a disaster for them, , damadamaging thging the e government’s reputation and disobegovernment’s reputation and disobeying interying international law. At the end of national law. At the end of

1041 Cavid Bey, MeşrutiyeCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet t Ruznâme, IIIRuznâme, III ,,96.96.

1042 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâme, III,uznâme, III, 9898--9.9.

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his letter, Cavid Bey

his letter, Cavid Bey's last sentences are as follows: “I am writing this 's last sentences are as follows: “I am writing this lettletter to youer to you in in virtue of our friendship, which has never hurt against all virtue of our friendship, which has never hurt against all odds… You may rejecodds… You may reject t the the words ywords you dislike. However, if you do not aou dislike. However, if you do not ac-c-cept my wcept my words, you do not have any right to ask for my assistance and ords, you do not have any right to ask for my assistance and service.”service.”1043

Meanwhile, Cavid Bey

Meanwhile, Cavid Bey gathers with gathers with German poGerman politiliticians in Berlin and cians in Berlin and joins their luncheons and meetings. During these meetings,joins their luncheons and meetings. During these meetings, hhe ine informs forms tthem of the Empire’s developments andhem of the Empire’s developments and plans regplans regarding the war. Hoarding the war. How-w-ever, even after his extended stay and negotiations, no agreements had ever, even after his extended stay and negotiations, no agreements had been signed by tbeen signed by the two pahe two partierties. The Germans try to formulate the bilas. The Germans try to formulate the bilat-t-eral issues as a matter of business beral issues as a matter of business betetweenween the Otthe Ottoman and German toman and German parties. Mr. Helffeparties. Mr. Helfferich givesrich gives Cavid BeyCavid Bey two copies each of two drafts of two copies each of two drafts of German contracts on August 7, 1915. The contracts cover the raGerman contracts on August 7, 1915. The contracts cover the railway ilway andand thethe bank issues. Mr. Helfferich also asks for payments on the cobank issues. Mr. Helfferich also asks for payments on the cou-u-pons and transpopons and transportrtatioation. Cavin. Cavid Beyd Bey replies that the Ottoman goverreplies that the Ottoman govern-n-ment ment willwill not make any payment to any railway companies and that the not make any payment to any railway companies and that the Anatolian Railway company should support the gAnatolian Railway company should support the governmentovernment mormore than e than anyone else. He asserts that the only way to pay the public debt is witanyone else. He asserts that the only way to pay the public debt is with h GermGermany's sany's support. Germany gives less than one upport. Germany gives less than one million limillion lira per month ra per month to the Ottoman government. to the Ottoman government.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey was set to travel to Istanbul to finalize these issues.was set to travel to Istanbul to finalize these issues.1044 aar-r-rives in Irives in Isstanbul on August 19, 1915. Although he was in Istanbul only tanbul on August 19, 1915. Although he was in Istanbul only three three momonthsnths ago, he finds Isago, he finds Istanbul in a much more terrtanbul in a much more terrible stateible state finan-finan-cially and psychologcially and psychologiically. According to his observations, everything is cally. According to his observations, everything is dark at night (mainly due to the curdark at night (mainly due to the curttailail of gas usage), and the mood of of gas usage), and the mood of the pethe peoople was not ople was not opptimistic despite the victtimistic despite the victorory iny in Canakkale (GalliCanakkale (Gallipo-po-li). He also notes in hili). He also notes in his diary ths diary that there was a considerable buzz around at there was a considerable buzz around the market. Cavid Beythe market. Cavid Bey is swamped with work throughout his stay in Is-is swamped with work throughout his stay in Is-tatannbul.bul. UpoUpon his arrival, he immediately starts to work on the n his arrival, he immediately starts to work on the Baghdad Baghdad RailwayRailway issue and issue and paparticrticipates in the cabipates in the cabinet meeting to give infor-inet meeting to give infor-mmaation abotion about the contracts. The cabinet is leaning toward approving the ut the contracts. The cabinet is leaning toward approving the

1043 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III, 109.109.

1044 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme,Ruznâme, III,III, 122122--2727..

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railway issue according to the German plan. Cavid Bey

railway issue according to the German plan. Cavid Bey attattends the cabends the cabi-i-net meetings and continues the negotiations. In terms of establisnet meetings and continues the negotiations. In terms of establishihing ang a national bank, hnational bank, he discusses who will be the discusses who will be the bank dire bank director and the board ector and the board of directors. It is decided that the ministry of finance, not the OPDAof directors. It is decided that the ministry of finance, not the OPDA will will control the banknocontrol the banknotetes s that will be put into circulation. Additional cothat will be put into circulation. Additional com-m-mitments to Germany are becommitments to Germany are becomining mog more necessary becaure necessary because of the con-se of the con-cessions demcessions demanded by tanded by the Germans. Mr. Helfferich gave Cavid Beyhe Germans. Mr. Helfferich gave Cavid Bey a a copy of this contractcopy of this contract on theon the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway on the last day, so he doeon the last day, so he does s nonot get a chance to look at these details. But whent get a chance to look at these details. But when hehe checkcheckss the papers, the papers, he nhe nootiticeces ths that Mr. Helfferichat Mr. Helfferich already put an article onalready put an article on the bank the bank issue issue and made it an official topic betweenand made it an official topic between thethe two governments. two governments.

As the

As the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway and the bank issueand the bank issues s becobecome me further intefurther inter-r-twined, another critical qutwined, another critical question at estion at hand was the debt issue. In a telhand was the debt issue. In a tele-e-gram to Hakkı Pasha,gram to Hakkı Pasha, the Ottoman ambassador to Berlin, on August 25, the Ottoman ambassador to Berlin, on August 25, 1915, Cavid 1915, Cavid BeyBey writes that the governmewrites that the government needed two million lira per nt needed two million lira per month to survive. Thismonth to survive. This momoney ney wouwould be used for military needs, the ld be used for military needs, the paymepayment of civint of civil servants' salaries, and the salal servants' salaries, and the salaries of soldiers who have ries of soldiers who have not been paid since the war began. The Ottoman governmenot been paid since the war began. The Ottoman government wnt wanted anted this money as a Gethis money as a German banknote (then Cavid Beyrman banknote (then Cavid Bey would askwould ask to have itto have it as as OtOtttoomaman ln lira). He claims that even if the bank opira). He claims that even if the bank opens, the Eens, the Empire will mpire will not be able to meet allnot be able to meet all its needs and will rely on German financial suits needs and will rely on German financial sup-p-port.port.1045

Meanwhile, the fin

Meanwhile, the financial negancial negotiations with Germany areotiations with Germany are becoming becoming increasingly complex. While Karl Helfferich wants Envincreasingly complex. While Karl Helfferich wants Enver Pasha to witer Pasha to with-h-draw his ddraw his demands, emands, the Germans raise their political concerns about the Germans raise their political concerns about bborrowing. The financial orrowing. The financial nenegotigotiations often change direction. While one ations often change direction. While one cocondition isndition is accepted one day, it mighaccepted one day, it might be rejected the next day. Cavid t be rejected the next day. Cavid BeyBey gives detailed informatigives detailed information about these fluctuationon about these fluctuations.s.1046 As oAs of Octo-f Octo-ber 1915, the three main issues between the ber 1915, the three main issues between the Ottoman Empire and Ger-Ottoman Empire and Ger-mamanyny areare advances, the establishment of the bank, aadvances, the establishment of the bank, and the nd the BagBaghdad hdad RailwayRailway. Although the. Although the advances are paid yearly, they hardly meet the advances are paid yearly, they hardly meet the

1045 CaviCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet d Bey, Meşrutiyet RuzRuznnââmme, IIIe, III, 133, 133--35.35.

1046 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III,137137--49.49.

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needs of the Ot

needs of the Ottoman government. The Germtoman government. The Germans findans find a way to provide a way to provide loans to the Ottoman Empire withloans to the Ottoman Empire without any additional expenout any additional expenseses, ms, mainly ainly through treasury bonds. The German sithrough treasury bonds. The German signature wagnature was enough for most s enough for most loans iloans innstead of supplying money. However, if the bank would open, stead of supplying money. However, if the bank would open, theythey would have to supply onewould have to supply one--third ofthird of the amount in gold to the bank the amount in gold to the bank in return for the in return for the loan. For this reason, tloan. For this reason, thehe GerGermans decide to put the is-mans decide to put the is-sue to rest for a sue to rest for a while. In while. In terms of emissions, Germanterms of emissions, Germany also wants the y also wants the OPDA to control Ottoman finances. OPDA to control Ottoman finances.

Although Ta

Although Talat Bey and Enver Pasha walat Bey and Enver Pasha want the bnt the bank to be estaank to be estab-b-lished, according to Cavid Beylished, according to Cavid Bey, Ger, Germany would stop giving lmany would stop giving loaoans tns to the o the Ottoman Empire. Then, they would needOttoman Empire. Then, they would need to issue to issue paper money through paper money through the bathe bank, which would demolish its prestige and credibility. Cavid Benk, which would demolish its prestige and credibility. Cavid Beyy was also annoyed with Enwas also annoyed with Enver Pashver Pasha, whose motto became “(if there is) a, whose motto became “(if there is) no law, make no law, make a law; (now) there is a a law; (now) there is a lalaw.” w.” This motto applied to all state This motto applied to all state affairs duraffairs during the Gring the Great War period.eat War period.1047

On Novemb

On November 9, 1915, Hakkı Pasha, the German ambassador to Beer 9, 1915, Hakkı Pasha, the German ambassador to Ber-r-lin, had signed the third loan agreement amounting to 8 million liralin, had signed the third loan agreement amounting to 8 million lirass. . The loan came with the condition that the OPDA wThe loan came with the condition that the OPDA wouould ld issue paper issue paper money in exchange for treasury money in exchange for treasury notes. The notes. The Ottoman governmeOttoman governmennt ot ob-b-taintained a very flexible repayment package, as it had for previous ed a very flexible repayment package, as it had for previous loans.loans.1048 Cavid BeyCavid Bey continues to correspond with Hakkı Pasha on the continues to correspond with Hakkı Pasha on the two draft agretwo draft agreeements concerning the railway aments concerning the railway andnd ththe loan issue. Hakkı e loan issue. Hakkı Pasha also signed the aPasha also signed the agreement ongreement on the the Baghdad RaiBaghdad Raillwayway to eto establish stablish two permtwo permaanent lines to Taurus and Amanus on November 11, 1915.nent lines to Taurus and Amanus on November 11, 1915.1049

On November 14, 1915, the Ottoman parliament opened. Cavid Bey

On November 14, 1915, the Ottoman parliament opened. Cavid Bey’s ’s agenda becomes more and more hectiagenda becomes more and more hectic,c, fifirst, because he is still a mem-rst, because he is still a mem-ber of the Buber of the Budget Commisdget Commission; second, ifsion; second, if the the pparlarliament is open, then iament is open, then the political tension naturally rises. The tax and the subsistence issues the political tension naturally rises. The tax and the subsistence issues

1047 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III, 153153--55.55.

1048 Trumpener, Trumpener, GermanGermany ay and the Ond the Ottomanttoman EmpirEmpiree 19141914--1918, 282.1918, 282.

1049 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuRuznâmeznâme,, III, III, 160, Trumpener, 160, Trumpener, GermanGermany andy and the Ottothe Ottomaman Empire n Empire 19141914--19181918, 295. According to Trumpener, the date of the agreement id N, 295. According to Trumpener, the date of the agreement id Noovember 6vember 6, , 1915. 1915.

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are among the key topics Cavid Bey

are among the key topics Cavid Bey deals with during the padeals with during the parrliamentary liamentary sessiosessionsns. W. While Cavid Beyhile Cavid Bey tries to pass laws on ttries to pass laws on these hese critical iscritical issues, İs-sues, İs-mail Hakmail Hakkkı Pasha, quartermaster general, opposes legislation on import ı Pasha, quartermaster general, opposes legislation on import taxes. There is a conflict between the legislative and the etaxes. There is a conflict between the legislative and the exxecutive be-ecutive be-cause of the military. The Urgent Needs Law (cause of the military. The Urgent Needs Law (HavayicHavayic--i Zari Zaruuriyeriye) causes ) causes a blooda blood--andand--guts dguts debate in the parebate in the party, as it never happened. The Union-ty, as it never happened. The Union-ists even break the heart of Talat Bey. However, the deputies could not ists even break the heart of Talat Bey. However, the deputies could not dare criticize the Society of Tradesmen (dare criticize the Society of Tradesmen (Esnaf CemiyetiEsnaf Cemiyeti) in the parlia-) in the parlia-ment.ment. 1050

During the war, social life continues idiosyncraticall

During the war, social life continues idiosyncratically. In the evy. In the eveeninnings gs Cavid BeyCavid Bey usually goes to the club of Cercle d’Orient. He attends or usually goes to the club of Cercle d’Orient. He attends or hostshosts dinners there. It is the meeting point for alldinners there. It is the meeting point for all political and finapolitical and finanncial actorscial actors. . If Talat Bey could not find Cavid BeyIf Talat Bey could not find Cavid Bey during the day, he would go to the during the day, he would go to the club in thclub in the eve eveening to finning to find him there. He also goes to Lebon in Beyoğlu. d him there. He also goes to Lebon in Beyoğlu. Cavid BeyCavid Bey met Mr. Huguenin there. met Mr. Huguenin there. In one such meeIn one such meetting, ing, Mr. Huguenin, a Mr. Huguenin, a little bit drunk, tells him that the Germans, esplittle bit drunk, tells him that the Germans, espeecially Mr. Helfferich, acially Mr. Helfferich, as-s-sume that he is an enemy of Germany and blame hsume that he is an enemy of Germany and blame him for all the wim for all the work ork they could not do.they could not do.1051 As a Francophile, these coAs a Francophile, these commments do not suments do not surrprise prise Cavid BeyCavid Bey at all. at all.

By the end of 1915, the small currency crisis

By the end of 1915, the small currency crisis1052 throughout the Ethroughout the Em-m-pire had grown into an enormous financial crisis. Cavid Beypire had grown into an enormous financial crisis. Cavid Bey argues that argues that the ministrythe ministry of finance had of finance had looked for a remedy only at the last minute. looked for a remedy only at the last minute. He notes in his diary, “For the last months they had never thought to He notes in his diary, “For the last months they had never thought to print a halfprint a half--lira ticket; now they will cut the tickets in two.” The Gelira ticket; now they will cut the tickets in two.” The Ger-r-mans want the German mark to circulate throughout themans want the German mark to circulate throughout the Ottoman maOttoman mar-r-ket.ket. The government seemingly accepts their offer. On the one hand, The government seemingly accepts their offer. On the one hand, Cavid BeyCavid Bey complains that Talat Bey does not consult him, especially on complains that Talat Bey does not consult him, especially on

1050 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznRuznâmeâme, III,, III, 116262--64.64.

1051 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, IIIRuznâme, III,, 16165.5.

1052 The The smallsmall changechange crisis is pervasive icrisis is pervasive in then the Ottoman Ottoman EmEmpirpire for a very long time. e for a very long time. Because of the small change's narrowness, people to exchange Because of the small change's narrowness, people to exchange their money with a their money with a small change in the moneysmall change in the money chchangers. angers. This pThis problemroblem grew grew dduring the Great War period. uring the Great War period. TopToprrakak, Türkiye’, Türkiye’deMildeMillli İktii İktisat, 1908sat, 1908--19181918, 382., 382.

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domestic financial issues. On the other hand, Cavid Bey

domestic financial issues. On the other hand, Cavid Bey’s interve’s interven-n-tionstions——though mostly last minute becausethough mostly last minute because Talat Bey hidesTalat Bey hides significant significant financial issues from Cavid Beyfinancial issues from Cavid Bey——often save the government from foften save the government from fiinan-nan-cial disasters, such as circulating German banknotes in return for the cial disasters, such as circulating German banknotes in return for the German loan.German loan.1053

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey’s diary is essential to understanding the complexities and ’s diary is essential to understanding the complexities and conflicts inside the conflicts inside the CUP. The CUP is like Pandora’s box: only a few peCUP. The CUP is like Pandora’s box: only a few peoople ple knew what knew what waswas going on inside the CUP from the beginning. The Great going on inside the CUP from the beginning. The Great War period is liWar period is like ke an examination for the Unionists to test their oath. In an examination for the Unionists to test their oath. In particular, the corruption issue functions as a litmus testparticular, the corruption issue functions as a litmus test. There had . There had been rumors about the corruption of topbeen rumors about the corruption of top--level Unionists, including level Unionists, including CCeemal Pasha and Enver Pasha, which caused amal Pasha and Enver Pasha, which caused a cabinet crisis cabinet crisis in in 1916. 1916. Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s diary depicts that the crisis had deeply shook the structure ’s diary depicts that the crisis had deeply shook the structure of of the the CUP, which was more fragile tCUP, which was more fragile than assumed. Indeed, if it had not han assumed. Indeed, if it had not been for the war, the government might have fallen. By 1916, even the been for the war, the government might have fallen. By 1916, even the state offices werstate offices were not safe placee not safe places. s. Canbulat resigned as mayor of IstaCanbulat resigned as mayor of Istan-n-bul in protest of thebul in protest of the rampantrampant corruption. He had inadequate ccorruption. He had inadequate caapacity to pacity to fight agfight against the complainainst the complaintts s ofof corruption corruption withinwithin the Society of Tradethe Society of Trades-s-men (men (Esnaf CemiyetiEsnaf Cemiyeti). According to Ahmad, Talat Bey was als). According to Ahmad, Talat Bey was also poweo power-r-less to fless to fighight against Kara Kemal’s corporations.t against Kara Kemal’s corporations.1054 In turn, Talat Bey oIn turn, Talat Bey of-f-fers him the office of the undersecretary of the Ministrfers him the office of the undersecretary of the Ministry of Iy of Innterior terior Affairs, which was known for its corruption. Although Canbulat does not Affairs, which was known for its corruption. Although Canbulat does not want to accept the office due to thewant to accept the office due to the massive wave ofmassive wave of cocorruption, he rruption, he could not rcould not reeject Talat Bey. According to Cavid Beyject Talat Bey. According to Cavid Bey’s diary, Talat Bey ’s diary, Talat Bey promised him that the Society ofpromised him that the Society of Tradesmen or Anatolian ProduTradesmen or Anatolian Producction tion Company (Company (Anadolu Mahsulat ŞirketiAnadolu Mahsulat Şirketi) would no longer be linked with the ) would no longer be linked with the government. Cavidgovernment. Cavid BeyBey notes, howenotes, howeverver, that his words are meaningless, , that his words are meaningless, bbeecause even Talat Bey cannot do whatever he wants to do.cause even Talat Bey cannot do whatever he wants to do.1055

1053 Cavid Bey, MeşrutiCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet yet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III, 166.166.

1054 Ahmad, Ahmad, Jön Türkler Osmanı İmparatorluğu’nu Kurtarma MJön Türkler Osmanı İmparatorluğu’nu Kurtarma Mücadelesi 1914ücadelesi 1914--19181918, 149. , 149.

1055 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuzRuznâme, nâme, III,III,161688--6969

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Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey departed from Istanbul for Vienna on May 27, 1916.departed from Istanbul for Vienna on May 27, 1916.1056 At At tthis time even small issues had become complex. For instance, the Ohis time even small issues had become complex. For instance, the Ot-t-toman govertoman government did not hanment did not have ve enough cash to import fabric. Cavid Beyenough cash to import fabric. Cavid Bey arrives in Berlin on June 8, 1916. Hüseyin Cahit also accompanies him arrives in Berlin on June 8, 1916. Hüseyin Cahit also accompanies him during his visit. Cavid Beyduring his visit. Cavid Bey’s first meeting is wi’s first meeting is with Hakkı Pasha, Mr. Ru-th Hakkı Pasha, Mr. Ru-dolph Pritsch, the German delegate of the OPDA, and Hüsedolph Pritsch, the German delegate of the OPDA, and Hüseyin Cahit Bey. yin Cahit Bey. The top issue on the agenda is the subsequent emission conditions. The top issue on the agenda is the subsequent emission conditions. Cavid BeyCavid Bey visits several German politicians. visits several German politicians. The The Armenian issue is once Armenian issue is once again on his agenda. Theagain on his agenda. There is a strong reaction to the deportations from re is a strong reaction to the deportations from the European public. Cavid Beythe European public. Cavid Bey claims that the Armenian issue is claims that the Armenian issue is overover, , and the German government should convince its deputies not to create and the German government should convince its deputies not to create any more obstacles to negotiations. However, this issuany more obstacles to negotiations. However, this issue is already e is already a part a part of politics, even in allied countries. Cavid Beyof politics, even in allied countries. Cavid Bey notes in his diary, “This notes in his diary, “This incident, which they had carried out blindly, causes trouble even in al-incident, which they had carried out blindly, causes trouble even in al-lied countries.”lied countries.”1057

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey meets Mr. Helfferich on June 17, 1916, and they discuss meets Mr. Helfferich on June 17, 1916, and they discuss the opthe option of intertion of internal borrowing. Postnal borrowing. Post--war scenarios also come to the war scenarios also come to the agenda, and each of the parties complains about their country’s postagenda, and each of the parties complains about their country’s post--war situation. They agree that the emissions policy could not be puwar situation. They agree that the emissions policy could not be pur-r-sued for an extended period as it is a significant burdsued for an extended period as it is a significant burden on the shoen on the shouul-l-ders of the Ottoman Empire. Mr. Helferrich offers to initiate an internal ders of the Ottoman Empire. Mr. Helferrich offers to initiate an internal loan, which Cavid Beyloan, which Cavid Bey approves.approves.1058 He carries out negotiations on the He carries out negotiations on the second emission, which amounts to 6.2 million lira, and the conditions second emission, which amounts to 6.2 million lira, and the conditions for repayment.for repayment.1059 The Germans also coThe Germans also commplainplain about the discretionary about the discretionary funds and İsmail Hakkı Pasha’s polfunds and İsmail Hakkı Pasha’s poliicies. Cavid Beycies. Cavid Bey claims that no one claims that no one can influence İsmail Hakkı Pasha. The policies of the ministry of finance can influence İsmail Hakkı Pasha. The policies of the ministry of finance and and the office of quartermaster gethe office of quartermaster genneral challenged Cavid Beyeral challenged Cavid Bey even in even in

1056 BOA_ MV__00202_00041_001_BOA_ MV__00202_00041_001_0001. Cavid Be01. Cavid Bey wasy was dispatdispatched to Berlin for theched to Berlin for the finafinanncial cial negnegototiations. iations.

1057 CavidCavid Bey, MBey, Meşrutiyet eşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III,194194--95.95.

1058 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III,195.195.

1059 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâmeuznâme, III,, III,203204203204..

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Berlin. After the

Berlin. After the protracted negotiprotracted negotiaations, Talat Bey approves Cavid Beytions, Talat Bey approves Cavid Bey to sign the new emission contract for five years.to sign the new emission contract for five years.1060

Ahmet Rıza comes to Berlin and meets Cavid Bey

Ahmet Rıza comes to Berlin and meets Cavid Bey. They both co. They both com-m-plain tplain that nobody in Istanbul consults them about any policies or hat nobody in Istanbul consults them about any policies or meameassures. Ahmet Rıza askures. Ahmet Rıza asks to meet Theobald vs to meet Theobald von Bethmannon Bethmann--Hollweg, Hollweg, the German Chancellor, but Istanbul hampers this meeting. Ahmet Rıza the German Chancellor, but Istanbul hampers this meeting. Ahmet Rıza cannot get an appointment with the Chancellor.cannot get an appointment with the Chancellor.1061 Ahmet Rıza, a UAhmet Rıza, a Un-n-ioionnist in the CUP since the Hamidian Era, was the only prominent Young ist in the CUP since the Hamidian Era, was the only prominent Young Turk left iTurk left in the CUP. In Istanbul, he was respected for his age, expern the CUP. In Istanbul, he was respected for his age, experi-i-ence, and attitude. During the first phase of the Second Constitutional ence, and attitude. During the first phase of the Second Constitutional period between 1908 and 1913, he was the period between 1908 and 1913, he was the president of the parliament president of the parliament for several terms. After 1913, he became the president for several terms. After 1913, he became the president of the Senate and of the Senate and the number one opponent of the CUP and its wartime policies. He pur-the number one opponent of the CUP and its wartime policies. He pur-sued oppositional policies from the beginning of the war until its end, sued oppositional policies from the beginning of the war until its end, and he also raisand he also raised his critiques with Sultan Mehmet Reşat. The year ed his critiques with Sultan Mehmet Reşat. The year 1916 was especially conflictual1916 was especially conflictual between the CUP and Ahmet Rıza. Alt-between the CUP and Ahmet Rıza. Alt-hough two of the chambers were open during the war years, it was un-hough two of the chambers were open during the war years, it was un-der the control and domination of the single party. Ahmet Rıza was likder the control and domination of the single party. Ahmet Rıza was like e a onea one--person orchestra of opposition. The Committee remained in pow-person orchestra of opposition. The Committee remained in pow-er until the end of the war, and there were few defectors.er until the end of the war, and there were few defectors.1062

The lengthy negotiations with Germany and Austria consume Cavid

The lengthy negotiations with Germany and Austria consume Cavid BeyBey’s summer in 1916. However, the talks do not proceed smoothl’s summer in 1916. However, the talks do not proceed smoothly. Mr. y. Mr. Helfferich often challenges Cavid BeyHelfferich often challenges Cavid Bey. Meanwhile, the course of events . Meanwhile, the course of events was changing. The Germans consider that Russia might make a separate was changing. The Germans consider that Russia might make a separate peace agreement with Germany. Cavid Beypeace agreement with Germany. Cavid Bey believes that the Germans believes that the Germans were shortsighted. Before the peace agreemewere shortsighted. Before the peace agreement, Germany hant, Germany hadd planned planned an adjustment in Poland (Lehistan) and permitted Russian to pass an adjustment in Poland (Lehistan) and permitted Russian to pass

1060 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, IIRuznâme, III,I,212212--14.14.

1061 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Ruznâme, III,III,221.221.

1062 Tunaya, Tunaya, Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, İttihat ve Terakki, Bir Çağın, BirBir KKuşağınuşağın, Bir , Bir PartinPartinin Tarin Tariih, 3h, 3, 606, 606--610, 615. See also: S610, 615. See also: Söönmez, E. 201nmez, E. 2012. Ah2. Ahmmed Rızed Rıza Bir Jön Türk a Bir Jön Türk LiderinLiderinin Siyasiin Siyasi--EnteEntelelektüel Portresi. Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı ktüel Portresi. Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı YYayınları. ayınları.

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through the Straits. The Germans hope

through the Straits. The Germans hopedd to defeat Britain and France to defeat Britain and France aaffter they made peace with Russia. ter they made peace with Russia.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey completes completes the the negotiations in Berlin, agreeing negotiations in Berlin, agreeing that tthat the he Empire willEmpire will emit five million emit five million llirasiras on August 12, 1916. On August 13, on August 12, 1916. On August 13, Cavid BeyCavid Bey departs for Vdeparts for Viienna. Cavid Beyenna. Cavid Bey goes to Vienna goes to Vienna to negotiateto negotiate some offers osome offers onn fabrics, mainly fabrics, mainly for for broabroaddcloth and military equipment. cloth and military equipment. He also negotiates loans, particHe also negotiates loans, particuularly with Clarly with Crredit Anstalt. edit Anstalt. On September On September 17, 1916, Ismail Canbulat stops by Vienna to meet Cavid Bey17, 1916, Ismail Canbulat stops by Vienna to meet Cavid Bey while on while on his way to Berlin. They talk about the developments in Istanbul, incluhis way to Berlin. They talk about the developments in Istanbul, includ-d-ing the general ading the general admministration. Canbulat complains about the corruinistration. Canbulat complains about the corrup-p-tion of the administrtion of the administration, the illegitimacy of the government’s inteation, the illegitimacy of the government’s inter-r-ventions, and Enver Pasha’s stventions, and Enver Pasha’s stuupidity. They agree that only Talat Bey pidity. They agree that only Talat Bey should be saved from this situation. They discuss the conspiracy sushould be saved from this situation. They discuss the conspiracy sur-r-rounding Yakup Cemil. In turn for attempting to form a peace organizrounding Yakup Cemil. In turn for attempting to form a peace organiza-a-tion, he received the death petion, he received the death pennalty.alty.1063 Cavid BeyCavid Bey notes in his diary that notes in his diary that “for the first time, one of us will be executed for his a“for the first time, one of us will be executed for his acctions in favor of tions in favor of the CUP.” Hethe CUP.” He isis referreferringring to the splitto the split in the CUP. in the CUP. At that moment At that moment Cavid Cavid BeyBey’s impression of İsmail Ca’s impression of İsmail Cannbulat,bulat, who will be executed alongside who will be executed alongside him in 1926, is very positive. According to his diary, he has become a him in 1926, is very positive. According to his diary, he has become a competent administrator competent administrator because ofbecause of Talat Bey’s work. In the eyes of Talat Bey’s work. In the eyes of Cavid BeyCavid Bey, Canbulat would be the minist, Canbulat would be the minister oer of interior affairs in the ff interior affairs in the fu-u-

1063 Yakup Cemil was one of the oldest Unionists from Yakup Cemil was one of the oldest Unionists from the military cadres. He was alsthe military cadres. He was also ao a sselfelf--sasacrificcrificing voing volunteelunteerr involved in the coup d’état ofinvolved in the coup d’état of 1913. During1913. During the the cchaos ohaos of the f the incident,incident, he killhe killed Nazım Pashaed Nazım Pasha, , the minister of war. He was one of ththe minister of war. He was one of thee Unionists who Unionists who intervened in politics more than in the militarintervened in politics more than in the military. Although he had resigned fromy. Although he had resigned from ththee militmilitary, heary, he wantwanted to red to riise in the army during the Grease in the army during the Great t War. His criWar. His critics tics tturned urned to Eto En-n-ver Pasha. He orgver Pasha. He organized an atteanized an attempmpted putsch against the government on ted putsch against the government on JJuly 26, 1916. uly 26, 1916. His efforts became apparent and could not be covHis efforts became apparent and could not be covered up. His main critered up. His main critiicism was cism was of of EEnver Pnver Pasha. Tasha. This ihis incidentncident was also indicative of a diviswas also indicative of a divisioion within then within the CUP CUP aas he ws he was as not alone in planninot alone in planning a coup. Sapng a coup. Sapanancalı Hakkı Bey and Yenibahçeli Nail Bcalı Hakkı Bey and Yenibahçeli Nail Beey were his y were his friends. Yakup Cemil was at last arrested and excutfriends. Yakup Cemil was at last arrested and excuted by the military court. This ied by the military court. This inci-nci-ddent alent also reveso revealed aled the comthe comppeetition between Talat Bey and tition between Talat Bey and EnEnver Pasha wiver Pasha within thin tthe CUPhe CUP. . Vardar, G. 1960. Vardar, G. 1960. İttİttihad ve Terakkihad ve Terakki i İçinde Dönenlerİçinde Dönenler, Istanbul: İnkılap K, Istanbul: İnkılap Kiittabevi, p:307abevi, p:307--382, Akşin, S. 1980. 382, Akşin, S. 1980. Jön Türkler ve İttihat ve TeJön Türkler ve İttihat ve Terakki.rakki. Ankara: Gerçek Yayınevi, Ankara: Gerçek Yayınevi, p: p: 229595--297297. See a. See also: lso: Ertürk,Ertürk, H. 1957. H. 1957. 2 Devrin Perde Arkası2 Devrin Perde Arkası, , Istanbul: HiIstanbul: Hilmi Klmi Kiitabevitabevi. .

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ture; he only

ture; he only mustmust gain prestige. Cavid Beygain prestige. Cavid Bey corresponds with İsmail corresponds with İsmail Hakkı Pasha about the Empire’s fabric order. Cavid BeyHakkı Pasha about the Empire’s fabric order. Cavid Bey cacannnot work not work with İsmail Hakkı Pasha without problems.with İsmail Hakkı Pasha without problems. He complains thatHe complains that İsmail İsmail Hakkı Pasha’s methodHakkı Pasha’s methodology ology is not systematic. His ois not systematic. His orrders or promises ders or promises mighmight change day by day. t change day by day. 1064 CaCavid Beyvid Bey works on the foundation of the works on the foundation of the new bank while in Vienna. Talat Bey is working on this issue in Istanbul new bank while in Vienna. Talat Bey is working on this issue in Istanbul and sends the documents to Cavid Beyand sends the documents to Cavid Bey to review in Vienna. to review in Vienna. In October In October 1916, Cavid Bey1916, Cavid Bey takes a onetakes a one--month break from his dmonth break from his diaries. He gives no iaries. He gives no hint hint as to why he did not write. He notes earlier in his diary that he as to why he did not write. He notes earlier in his diary that he would go to Istawould go to Istannbul at the end of bul at the end of OctobeOctober; however, there is no mention r; however, there is no mention of the details of this visit in his diary. This visit may be related to some-of the details of this visit in his diary. This visit may be related to some-thing personal, thing personal, bbeecause he usually notes cause he usually notes everything related to finances everything related to finances and politics in his diary except his visit to the Eastern provinces inand politics in his diary except his visit to the Eastern provinces in 1911.1911.1065

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey receives a letter from Hüseyin Cahit Bey concerning the receives a letter from Hüseyin Cahit Bey concerning the Germans demands in return for loans. The Germans ask forGermans demands in return for loans. The Germans ask for capitulcapitula-a-tions in the postions in the postt--war period. The Central Committee decides that they war period. The Central Committee decides that they would not change their demands toward Germany,would not change their demands toward Germany, becaubecause they had se they had already committed to assisting Turkey. Cavid Beyalready committed to assisting Turkey. Cavid Bey notices that evernotices that every-y-body in the Central Committee understands thebody in the Central Committee understands the issue completely diffeissue completely differ-r-eently. Cavid Beyntly. Cavid Bey is pessimistic about Halil Bey’s performance as miniis pessimistic about Halil Bey’s performance as minisster ter of foreign affairs.of foreign affairs.1066 Cavid BCavid Beyey recreceives a letter from the ministry of feives a letter from the ministry of fi-i-nance. In this letter, nance. In this letter, the the ministry writes that Enver Pasha has decided ministry writes that Enver Pasha has decided not to use golnot to use gold as an exchange tool as d as an exchange tool as a form of currency and wants a form of currency and wants people to change their gold with paper money. He was preparing draft people to change their gold with paper money. He was preparing draft leglegislatiislation on this. His decision was made after his experience in Beon on this. His decision was made after his experience in Ben-n-ghazi. The undersecretary of the ministry of finance asks for Cghazi. The undersecretary of the ministry of finance asks for Cavid Beyavid Bey’s ’s aaddvice. His covice. His comment on this issue is that “The country has become a toy mment on this issue is that “The country has become a toy in the hands of incompetent and disloyal mein the hands of incompetent and disloyal men.”n.”1067

1064 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuRuznznâme, III,âme, III, 255.255.

1065 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III,253253

1066 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III,273.273.

1067 CavidCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznRuznâme, âme, III,III,275275..

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Cavid Beyavid Bey stays in Vienna for a long time on the orders of the Ottstays in Vienna for a long time on the orders of the Otto-o-man government in accordance with Austrian banks and firmsman government in accordance with Austrian banks and firms such such as as Credit Anstalt aCredit Anstalt and Skoda. nd Skoda. AAfter an extended stay in Vienna, Cavid Beyfter an extended stay in Vienna, Cavid Bey departs for Berlin to participate in the loan talks in December 1916. The departs for Berlin to participate in the loan talks in December 1916. The first issue he encounters is the status of German institutions within the first issue he encounters is the status of German institutions within the Ottoman Empire. Cavid BeyOttoman Empire. Cavid Bey's f's first visit to irst visit to thethe German German cabcabinet is with inet is with Arthur Zimmerman, the minister of foreign affairs. Regarding the situArthur Zimmerman, the minister of foreign affairs. Regarding the situa-a-tion of German institutions in the Ottoman Empire, the Germans want tion of German institutions in the Ottoman Empire, the Germans want to keep the most favored nation clause in the terms of the agreto keep the most favored nation clause in the terms of the agreeements ments betweenbetween German institutions and German institutions and thethe Empire. Regarding the Empire. Regarding the Baghdad Baghdad RailwayRailway company, Cavid Beycompany, Cavid Bey prefers to delay any agreement with the prefers to delay any agreement with the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway until after the war. However, Mr. Zimmeuntil after the war. However, Mr. Zimmerrmann favors mann favors solving this complicated issue during the war. Mr. Zisolving this complicated issue during the war. Mr. Zimmmermann mermann cocom-m-plains that the Ottomaplains that the Ottoman mn military chief defers all questions to the Geilitary chief defers all questions to the Ger-r-man military chief. Cavid Beyman military chief. Cavid Bey comments that Zimmermann is right to be comments that Zimmermann is right to be concerned becauseconcerned because the Unionists assume that the German military cothe Unionists assume that the German military con-n-trols all military decisions over the Ottoman trols all military decisions over the Ottoman Empire. In terms of the Empire. In terms of the OOPDPDAA, Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey asserts that Istanbul does not want to work with Mr. asserts that Istanbul does not want to work with Mr. Pritsch, the German delegate to the OPDA in Istanbul. He and Talat Bey Pritsch, the German delegate to the OPDA in Istanbul. He and Talat Bey do not communicate with each other. Throughout the course of the war, do not communicate with each other. Throughout the course of the war, Zimmermann has changedZimmermann has changed his mind on agreeing to his mind on agreeing to a a sseparate peace eparate peace with Russia. Finally, they discuss the Empire’s fiscal iwith Russia. Finally, they discuss the Empire’s fiscal isssues. Cavid Beysues. Cavid Bey emphasizes the increasing need for Ottoman finances, at least seven emphasizes the increasing need for Ottoman finances, at least seven million lira per month. Zimmermann responds that they might agree on million lira per month. Zimmermann responds that they might agree on thisthis..

On December 6

On December 6, 1916, 1916, Ca, Cavidvid BeyBey begins financial talks with the begins financial talks with the GeGerrmans. The financial talks cover the main financial issues between mans. The financial talks cover the main financial issues between GeGerrmany and the Ottoman Empire at the end of 1916, from the clause many and the Ottoman Empire at the end of 1916, from the clause on the banknotes to increasing expenses to the new loanon the banknotes to increasing expenses to the new loans. The Germans s. The Germans propose thpropose that at the Ottoman Empire should start repaying their loans ten the Ottoman Empire should start repaying their loans ten years later with bank notes with 5% interest. Cavid Beyyears later with bank notes with 5% interest. Cavid Bey objects to these objects to these conditions, because this would mean that the Empire would pay two conditions, because this would mean that the Empire would pay two million million lliras in interest annualiras in interest annually. ly.

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Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey receives areceives a dedetailed letter from Hüseyin Cahit Bey, which tailed letter from Hüseyin Cahit Bey, which focuses on the foundation of the bank and political upheaval in Istanbul. focuses on the foundation of the bank and political upheaval in Istanbul. As outlined in the letter, wAs outlined in the letter, work on the bank's foundation accelerated at ork on the bank's foundation accelerated at the end of December 1916. Talat Bey anthe end of December 1916. Talat Bey and Hüseyin Cahit Bey, who d Hüseyin Cahit Bey, who is is also also one of the bank's founders, had drawn up the framework for the bank. one of the bank's founders, had drawn up the framework for the bank. Hüseyin Cahit Bey Hüseyin Cahit Bey givesgives Cavid BeyCavid Bey the details of thethe details of the bank’sbank’s foundation. foundation. Cavid BeyCavid Bey notes in his diary that he notes in his diary that he cannot understand why some men cannot understand why some men are on the banare on the bank's board, such as Abut Ek's board, such as Abut Efenfendi, Şeref Bey, and Tevfik Bey. di, Şeref Bey, and Tevfik Bey.

Hüseyin Cahit Bey’s letter also reveals the relationship between the

Hüseyin Cahit Bey’s letter also reveals the relationship between the government and the General Assembly (government and the General Assembly (MeclisMeclis--i Umûmîi Umûmî). According to ). According to the letter, the government does not want to discuss secret agreements the letter, the government does not want to discuss secret agreements with with the the Germans iGermans in the parliamentn the parliament,, and theyand they wanted towanted to avoid the oavoid the op-p-position position toto the CUP in the the CUP in the cchamber. The secret agreements also ihamber. The secret agreements also innvolvevolvedd the capitulations issuethe capitulations issue. . Hüseyin Cahit Bey Hüseyin Cahit Bey writes that he writes that he hahadd told Halil told Halil Bey and Talat Bey that their work endangerBey and Talat Bey that their work endangereded others’ lives, anothers’ lives, and for this d for this rereaason, if they still agreeson, if they still agreedd on working closely, they should not hide any-on working closely, they should not hide any-thing from the others. Hüseyin Cahit Bey suthing from the others. Hüseyin Cahit Bey sugggests deferring some issues gests deferring some issues to the cabinetto the cabinet——at least debating them among some of the top cabinet at least debating them among some of the top cabinet members. Talat Bey asks, “Who thmembers. Talat Bey asks, “Who then would decide on the government’s en would decide on the government’s iisssues?”sues?”

Finally, they agree that the assembly would decide on whether or

Finally, they agree that the assembly would decide on whether or not the draft agreements would be voted on in the parliament. Accornot the draft agreements would be voted on in the parliament. Accord-d-ing to Hüseyin Cahit Bey, Enver Pasha showed a certain ing to Hüseyin Cahit Bey, Enver Pasha showed a certain liablenessliableness dudur-r-ing thising this discussion. Later on, Hüseyin Cahit Bey tells them that he wants discussion. Later on, Hüseyin Cahit Bey tells them that he wants to see all of the agreements, letters, and secret articles regarding Ottto see all of the agreements, letters, and secret articles regarding Otto-o-manman--German relations in order to better understand the nature of relGerman relations in order to better understand the nature of rela-a-tions. However, Hüseyin Cahit Bey was not satisftions. However, Hüseyin Cahit Bey was not satisfiied with the infor-ed with the infor-mmaation he received from the government. He tells Cavid Beytion he received from the government. He tells Cavid Bey that he is that he is skeptical about how beneficial the parliament is for the countryskeptical about how beneficial the parliament is for the country——although he will eventually participate in the parliament with Cavid Beyalthough he will eventually participate in the parliament with Cavid Bey. .

After reading this letter, C

After reading this letter, Caavid Beyvid Bey notes, “What they (the governotes, “What they (the govern-n-ment) have done about the capitulations is so stupid that they cannot ment) have done about the capitulations is so stupid that they cannot dare to show it.” As far as I understand from Cavid Beydare to show it.” As far as I understand from Cavid Bey’s diaries, the U’s diaries, the Un-n-ionists had promised the Germans capitulations in the postionists had promised the Germans capitulations in the post--war period. war period.

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Cavi

Cavidd BeyBey’s detailed notes imply that the Unionist government had abo’s detailed notes imply that the Unionist government had abol-l-ished the capitulations in order to supply Germany with money to con-ished the capitulations in order to supply Germany with money to con-tinue the war.tinue the war.1068 Cavid BeyCavid Bey cannot understand the whole picture cannot understand the whole picture around why the Ottoman government wants to continue to pursuaround why the Ottoman government wants to continue to pursuee relrela-a-tions and negotiations with Germany. However, on the issue of the insttions and negotiations with Germany. However, on the issue of the insti-i-tutions (tutions (müessesatmüessesat) and the abolishment of the capitu) and the abolishment of the capitulations, Cavid Beylations, Cavid Bey notes in his diary on December 10, 1916, that he had asked Hakkı Pasha notes in his diary on December 10, 1916, that he had asked Hakkı Pasha about the situation of the capitulatabout the situation of the capitulations. According to Hakkı Pasha, Iions. According to Hakkı Pasha, Is-s-tanbul changed some of the words in the contract. Cavid tanbul changed some of the words in the contract. Cavid BeyBey questionsquestions in his din his diiaryary,, “a word can “a word can chanchange the whole mge the whole meaning… What is the formu-eaning… What is the formu-la of Istanbul?”la of Istanbul?”1069

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey continues his negotiations on the conditions for repacontinues his negotiations on the conditions for repay-y-ment to the OPDA in return for the loans and new construction on the ment to the OPDA in return for the loans and new construction on the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey draws a red line for the draws a red line for the Baghdad RaBaghdad Railwailway, y, claiming thclaiming thatat Germany cannot directly intervene in the project. Germany cannot directly intervene in the project. He He claims that tclaims that this subject should be evaluated from a political perspective, his subject should be evaluated from a political perspective, not from a finanot from a finanncial one. Cavid Beycial one. Cavid Bey is against is against Germany’sGermany’s penetration penetration in-in-to theto the Empire,Empire, whichwhich he foreseeshe foresees migmight oht occur after theccur after the war. war. In one senIn one sensse, e, he evaluates that the evaluates that the relhe relaations between the two countries in the Great tions between the two countries in the Great War might lead to this. On the other hand, Cavid War might lead to this. On the other hand, Cavid BBeyey is notis not oneone hundred hundred percent sure about the conspercent sure about the conseequencequencess of the war. of the war.

In Istanbul, the political

In Istanbul, the political conflict grows asconflict grows as the parliament is in sethe parliament is in ses-s-sion. Hüseyin Cahit Bey and Talat Bey continue to dispute the German sion. Hüseyin Cahit Bey and Talat Bey continue to dispute the German agreements. Meanwhile, tagreements. Meanwhile, the prhe press, namely the newspaper ess, namely the newspaper The CrescentThe Crescent ((HilâlHilâl), publishes negative news on the national bank and increases the ), publishes negative news on the national bank and increases the tenstensionionss within publicwithin public opinion.opinion.1070

By the end of December 1916, the finan

By the end of December 1916, the financial cial negotiations with Ger-negotiations with Ger-many have stalled. Cavid Beymany have stalled. Cavid Bey sends a telegram to Talat Bey asking sends a telegram to Talat Bey asking whether they would get by with the money in the treasury and suggestwhether they would get by with the money in the treasury and suggestss that if not, they should sethat if not, they should sell the mark. Cemalll the mark. Cemal Pasha is simultaneously try-Pasha is simultaneously try-

1068 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, VoRuznâme, Vol IIIl III,, 293293--994.4.

1069 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuzuznâme, Vol III,nâme, Vol III, 297.297.

1070 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol III,Ruznâme, Vol III, 300300--5.5.

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ing to n

ing to neegotiate an ogotiate an order rder forfor military equipment from Germany, which military equipment from Germany, which he is trhe is tryying to negotiate to be paid for after the war.ing to negotiate to be paid for after the war.1071 Cavid BeyCavid Bey con-con-tinues to complain about Getinues to complain about Gerrmany’s suspicionmany’s suspicionss toward him. Now, in ad-toward him. Now, in ad-ditdition to being labelion to being labeled as a Francophile, he is accused of supporting ed as a Francophile, he is accused of supporting AustrAustria. ia.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey arrives in Istanbul during the Christmas holiday in the last arrives in Istanbul during the Christmas holiday in the last week of December. He first meets with Talat Bey. They believe that the week of December. He first meets with Talat Bey. They believe that the end of the war is closeend of the war is close——although, of although, of course, it will cocourse, it will continue for antinue for allmost most two more years. They discuss thtwo more years. They discuss the cure current financial situation, the rent financial situation, the Bagh-Bagh-dad Railwaydad Railway, the members of the OPDA, the orders of the ministry of , the members of the OPDA, the orders of the ministry of war and the navy, the bank issue, tobacco prices and the future of the war and the navy, the bank issue, tobacco prices and the future of the Regié, loanRegié, loans from Vienna and s from Vienna and the Skoda agreement, political and legal the Skoda agreement, political and legal negotiatnegotiations ions with the Germans, the possibility of peace negotiations, with the Germans, the possibility of peace negotiations, and the cabinet reshuffle. Though Talat Bey tells him that Halil Bey is an and the cabinet reshuffle. Though Talat Bey tells him that Halil Bey is an incompetent minister of foreign affairs in terms of incompetent minister of foreign affairs in terms of conducting domesticonducting domestic c politics, he requests that Cavid Beypolitics, he requests that Cavid Bey be nice tobe nice to him.him. Cavid BeyCavid Bey confesses confesses that he cannot bear his failures. When he tells Talat Bey that he was the that he cannot bear his failures. When he tells Talat Bey that he was the one who is responsible one who is responsible forfor Halil Bey’s appointment as the minister of Halil Bey’s appointment as the minister of foreign minister, hforeign minister, he responds only bye responds only by smiling. Talat Bey states that there smiling. Talat Bey states that there is no conseis no consensus nsus in the government, and in the government, and allall the ministers, who are all the ministers, who are all strong men, intervene in each other’s business. He complains that be-strong men, intervene in each other’s business. He complains that be-cause of the war, they cause of the war, they mustmust deal and work with Enver Pasha. Hedeal and work with Enver Pasha. He con-con-fides in Cavidfides in Cavid BeyBey that there is an urgent need to reshuffle tthat there is an urgent need to reshuffle thhe cabe cabinet. inet. Enver Pasha had asked Talat Bey to be the Enver Pasha had asked Talat Bey to be the ggrand rand vvizier. Cavid Beyizier. Cavid Bey sug-sug-gests that Canbulat should be the minister of interior affairs. He does gests that Canbulat should be the minister of interior affairs. He does not say anything about the minister onot say anything about the minister of finance. Althougf finance. Although Talat Bey un-h Talat Bey un-derlines that this issue is a secrderlines that this issue is a secreet, itt, it shows that the top cadre of the CUP shows that the top cadre of the CUP has started to design a new cabinet.has started to design a new cabinet.1072

The

The CUP’s CUP’s circular related to the foundation of a national bank had circular related to the foundation of a national bank had been been welcomed welcomed withwith enthusiasmenthusiasm byby the Ottothe Ottoman man people. The prpeople. The promomi-i-nent Unionent Unionnists ists such such as Cavid Beyas Cavid Bey, Hüseyin Cah, Hüseyin Cahiitt BeyBey,, and Tekin Alp had and Tekin Alp had

1071 CaviCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet d Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol III,Ruznâme, Vol III, 310310--11.11.

1072 Cavid Bey, MeşrutiyetCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol III,Ruznâme, Vol III, 313313--18.18.

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given speeches or wrote articles in magazines and papers

given speeches or wrote articles in magazines and papers, i, inncluding in cluding in The EconomicsThe Economics ((İktisadiyyatİktisadiyyat MecmuasıMecmuası) periodical. Cavid Bey) periodical. Cavid Bey pointed pointed out out the bank’sthe bank’s necessity for economic development.necessity for economic development.1073 The NThe Naational tional Credit Bank (NCB) was established by the decree (Credit Bank (NCB) was established by the decree (iradeirade--i seniyyei seniyye) of Sul-) of Sul-tan Mehmet Reşat dated January 1, 1917, with a capital amount of 4tan Mehmet Reşat dated January 1, 1917, with a capital amount of 4 mil-mil-lion Ottoman lira. It was established as an Ottoman jointlion Ottoman lira. It was established as an Ottoman joint--stock costock commpany. pany. AAcccording to the memorandum of association, the founders of the NCB cording to the memorandum of association, the founders of the NCB were Cavid Beywere Cavid Bey, deputy for Biga; Cahit Bey, deputy for Istanbul; and , deputy for Biga; Cahit Bey, deputy for Istanbul; and Tevfik Bey, Tevfik Bey, a a memerrchant.chant.1074 The Ottoman pressThe Ottoman press published several ideas published several ideas concerning the role and significance of the bank. During the preparation concerning the role and significance of the bank. During the preparation of the bank, of the bank, TaninTanin daily launched a campaign to collect money for the daily launched a campaign to collect money for the bank. Ziya Gökalp also published a circular in support of the bank. bank. Ziya Gökalp also published a circular in support of the bank. Meanwhile, Tekin AlpMeanwhile, Tekin Alp advocated for the bank, arguing that it was an op-advocated for the bank, arguing that it was an op-portunity to raise the nation’s capital. The national bank would bportunity to raise the nation’s capital. The national bank would beecome come a vital actor in determining the state’s economic policies and, moreover, a vital actor in determining the state’s economic policies and, moreover, work in the interests of both the individual and the countrywork in the interests of both the individual and the country. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey also underlined that a national bank was a necessity for ecalso underlined that a national bank was a necessity for ecoonomic de-nomic de-velopment. Ottoman citizens would purchase bank shares and thereby velopment. Ottoman citizens would purchase bank shares and thereby contribute to the industrialization of Turkey, invest in a reliable institu-contribute to the industrialization of Turkey, invest in a reliable institu-tion, and free the country from fotion, and free the country from foreign custody. The bank's 400,000 reign custody. The bank's 400,000 shares, ten liras each, were registered at the beginning of 1917. Alt-shares, ten liras each, were registered at the beginning of 1917. Alt-hough the CUP worked hard to push people to purchase shares, there hough the CUP worked hard to push people to purchase shares, there were still 147,000 shares were still 147,000 shares that remainedthat remained unsold. However, Cavid Beyunsold. However, Cavid Bey did did not delay in finot delay in finding a solution to save the bank's reputnding a solution to save the bank's reputaation. As a result tion. As a result of the intensive efforts of Cavid Beyof the intensive efforts of Cavid Bey in the in the pparliament, a special law was arliament, a special law was issued issued iin February whn February whiich gave authority to the minich gave authority to the minisstry of financetry of finance to to purchase thepurchase thesese unsold shares under certain condunsold shares under certain condiitiotions. ns. ThroughThrough this this regulation, the problem was solved. The National Credit Bank was con-regulation, the problem was solved. The National Credit Bank was con-verted into a state bank on February 21, 1917. The goverted into a state bank on February 21, 1917. The govvernment granted ernment granted the bank several privilegesthe bank several privileges,, such as exemptionsuch as exemptionss from taxes and fees for from taxes and fees for

1073 ToToprak prak İttihadİttihad--TeraTerakkki ve ki ve Cihan Cihan Harbi SavaşHarbi Savaş EkoEkonomi ve Türkiynomi ve Türkiye’e’dde Devletçilike Devletçilik, 61, 61--62. 62.

1074 BOA_A.} DVN.MBOA_A.} DVN.MKL.00068.00001.0001, BOA_A.} DVN.MKL.00068.00001.0002. KL.00068.00001.0001, BOA_A.} DVN.MKL.00068.00001.0002. BOA_I__DUIT_00112_000017_001_001BOA_I__DUIT_00112_000017_001_001

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its real estate

its real estate, exemptions f, exemptions foror the incomes it would redistributethe incomes it would redistribute,, or or tax tax exemptionsexemptions onon imported products neceimported products necesssary for its foundationsary for its foundation, such as, such as postage. The bank was offpostage. The bank was offiicially opened on March 11, 1917. It was cially opened on March 11, 1917. It was closed to all foreign capital and open to all Oclosed to all foreign capital and open to all Otttoman citizens. For the toman citizens. For the firfirst time in Ottst time in Ottooman history, a bank had all its shares man history, a bank had all its shares in the Empirein the Empire. . Bank transactions were made in Bank transactions were made in the the OttomanOttoman lalannguageguage. As the bank had . As the bank had agreed to employ a foreign expert, Auagreed to employ a foreign expert, Ausstrian banker Mr. Weil, who had trian banker Mr. Weil, who had established several banks in Belgium, was broughtestablished several banks in Belgium, was brought in. Although the Na-in. Although the Na-tional Credit Bank was a national bank, it was not a cetional Credit Bank was a national bank, it was not a cenntral bank. tral bank. WWhen hen the privileges of the Ottoman Bank ended in 1925, the Othe privileges of the Ottoman Bank ended in 1925, the Otttoman gov-toman gov-ernment had planned to replace it with the NCB. There was a difference ernment had planned to replace it with the NCB. There was a difference between these two banks. Thebetween these two banks. The main point was not to vimain point was not to vioolate the legal late the legal status of the IOB until 1925.status of the IOB until 1925.1075 The The NCB plannNCB planneded to engage in public to engage in public works such as raiworks such as raillways, roads, passages, canals, ports, swamps, land iways, roads, passages, canals, ports, swamps, land ir-r-rigation, and all kinds of bank operations. It would join or otherwise rigation, and all kinds of bank operations. It would join or otherwise supporsupport the capital of nt the capital of naational companies aimed at developing agricul-tional companies aimed at developing agricul-ture, trade, and iture, trade, and inndustry. Cavid Beydustry. Cavid Bey statestatedd during the budget talks in during the budget talks in parliament, “I hope that in six years, this bank will be able to parliament, “I hope that in six years, this bank will be able to fully fully be-be-come a state bank, a national bank.”come a state bank, a national bank.”1076 As noted inAs noted in his diary, his diary, Cavid BeyCavid Bey participated in the first board meeting as the presparticipated in the first board meeting as the presiident of the bankdent of the bank1077 on January 5, 1917. In the first meeting, the meon January 5, 1917. In the first meeting, the memmbers discussed sub-bers discussed sub-scription, the bank's structure, the goverscription, the bank's structure, the governnment’s share in the bank, and ment’s share in the bank, and the participation of thethe participation of the Ottoman IncorpOttoman Incorpoorated Companies.rated Companies.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey returns to Berlin and starts working on January 9, returns to Berlin and starts working on January 9, 1917.1917.1078 In Berlin, Cavid BeyIn Berlin, Cavid Bey carries out the negotiations with both carries out the negotiations with both the the Germans and the Austrians. The Germans are annoyed with the ongoing Germans and the Austrians. The Germans are annoyed with the ongoing

1075 TrumpeneTrumpener,r, GeGermanyrmany anand thd the Ottomae Ottomann Empire 1914Empire 1914--1918,1918, 282. 282.

1076 TopToprarak, Türkiye’dk, Türkiye’de Mile Millli İktii İktisat (1908sat (1908--1918) 2571918) 257--26266, Toprak, 6, Toprak, İttİttihihadad--Terakki ve Cihan Terakki ve Cihan Harbi SavaşHarbi Savaş EkonomEkonomi ve Türkiye’de Devletçiliki ve Türkiye’de Devletçilik 6262--65. 65.

1077 BOA_ I__DUIT_00112_000015_001_001 According to the GranBOA_ I__DUIT_00112_000015_001_001 According to the Grand Vd Vizizier’sier’s officiofficial noal note to te to tthhe e ministry of finance, Cavid Beministry of finance, Cavid Beyy was appointwas appointed ased as the prthe president of the Nationaesident of the National Cred-l Cred-it Bank.it Bank. SSeee also: BEO_004449_333642_001_001. e also: BEO_004449_333642_001_001. BOABOA_DH_SFR__00072_00064_001_001_DH_SFR__00072_00064_001_001

1078 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol IIIRuznâme, Vol III, 321., 321.

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negoti

negotiaations between Autions between Austria and the Ottoman Empire. Accorstria and the Ottoman Empire. According to Mr. ding to Mr. WaWasssermann, who carriesermann, who carriedd out the talks with Cavid Beyout the talks with Cavid Bey on behalf of the on behalf of the miminnister of foreign affairs, the German government is concerned about ister of foreign affairs, the German government is concerned about this issue. this issue.

Meanwhile, Hüseyin Cahit Bey is very active in the parlianwhile, Hüseyin Cahit Bey is very active in the parliament and ament and follows up on the developments in the financial arena. He routinely con-follows up on the developments in the financial arena. He routinely con-veys messages to Cavid Beyveys messages to Cavid Bey regarding the develoregarding the developpments in Istanbul ments in Istanbul such as the mining issue or the situation of the Régie.such as the mining issue or the situation of the Régie. He tells Cavid BeyHe tells Cavid Bey that the abolishment of the Régie that the abolishment of the Régie is on the agenda. Additionally, Istanbul is on the agenda. Additionally, Istanbul wants to establish a national company for the mining facility in Ergani. wants to establish a national company for the mining facility in Ergani. Hüseyin Cahit Bey and Mr. Weil support estaHüseyin Cahit Bey and Mr. Weil support estabblishing a company under lishing a company under the bank, although Cthe bank, although Cavid Beyavid Bey believes that a national company will believes that a national company will come wicome with many negative political impacts. He favors establishing a th many negative political impacts. He favors establishing a company with various capital from different coucompany with various capital from different counntries.tries.1079

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey informs Enver Pasha that the German ministry of war has informs Enver Pasha that the German ministry of war has shown resistance toshown resistance to the Ottoman government on fiscal issues and the the Ottoman government on fiscal issues and the militmilitary orders. He asks him to pause the orders. According to his diary, ary orders. He asks him to pause the orders. According to his diary, these are difficult weeks, and they should wait until they pass. The only these are difficult weeks, and they should wait until they pass. The only solution is to listen to the complaints from the German minsolution is to listen to the complaints from the German ministry of war istry of war rather than asking for more orders from trather than asking for more orders from the navy.he navy.1080

On February 3, Cavid Bey

On February 3, Cavid Bey receives a telegram from Talat Bey coreceives a telegram from Talat Bey con-n-cerning the reshufflcerning the reshuffling of theing of the ccabinet. Sait Halim Pasha resigned, and abinet. Sait Halim Pasha resigned, and now Talat Bey would establish the now Talat Bey would establish the ccabinet. He requests abinet. He requests thathat t Cavid BeyCavid Bey aacccept thecept the position ofposition of ministminister of financeer of finance. He contemplates. He contemplates appointingappointing Necmeddin Bey Necmeddin Bey asas the ministthe ministerer of of jjustice, Mustafa Şeref Bey ustice, Mustafa Şeref Bey as the mias the min-n-ister ofister of public works, public works, and and Ali Münif Bey Ali Münif Bey asas the presthe presiidendentt of the Council of the Council of State. At the end of his leof State. At the end of his letter, Talat Bey writestter, Talat Bey writes,, ““I request your aI request your ap-p-proval in thproval in the name of our brotherhood.e name of our brotherhood.”” Although Although Cavid BeyCavid Bey does not does not accept the office, accept the office, he writes in his diary thathe writes in his diary that he supports Talat Bey's suhe supports Talat Bey's suc-c-cess fullcess full--heartedly. heartedly. He writesHe writes that he that he had already had already unambiguously toldunambiguously told hihim ofm of his ideas and recommendations his ideas and recommendations forfor the new governmthe new government, incluent, includ-d-

1079 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâme,uznâme, Vol III,Vol III, 344.344.

1080 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznRuznââme, Vome, Vol III,l III, 346.346.

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ing its pr

ing its proogram and the list of ministers. gram and the list of ministers. His letter toHis letter to Talat Bey does not Talat Bey does not cover cover thesethese recommendations. recommendations. Cavid BeyCavid Bey prefers to stay outprefers to stay out of the goof the gov-v-ernmenternment for a while. However, for a while. However, Cavid BeyCavid Bey does ndoes not close the door, ulti-ot close the door, ulti-mately asking mately asking to meet to meet him facehim face--toto--faceface in Istanbulin Istanbul. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey's letter to 's letter to Talat Bey is very friendTalat Bey is very friendlyly, but he notes to his diary that "I pity Talat Bey. I , but he notes to his diary that "I pity Talat Bey. I wished him to establish a government of wished him to establish a government of hishis own without any weak own without any weak point. Neverthpoint. Nevertheeless, he does not give up his principles and habits, less, he does not give up his principles and habits, which which are harare harmmful to all."ful to all."1081 The next day, Hüseyin Cahit Bey sends him a tele-The next day, Hüseyin Cahit Bey sends him a tele-gram asking him to accept the ministry. His telegram is quite igram asking him to accept the ministry. His telegram is quite innforma-forma-tive, and it seems that Talat Bey asked him to write it. tive, and it seems that Talat Bey asked him to write it. BBeecause after a cause after a while, Twhile, Taalat Bey again sends him a tellat Bey again sends him a telegram concerning his offer. He egram concerning his offer. He asks him to inform Istanbul of his decasks him to inform Istanbul of his deciision until the following day at sion until the following day at 10:00. 10:00.

Hüseyin Cahit Bey’s telegram is very interesting because it tries to

Hüseyin Cahit Bey’s telegram is very interesting because it tries to meet some of meet some of Cavid BeyCavid Bey’’ss demands. According to this telegram, the godemands. According to this telegram, the gov-v-ernment ernment would improve in thewould improve in the followingfollowing fieldsfields:: every individual of the every individual of the OOtttoman Empire toman Empire wouldwould benefit from the constitution; the Armenian and benefit from the constitution; the Armenian and Arab iArab isssues sues wouldwould be dealt with before the peace talksbe dealt with before the peace talks,, according to taccording to the he course of events of the warcourse of events of the war;; and and the women’s rightthe women’s rightss issue (issue (kadın me-kadın me-sseelesilesi) ) wouldwould be handled in a gentle (be handled in a gentle (mutedilmutedil) but a proper way. ) but a proper way. Con-Con-cercernninging fiscal issues, the Unionists guaranteefiscal issues, the Unionists guaranteedd him him that they would that they would not not iinntervene in histervene in his affairsaffairs.. Hüseyin Cahit Bey gHüseyin Cahit Bey gaave him a list of theve him a list of the newnew ccab-ab-inet and addinet and addeded that if Cavthat if Cavid Beyid Bey would not accept the office, Talat Bey would not accept the office, Talat Bey might avoid establishing might avoid establishing aa government, which might government, which might result inresult in a cra criisis. sis. Cavid BeyCavid Bey calculates calculates thisthis in detail. in detail. AltAlthough Halil Beyhough Halil Bey’s’s removaremovall from from officeoffice was favwas favorable for Cavid Beyorable for Cavid Bey, N, Neesimi Bey was appointedsimi Bey was appointed in his in his placeplace,, whichwhich Cavid BeyCavid Bey did not approvedid not approve. It . It waswas not an ideal cabinetnot an ideal cabinet in his in his opinionopinion. Moreover, . Moreover, Cavid BeyCavid Bey diddid not believe that Talat Bey would avoid not believe that Talat Bey would avoid establishing establishing aa governmentgovernment if he if he did not accept hisdid not accept his oofffefer. At last, Cavid r. At last, Cavid BeyBey aacccepts the office and informs Hcepts the office and informs Hüseyin Cahit üseyin Cahit via avia a detailed telegram detailed telegram on his opion his opinnions about the new ions about the new ccabinet. At the end of his letter, he writesabinet. At the end of his letter, he writes,,

1081 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol III,Ruznâme, Vol III, 351351--52.52.

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"I would never compromise for this, even for you. Ho

"I would never compromise for this, even for you. Howwever, I will do it ever, I will do it for Talat Bey." Hfor Talat Bey." He also asks for full autonomy e also asks for full autonomy while inwhile in oofffice.fice.

While C

While Cavid Beyavid Bey was writing this telegram to Hüseyin Cahit Bey, he was writing this telegram to Hüseyin Cahit Bey, he had thought had thought of of allall the the misery thatmisery that the Unionists, the Unionists, especially especially the war sup-the war sup-portersporters, had caused him, had caused him..1082 He thought of all the He thought of all the timestimes they they recreckklesslessly ly did not ask fordid not ask for hishis advice and, lastly, Dr. Nazım’s beadvice and, lastly, Dr. Nazım’s behavior during his res-havior during his res-ignignationation. Nevertheless, he decide. Nevertheless, he decidedd that he that he wouldwould overcomeovercome his feehis feellings ings and save what and save what waswas possible from this broken ship. According to Cavid possible from this broken ship. According to Cavid BeyBey, this was his duty. He d, this was his duty. He deecides to cides to worwork with them though k with them though he is sure he is sure that they willthat they will continue tocontinue to follow their follow their same same path. He also writes to Talat path. He also writes to Talat Bey that he accepted his offer under the circuBey that he accepted his offer under the circummstances stances andand had written had written to Hüseyin Cahit ato Hüseyin Cahit ass a sign of his friendship and sacrifice.a sign of his friendship and sacrifice.1083 The folloThe follow-w-ing daing day, y, the new the new ccabinet wasabinet was established. The Germans welcome this established. The Germans welcome this decdeciision. sion.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey returns to Istanbul returns to Istanbul onon February 10, 1917. He meets Talat February 10, 1917. He meets Talat Pasha and Pasha and complainscomplains that the that the ccabinet was not eabinet was not esstablished according to tablished according to his concerns. his concerns. He alsoHe also asks Talat Pasha to asks Talat Pasha to appoiappointnt him him as the ministas the ministerer of of foreign affairs during the peace talks. However, Talat Pasha offers him foreign affairs during the peace talks. However, Talat Pasha offers him the position ofthe position of first delegate first delegate dudurring the peace talks,ing the peace talks, not as not as thethe minister minister of foreign affairs. This issue remains ambigof foreign affairs. This issue remains ambiguuous for Cavid Beyous for Cavid Bey for now. for now. The next daThe next day, y, Cavid BeyCavid Bey starts histarts his work at the minis work at the minisstry. try.

His first impressions about the ministry’s situation and workflow

His first impressions about the ministry’s situation and workflow are quite shocking and pessimistic. He finds the ministry wholly dare quite shocking and pessimistic. He finds the ministry wholly de-e-graded. He graded. He writeswrites that a wave of corruption, favoritism, and harmful de-that a wave of corruption, favoritism, and harmful de-cisiocisionnss had plaguedhad plagued the minthe ministry for two and a half years. He notes istry for two and a half years. He notes inin his diary that due to the incompetent directors in the ministry, he hahis diary that due to the incompetent directors in the ministry, he hadd to to

1082 AccordAccording to Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın, a wave of anger was born against Cavid Bey when ing to Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın, a wave of anger was born against Cavid Bey when resigned from thresigned from the Ce Cababinet.inet. Talat Talat Bey aBey assignedssigned two policemen to protect him wtwo policemen to protect him whheen he n he goes ougoes out. Yat. Yallçınçın, S, Siyasal Anılariyasal Anılar, 220., 220.

1083 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol III,Ruznâme, Vol III, 354354--57. 57.

BOA_İ___DUIT___00009_000004_001_001.According to the archival source from the BOA_İ___DUIT___00009_000004_001_001.According to the archival source from the office of thoffice of the Ge Grarand nd ViVizier, Cavidzier, Cavid Bey, tBey, thhe Biga deputy and exe Biga deputy and ex--minister ofminister of finanfinance Cavce Cavid id BeBeyy was awas appointed to the ministppointed to the ministry of finance.ry of finance.

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deal with every small

deal with every small area ofarea of work. Cavid Beywork. Cavid Bey continues tocontinues to deal with deal with hishis work work inin the ministry of financethe ministry of finance as well asas well as otother government iher government isssusues.es.1084 HHe deals with the negotiations with Germane deals with the negotiations with Germanyy and Austria on eand Austria on exxports ports andand loans. Cavid Beyloans. Cavid Bey also also resumes making long and detailed speechesresumes making long and detailed speeches in in the the pparliament on various subjects arliament on various subjects such such asas thethe railways, Régie, railways, Régie, Baghdad Baghdad RaiRaillwayway, et cetera., et cetera. OnOn March 3, March 3, Cavid BeyCavid Bey gives gives his first speech in the his first speech in the pparliament since the beginning of the war, and the deparliament since the beginning of the war, and the depuuties applauded ties applauded it. Cavid Beyit. Cavid Bey claimingclaiming that he made this speech without conthat he made this speech without consideringsidering the the rreeactionactionss of foreign critics.of foreign critics.1085 First of all, heFirst of all, he claims that hclaims that hee ccould notould not preparpreparee anand investigatd investigate thee the budget. The interesting thing wasbudget. The interesting thing was thatthat alt-alt-hough Cavid Beyhough Cavid Bey had criticized thehad criticized the gogovvernment’sernment’s economeconomicic policies policies from the begifrom the beginnning of war, now, he was on these stages and elucidating ning of war, now, he was on these stages and elucidating about these policiesabout these policies thatthat he washe was onceonce agagainst. ainst.

His speech

His speech covers five important issues: the situation of the treasury covers five important issues: the situation of the treasury at the beginning of the war; loans and emissionat the beginning of the war; loans and emissionss; paper money and ; paper money and the the value of value of the the Ottoman Ottoman llira; ira; the the budget; war profiteers; budget; war profiteers; the the postpost--war war ecoeconnomy; and at the end,omy; and at the end, the governmthe governmentent’s’s economic aims aneconomic aims and targets. d targets. Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s speech presents a summary ’s speech presents a summary of theof the story of the war ecostory of the war econno-o-my. my.

As he asseses

As he asseses the the key tools of key tools of the Empire’s the Empire’s war financing, Cavid Beywar financing, Cavid Bey tells the parliamenttells the parliament that the Othat the Otttoman Empire entered the war with toman Empire entered the war with 1,212,000 1,212,000 llirairass oof f creditcredit. . This amountThis amount was nothing comparwas nothing compareded to the to the needs of the army. According to the alliance agreement between the Oneeds of the army. According to the alliance agreement between the Ot-t-toman Empire and Germany, Germany had given five million of gold to toman Empire and Germany, Germany had given five million of gold to the Othe Otttoman government. The interest rate of this five million gold wtoman government. The interest rate of this five million gold wasas six pesix perrcent. Aftercent. After the peace agreement its capital and interest rate the peace agreement its capital and interest rate would be paid together or constwould be paid together or constiitute a longtute a long--termterm loan. At the beginning loan. At the beginning of the war the Ottoman government’s monthly need was five hundred of the war the Ottoman government’s monthly need was five hundred llirairass. In February. In February 19151915, the O, the Otttoman governmenttoman government asked forasked for aa loanloan,, bbut ut Germany could not provide gold. However, the Ottoman market was not Germany could not provide gold. However, the Ottoman market was not accustomed to paper money. The German and Austriaaccustomed to paper money. The German and Austriann govergovernnments ments

1084 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Ruznâme, Vol III,Vol III, 358358--60.60.

1085 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol III,Ruznâme, Vol III, 365.365.

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had

had providedprovided goldgold,, but they keptbut they kept thisthis in the vaults of in the vaults of the the OPDA in OPDA in BBerlin erlin and Viennaand Vienna,, and in rand in reeturn, turn, tthhe e OPDA issued 6,519OPDA issued 6,519,000 Ottoman ,000 Ottoman llira. It ira. It was the first emission of the Great War period. was the first emission of the Great War period. IIn 1915, the monthly n 1915, the monthly needneedss of the state iof the state inncreased to creased to oone million ne million llirairass. Another agreement was . Another agreement was signed with Gesigned with Gerrmany in the same year. But its technical conditions many in the same year. But its technical conditions hadhad chchanged. Germany anged. Germany gavegave treasury bonds instead of gold. Germany treasury bonds instead of gold. Germany pro-pro-videdvided treasury bonds amounttreasury bonds amounting toing to 7,902,0007,902,000 llirairass. . AA short pshort peeriod later, riod later, a new bunch of treasury bonds, amounta new bunch of treasury bonds, amounting toing to 11,700,000 11,700,000 liralirass, were , were addedadded,, and the third emission was and the third emission was sent sent out. Meanwhileout. Meanwhile, , a new agree-a new agree-ment ament amountmounting toing to 2,374,000 2,374,000 llira ira waswas signed for construsigned for construcction and mili-tion and mili-tary needs. However, thetary needs. However, the Empire’sEmpire’s monthly needmonthly needss had had increased to three increased to three million million llirairass. . The fThe fourth emission was calculated accorourth emission was calculated accordding to this new ing to this new monthly amount. monthly amount. The amount of tThe amount of the he fourth emissionfourth emission was 27,777,940 was 27,777,940 llirairass,, withwith the Ottoman government leavthe Ottoman government leavinging five million five million llirairass to the to the German government. German government. ThereforeTherefore, approximately 22 mi, approximately 22 milllion lion lira lira was left was left to the Ottoman government, which was sufficto the Ottoman government, which was sufficientient for only for only a a cocouuple of ple of months. In the months. In the meantmeantime, the incomime, the income of the state decreasede of the state decreased,, and the eand the ex-x-penses increased. The fifth emission in 1916 was penses increased. The fifth emission in 1916 was paid inpaid in German treas-German treas-ury bonds ury bonds amounting toamounting to 32 million 32 million lliirarass. The . The ttreasury bonds were paid reasury bonds were paid to the OPDA, whose deputies were now mainly Geto the OPDA, whose deputies were now mainly Gerrman, Austrian, man, Austrian, and and OtOttoman. toman. In totIn total, tal, the loanhe loanss obtained from Germanyobtained from Germany so far,so far, incluincludding ing gold and treasury bondsgold and treasury bonds,, amounted toamounted to 93 million 93 million llirairass.. ThTheseese loanloanss were were usedused for for to meet the Empire’sto meet the Empire’s internal needs. internal needs. In addIn addiition to these,tion to these, there there had been other loans obtained for varhad been other loans obtained for various reious reasons asons such such aas the cost of s the cost of transportation of transportation of the the militarymilitary, which was, which was paid to the railway comppaid to the railway compaanies. nies. Adding these, tAdding these, the total loanhe total loans that the Empire had received froms that the Empire had received from Germa-Germa-ny amounted ny amounted toto 142 million 142 million llirairass. . As Cavid BeyAs Cavid Bey was giving his speechwas giving his speech, , the Ottomanthe Ottoman governmgovernment ent waswas aboabout to sign a new loan agreement with ut to sign a new loan agreement with Austria amountAustria amounting toing to 240 million Au240 million Ausstrian Krones. trian Krones. Therefore, atTherefore, at the end the end of August 1917, the total war debt of the Ottoman Empire of August 1917, the total war debt of the Ottoman Empire would be would be equal toequal to 180 million 180 million llirairass.. AddAddiitionally, ttionally, the he Empire’s Empire’s prepre--warwar debt wasdebt was 150 milli150 million on llirairass. The. The Empire’sEmpire’s totaltotal debt debt was was foreseen foreseen asas 330 mi330 milllion lion llirairass at the end of the war. at the end of the war.

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The second issue

The second issue that Cavid Beythat Cavid Bey pointed outpointed out in his speechin his speech was the was the treatment oftreatment of paper money. The paper money. The change to change to paper money issue was the paper money issue was the hardest hardest changchange to grasp e to grasp as the Oas the Ottoman Empire shifted tottoman Empire shifted to the war econ-the war econ-omy. Due to the longomy. Due to the long--lasting bimetal systemlasting bimetal system,, paper money paper money hadhad nevernever beenbeen accepted as a valuable accepted as a valuable medium of medium of exchange. exchange. ThereforeTherefore, the gov-, the gov-ernment ernment not only not only had to meet enormous had to meet enormous financial financial demands demands but alsobut also en-en-couragecourage peopeople to tple to trust rust in in paper moneypaper money under under war conditions. The gov-war conditions. The gov-ernment ernment implementedimplemented new legislnew legislaation and founded new institutions ontion and founded new institutions on thethe exchange issueexchange issue,, but it remained a problem until the end of the war. but it remained a problem until the end of the war. AAcccording to Cavid Beycording to Cavid Bey, the Ottoman , the Ottoman llira lost itira lost its value coms value comparpareded toto bel-bel-ligerent and neutral countriesligerent and neutral countries,, but the amount of loss but the amount of loss waswas not not sisiggnifi-nifi-cantcant. . Rather, tRather, the waves of speculationhe waves of speculation negativelynegatively affectaffecteded the value of the value of the Ottoman the Ottoman llira. ira. InIn diffedifferrent provinces, the ent provinces, the llira had different values. ira had different values. Overall, theOverall, the valuevalue of paper mof paper money in oney in the Empirethe Empire was very low compawas very low comparreded to other countries. Some argueto other countries. Some arguedd that that thisthis waswas because the supply of pbecause the supply of pa-a-per money per money waswas more than the needmore than the need for itfor it. A. Allthough Cavid Beythough Cavid Bey agreeagreedd with this allegation, he also underlines that people did not trust with this allegation, he also underlines that people did not trust inin ppa-a-per moper money as tney as they trusted hey trusted inin coins. Cavid Beycoins. Cavid Bey also mentionsalso mentions the correlthe correla-a-tion between the emissions, repation between the emissions, repayyments, and interest ratesments, and interest rates,, which which diddid not depict a sunny not depict a sunny outlookoutlook for the postfor the post--war period. war period. Although theAlthough the rre-e-payment dates payment dates werewere diffedifferrent for ent for eacheach loanloan,, the interethe interest ratest ratess werewere even even higher than the French loan in 1913, which was five percent. In 1917, higher than the French loan in 1913, which was five percent. In 1917, Cavid BeyCavid Bey predicts that he would again go topredicts that he would again go to Europe for loan negotiEurope for loan negotia-a-tions as he did in 1913 and 1914. According to his speech, he envisagetions as he did in 1913 and 1914. According to his speech, he envisagedd a posta post--war worldwar world thatthat resemresemblebledd thethe long nineteenth century. In eclong nineteenth century. In eco-o-nomic terms, there nomic terms, there waswas no sign that he comprehendno sign that he comprehendeded or felt the dror felt the dra-a-matic impact of the war apart from smatic impact of the war apart from soocial life. cial life.

Third,

Third, Cavid BeyCavid Bey mentions the budget of 1917. Thementions the budget of 1917. The state’sstate’s eexxpenses penses were 46 million lirawere 46 million lirass,, and itsand its incincome wasome was 23 million 23 million llirairass. The budget . The budget deficit deficit waswas 23 million 23 million llirairass,, which which was quitewas quite highhigh, especially since t, especially since these hese numbers numbers did did not not includeinclude retirement fees and other eretirement fees and other exxpenses. penses. In his In his speech speech Cavid BeyCavid Bey claimsclaims that the that the real real deficit deficit waswas 34 million 34 million llirairass. He is . He is hopefuhopeful l ththatat expenses expenses would would decrease,decrease, and iand inncomecome would increase in would increase in the postthe post--war periodwar period. . HHe gives fresh hope to the deputiese gives fresh hope to the deputies, who were, who were tired tired

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of the war.

of the war. AAs I s I have have emphemphaasized fsized fromrom the beginning of this text, Cavid the beginning of this text, Cavid BeyBey is known is known forfor his optimism. his optimism. HHe e eveven en approaches tapproaches the he war profwar profiiteering teering issue in a positive way. According to Cavid Beyissue in a positive way. According to Cavid Bey some of the pesome of the peoople who ple who earned money during the war years achieved earned money during the war years achieved thisthis by theby themmselves, selves, andand some prosome proffited from the support of the state. ited from the support of the state. In addition to newIn addition to new methodmethodss of accumulaof accumulatting capital, Cing capital, Caviavid Beyd Bey alleges that Turkish people alleges that Turkish people have fi-have fi-nally nally tasted the pleasure of trade and entrepreneurship. His sole cotasted the pleasure of trade and entrepreneurship. His sole con-n-cern is not cern is not to to allow them to lose allow them to lose thisthis after the war. He does not want after the war. He does not want people to returnpeople to return toto work in the state bureaucracy. work in the state bureaucracy. AlthouAlthoughgh he once crit-he once crit-iciicized Talat Bey for hiszed Talat Bey for his promotion ofpromotion of unfair means to estaunfair means to estabblishlish thethe na-na-tional economy, Cavid Beytional economy, Cavid Bey also supportalso supporteded every kind every kind of of measuremeasure,, in-in-cluding unfair competcluding unfair competiitiontion,, to create a national bourgeoisie. to create a national bourgeoisie. Cavid BeyCavid Bey also underlines that aalso underlines that allthough thethough the Triple EntenteTriple Entente hahad d claimed that they claimed that they would not pursue commercial relations with the Central Powerwould not pursue commercial relations with the Central Powerss, Cavid , Cavid BeyBey alleges that it is impossible to resist free trade. alleges that it is impossible to resist free trade. RReturneturninging to his lito his lib-b-eral eral ideology, Cavid Beyideology, Cavid Bey envisageenvisagess a liberal world dependa liberal world dependinging on free on free tradtrade and free marke and free market et polpoliicies in the postcies in the post--war period. He mentions in war period. He mentions in his talk that the most important law of his talk that the most important law of modernmodern civciviilization is free tradelization is free trade,, and no nation could get rid of its impact. According to him, free trade and no nation could get rid of its impact. According to him, free trade wouldwould continue as it used to do in continue as it used to do in the the prepre--war era. His alwar era. His alleglegaations also tions also explain his approach toward explain his approach toward the the Ankara government in the Ankara government in the EEarly Rarly Re-e-publican publican EEra. He positions the state ra. He positions the state as as politically independent but ecpolitically independent but eco-o-nomically dependent nomically dependent onon the ithe innternational economic system. However, ternational economic system. However, as as we will see in the dwe will see in the decade to come, ecade to come, thethe Republic of Republic of TurkTurkeyey would would bbeecome come anan economically indepeneconomically independdent country ent country separateseparate from the liberalfrom the liberal,, inter-inter-dependent dependent global global sysysstem. tem.

The last

The last of of Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s’s key points is that, key points is that, whetherwhether the Ottoman Ethe Ottoman Em-m-pire would winpire would win or loseor lose the war, he is hopefulthe war, he is hopeful about the consabout the conseeququenceencess of of the warthe war.. HHe e believes believes that the capitulations that the capitulations would be permanentlywould be permanently aboabol-l-ishedished after the warafter the war. He depicts the capitulations as. He depicts the capitulations as aa network of desponetwork of despot-t-ism ism that wouldthat would bring bring aboutabout political domination alongside economic political domination alongside economic privpriviileges. Cavid Beyleges. Cavid Bey emphasizes thaemphasizes that t iin n aa world withoutworld without capitulationcapitulationss, , the government should the government should still still open open itsits doors to foreign capital to save the doors to foreign capital to save the country. More importantly, he expresses the criticcountry. More importantly, he expresses the criticismsisms of European of European

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statesmen t

statesmen tooward the ward the Empire’s Empire’s nationalist economy policies nationalist economy policies durinduringg the the war periowar period. d. These policies were These policies were seen as seen as chauvinistic and nationalistic in chauvinistic and nationalistic in European politEuropean politiical and financial circles. cal and financial circles. He He alsoalso points out that they points out that they werewere criticcritical ofal of the Uniothe Unionnist government. He frankly statesist government. He frankly states,, ““WWe are all e are all nationalistnationalistss, but in the meaning, but in the meaning of of thethe term, wterm, we ae are not nationalistre not nationalisticic. We . We prefer the Ottprefer the Ottoomans to contribute to the investments according to their mans to contribute to the investments according to their work and capital.” work and capital.” Cavid BeyCavid Bey does not support the idea of leavingdoes not support the idea of leaving allall iin-n-vestments vestments toto foforreigners buteigners but rather allowing themrather allowing them to contribute to contribute to to thethem. m. HHe underlinee underlines ts that nationalism hat nationalism should not should not mean xenmean xenoophobia. Cavid Beyphobia. Cavid Bey alleges that the Ottalleges that the Ottooman Empire itself cannot afford to build railways, man Empire itself cannot afford to build railways, portsports,, or lead projects to improve agriculture or lead projects to improve agriculture thatthat would amount to would amount to threethree--five five bbiilllion lion llira by itself. ira by itself. CitingCiting ththee cabinet’scabinet’s proprogragram,m, Cavid BeyCavid Bey ends ends up up his speech by arguing thathis speech by arguing that thethe Empire’sEmpire’s aim aim should be should be to unite to unite local capital, labor, and work with foreign (in this context European) local capital, labor, and work with foreign (in this context European) scsciience and arts.ence and arts.1086

On April 6, 1917, the United States of America

On April 6, 1917, the United States of America had had enterentereded the Gthe Great reat War. The War. The ccabiabinet, an ally of Germany, net, an ally of Germany, thus thus hahadd to decide on the Ottoman to decide on the Ottoman GoverGovernnment’s attitude toward the ment’s attitude toward the United StatesUnited States. Although . Although U.S. President U.S. President Woodrow Wilson Woodrow Wilson had had avoided entering the war, avoided entering the war, the the GeGerrmans prmans proovoked voked the the United StatesUnited States through deployingthrough deploying submasubmarinerine warfarewarfare asas wewell asll as the the ZimmermanZimmerman NoteNote, the German foreign minister, the German foreign minister’s’s telegram telegram that was in-that was in-tercepted and tercepted and decoded by Bridecoded by Brittain.ain.1087 This changed the fate of the warThis changed the fate of the war. . As noted in his diary, As noted in his diary, Cavid BeyCavid Bey ffaavors keeping relations with the vors keeping relations with the United United StatesStates. . During hisDuring his visitvisit toto AmbassAmbassadoadorr MorgenthauMorgenthau,, MorgeMorgennthauthau tells tells himhim that the United States also wishes to continue peaceful relations that the United States also wishes to continue peaceful relations unless he would receive an orderunless he would receive an order otherwiseotherwise..1088

1086 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, DevDevre:re: 11II,II, İçtimİçtima Senea Senesi: 3,si: 3, Cilt:Cilt: 2, 2, 3, Mart3, Mart 1917, 4031917, 403--15. S15. See also, ee also, TopToprak, rak, İİttttihadihad--Terakki ve Cihan HarbTerakki ve Cihan Harbi Savaş Ekonomi Savaş Ekonomisisi i ve Türkiye’de Devletçilik 1914ve Türkiye’de Devletçilik 1914--19181918, 3, 32222--44. 44.

1087 Puong Fei Yeh “The Role of the Zimmerman Telegram in Spurring America’s Entry intoPuong Fei Yeh “The Role of the Zimmerman Telegram in Spurring America’s Entry into ththe Fe Firstirst World World War,”War,” AmericAmericaan Intelligence Journal 32, no. 1n Intelligence Journal 32, no. 1 (2005): 61(2005): 61--64.64.

1088 CaCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet vid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol Ruznâme, Vol IIIII,I, 370.370.

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On April 7, the Austrian ambassador n April 7, the Austrian ambassador tellstells the Ottoman gothe Ottoman govvernmenternment that itthat it mustmust show solidarishow solidarity with the Aty with the Austriustrian government and end dip-an government and end dip-lomatic rlomatic reelations with the United States. Cavid Beylations with the United States. Cavid Bey objects to this ideaobjects to this idea:: he asserts that the Ottoman gohe asserts that the Ottoman govvernment might need the help of other ernment might need the help of other states during peace talks. states during peace talks. He argues that the EmpireHe argues that the Empire cannot ecannot exxpect pect to to rreceive eceive everyteverything hing from Germany. Cavid Beyfrom Germany. Cavid Bey evaluates evaluates that that the situation the situation of of the Ottoman Ethe Ottoman Emmpirepire is very fragileis very fragile. The Germans . The Germans were were avoidavoidinging pay-pay-ing money to the Otting money to the Ottooman Empire. man Empire. On April 8, 1917, On April 8, 1917, Cavid BeyCavid Bey meetsmeets withwith General Lossow General Lossow to discuss ato discuss a newnew loan and the loan and the gold issue. Tgold issue. The Gehe Ger-r-man commander complains about Enver Pasha’s coterie coman commander complains about Enver Pasha’s coterie connsistsistinging of of Mustafa KemalMustafa Kemal PashaPasha, Ali İhsan, Vehbi, Remzi, and Mahmut Kâmil, who , Ali İhsan, Vehbi, Remzi, and Mahmut Kâmil, who act aact acccording to their considerations cording to their considerations andand object to orders. The Germans object to orders. The Germans are ready to pay gold in return for the assignment of Falkeare ready to pay gold in return for the assignment of Falkennhayn to hayn to the the LightningLightning ((YıldırımYıldırım)) army group located in army group located in HalepHalep..1089 On the On the UU..SS.. issue, issue, Talat Bey and especially BTalat Bey and especially Baahattin Şakirhattin Şakir, one of the key figures of the , one of the key figures of the CUP, CUP, supportedsupported following the German path. Another issue is following the German path. Another issue is the Sthe Straits issue traits issue during theduring the peace talks. Bahattin Şakir allegepeace talks. Bahattin Şakir allegess that the Othat the Otttoman Empire toman Empire is the sovereign of the is the sovereign of the SStraittraits. s. In his diary, In his diary, Cavid BeyCavid Bey aacccuses the Union-cuses the Union-ists ists of falsely believing inof falsely believing in GermanyGermany’s strength’s strength. However, a. However, acccording to cording to Cavid BeyCavid Bey, it is hard to make a peace agreement without , it is hard to make a peace agreement without obtaining obtaining any any permission permission overover the the SStraittraitss..

The

The Empire’sEmpire’s diplomatic relations widiplomatic relations with Ameth America brica beecame a kind of came a kind of litmus litmus testtest. The Unionists were divided into two between those who still . The Unionists were divided into two between those who still supportsupporteded Germany and the rest who critically approachGermany and the rest who critically approacheded the ithe isssue. sue. Before TBefore Taalat Pasha visits Berlin, lat Pasha visits Berlin, hehe joins the meeting in the Assembly joins the meeting in the Assembly (Meclis(Meclis--i Umi Umûûmmîî)) to to didiscusscusss the the SStraitstraits,, thethe ArmenianArmenian,, and theand the Hedjaz Hedjaz iisssuesuess. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey tells himtells him that Armeniathat Armenian autonomyn autonomy is on the agenda is on the agenda even in alleven in alliedied countries. In Gecountries. In Gerrmany, many, thisthis was ambiguously mentioned was ambiguously mentioned to him. He to him. He arguesargues that it is hard to defend the Armenian issue onthat it is hard to defend the Armenian issue on anan in-in-ternational platform. Geternational platform. Gerrmany would not commit tomany would not commit to supportingsupporting this is-this is-sue, and at the end of the war, every country will sue, and at the end of the war, every country will be be too tired to extend too tired to extend

1089 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâmeuznâmesisi, Vol III,, Vol III, 373373--74. Zürcher, 74. Zürcher, A Modern TurkeyA Modern Turkey, 120. , 120.

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the war

the war over suchover such issues. issues. The The Armenian issue resembles the Armenian issue resembles the issue of the issue of the capitulations. Though the Ocapitulations. Though the Otttoman Emtoman Empire apire abolished the capitulations, bolished the capitulations, it it soughtsought the help of Gethe help of Gerrmany to abrogate them in the postmany to abrogate them in the post--war period. war period. The issues were intertwined to each other, but the most controversial The issues were intertwined to each other, but the most controversial one is that the Ottoman government once again one is that the Ottoman government once again mustmust fight against ca-fight against ca-pitulations pitulations althoughalthough it already abolished them. it already abolished them. 1090

The

The Ergani mining issue is essential to understandErgani mining issue is essential to understandinging Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s ’s approach. approach. On May 2, tOn May 2, the he ccabinet discussabinet discusseses the privilegethe privilegess of the Ergani of the Ergani mining imining isssue. Cavid Beysue. Cavid Bey favors giving the concession to a company cofavors giving the concession to a company con-n-sistsistinging of Gof German anerman and Ottoman partners. d Ottoman partners. However,However, the government athe government al-l-ready promised the Germans the concession. After lengthy discussions, ready promised the Germans the concession. After lengthy discussions, the government decides to give the concession to the Nthe government decides to give the concession to the Naational Credit tional Credit Bank to be governed as a national company. However, the concessBank to be governed as a national company. However, the concession ion willwill bbeegingin after the war. Cavid Beyafter the war. Cavid Bey commentcommentss, “, “TThey had given a cohey had given a connces-ces-sion of somethingsion of something thatthat is absent now.is absent now.””1091

During the spring

During the spring of 1917of 1917, there is hope , there is hope forfor peace in the airpeace in the air. Ho. Howwev-ev-er, thiser, this was shortwas short--lived. In the middle of June, the belligerents were baclived. In the middle of June, the belligerents were back k to warto war, and the Ottoman army had increased its demands. Cavid Bey, and the Ottoman army had increased its demands. Cavid Bey had had asked for a new advance of eight million asked for a new advance of eight million llira ira to be repaid overto be repaid over eleven eleven years. Cavid Beyyears. Cavid Bey beginsbegins the negotiationsthe negotiations on this loanon this loan. Though . Though Mr. Mr. Was-Was-sermann had accepted the sermann had accepted the period of period of eleven yeeleven years for ars for reparepayyment, he ment, he tries to get back more than he tries to get back more than he could givecould give duringduring the talks. According to the talks. According to Cavid BeyCavid Bey, this is German, this is Germany’sy’s metmethhodology. odology. TThe negotiations take a long he negotiations take a long time.time.1092

Meanwhile, the

Meanwhile, the military’s military’s budget budget had had increaseincreased exponentially overd exponentially over a a very short timevery short time. Accord. According to Cavid Beying to Cavid Bey, when he returned from Europe, , when he returned from Europe, the the military’s budget wasmilitary’s budget was 1.9 million1.9 million llirairass. . By the summer of 1917, its By the summer of 1917, its budget was 3.2 million lirabudget was 3.2 million lirass. . Such inflation was not possibleSuch inflation was not possible. Enver Pa-. Enver Pa-

1090 Cavid Bey, MeşrutiCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet yet RuznRuznâmeâme,, Vol IVol III,II, 385385--86.86.

1091 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Ruznâme, Vol III,Vol III, 386386--387.387. See alSee also: Trumpener, so: Trumpener, GermanyGermany and the and the OttomOttomanan EEmpire, 1914mpire, 1914--19181918, 325, 325--35, Esin, 35, Esin, OsmaOsmanlı Savaşı’nın İktisadi Aktörleri nlı Savaşı’nın İktisadi Aktörleri (1914(1914--19,) 4419,) 44--5. 5.

1092 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, VoRuznâme, Vol Il IIII,I, 392392. .

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sha and Cavid Bey

sha and Cavid Bey were locked in awere locked in a dispute dispute over these costsover these costs. Enve. Enver Pa-r Pa-sha wantsha wanteded more than three million more than three million llira per month. ira per month. InIn the end, Enver the end, Enver Pasha gets what he wantPasha gets what he wants.s. However,However, as as Cavid BeyCavid Bey notes in his dnotes in his diiaryary, dur-, dur-ing this debate, the ing this debate, the ggrand rand vviizier zier had lost some of his powerhad lost some of his power. . 1093

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey leaves Istanbulleaves Istanbul and starts his nand starts his negotiaegotiations in Berlin on tions in Berlin on August 31, 1917.August 31, 1917.1094 Cemal Pasha goes to Berlin after him. There is a Cemal Pasha goes to Berlin after him. There is a conflict bconflict beetween Cavid Beytween Cavid Bey and Cemal Pasha. On September 12, 1917, and Cemal Pasha. On September 12, 1917, Cavid BeyCavid Bey ended the negotiations and ended the negotiations and receivedreceived copies of the contracts. copies of the contracts. The contract coverThe contract covereded the lthe loans, oans, the bondsthe bonds1095 that wouldthat would be circulated be circulated in Istanbul, the loan for in Istanbul, the loan for the the Yıldırım Army Group, theYıldırım Army Group, the monthlymonthly allocationallocation of 200,000 pieces of silver fof 200,000 pieces of silver for Cemal Pashaor Cemal Pasha; and a separate contract for; and a separate contract for the allocthe allocaation for the German ambassadortion for the German ambassador. .

On September 12, Cavid Bey

On September 12, Cavid Bey is off to Vienna by train. On the train to is off to Vienna by train. On the train to Vienna, Cavid BeyVienna, Cavid Bey travels travels with Mr. Gwinner, and they talk about future with Mr. Gwinner, and they talk about future investments. While Gwiinvestments. While Gwinnner states that the Germans plan to establish ner states that the Germans plan to establish two different companies, the primary company’s majority would be Otwo different companies, the primary company’s majority would be Ot-t-toman, but other comptoman, but other compaanies, which will work on oil and nies, which will work on oil and the the Ereğli Ereğli mines,mines, wowoulduld be under German control. Cavid Beybe under German control. Cavid Bey’s r’s reesponse reflects sponse reflects his vision of the posthis vision of the post--war period. Cavid war period. Cavid BBeyey tells Mr. Gwinnertells Mr. Gwinner that ra-that ra-ther than founding big companies, they would prefer to ther than founding big companies, they would prefer to conductconduct busbusi-i-ness with small Ottoman companies. However, for significant ness with small Ottoman companies. However, for significant invesinvest-t-menmens thats that would would requirerequire foreign bonds from foreign markets, the foreign bonds from foreign markets, the aaddministrative and capital mministrative and capital maajority could belong to foreigners. He also jority could belong to foreigners. He also states that thestates that the Ottoman governmentOttoman government favorfavorss working working withwith Germany and Germany and Austria on the works they expertise.Austria on the works they expertise.1096 DDuurring thing the end of 1917, e end of 1917, the the formation of formation of a company a company betweenbetween thethe National Credit Bank of Turkey, National Credit Bank of Turkey, Deutsche Bank, and AuDeutsche Bank, and Ausstrian banks trian banks waswas on the agenda. As depicted in on the agenda. As depicted in

1093 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol III,Ruznâme, Vol III, p: 397.p: 397.

1094 BOBOA_ İ_A_ İ____DUIT__DUIT___00009_000010_001_001__00009_000010_001_001. Cavid Bey is. Cavid Bey is aallllowed to go to Berlin for the owed to go to Berlin for the loan neloan negotiations with Germany. gotiations with Germany.

1095 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol III,Ruznâme, Vol III, 427.427.--28.28.

1096 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuznâme,uznâme, Vol III,Vol III, 428428--229.9.

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Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey’s diary, the main problem’s diary, the main problem, however,, however, waswas the rivalry between the rivalry between the two countries the two countries overover Ottoman iOttoman intenterrests. ests.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey returns to Istanbul on September 21. His first meeting returns to Istanbul on September 21. His first meeting with the Central Committee covered critical issues like corruption. with the Central Committee covered critical issues like corruption. Cavid BeyCavid Bey considers that considers that these are inconclusive meetings. these are inconclusive meetings. The members The members of the CUP state that they do not want to of the CUP state that they do not want to participate in the next Con-participate in the next Con-gress unless this corrupt order would not change. gress unless this corrupt order would not change. At the end of SeAt the end of Sepptem-tem-ber, the main agendaber, the main agenda of the Comitteeof the Comittee isis dealing withdealing with the files of the pothe files of the poli-li-ticians accusticians accuseded of corruof corrupption tion such such as Şükrü Bey, the minister of as Şükrü Bey, the minister of eeducationducation,, andand the mthe manager of the factories of the Ottoman orphanage, anager of the factories of the Ottoman orphanage, et cetera. Cavid Beyet cetera. Cavid Bey’s agenda is hectic toward the end of the war’s agenda is hectic toward the end of the war, inclu, includ-d-ing hising his workwork atat the ministry and the ministry and in in states affstates affairs. During this period the airs. During this period the Ottoman government is also deOttoman government is also dessperately in need of cash monperately in need of cash money to meet ey to meet the needs of the war. He also continues the negotiations with bthe needs of the war. He also continues the negotiations with booth Geth Ger-r-many and Austria. The Ottmany and Austria. The Ottooman government is about to make a new man government is about to make a new commercial agreement witcommercial agreement with Austria. h Austria.

On November 25, 1917

On November 25, 1917,, the party meeting in the the party meeting in the pparliarliaament ment turned turned intointo a huga huge debate around the subsistence issue. Cavid Beye debate around the subsistence issue. Cavid Bey notes notes inin his his diary that he never saw the deputies diary that he never saw the deputies asas emotionalemotional as that day. They as that day. They complaincomplaineedd aboutabout the domination of the the domination of the army, illegality dominaarmy, illegality dominatting the ing the country, mismanagement, cruel implementations, et cetercountry, mismanagement, cruel implementations, et cetera. The debate a. The debate started fstarted frorom the points of subsistence and purchasing but em the points of subsistence and purchasing but exxtended to tended to essential administrative problems. essential administrative problems. Although tAlthough the meeting ended he meeting ended that that day,day, it continued it continued two days later two days later after the grand vizier’safter the grand vizier’s speech. Cavid speech. Cavid BeyBey also also addressesaddresses the the pparliamentarliament and underlines that noand underlines that no oneone had had memen-n-tiontioneded the key points of the key points of the the subsistence issue. He subsistence issue. He providesprovides informinformaation tion about theabout the Empire’sEmpire’s fiscal issues. Cavid Beyfiscal issues. Cavid Bey’s intervention sav’s intervention saves the goes the gov-v-ernmenternment from falling into further argumentsfrom falling into further arguments. The fact. The facts thats that he he ad-ad-dresdressseded in tin the meeting cooled down the arghe meeting cooled down the arguument. ment.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey makes a payment to Deutsche Bank makes a payment to Deutsche Bank toward the Empire’s toward the Empire’s indemnity onindemnity on the the Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railway. The O. The Otttoman government pays sev-toman government pays sev-en en million marks million marks towardtoward the indemnities the indemnities from the yearsfrom the years 1914, 1911914, 19155, , and and 1916. Cavid Bey1916. Cavid Bey givgives this amount as a es this amount as a favor to the company. favor to the company. Though Mr. GüThough Mr. Günnther, reprther, repreesentative of the Deutsche Bank, finds sentative of the Deutsche Bank, finds thisthis

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amount

amount too lowtoo low, he , he tells Cavid Beytells Cavid Bey that he that he would would convinceconvince BBerlin to ac-erlin to ac-cept it. Cavid Beycept it. Cavid Bey also continues the negotiations with the Austrian am-also continues the negotiations with the Austrian am-bassbassador for a coador for a commmercial agreement.mercial agreement.1097

In 1917,

In 1917, a revolution in a revolution in RussiaRussia broke out,broke out, which “had far more prwhich “had far more pro-o-found and global repercussions than its ancestors.” After the defeat found and global repercussions than its ancestors.” After the defeat of of Russia against Germany, longRussia against Germany, long--lasting discontent in Russia transformed lasting discontent in Russia transformed into a colossainto a colossal rebellion and then l rebellion and then ininto a revolution. In March 1917, revo-to a revolution. In March 1917, revo-lutionalutionarries overthrew the Russian monarch, Tzar Nicholas II. After the ies overthrew the Russian monarch, Tzar Nicholas II. After the March Revolution, Russia March Revolution, Russia officially witofficially withdrew fromhdrew from the warthe war1098 fofolllowinglowing the Treaties of Brestthe Treaties of Brest--Litovsk signed between Russia and tLitovsk signed between Russia and the Central he Central Powers, iPowers, inncluding the Ottoman Empirecluding the Ottoman Empire..1099 This treaty broughtThis treaty brought peace peace talks to the agenda. German talks to the agenda. German MMinister of inister of FForeign oreign AAffairs Richard von ffairs Richard von KühKühllmann wantmann wanteded every allevery allyy to make an individual and separate peace to make an individual and separate peace with Russia. The Ottoman governmentwith Russia. The Ottoman government, however, however,, was was afraid of afraid of such a such a treaty,treaty, because because they knew that they were thethey knew that they were the most fragile partmost fragile partyy at the at the tabletable. On December 11, 1917, Jerusalem fell. . On December 11, 1917, Jerusalem fell. Cavid BeyCavid Bey notes notes inin his diary his diary thatthat this wasthis was “a“another whacknother whack on our head in times of new hope.” Cavid on our head in times of new hope.” Cavid BeyBey further further asks hasks himself in his diary, “imself in his diary, “NNow they give a guarantee for Syr-ow they give a guarantee for Syr-ia, but how can I bia, but how can I beelieve thelieve themm?”?”

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey’s diary entries from December 15 to 19, 1917, which d’s diary entries from December 15 to 19, 1917, which de-e-tail the events surrounding an attempted coup d’état, reveal Cavid Beytail the events surrounding an attempted coup d’état, reveal Cavid Bey’s ’s thoughts about Mustafa Kemal Atthoughts about Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. On December 15, Cavid Beyaturk. On December 15, Cavid Bey vivis-s-its the its the ggrand rand vvizier. Talat Pasha tells him thatizier. Talat Pasha tells him that “a person”“a person”——he does not he does not want to give his namewant to give his name——had told him that Ismail Hakkı Pasha wants the had told him that Ismail Hakkı Pasha wants the government government to fall to fall in order in order toto reestablish a new cabinet consisting of reestablish a new cabinet consisting of militarymilitary mememmbers. According to the scenario, Enver Pasha is also a part bers. According to the scenario, Enver Pasha is also a part of this plan. Cavid of this plan. Cavid BBeyey has doubts about this theory. The next day, Talat has doubts about this theory. The next day, Talat Pasha meets both Enver Pasha and İsmail Hakkı Pasha. Then, İsmail Pasha meets both Enver Pasha and İsmail Hakkı Pasha. Then, İsmail

1097 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RRuuznâme,znâme, Vol III,Vol III, 447.447.

1098 HobsbHobsbawm, awm, The Age oThe Age of f ExExtremes,tremes, 5454--7. 7.

1099 Michael Reynolds, Michael Reynolds, “Buffers, not Brethren: Young Turk Military Policy in the First World “Buffers, not Brethren: Young Turk Military Policy in the First World War and the Myth of PanturanWar and the Myth of Panturanism,”ism,” Past and PrePast and Presentsent 203 (203 (MayMay 2009):1372009):137--79.79.

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Hakkı P

Hakkı Paasha pays a visit to Cavid Beysha pays a visit to Cavid Bey and tells him and tells him that the informant that the informant was Mustafa Kemal Pasha. Cavid Beywas Mustafa Kemal Pasha. Cavid Bey notes notes inin his diary that Talat his diary that Talat BBey ey should guess that İsmail Hakkı Pasha would not trust Mustafa Kemal should guess that İsmail Hakkı Pasha would not trust Mustafa Kemal Pasha to share a secret. Pasha to share a secret. He writes, He writes, “The Grand Vizier had to understand “The Grand Vizier had to understand that the real enemy was Mustathat the real enemy was Mustafa Kemal Pasha because he knew his past, fa Kemal Pasha because he knew his past, situation, and aims.” According to Cavid Besituation, and aims.” According to Cavid Beyy’s notes, Enver Pasha ’s notes, Enver Pasha was was also surprisealso surprisedd how Talat Bey trusted Mustafa Kemal Pasha, whose “mhow Talat Bey trusted Mustafa Kemal Pasha, whose “mo-o-rality and thoughts are wellrality and thoughts are well--known by them.”known by them.” This incident reveals that This incident reveals that Cavid Cavid BeyBey hahadd strong prejudices strong prejudices againstagainst Mustafa Kemal Pasha for a very Mustafa Kemal Pasha for a very long time. Moreoverlong time. Moreover,, he does not trust him personally and politically. He he does not trust him personally and politically. He would approach Mustafa Kemal Pasha in the same way in the would approach Mustafa Kemal Pasha in the same way in the EEarly Rarly Re-e-publican Era. Hispublican Era. His feelings toward Mustafa Kemal Pasfeelings toward Mustafa Kemal Pashaha might might have beenhave been one of the obstacles for him to adoptone of the obstacles for him to adoptinging the new the new eera ra inin Turkey. Turkey.

At the end of 1917, t the end of 1917, Fethi Bey is Fethi Bey is also also rallying supporrallying supportters ers aroundaround him-him-selfself in the parliamentin the parliament. His first attack is on the Régie issue. He d. His first attack is on the Régie issue. He deeclares clares that he is against the Régiethat he is against the Régie and supporting the banderoland supporting the banderolee system. He system. He demandsdemands a place in the Budget Commission.a place in the Budget Commission.1100 IIn the mean the meanntime, the time, the BrestBrest--Litovsk agreement would be signed on March 3, 1917. Although it Litovsk agreement would be signed on March 3, 1917. Although it would would eleleevatevate thethe CUP’sCUP’s mood, mood, this high wouldthis high would only last for six months, only last for six months, until theuntil the Mudros Armistice on October 30, 1918.Mudros Armistice on October 30, 1918. The Russians The Russians had fhad fiinal-nal-ly ly evacevacuuated ated EEastern Anastern Anaatoliatolia, which they had, which they had occupied occupied sincesince 1878. 1878. DDuring the negotiationuring the negotiationss OttomanOttoman troops attacked the regiontroops attacked the region.. AArrmenian menian troops showed the biggest resistancetroops showed the biggest resistance,, which flamed the Armwhich flamed the Armeenian issue nian issue once again in the European circles once again in the European circles in in those days. those days. After this show of After this show of rre-e-sisisstance, they had to leave the area along with the Russian army.tance, they had to leave the area along with the Russian army.1101

The year 1917 was a very hard year beyond the war. In

The year 1917 was a very hard year beyond the war. In addition toaddition to the war, the weather was the war, the weather was quitequite bad. The abad. The autumn was arid, thutumn was arid, thee wiwinnter ter was cold, was cold, and and agricultural production agricultural production inin winter was winter was muchmuch llower than ower than the annual average. For this reason, the government purchasethe annual average. For this reason, the government purchasedd cereals cereals amountamounting toing to tenten––twelve million twelve million llirairass. The inadequacy of human r. The inadequacy of human re-e-

1100 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol III,Ruznâme, Vol III, --461.461.

1101 Tunaya, Tunaya, Türkiye’deTürkiye’de Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 Siyasal Partiler Vol 3 İttihat ve Tİttihat ve Terakerakki,ki, Bir Çağın, BiBir Çağın, Bir Kuşağın, Br Kuşağın, Biir r Partinin Tarih, Partinin Tarih, 626, Zürcher626, Zürcher, , A Modern TurA Modern Turkeykey, , 1120. 20.

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sources

sources due todue to the longthe long--lalasting war also sting war also negatively negatively affected produaffected producction. tion. The government needThe government neededed toto import import plougploughhss and tractorand tractorss..1102

The atmosphere of the

The atmosphere of the pparliament in Istanbul was very stressful. arliament in Istanbul was very stressful. In In addition to the commotion caused by Fethi Bey, taddition to the commotion caused by Fethi Bey, the he position of the position of the Arab Arab deputdeputiieses, , who who were previouslywere previously in favor of the CUPin favor of the CUP,, changed due to the changed due to the unfair policies of Cemal Pasunfair policies of Cemal Pashhaa. Meanwhile, Istanbul . Meanwhile, Istanbul waswas shaking with shaking with the cothe corrruption story of Cemal Pasha. Cavid Beyruption story of Cemal Pasha. Cavid Bey tellstells Talat Pasha that the Talat Pasha that the corruptioncorruption was aswas as visible as visible as the the sun. sun. In addition toIn addition to thisthis scandal, the miscandal, the min-n-iisstry of subsistence try of subsistence waswas still still leaderless,leaderless, because Canbulat did notbecause Canbulat did not aaccept ccept the position of ministerthe position of minister. Moreover, Talat Pasha decides to go to Rom. Moreover, Talat Pasha decides to go to Romaania nia for the negotiations with for the negotiations with BBuucharestcharest. Talat Pasha’s main concern . Talat Pasha’s main concern waswas taktakinging back some of theback some of the places lost duplaces lost durring the Balkan Wars ing the Balkan Wars such such as as Drama, Kavala, Gümülcine, or DedeeaDrama, Kavala, Gümülcine, or Dedeeağaç. ğaç. MMeeanwhile, Cavid Beyanwhile, Cavid Bey once once again goes to Vienna for the trade agreement between the Ottagain goes to Vienna for the trade agreement between the Ottooman Em-man Em-pire and Austrpire and Austroo--HungarHungarianian Empire along with Suat Bey from the miEmpire along with Suat Bey from the minnis-is-try of foreitry of foreign affairs.gn affairs.1103

On February 21, 1918

On February 21, 1918,, Cavid BeyCavid Bey deliversdelivers a speech a speech toto the the pparliament arliament on the budget. This speech is on the budget. This speech is quitequite different different fromfrom the 1917 speech. It is the 1917 speech. It is gloomy and ambiguous in terms of its aims. gloomy and ambiguous in terms of its aims. Cavid BeyCavid Bey begins by declabegins by declar-r-ing that ting that this budget is not a wahis budget is not a war budgr budgetet. He also . He also focusfocuses ones on the first ithe first in-n-ternal loanternal loan, which we address below, which we address below. . Cavid BeyCavid Bey highlights that thehighlights that the eex-x-penspenses oues outtlined inlined in the budget the budget totaltotal 51 million 51 million llira, ira, and and thethe state’sstate’s income is 37 million income is 37 million llirairass,, which is more than which is more than in in the previous year. The the previous year. The budgbudget defet defiicit is 14,385,000 Ottcit is 14,385,000 Ottooman man llira. ira. TThe real he real deficitdeficit, as Cavid Bey, as Cavid Bey points out,points out, is more than this. Cavid Beyis more than this. Cavid Bey gives detailed information about gives detailed information about the internal loan and why they preferred the internal loan and why they preferred this to a foreign loanthis to a foreign loan——namely, namely, because tbecause the gohe govvernment ernment would would avoid issuavoid issuiing morng moree paper money for the paper money for the needs of the army and treasury. needs of the army and treasury. He argues that the state’s economic aHe argues that the state’s economic af-f-fairs during the war werefairs during the war were coconnducted without any plans. They ducted without any plans. They are still are still

1102 BOA_ BEBOA_ BEO_004O_004499_33739499_337399_009_002_002, BOA2_002, BOA_ _ BEO_004499_337399_001_001. TBEO_004499_337399_001_001. The first he first document depicts the need for the export of ploughs anddocument depicts the need for the export of ploughs and tractors; the second detractors; the second depicts picts decreadecreasingsing agagricultural proricultural production due duction due tto bad weather and a lack of humao bad weather and a lack of human rn reesources.sources.

1103 BBOOA_BEO_A_BEO_004496_3004496_33719137191_001_001_001_001

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trying to

trying to solve thsolve theseese problems to thproblems to thisis very day. very day. He tells the parliament He tells the parliament that sincethat since he bhe became ecame tthe minihe minisster of finance, he ter of finance, he has been has been prioritizprioritizinging repaymentsrepayments on the loanson the loans even even duringduring the war. This is one of the Cavid the war. This is one of the Cavid BeyBey’s disti’s distinnguishguishinging featurefeatures as ministers as minister——prioritizprioritizinging repayments. His repayments. His speech speech continues as usualcontinues as usual. He touches on various issues rel. He touches on various issues related tated too ffi-i-nancial and economic issuenancial and economic issues,s, from debts to daily ecfrom debts to daily ecoonomic problems. nomic problems. His speech was distributed to the provinces, as prevHis speech was distributed to the provinces, as previious onesous ones had beenhad been. . TThis speech was also translated his speech was also translated intointo French.French.1104

In May 1918,

In May 1918, anan internal loaninternal loan processprocess was initiated for the was initiated for the first first ttime ime in the Ottoman Empire. Between the sixth order and the final seventh in the Ottoman Empire. Between the sixth order and the final seventh emissions in return for the German treasury bonds, emissions in return for the German treasury bonds, the the Sublime Porte Sublime Porte iinntroduced an internal loan to provide capital for the army's needs. The troduced an internal loan to provide capital for the army's needs. The originaloriginal idea came from the Germanidea came from the Germans. Thes. The Ottoman government implOttoman government imple-e-mented a huge propagandamented a huge propaganda campaigncampaign toto evokeevoke the patriotic feelings of the patriotic feelings of the Ottoman peoplethe Ottoman people andand raise awareness raise awareness of the need of the need for for an an inteinterrnal nal loan. On April 3, 1918, five percent interest and one percent depreciloan. On April 3, 1918, five percent interest and one percent deprecia-a-tion of the ition of the innternaternal l loanloan was issued, and the OPDA and the Ottoman was issued, and the OPDA and the Ottoman Bank signed a contract dated April 30, Bank signed a contract dated April 30, 1918,1918, on the conditions and isson the conditions and issu-u-ance of the ance of the loanloan in question. The registration dates were May 1in question. The registration dates were May 1––31 for 31 for Istanbul and May 1Istanbul and May 1––June 30 for other provinces. June 30 for other provinces. AllAll the regithe regissteredtered amouamounnts would be paid in cash at once. Although ts would be paid in cash at once. Although the the domestic domestic loanloan aap-p-peared to be peared to be based on based on voluntary voluntary investmentsinvestments, it was a debt base, it was a debt basedd on on moral coemoral coerrcion. The propaganda tools used for this internal loan cion. The propaganda tools used for this internal loan were were very affective. very affective. CConfeonferrences were organized, ences were organized, and and bbannerannerss were were hung. In hung. In his speech in parliament, Cavid Beyhis speech in parliament, Cavid Bey emphasizeemphasizess the importance of ithe importance of in-n-ternal loanternal loanss and and argues thatargues that it it shows the Empire’sshows the Empire’s economic vigeconomic vigiilance. It lance. It was as impowas as imporrtant as the battle in the tant as the battle in the field of field of war. Both Cavid Beywar. Both Cavid Bey and and other propagandists useother propagandists used thed the same same nationalist nationalist discourse. Though the discourse. Though the period of collecting the loanperiod of collecting the loan was short, the propagandawas short, the propaganda campaigncampaign was was intense. The CUP also launched a campaign for the internal loan, incluintense. The CUP also launched a campaign for the internal loan, includ-d-ing banners on the streets ing banners on the streets andand public confepublic conferrences held by Hamdullah ences held by Hamdullah

1104 MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre:3, MM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre:3, Cilt:Cilt: 4, 21 4, 21 ŞubatŞubat 1918, 8691918, 869--886. 886. TopToprak, 2003, p: rak, 2003, p: 345345--376. 376.

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Sup

Suphi anhi andd Rıza Tevfik. Rıza Tevfik. This iThis internal nternal loanloan was the first attempt of the Owas the first attempt of the Ot-t-toman Empire to borrow money from its people, and thanks to the intoman Empire to borrow money from its people, and thanks to the iniiti-ti-ative of Cavid Beyative of Cavid Bey, it was successful. Cavid Bey, it was successful. Cavid Bey notes in his diary that henotes in his diary that he is content with the interest is content with the interest rate rate of the of the variovariouus financiers with diffes financiers with differrent ent sizes of capital. sizes of capital.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey departs from Istanbul on June 22, 1918, to solve the prodeparts from Istanbul on June 22, 1918, to solve the prob-b-lems with Germany.lems with Germany.1105 First, he stops by Vienna and siFirst, he stops by Vienna and signsgns aa coconntract tract onon the Eastern railways.the Eastern railways.1106 On June On June 225, he 5, he goesgoes toto Berlin.Berlin.1107 Cavid BeyCavid Bey vvis-is-its Mr. Kühlmann and afterward starts the negits Mr. Kühlmann and afterward starts the negootiations with tiations with MMr. Helffer-r. Helffer-ich. The main issue is the loan. Cavid Beyich. The main issue is the loan. Cavid Bey prefers to prefers to receivereceive the loan in the loan in marksmarks,, because the military's demand is twicebecause the military's demand is twice the amountthe amount in terms of in terms of Ottoman Ottoman lliira. They also discuss the repara. They also discuss the repayment of theyment of the loansloans. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey asksasks if Germany canif Germany can ppardon ardon allall loloans obtained duans obtained durring the war. ing the war.

Talat Bey asks

Talat Bey asks Cavid BeyCavid Bey for his approval for his approval ofof a cabinet reshuffle. Ta cabinet reshuffle. Taalat lat Bey’s main aim Bey’s main aim waswas to strengthen the to strengthen the ccabinet and remain loyal to the abinet and remain loyal to the law. Kemal (Kara) Bey law. Kemal (Kara) Bey would be would be thethe minister of suminister of subbsistence. The prov-sistence. The prov-incesinces were not sewere not securecure, and therefore, and therefore,, İsmail Bey İsmail Bey would bewould be aasssigned as signed as the minister of internal affairs. Cavid Beythe minister of internal affairs. Cavid Bey’s co’s commment on Kara Kemal ment on Kara Kemal helps ushelps us to understand his approach toward politics. Although he ato understand his approach toward politics. Although he al-l-ways criticizes the methods and polices of Kara Kemal, hways criticizes the methods and polices of Kara Kemal, hee tells Talatells Talat Bey t Bey that hethat he supporsupports him as the minister of suts him as the minister of subsistencebsistence. If the gover. If the governnment ment would ewould esstablish such a ministry, then he would be the best person to tablish such a ministry, then he would be the best person to lead itlead it, according to Cavid Bey, according to Cavid Bey. .

On August 23, Cavid Bey

On August 23, Cavid Bey signed the last cosigned the last conntract with Mr. Rosenbergtract with Mr. Rosenberg in Berlinin Berlin. The Ottoman gover. The Ottoman government received 40 millionnment received 40 million llirairass. . The origi-The origi-nal agreementnal agreement wawass forfor 32 mi32 millionllion liralirass,, but the milbut the miliitary tary gotgot involved and involved and the amount of the loanthe amount of the loan iinncreased. creased. AA shareshare of the loan was allocatedof the loan was allocated spspe-e-

1105 BBOA_ İ___DUIT___OA_ İ___DUIT___00009_000027_0000009_000027_001_1_001. Ca001. Cavid Bvid Bey waey wass authoauthorized to carrrized to carry out they out the finfinancial negancial negototiations in Germany and Mehmeiations in Germany and Mehmet Talat Talat Pasha would deputizt Pasha would deputize him. e him.

1106 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III, 506506--507, Toprak, 117507, Toprak, 117--22.22.

1107 BOA_ MV__00259BOA_ MV__00259_00086_001_0_00086_001_0001 Cavid Bey was1 Cavid Bey was charged with carcharged with carrying out thrying out the e finfinaanncial cial negotiations negotiations in Berlinin Berlin. .

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cifically for the

cifically for the Yıldırım (Lightning) Army Group. Yıldırım (Lightning) Army Group. Following this, tFollowing this, the to-he to-tal amount of Ottoman emissiontal amount of Ottoman emissionss was 161 million was 161 million lliirarass..1108

On the evening of August 31, Cavid Bey

On the evening of August 31, Cavid Bey departs from Berlin and videparts from Berlin and vis-s-its Vienna. After its Vienna. After holding holding meetings in the Austrian capital, he arrives in meetings in the Austrian capital, he arrives in IstaIstannbul. On September 5, Cavid Beybul. On September 5, Cavid Bey had a very long talk with Talat Phad a very long talk with Talat Pa-a-sha, covesha, coverring most of the ing most of the Empire’s Empire’s issues. Cavid Beyissues. Cavid Bey notes in his diary notes in his diary that he thinks that they that he thinks that they mustmust be prepared for every be prepared for every outcome of the waroutcome of the war. . He finds Istanbul very disorderHe finds Istanbul very disorderlyly. Corrupti. Corruptioon n is in every corner. Syria is in every corner. Syria might fall very shortly. Everybody is complaining. The civilmight fall very shortly. Everybody is complaining. The civilian faian facction oftion of Unionists complain that it is almost impossible Unionists complain that it is almost impossible to work to work with the mili-with the mili-tary staff. tary staff.

On September 6,

On September 6, Cavid BeyCavid Bey returns to Vienna for financial negotireturns to Vienna for financial negotia-a-tionstions..1109 The finaThe finanncial situation is cial situation is terribleterrible. Istanbul cannot find money . Istanbul cannot find money for bread. for bread. IIn both Berlin and Vienna, n both Berlin and Vienna, Cavid BeyCavid Bey seeksseeks for a new loan for a new loan as as well as an additionalwell as an additional 70,000 lira for the subsistence of Istanbul. 70,000 lira for the subsistence of Istanbul. OOn Sen Sep-p-tetemmber 12,ber 12, as Cavid Beyas Cavid Bey was about to arrive was about to arrive iin n Sofia,Sofia, the the ggrand rand vvizier izier informs informs himhim that he heard that the Bulgarian army that he heard that the Bulgarian army has has rreevoltvolted,ed, and and they they are are escaping frescaping froom the war zone.m the war zone.1110 The The ccabinet is alarmabinet is alarmeded and and gathersgathers frequentlyfrequently. Meanwhile, Ott. Meanwhile, Ottooman troops man troops are are movmovinging toward toward Azerbaijan, beyond the borderAzerbaijan, beyond the borderss ddetetermined in Brestermined in Brest--Litovsk. In the Litovsk. In the meameanntime, the war hatime, the war hass come to come to anan end. Germany end. Germany had beenhad been retreating retreating fromfrom France as of August 8; the Ottoman forces had to leave Palestine France as of August 8; the Ottoman forces had to leave Palestine after the decafter the deciisive breakthrough of British forces; Bulgaria was defeated sive breakthrough of British forces; Bulgaria was defeated byby the Britthe Britiishsh and and French forcesFrench forces,, which also broke the vital link bwhich also broke the vital link beetween tween the Ottoman Empire and its allies.the Ottoman Empire and its allies.1111 On October 1, the German ambas-On October 1, the German ambas-sador visits Talat Pasha and sador visits Talat Pasha and tells himtells him that Germanythat Germany hashas surresurrenndered dered

1108 Toprak, Toprak, İttİttihadihad--TerakkiTerakki ve Cve Ciihan Hahan Harbi Savaş Ekorbi Savaş Ekonomisi venomisi ve TürTürkiye’kiye’de Dede Devlvletçilik 1914etçilik 1914--19181918, 113. , 113.

1109 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III, 2222--28 1918, p: 54828 1918, p: 548--558.558.

1110 Feroz Ahmad “The DiFeroz Ahmad “The Dilemmas of Young Tlemmas of Young Turkurk Policy, 1914Policy, 1914--19191717,” in Wa,” in Warr & Collapse & Collapse World War I and the World War I and the Ottoman StatOttoman States, ees, edd. M. H. M. Hakan Yavuz wiakan Yavuz with Feroz th Feroz AhmaAhmad (Sad (Salt Lalt Lakeke City: The University of UtaCity: The University of Utah Presh Press, 2016), 79s, 2016), 79--80.80.

1111 Zürcher, Zürcher, A Modern TurkeyA Modern Turkey, 121. , 121.

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and accepted Woodrow Wilson’s

and accepted Woodrow Wilson’s termsterms. Germany . Germany agreed toagreed to a pea peaacece con-con-ference ference inin Washington. The ambassador asks whether the OWashington. The ambassador asks whether the Otttoman gov-toman gov-ernment would like to join them. They ernment would like to join them. They expectexpect to hear from the Oto hear from the Otttoman toman government government withwithin a couple of hours, which is very short notice. The in a couple of hours, which is very short notice. The parliament decided to accept the German offeparliament decided to accept the German offerr. . Cavid BeyCavid Bey contemplates contemplates that it that it would bewould be better to responbetter to respondd after the new goverafter the new governnment would be ment would be foformedrmed. But Enver Pasha insists . But Enver Pasha insists onon acceptacceptinging the Gethe Gerrman offer. man offer. BBefore efore the foundation of the new the foundation of the new ccabinetabinet, the parliament a, the parliament acccepts Germany’s cepts Germany’s termsterms. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey allegeallegess tthat in belligerent countries the governments hat in belligerent countries the governments had changedhad changed;; for this reason, it is not appropriate to accept this offer as for this reason, it is not appropriate to accept this offer as the war government. the war government. ButBut he remains the only pehe remains the only perrson who opposes the son who opposes the ccabinet. Cavid Beyabinet. Cavid Bey, once again, wants to resign, once again, wants to resign,, but Talat Pasha but Talat Pasha resrestraintrainss him him fromfrom dodoinging so.so.1112 On October 2, BulgariaOn October 2, Bulgaria formallyformally surrendersurrenders.s. ThisThis was the end of the war for the Ottoman Ewas the end of the war for the Ottoman Emmpire. pire.

On October 6, the new cabinet is discuss

On October 6, the new cabinet is discusseded withwithin the political min the political mi-i-lieu. Cavid Beylieu. Cavid Bey’s name was on the list’s name was on the list,, but he does not want tobut he does not want to enenter the ter the new new ccabinet. abinet. HHe visits some prominent figurese visits some prominent figures whowho insist that he should insist that he should be in the be in the ccabinetabinet,, because he is someone who cannot be rbecause he is someone who cannot be reeplaced. placed. AA new new cabinet cabinet is is convened under Ahmet Izzet Pasha on October 14, 1918.convened under Ahmet Izzet Pasha on October 14, 1918.1113 The new military in chief, Nuri PashThe new military in chief, Nuri Pashaa,, aallleges that the army has only leges that the army has only 7272,000,000 rifles. rifles. IIn the n the first first meeting of the meeting of the new cnew cabinetabinet, Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey tells tells them that the economic situation is dismalthem that the economic situation is dismal. He also alleges that . He also alleges that allall the the territory of the territory of the EmpireEmpire might be occupiedmight be occupied after the war,after the war, from Istanbul to from Istanbul to HalHalepep and and İzmirİzmir. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey asks whasks whyy they they would would borrowborrow 44..5 mi5 milllion per lion per month just to buy 70month just to buy 70,000,000 rifles. rifles. Cavid BeyCavid Bey points out that points out that Enver Pasha Enver Pasha never informed his colleagues about the actual situationnever informed his colleagues about the actual situation of the armyof the army. . Cavid BeyCavid Bey contemplates that icontemplates that iff they knew ththey knew the acte actualual situation, they situation, they might consider to the option of a separate peace. Cavid Beymight consider to the option of a separate peace. Cavid Bey is ais anngry at gry at Enver PEnver Paasha sha and and his behavior. In the his behavior. In the pparliament, the deputies arliament, the deputies continue continue

1112 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, III,Ruznâme, III, 565655--666. 6.

1113 BOA_ I__BOA_ I__DUDUIT___0000IT___000099__000038_001_001. The document con000038_001_001. The document consists of thesists of the listlist of theof the Ahmet İzzet Ahmet İzzet pasha Cabpasha Cabinetinet prespresentedented tto the Sultan on October 18, o the Sultan on October 18, 1918. 1918.

Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, IIIRuznâme, III,574,574--75.75.

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to discuss the current situation in detail. Cavid Beydiscuss the current situation in detail. Cavid Bey’s speech is im-’s speech is im-poporrtant to understantant to understand thed the mamain concerns in Istanbul. in concerns in Istanbul. FirstFirst, he points , he points out theout the situation of thesituation of the properties of Anatolian Greeks and the Armenproperties of Anatolian Greeks and the Armeni-i-ansans,, which were mostly seized by Turkishwhich were mostly seized by Turkish--Muslim refugees from Muslim refugees from the the Balkans and the state officers. Some of these properties were dBalkans and the state officers. Some of these properties were deestroyed. stroyed. CaCavidvid BeyBeys argues that is argues that if these people weref these people were toto return to Anreturn to Anaatolia, then a tolia, then a housing problem would ohousing problem would occcur, cur, andand a huge conflict would a huge conflict would arisearise between between the the people. Apeople. Acccording to Cavid Beycording to Cavid Bey,, it it waswas not possible to exchange not possible to exchange thethe Armenian populations between EaArmenian populations between Eassttern Anatolern Anatolia ia and and the the Caucasus. Caucasus. AAc-c-corcordding to Cavid Beying to Cavid Bey’s key points’s key points, the parliament decides, the parliament decides thatthat,, firstfirst,, the the Armenians would return Armenians would return to to their home their home inin Anatolia, then the neceAnatolia, then the necesssary sary measures will be taken for the rest. The measures will be taken for the rest. The pparliament also decides to keep arliament also decides to keep the the peace talks peace talks witwith the Entente Powers confidential, mainly from Ger-h the Entente Powers confidential, mainly from Ger-many. many. TThe Germanhe Germanss are anxious about their institutions in the Oare anxious about their institutions in the Otttoman toman Empire. Cavid BeyEmpire. Cavid Bey notes notes inin his diary that he his diary that he aimed to aimed to protect theprotect these insti-se insti-tutions,tutions, as he protected the French institutionsas he protected the French institutions dudurring the ing the warwar..1114

Rauf Bey and İzzet Pasha meet General Townshend

Rauf Bey and İzzet Pasha meet General Townshend to discussto discuss the the armistice. armistice. TThe Ottoman deputies try to make their plans he Ottoman deputies try to make their plans according toaccording to WilsonWilsonianian principles, which is already the focus of the peace negotiprinciples, which is already the focus of the peace negotia-a-tions. tions.

On October 21, 1918, Cavid B

On October 21, 1918, Cavid Beyey, Hüseyin , Hüseyin CahCahit Bit Beyey,, and Talat Pand Talat Paasha sha discuss the dissoldiscuss the dissoluution of the CUP. On October 22, for the first time tion of the CUP. On October 22, for the first time the the press slamspress slams Cavid BeyCavid Bey and his economic policiesand his economic policies. . İkdamİkdam daily adaily acccuses cuses Cavid BeyCavid Bey of beingof being solelysolely responsible for the loss responsible for the loss ofof the internal loan. the internal loan. AAccorccordding to ing to İkdİkdamam, , the investorthe investors ins in the internal loan lost sixthe internal loan lost six––seven mil-seven mil-lionlion liralirass bbeecause of Cavid Beycause of Cavid Bey..1115 Cavid BeyCavid Bey writes that the papers and writes that the papers and the opposition as a whole nowthe opposition as a whole now favor the favor the ssultan as the only power in the ultan as the only power in the Ottoman Empire and they ignore the Ottoman Empire and they ignore the pparliamarliament. Accorent. Accorddinging to to Cavid Cavid BeyBey, th, thoseose who want to take revenge who want to take revenge on on the CUP cluster around the the CUP cluster around the ssuul-l-tan. According to him, these are the first marks of a new social trantan. According to him, these are the first marks of a new social trans-s-formation, which is supported by prominent figures as Rıza Tevfik. Thatformation, which is supported by prominent figures as Rıza Tevfik. That

1114 Cavid Bey,Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Meşrutiyet RuznâRuznâme, IIIme, III, , 579579--83.83.

1115 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, IRuznâme, IIIII,, 587,, 587--88. 88.

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is why the oppositionwhy the opposition always intalways interverveneenes ins in the policies of the goverthe policies of the govern-n-ment. In the meament. In the meanntime, the Ottoman delegation for the Mudros talks time, the Ottoman delegation for the Mudros talks waswas chosen chosen oon October 24n October 24, i, inncludingcluding Rauf Bey, ReRauf Bey, Reşat Himetşat Himet,, and other and other lowlow--rankrankinging soldiersoldierss. On October 28, the . On October 28, the ccabinet receives the draft of abinet receives the draft of tthehe armisticarmistice fe fromrom BriBrittain and France. They discuss the 24 articles of ain and France. They discuss the 24 articles of the draft agreement in detail. After two days of correspondence, on Othe draft agreement in detail. After two days of correspondence, on Oc-c-tober 30, 1918tober 30, 1918,, the Mudthe Mudros Agreement was signed between Rauf Bey ros Agreement was signed between Rauf Bey and Admand Admiiral Calthrope in a British squadron anchoreral Calthrope in a British squadron anchored in Mudrosd in Mudros——ththusus pavpavinging the way the way forfor the othe occcupation of Istanbul, cupation of Istanbul, the Sthe Straits, traits, İzmirİzmir,, and and most of Anatolia.most of Anatolia.1116

On November 2,

On November 2, 1918,1918, Cavid BeyCavid Bey witnesswitnesseses Beyoğlu and İstBeyoğlu and İstiklal iklal Street (Rue de Péra) Street (Rue de Péra) beingbeing covered with Greek flags. He calls the minicovered with Greek flags. He calls the minis-s-ter of foter of forreign affairseign affairs,, and at night, the flags are removed from Beyoğlu. and at night, the flags are removed from Beyoğlu.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey notes notes inin his diaryhis diary,, ““TThese flags flhese flags flewew like theylike they werewere amused with the mourning amused with the mourning of the nation… of the nation… The The mainmain partyparty rreesponsible were the Greeks (sponsible were the Greeks (RumlarRumlar). But ). But were were they they not also rnot also reesponssponsiible ble forfor givgivinging this opportuni-this opportuni-ty to them?”ty to them?”1117

Meanwhile, Cavid Bey

Meanwhile, Cavid Bey continue his talks with Mr. Gwinner continue his talks with Mr. Gwinner aboutabout the the YavuzYavuz battleship and the battleship and the loanloan aas well ass well as the the German German bons de tbons de trreesorsor re-re-gardinggarding the last contract between the last contract between the the two countries. two countries. TThis time, his time, Deutsche Bank asks for money from the Ottoman Empire in return Deutsche Bank asks for money from the Ottoman Empire in return forfor the Anatolian and the Anatolian and Baghdad RailwayBaghdad Railways. s. InIn November 1918, Cavid BeyNovember 1918, Cavid Bey un-un-derstandsderstands that Envthat Enver Pasha, Cemal Per Pasha, Cemal Pashaasha,, and Talat and Talat Pasha Pasha have eshave escaped caped from Istanbul. from Istanbul. Cavid BeyCavid Bey looks for Talat Bey everywherelooks for Talat Bey everywhere,, including his including his househouse,, but but he he could not find him. Accorcould not find him. Accordding to his entries ing to his entries inin his diary, he his diary, he is not cognizant of their escape plans. The government pis not cognizant of their escape plans. The government prrepares a list of epares a list of detention. Caviddetention. Cavid BeyBey contecontemmplates that plates that thisthis would not work. The list would not work. The list includesincludes names names such such as Dr. as Dr. Nazım, Bahattin Şakir, Vehip Pasha, Dr. Reşit, Nazım, Bahattin Şakir, Vehip Pasha, Dr. Reşit, Cemal Azmi, Mithat Şükrü, Ziya Gökalp, Reshi Bey, et cetera. Cemal Azmi, Mithat Şükrü, Ziya Gökalp, Reshi Bey, et cetera. Cavid BeyCavid Bey isis

1116 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâRuznâme, IIIme, III,5,59494--660101

1117 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmRuznâme, IIIe, III,602,602

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angry at Talat Bey for e

angry at Talat Bey for esscaping with Bedir Bey and Cemal Azmi Bey, who caping with Bedir Bey and Cemal Azmi Bey, who is known as is known as a a “co“corrrupt and impudent” perupt and impudent” personrson. According to his no. According to his notes, it tes, it is heartbreaking for him to be left without any word.is heartbreaking for him to be left without any word.1118

The newspapers he newspapers continue to continue to attack Cavid Battack Cavid Beyey and Hüseyin Cahit Beyand Hüseyin Cahit Bey,, alleallegginging that they that they have have escaped from Istanbul.escaped from Istanbul.1119 In the meantime, In the meantime, Cavid BeyCavid Bey notes notes inin his diary that the gohis diary that the govvernment ernment has has revealrevealeed itsd its weak-weak-nessness,, andand thethe critics of the critics of the government havegovernment have risenrisen against the Unionists against the Unionists and the government very sharplyand the government very sharply in the paperin the paper. The. The opposition argues opposition argues that thethat the government and the government and the pparliarliaament ment areare invalid for invalid for themthem becausebecause there are Unionists there are Unionists in themin them. A huge . A huge ccampaign against the CUP and Un-ampaign against the CUP and Un-ionists bionists beegins agins afterfter the Mudros Armthe Mudros Armiistice. Hayri Bey and stice. Hayri Bey and CCavid Beyavid Bey are are the only Unionists in the the only Unionists in the ccababiinetnet.. Hayri Hayri BBey is very stressey is very stresseded. In the . In the meantime, Kara Kemal meantime, Kara Kemal isis arrestedarrested forfor allegedly allegedly being a revolutiobeing a revolutionnary. ary. Cavid BeyCavid Bey asksasks İzzet İzzet PPasha for his release. Cavid Beyasha for his release. Cavid Bey asksasks,, ““NNowadays, owadays, who can make a revolution?” who can make a revolution?” Kara Kemal is released.Kara Kemal is released. IIt is important to t is important to comprcompreehend that even the opposithend that even the oppositionion figures in the CUP figures in the CUP such such as Cavid as Cavid BeyBey and Kara Kemal and Kara Kemal coconntinue totinue to gathergather eveneven in thein thesese dark dadark dayys. s.

Reckoning and revenge dominate the politics in Istaeckoning and revenge dominate the politics in Istannbul. The press bul. The press attacks the Unionists rattacks the Unionists reemainmaininging in Istanbul. Celal Nuri frin Istanbul. Celal Nuri froom m İkdamİkdam is the is the main opposition to the Umain opposition to the Unnionists. He ionists. He argues tahtargues taht Cavid BeyCavid Bey and Hayri and Hayri Bey Bey shouldshould leave the government as soon aleave the government as soon ass possible. Thepossible. The situation is so situation is so dire that thedire that the police police patrolpatrol thethe front of the houses of the Ufront of the houses of the Unnionists. On ionists. On November 8, Cavid BeyNovember 8, Cavid Bey and Hayri Bey resign from the and Hayri Bey resign from the ccabinetabinet after after learning that learning that Izzet Pasha Izzet Pasha has has decidedecidedd toto reshuffle the reshuffle the ccabinetabinet as well as as well as that the suthat the sulltan is against themtan is against them..1120 Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s final actions’s final actions asas the min-the min-iisstterer of finance wereof finance were to sendto send gold to the bank for the repayment of the gold to the bank for the repayment of the loan. Cavid Beyloan. Cavid Bey had hihad hiddden some money in the bank against all odds. He den some money in the bank against all odds. He asks his staff to use asks his staff to use the the one million one million lliras he hid iniras he hid in the bank during the the bank during the negotiations for the loan negotiations for the loan to rebuildto rebuild Armenian properties. Armenian properties. He finally felt He finally felt that these savings were juthat these savings were jusstifiedtified. Even in this period, the state . Even in this period, the state waswas not not

1118 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, IIIRuznâme, III,603,603--06.06.

1119 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, IRuznâme, IIIII,,608. 608.

1120 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, IIIRuznâme, III,608,608--10.10.

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experiencing a lack of money. He o

experiencing a lack of money. He orrdered thedered the ministryministry to replenish to replenish three million of thethree million of the seven million lira that were missing in eseven million lira that were missing in exxchange for change for repaying repaying debts.debts.1121

At the end of the war, according to the OPDA, the cost of living in I

At the end of the war, according to the OPDA, the cost of living in Is-s-tanbul tanbul waswas 15 times more15 times more than before the war.than before the war. TThe state offhe state offiicers cers had had lost 60lost 60––80 percent of their purchasing power80 percent of their purchasing power;; ttradesmen were coradesmen were com-m-plaining plaining aboutabout stagnationstagnation; f; foreign trade decreased more than haloreign trade decreased more than halff in in terms of valueterms of value;; tthe transportation of goods by railway also dhe transportation of goods by railway also deecreased creased about 70 percent.about 70 percent.1122 AdditionallyAdditionally, the Ottoman Empire , the Ottoman Empire had had lost its ter-lost its ter-rriitory in Mesopotamia tory in Mesopotamia as well aas well ass hundreds of thousands of sohundreds of thousands of solldiers on diers on various fronts, including Anatolia. The situation was heartbreaking. Avarious fronts, including Anatolia. The situation was heartbreaking. Af-f-ter the fall of Jerusalem, the Ottoman army began to witter the fall of Jerusalem, the Ottoman army began to withhdraw from draw from its its lands inlands in MesMesoopotamia. potamia. The end of the war came along with massive The end of the war came along with massive devastationdevastation in politics and social life.in politics and social life.1123

§ 5.2 Exile and Exile and reckoningreckoning, 1918, 1918––19261926

A gifted statesman

A gifted statesman should beshould be able toable to steer the course of events during steer the course of events during his time. A good politician should contemplate the Zeitgeist anhis time. A good politician should contemplate the Zeitgeist andd take take advantage of it. The world and the Ottoman Empire eadvantage of it. The world and the Ottoman Empire exxperienced strong perienced strong winds of change after the Great War. A wind of nationalism was blowing winds of change after the Great War. A wind of nationalism was blowing in from the mainland, whilein from the mainland, while Cavid BeyCavid Bey was still stuck on an imperial isle. was still stuck on an imperial isle.

1121 Cavid Bey, MeşrutiyetCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmeRuznâme, III, III,615,615--16.16.

1122 ElEldem, dem, HaHarp ve Mütareke Yıllarında Osrp ve Mütareke Yıllarında Osmanlı manlı İmparatorluğu’nun Ekonomisiİmparatorluğu’nun Ekonomisi, 213., 213.

1123 The end of the depicted by the conteThe end of the depicted by the contemporary writers. Falih Rıfkı Atay was one ofmporary writers. Falih Rıfkı Atay was one of them them whose books also became a part of the republican canon. However, Awhose books also became a part of the republican canon. However, Atay shartay shares or in-es or in-vventsents a mea memory about the end of the Great Warmory about the end of the Great War as follows:as follows:

““In a train In a train station, a woman asks Falih Rıfkı if he saw his son station, a woman asks Falih Rıfkı if he saw his son AAhhmed. Falih Rıfkı writes med. Falih Rıfkı writes that none of them that none of them saw Ahmet, but Ahmet saw everything, every kind of pain of war saw Ahmet, but Ahmet saw everything, every kind of pain of war such such as gas glacilaciersers,, ddeeserts, typserts, typhus, hus, et cetera.et cetera. He remarks, He remarks, “We lost Ahm“We lost Ahmet in a gaet in a gammble.”ble.” Falih Rıfkı Atay Falih Rıfkı Atay Ateş ve Güneş, ZeytindağıAteş ve Güneş, Zeytindağı, (İstanbbul: Poziti, (İstanbbul: Pozitif Yayınları, 2018), 299f Yayınları, 2018), 299--300.300.

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This section of the dissertation o

This section of the dissertation ouutlines the final phase of Cavid Beytlines the final phase of Cavid Bey’s ’s life as he stands ilife as he stands inn between the past and the future. His final decision to between the past and the future. His final decision to rreemain loyal to the Unionists and his classical liberal worldview would main loyal to the Unionists and his classical liberal worldview would ultimately dultimately deetermine his end. termine his end.

This chapter will examine the complex

This chapter will examine the complex rrelationship between the Nelationship between the Na-a-tional Forcestional Forces––Defense Rights GrDefense Rights Grooupup––Republican People’s Party and the Republican People’s Party and the Unionists against the backdrop of Cavid Bey's life between 1918 and Unionists against the backdrop of Cavid Bey's life between 1918 and 1926. It will cover the most important events in Cavid Bey’s life during 1926. It will cover the most important events in Cavid Bey’s life during the period from thethe period from the occupation of Istanbul by occupation of Istanbul by the the Entente on November Entente on November 13, 13, 19119188,, to the Independence Trto the Independence Tribunalibunal in 1926. While the Second Coin 1926. While the Second Con-n-stitutional Period ended in 1918, this did not mean that the spirit of Un-stitutional Period ended in 1918, this did not mean that the spirit of Un-ioionnism had also vanished. However, just eight years later, the exism had also vanished. However, just eight years later, the exeecution cution of Cavid Bey and his colleagues would mark the enof Cavid Bey and his colleagues would mark the endd of the Committee of of the Committee of Union and Progress and thus the space for Unionism in politics.Union and Progress and thus the space for Unionism in politics.

After the end of the war in 1918, Istanbul was declared an enemy

After the end of the war in 1918, Istanbul was declared an enemy state in national and international circles. In state in national and international circles. In tthe eyes of domestic and he eyes of domestic and international actors, all responinternational actors, all responssibility for the Empire’s losses during the ibility for the Empire’s losses during the war bwar beelonged to the Committee of Union and Progress. The CUP was not longed to the Committee of Union and Progress. The CUP was not only responsible for dragging the country into the war but also for loonly responsible for dragging the country into the war but also for los-s-ing the vast teing the vast terrritory of the Empire as well as all wartime casualties. ritory of the Empire as well as all wartime casualties. TThe he war had given rise to social and economic turmoil. The Unionists evalu-war had given rise to social and economic turmoil. The Unionists evalu-ated the Great War as an opportunity to recapture the lands ated the Great War as an opportunity to recapture the lands prpreeviously viously lost in the Balkan Warslost in the Balkan Wars, establish a national economy,, establish a national economy, and rand reevive the Ot-vive the Ot-toman Empire. However, the burden of totoman Empire. However, the burden of tottal war, the inexpal war, the inexpeerience of the rience of the country’s rucountry’s rullers, and the rush to transform the Empire’s economic and ers, and the rush to transform the Empire’s economic and financial syfinancial sysstems caused severe problems in the posttems caused severe problems in the post--war era. In Eu-war era. In Eu-rope, the people were also unrope, the people were also unhhappy with the outcomes of the war econ-appy with the outcomes of the war econ-omy. omy. Even in GermaEven in Germannyy the working class staged several rthe working class staged several reevolts. After the volts. After the war, the picture of Ottoman society took on a chaotic and catastrophic war, the picture of Ottoman society took on a chaotic and catastrophic chacharracter caused by the Empire’s longacter caused by the Empire’s long--lasting wars and the new policies lasting wars and the new policies iimmplemented by the Unionist governments. The new Turkishplemented by the Unionist governments. The new Turkish--MMuuslim slim ececoonomic class rose rapidly through the war economy implemented by nomic class rose rapidly through the war economy implemented by the Unionist governments. Indeed, it was one of the priorities of the war the Unionist governments. Indeed, it was one of the priorities of the war governments. Economic inequality skyrocgovernments. Economic inequality skyrockketed due to eted due to wwar profiteering ar profiteering

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and speculation. The economic policies o

and speculation. The economic policies off the CUP caused high inflation, the CUP caused high inflation, which led to the collapse of the social harmony that had characterized which led to the collapse of the social harmony that had characterized Ottoman society for centuries. Inflation was the enemy of Ottoman society for centuries. Inflation was the enemy of an an ordinary ordinary and stable daily life. Inand stable daily life. In addition to the war and the economy, the Empire addition to the war and the economy, the Empire saw vastsaw vast changes in all spheres, from the population to legal codes. Ichanges in all spheres, from the population to legal codes. In-n-deed, growing inequality had a deep impact on the moral values of soci-deed, growing inequality had a deep impact on the moral values of soci-ety, leading to a moral crisis througety, leading to a moral crisis throughhout the Empire. Many scholarout the Empire. Many scholarss have have scrutinized the scope and impact that the war had scrutinized the scope and impact that the war had oon the Ottoman Em-n the Ottoman Em-pire.pire.1124 However, as seen by the puHowever, as seen by the pubblic in 1918, the sole responsibility lic in 1918, the sole responsibility for these incidents and negative changes rested with the CUP. The Em-for these incidents and negative changes rested with the CUP. The Em-pire’s loss was more than a milpire’s loss was more than a miliitary defeattary defeat: : it was a loss of the Empire’s it was a loss of the Empire’s economy, social parametereconomy, social parameterss, and politics. , and politics. AAfter the Empire’s defeat was fter the Empire’s defeat was evident, the opposevident, the opposiition started to raise its voice in protest. tion started to raise its voice in protest.

On October 30, the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the O

On October 30, the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Ot-t-toman Empire and the Enttoman Empire and the Entenente powers. Two days later, the Unionists te powers. Two days later, the Unionists convened theirconvened their last Congress. At the last Congress in November 1918, last Congress. At the last Congress in November 1918, the Unionist leaders abolished the CUP and replaced it with the Renovthe Unionist leaders abolished the CUP and replaced it with the Renova-a-tion Party. During the Congress the CUP leaders decided to flee Istanbul tion Party. During the Congress the CUP leaders decided to flee Istanbul tto o Berlin. Berlin. As mentioned above, tAs mentioned above, the Istanbul press launchedhe Istanbul press launched a fierce a fierce campaign against the party, thus helping to pioneer the opposition.campaign against the party, thus helping to pioneer the opposition.1125 The CUP was seen as entirely at fault for the burdens that the armistice The CUP was seen as entirely at fault for the burdens that the armistice had imposed upon the Empire. The new political had imposed upon the Empire. The new political atatmosphere had an mosphere had an antianti--Unionist character rather than a hUnionist character rather than a haarmonious, liberal character. Dirmonious, liberal character. Dif-f-ferent actors were part of this political campaign including the ferent actors were part of this political campaign including the ulemaulema, , the palace, politthe palace, politiicians, liberals, and opponents of the CUP. In the press, cians, liberals, and opponents of the CUP. In the press, authors such as Celauthors such as Celalal Nuri, Ali Kemal, Refik Halid, and Refi Cevat Nuri, Ali Kemal, Refik Halid, and Refi Cevat

1124 These worThese works cover main works of the field as the boks and articles of Erik Jan Züks cover main works of the field as the boks and articles of Erik Jan Zürcher, rcher, FFeroz Ahmad, Teroz Ahmad, Tarık arık ZZafafer Tunaya, Zafer Toprak, et ceteer Tunaya, Zafer Toprak, et cetera. They are already mentioned ra. They are already mentioned and referenced in this dissertation. However, thand referenced in this dissertation. However, there are new works published in thisere are new works published in this field. Sfield. See Çiğdem Oğuz, ee Çiğdem Oğuz, Moral Crisis in the Ottoman Empire Society, Politics, anMoral Crisis in the Ottoman Empire Society, Politics, and Genderd Gender during WWIduring WWI ((LondoLondon: Bloomsbury, 2021)n: Bloomsbury, 2021)

1125 Enver Pasha,Enver Pasha, Cemal Paşa, TalatCemal Paşa, Talat Paşa, BahatPaşa, Bahattin Ştin Şaakir, Dkir, Dr. Nazım, Cemal Azmi, r. Nazım, Cemal Azmi, Bedri Bey, Bedri Bey, andand DDr. Rusuhi were among the first Unir. Rusuhi were among the first Unionists whonists who left Istanbul. They left Istanbul via o left Istanbul. They left Istanbul via a German torpedo to Sivastopol aa German torpedo to Sivastopol and fled nd fled to Berlinto Berlin. .

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(Ul

(Uluunay) nay) cconstantly published antionstantly published anti--Unionist articles. Moreover, after the Unionist articles. Moreover, after the death of Sultan Mehmet Reşad in July 1918, Sultan Vahdettin, a welldeath of Sultan Mehmet Reşad in July 1918, Sultan Vahdettin, a well--known opponent of the CUP during the Second Constitutional Period,known opponent of the CUP during the Second Constitutional Period, ttook the throne. From the ook the throne. From the ulemaulema to the press, a widespreto the press, a widespreaad antid anti--Unionist front gathered around the palace. Times had been hard since Unionist front gathered around the palace. Times had been hard since the Empire’s defeat in the Balkan Wars, and the people were angry and the Empire’s defeat in the Balkan Wars, and the people were angry and desperate. As General Franceht d'Esperey writes in adesperate. As General Franceht d'Esperey writes in a lletter to the etter to the French Defense Minister, in a society plagFrench Defense Minister, in a society plaguued by growing inequality, ed by growing inequality, “everything alive and beautiful belongs to the CUP.” The anger against “everything alive and beautiful belongs to the CUP.” The anger against the CUP transformed into a hunt for the Unionists, eventually fueling the the CUP transformed into a hunt for the Unionists, eventually fueling the Ankara movement and the AnaAnkara movement and the Anatotolian movement led by Mustafa Klian movement led by Mustafa Keemal mal Pasha. Although he hPasha. Although he haad gone to Samsun as an Ottoman officer, in a very d gone to Samsun as an Ottoman officer, in a very short time, he became the leader of the national movement. He immedi-short time, he became the leader of the national movement. He immedi-ately held two congresses in Erzurum and Sivas to unite the whole ately held two congresses in Erzurum and Sivas to unite the whole grassroots movgrassroots movemement in Anatolia. ent in Anatolia. In addition to theIn addition to the local colocal conngresses ingresses in various regions of the Anatolia, two Unionist organvarious regions of the Anatolia, two Unionist organiizations, zations, the the Guard Guard ((KarakolKarakol) and ) and the the General RevGeneral Revoolutionary Organization of the Islamic lutionary Organization of the Islamic World (World (Umum AlemUmum Alem--i İslam İhtilal Teşkilatıi İslam İhtilal Teşkilatı)),, channeled humachanneled human rn re-e-sources, organizational advantages, and other sources from the CUP in-sources, organizational advantages, and other sources from the CUP in-to the Anatolian movement.to the Anatolian movement.1126 IIn the Congresses of Erzn the Congresses of Erzuurum and Sivas, rum and Sivas, the Association of Defence of Rights emphasized that the new ithe Association of Defence of Rights emphasized that the new innstitu-stitu-tion founded for the National Struggle would notion founded for the National Struggle would not be the sut be the succcessor of the cessor of the CUP. Thus, as mentioned above, it was imperative that Mustafa Kemal CUP. Thus, as mentioned above, it was imperative that Mustafa Kemal Pasha distinguished the Association of Defense for the National Rights Pasha distinguished the Association of Defense for the National Rights from the CUP from day one.from the CUP from day one.

Izzet Pasha,

Izzet Pasha, a distinguished soldier, established the first govea distinguished soldier, established the first government rnment of the Armistice period. During the Great War, four Unionist ministers in of the Armistice period. During the Great War, four Unionist ministers in the cabinet,the cabinet,1127 including Cavid Beyincluding Cavid Bey, generally opposed the CUP’s pol, generally opposed the CUP’s poli-i-

1126 ErikErik Jan ZürJan Zürcher, “The Lcher, “The Laast Phase in thst Phase in the History of the Ce History of the Committee of ommittee of UnionUnion and and PrProgress (1923ogress (1923--1924), la1924), last modified: 1st modified: 199991, 1, https://scholarlypublications.https://scholarlypublications.universiuniversiteitleideteitleiden.nn.nll/hand/handle/1887/le/1887/25072507

1127 ThesThesee ministers werministers were: Minister of Inte: Minister of Internal Affairernal Affairs Alis Ali Fethi Fethi Bey, Minister of JustiBey, Minister of Justice ce Hayri EfendHayri Efendii,, Minister of Navy Rauf Bey, and MiMinister of Navy Rauf Bey, and Minister ofnister of Finance Cavid Bey. Finance Cavid Bey.

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cies.

cies.1128 However, the sultan still wanted to replace theseHowever, the sultan still wanted to replace these ministers, dministers, de-e-spite the unconstitutional nature of sspite the unconstitutional nature of such a move. Izzet Pasha resigned in uch a move. Izzet Pasha resigned in protest on November 8, 1918. Tevfik Pasha formed a new cabinet a few protest on November 8, 1918. Tevfik Pasha formed a new cabinet a few days before the de facto occupation of Istanbul by the Entente podays before the de facto occupation of Istanbul by the Entente powwers ers on November 11, 1918.on November 11, 1918.1129

On the

On the morning of November 13, 1918, Istanbul dwellers wokmorning of November 13, 1918, Istanbul dwellers woke up e up and found the British and French navies moored in the Bosphorus, and found the British and French navies moored in the Bosphorus, bbeegining the fivegining the five--year period of occupation of Allied forces. The escape year period of occupation of Allied forces. The escape of the Unionist leaders, division among the Unionists, and thof the Unionist leaders, division among the Unionists, and the claims of e claims of the Greek and Armenian deputies made it the Greek and Armenian deputies made it difficult for the parliament to difficult for the parliament to achieve any political decisions. On December 21, 1918, Sultan Vahdettin achieve any political decisions. On December 21, 1918, Sultan Vahdettin dissolved the parliament.dissolved the parliament.

During

During this period, Cavid Bey continued his meetings and intethis period, Cavid Bey continued his meetings and inter-r-views. He gaviews. He gave interviews to newspapers such as the ve interviews to newspapers such as the Morning PostMorning Post and and Le TempsLe Temps and held talks with the officers of the OPDA, IOB, and ambaand held talks with the officers of the OPDA, IOB, and ambas-s-sadors. At the same time, he continued to meet other Unionists. After sadors. At the same time, he continued to meet other Unionists. After the CUP leaders fled Istanbul, Cavid Bey, Kemal Bey (Kara), the CUP leaders fled Istanbul, Cavid Bey, Kemal Bey (Kara), and Fethi and Fethi Bey became the most prominent members of tBey became the most prominent members of the CUP. Cavid Bey cohe CUP. Cavid Bey conntin-tin-ued to meet his friends very often and contributed to their work. For ued to meet his friends very often and contributed to their work. For example, when he met Fethi Bey, they talked about the new newspaper example, when he met Fethi Bey, they talked about the new newspaper he was trying to publish, he was trying to publish, The PulpitThe Pulpit ((MinbMinberer), of which Mustafa Kemal ), of which Mustafa Kemal Pasha provided a signifiPasha provided a significant part of its capital. Cavid Bey and Fethi Bey cant part of its capital. Cavid Bey and Fethi Bey agreed that the newspaper would not be a propaganda tool of the Reno-agreed that the newspaper would not be a propaganda tool of the Reno-vation Party as vation Party as TaninTanin had been. Cavid Bey, along with Karasu Efendi, had been. Cavid Bey, along with Karasu Efendi, pledged to help Fpledged to help Fethi Bey find more capital for the newspethi Bey find more capital for the newspaaper.per.1130

1128 See also, Refik Halid Karay, See also, Refik Halid Karay, Minebab İlelmihrabMinebab İlelmihrab, , (Istanbu(Istanbul: İnkılal: İnkılap vp vee Aka Aka KitabevlKitabevleri, eri, 1964). 1964). Karay’s memoirKaray’s memoirs of Armistice pers of Armistice period serves aiod serves a benebenefficial icial opportunity to oopportunity to ob-b-serveserve the intellectthe intellectuuaals who were against the Ankara movls who were against the Ankara movement.ement.

1129 Muhittin Birgen, Muhittin Birgen, İttihat ve Terakki’de On Sene İttihat ve Terakki’nin Soİttihat ve Terakki’de On Sene İttihat ve Terakki’nin Sonu, Vol nu, Vol 22, , (Istan(Istanbulbul:: KitaKitap Yayınep Yayınevi, 2006), 5vi, 2006), 54499--561561;; Osman SOsman Selim Kocahanoğlu, elim Kocahanoğlu, İttihatİttihat--TeraTerakki’nkki’niin Yücen Yüce Divan SorgulamasıDivan Sorgulaması, (I, (Istanbul: Temelstanbul: Temel YYayınları, 2017), 17. See also: ayınları, 2017), 17. See also: OrOrhan Koloğhan Koloğlu, lu, 1918 Aydınlarımızın Bunalım Yılı Zaferi Nihai’den Tam Teslimiyete1918 Aydınlarımızın Bunalım Yılı Zaferi Nihai’den Tam Teslimiyete, (, (IIs-s-tanbultanbul: Boyut Y: Boyut Yayıayınnları,ları, 2000). 2000).

1130 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol Ruznâme, Vol IIIIII, 626, 626--27.27.

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The U

The Unionists were stood trial three times between 1918 and 1926. nionists were stood trial three times between 1918 and 1926. The first and second The first and second trials weretrials were held byheld by order oforder of anan Ottoman Ottoman martial martial court. The third was the Independence Tricourt. The third was the Independence Tribunalbunal in 1926. The first was in 1926. The first was the the interrinterroogation of the Ottoman Parliament. The investigation of the Ottoman Parliament. The investigation was held gation was held by the Fifth Branch (by the Fifth Branch (Beşinci ŞubeBeşinci Şube) of the ) of the pparliament. The most first and arliament. The most first and crucial political step in this period came from Fuat Bey, a deputy of Dcrucial political step in this period came from Fuat Bey, a deputy of Di-i-vaniye. Fuat Bey's tenvaniye. Fuat Bey's ten--point proposal to the parliament was to issue point proposal to the parliament was to issue courtcourt--martials (martials (DivDivâânn--ı ı ÂÂllii) to the war cabinets of Talat Pasha) to the war cabinets of Talat Pasha and Said and Said Halim Pasha. This judgement aimed to charge the Unionists for the eHalim Pasha. This judgement aimed to charge the Unionists for the en-n-trance of the Ottoman Empire into the First World War, war profiteetrance of the Ottoman Empire into the First World War, war profiteer-r-ing, censoing, censorrship, deportation of the Armenians, et cetera. The Fifth ship, deportation of the Armenians, et cetera. The Fifth CommiCommission, founded to investigate the Unission, founded to investigate the Unionists’ wartime activities, onists’ wartime activities, aimed to interrogate the fifteen CUP ministers who had taken office baimed to interrogate the fifteen CUP ministers who had taken office be-e-tween 1914 and 1918. tween 1914 and 1918. Under this proposal, tUnder this proposal, the deputies he deputies would bewould be judjudg-g-ing the other deputies. During this interrogation, thing the other deputies. During this interrogation, the defendants did not e defendants did not have the right thave the right to an attorney. The declarations of the Unionists were o an attorney. The declarations of the Unionists were benefbenefiicial to enlighten the course of events of the Great War period. cial to enlighten the course of events of the Great War period. Cavid BeyCavid Bey was interrogated from Nwas interrogated from Noovember 24vember 24––26, 1918. Cavid Bey26, 1918. Cavid Bey's 's defense lasted about two and defense lasted about two and a half hours. The threea half hours. The three--day trial covday trial covered ered the government’s declaration of mthe government’s declaration of moobilization bilization ofof the Empire’s entry into the Empire’s entry into the war. During his defense, Cavid Beythe war. During his defense, Cavid Bey backed up his claims with evbacked up his claims with evi-i-dence, such as teldence, such as teleegrams from the embassies. Cavid Beygrams from the embassies. Cavid Bey writes in his writes in his diarydiary that his defense had a positive impathat his defense had a positive impact on the commission.ct on the commission.1131 In In the end, the fault for ethe end, the fault for enntering the war was attributed to Enver Pasha. tering the war was attributed to Enver Pasha. The inquiry was cut short when parliThe inquiry was cut short when parliaament closed on December 21, ment closed on December 21, 1918. 1918.

Hostility toward the Unionists increased enormouslostility toward the Unionists increased enormously during the cab-y during the cab-iinet of Damat Ferit Pnet of Damat Ferit Pashaasha, which was, which was formed on March 4, 1919.formed on March 4, 1919.1132

1131 EErrol Şadol Şadi Erdinç. i Erdinç. Osmanlı İttiOsmanlı İttihad ve Terakkihad ve Terakki CCemiyeti Yargılamaları. Birinci Dünemiyeti Yargılamaları. Birinci Dünya ya SavaşıSavaşı’nda İttihad ve Terakki Hük’nda İttihad ve Terakki Hükümetlerinin Sorumluluğuna dair. Meclisümetlerinin Sorumluluğuna dair. Meclis--i Mebusan i Mebusan SorSoruuşturmasışturması (Is(Isttanbulanbul: Türkiy: Türkiye İş Bankasıe İş Bankası Kültür YayınlaKültür Yayınları, 2018), XIIrı, 2018), XII--XIIXIII, 227I, 227--315. 315.

1132 SiSinna Akşia Akşin, n, Istanbul HükümetlerIstanbul Hükümetleri ve Milli Müci ve Milli Mücaaddele (Mutlakiyete Dönüş 1918ele (Mutlakiyete Dönüş 1918--1919),1919), Vol Vol II (I(Istanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları: 2004), 201. stanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları: 2004), 201.

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Damat Ferit Pasha's opposition intersected with the British policy to

Damat Ferit Pasha's opposition intersected with the British policy to suppress the Unionists, who posed an obstacle to British policies in Isuppress the Unionists, who posed an obstacle to British policies in Is-s-tanbul. The Itanbul. The Isstanbul government fulltanbul government fully believed that the Empire was in a y believed that the Empire was in a ddisastrous situation due to the leadership of the Unionists, and the only isastrous situation due to the leadership of the Unionists, and the only way to get out of this was reconciliation with Allied Powers. Damat Ferit way to get out of this was reconciliation with Allied Powers. Damat Ferit Pasha hastened the dismembering of the CUP. His government confis-Pasha hastened the dismembering of the CUP. His government confis-cated ncated national companies and abolished the Mational companies and abolished the Ministry of Subsiinistry of Subsisstence. He tence. He launched a new wave of purges. The government arrested Ulaunched a new wave of purges. The government arrested Unnionist ionist deputies and highdeputies and high--ranking bureaucrats. More than sixty Unionist firanking bureaucrats. More than sixty Unionist figgures ures were deported to the island of Malta on May 18, 1919. Dawere deported to the island of Malta on May 18, 1919. Damat Ferit Pa-mat Ferit Pa-sha continued the purge asha continued the purge and tried civilian members alongside military nd tried civilian members alongside military officers, issuing officers, issuing bothboth courtcourt--martials. Meanwhile, the Emartials. Meanwhile, the Enntente continued tente continued their invasion of Istanbul. The French took the most glorious step in this their invasion of Istanbul. The French took the most glorious step in this regard, and Generalregard, and General Franchet d'Esprey held a show Franchet d'Esprey held a show trial trial in Istanin Istanbul on bul on February 8, 1919. February 8, 1919.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey wrwroteote in his diary, “Those who will distribute in his diary, “Those who will distribute justice and rights to the world still act like the captains justice and rights to the world still act like the captains of the Middle Ages. Moreover, they single out their ene-of the Middle Ages. Moreover, they single out their ene-mies, whom thmies, whom they call cruel and barbarian."ey call cruel and barbarian."1133

The sehe second coucond courtrt--martial of the Unionist leamartial of the Unionist leadders begun on April 27ers begun on April 27, , 1919. Cavid Bey1919. Cavid Bey was sentenced to 15 years of hard labor on July 5, was sentenced to 15 years of hard labor on July 5, 1919.1919.1134 The The ttrial covered the issues related to the Great War period rial covered the issues related to the Great War period including the deportaincluding the deportation of the Armenians. The CUP becametion of the Armenians. The CUP became a legala legal personality personality thatthat carried a historical responsibility for carried a historical responsibility for wartime atroci-wartime atroci-ttiieses. These developments are the first indicators that Cavid Bey. These developments are the first indicators that Cavid Bey’s time in ’s time in politics was running out. On Mpolitics was running out. On Mayay 9, 1919, Cavid Bey9, 1919, Cavid Bey received a mreceived a myyssteri-teri-ous phone call whous phone call whileile he was at he was at home. Cahome. Cavid Beyvid Bey did not disrupt his pro-did not disrupt his pro-

1133 Cavid Bey, MeşrutCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet iyet RRuuznâmeznâme, III, III,68,680. Akşin, 0. Akşin, IsIsttanbul Hükümetlanbul Hükümetleri ve Milli Mücaderi ve Milli Mücadele ele (Mutlaki(Mutlakiyete yete DDönüş 1önüş 1918918--1919),1919), 162162--163.163.

1134 Erol Şadi, ErdErol Şadi, Erdiinnç, ç, Osmanlı İttihad ve Terakki CemiOsmanlı İttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti Yargyeti Yargılamaları. 8 mart 335 ılamaları. 8 mart 335 (1919) (1919) tarihli kararname ile kurulan Dîvântarihli kararname ile kurulan Dîvân--I HarbI Harb--i Örfî Yi Örfî Yargılaargılamasmasıı ((IIstanbstanbul: Türkul: Türkiye İş Ban-iye İş Ban-kakassı Kültür Yayını Kültür Yayınları, 2018), 564.ları, 2018), 564.

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gram and went to dinner at Uğurlu Han. Two days later Cavid Bey

gram and went to dinner at Uğurlu Han. Two days later Cavid Bey's 's name was on the list of Unionists to be arrested that was published in name was on the list of Unionists to be arrested that was published in the newspapers. Cavid Beythe newspapers. Cavid Bey decided to hide idecided to hide in the house of his friend n the house of his friend Mahir Bey fMahir Bey for aboutor about 100 days.100 days.

It was not easy for Cavid Bey

It was not easy for Cavid Bey to hide in a house without going outo hide in a house without going out-t-side, especially in the house of someone else. Although he often had visi-side, especially in the house of someone else. Although he often had visi-tors, he was often depressed. He was also closely following ttors, he was often depressed. He was also closely following the dhe deevel-vel-opments in Istanbul. During hopments in Istanbul. During his days is days in hiding, in hiding, İzmirİzmir was occupied by was occupied by the Greeks on May 15, 1919. This was a turning point for the Nthe Greeks on May 15, 1919. This was a turning point for the Naational tional Struggle. The occupation sent shock waves across the country. Sul-Struggle. The occupation sent shock waves across the country. Sul-tanahmet was filled with hundreds of peopletanahmet was filled with hundreds of people protesting the occupprotesting the occupaation tion of of İzmirİzmir. . Halide EHalide Edip Hanım wdip Hanım was on the sas on the stage and giving a speech to the tage and giving a speech to the people gathered there. Cavid Beypeople gathered there. Cavid Bey could only witness this from a dicould only witness this from a dis-s-tance. On July 1, 1919, when a fire broke out in Mahir Bey's house, Cavid tance. On July 1, 1919, when a fire broke out in Mahir Bey's house, Cavid BeyBey moved into the house of his friend Nuri Bey in Bemoved into the house of his friend Nuri Bey in Beyoğlu. Cyoğlu. Cavid Beyavid Bey cocontemplated going to Ankara to join the National Struggle. He had ntemplated going to Ankara to join the National Struggle. He had written to Halide Hanım to convey this message. She responded on July written to Halide Hanım to convey this message. She responded on July 14, 1919. According to her letter, it would be better for Cavid Bey14, 1919. According to her letter, it would be better for Cavid Bey to to hide until he was invited to Anhide until he was invited to Anatolia. atolia. He was rejeHe was rejected by the Anatolian cted by the Anatolian movement.movement.1135 After this development, although the precise details are After this development, although the precise details are not clear, Cavid Beynot clear, Cavid Bey plansplans to flee abroad. Mr. Weil, the former director of to flee abroad. Mr. Weil, the former director of Régie Tobacco, helped Cavid BeyRégie Tobacco, helped Cavid Bey flee Istanbul. He had been paying him flee Istanbul. He had been paying him vvisits duisits during his moring his months in hiding. nths in hiding.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey left Nuri Bey’s house on August 30, 1919. According to his left Nuri Bey’s house on August 30, 1919. According to his journal, he stayed in Mahir Bey’s house for 114 days and 60 days in Nuri journal, he stayed in Mahir Bey’s house for 114 days and 60 days in Nuri Bey’s house. Cavid BeyBey’s house. Cavid Bey had recorded the list of people who visited him. had recorded the list of people who visited him. FortyForty--eight meeight men and womenn and women visited Cavid Beyvisited Cavid Bey 389 times at Mahir Bey’s 389 times at Mahir Bey’s house. Sixtyhouse. Sixty--three men and women visited Cavid Beythree men and women visited Cavid Bey 333 times at Nuri 333 times at Nuri Bey’s house.Bey’s house.1136 Interestingly, Cavid BeyInterestingly, Cavid Bey always takes note of his visitorsalways takes note of his visitors whilewhile in prison or hiding. in prison or hiding.

1135 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol IVRuznâme, Vol IV, 11., 11.

1136 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, VolRuznâme, Vol IVIV, 16, 16--117.7.

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The French ship

The French ship upon whupon which Caviich Cavid Beyd Bey wouldwould escape escape weighed aweighed an-n-chor chor inin Istanbul on August 31, 1919. The French occupation forces acIstanbul on August 31, 1919. The French occupation forces acac-ac-compcompaanied him on his way to the port in Istanbul. nied him on his way to the port in Istanbul. After a week at sea, After a week at sea, Mr. Weil met Mr. Weil met Cavid BeyCavid Bey at the port of Toulon on September 7, 1919. at the port of Toulon on September 7, 1919. They travelThey traveled togeted together uher unntil Ltil Lyon. Mr. Weil told Cavid Beyyon. Mr. Weil told Cavid Bey that Georges that Georges Clemenceau, the Prime MiClemenceau, the Prime Minnister of France, had made him miss Europe. ister of France, had made him miss Europe. Through the years, though Mr. Weil and Cavid BeyThrough the years, though Mr. Weil and Cavid Bey had primarily dihad primarily dis-s-cussed business together, acussed business together, acccording to Cavid Beycording to Cavid Bey, he was a re, he was a real frienal friend to d to him inhim in hard times. Mr. Weil was cohard times. Mr. Weil was connnected to Cavid Beynected to Cavid Bey for a very long for a very long time. Both Cavid Beytime. Both Cavid Bey and Mr. Weil knew that Cavid Beyand Mr. Weil knew that Cavid Bey could not help could not help the French while he was in hiding in Istanbul. However, in Europe, Cavid the French while he was in hiding in Istanbul. However, in Europe, Cavid BeyBey could be used as an intermcould be used as an intermediate bediate between the etween the Ankara goAnkara govvernment ernment and France. Although Mr. Weil had offered Cavid Beyand France. Although Mr. Weil had offered Cavid Bey a job in an Austrian a job in an Austrian Bank that would fBank that would fiinance the reconstruction of France after the Great nance the reconstruction of France after the Great War, he did not accept this offer. In Europe, Cavid BeyWar, he did not accept this offer. In Europe, Cavid Bey was more con-was more con-cerned wicerned with beingth being able to stable to stay in touch with the Unionists. Uay in touch with the Unionists. Unntil his til his death, Cavid Beydeath, Cavid Bey was always at the table to discuss financial negotiwas always at the table to discuss financial negotia-a-tions. The main question after the war was whose side he was on and tions. The main question after the war was whose side he was on and whether he would negotwhether he would negotiiate in favor of the Entente. ate in favor of the Entente.

Cavid

Cavid BeyBey arrarriveived ind in MonMontreux on September 23, 1919. He met latreux on September 23, 1919. He met law-w-yers and acquaintances as well as his friends, such as Necmeddin Molla yers and acquaintances as well as his friends, such as Necmeddin Molla Bey. Cavid BeyBey. Cavid Bey's most critical problems during his years in exile were 's most critical problems during his years in exile were the lack of sufficient income and bureaucratic problems the lack of sufficient income and bureaucratic problems such as such as paspass-s-port anport and visa issues. It was not very easy for him. Even once he received d visa issues. It was not very easy for him. Even once he received a passport and visa, the Swiss office restricted his travel. His main aim a passport and visa, the Swiss office restricted his travel. His main aim was to visit his friends scattered around European cities. In terms of his was to visit his friends scattered around European cities. In terms of his personal financial ispersonal financial issues, Casues, Cavid Beyvid Bey notnot only sought loans for the Eonly sought loans for the Em-m-pire all of his life, but he also sought personal loans for himself. Since he pire all of his life, but he also sought personal loans for himself. Since he could not envision how long he would be in exile, Cavid Beycould not envision how long he would be in exile, Cavid Bey wrote to his wrote to his friends in Istanbul asking them to sell his household itefriends in Istanbul asking them to sell his household items. Althms. Although he ough he begbegan to repay his debts after he became a representative of the OPDA an to repay his debts after he became a representative of the OPDA in 1922, Cavid Beyin 1922, Cavid Bey still owed money to his friends when he died. still owed money to his friends when he died.

While Cavid Bey

While Cavid Bey was in exile, he constantly communicated with the was in exile, he constantly communicated with the other Unionists. Hüseyin Cahit Bey turother Unionists. Hüseyin Cahit Bey turned his ned his letters witletters with Cavid Beyh Cavid Bey in-in-

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to a book later on. His correspondence with Enver Pasha, Talat Pasha,

to a book later on. His correspondence with Enver Pasha, Talat Pasha, and Dr. Nazım primarily concerned three main issues: establishing a and Dr. Nazım primarily concerned three main issues: establishing a new organization, negotiations with foreign diplomats, and attempts to new organization, negotiations with foreign diplomats, and attempts to return to Turkreturn to Turkey. Caviey. Cavid Beyd Bey playplayeedd a vital role in each of these proa vital role in each of these proccess-ess-es.es.1137 Although theAlthough thesese letters letters are not featuredare not featured in in Hüseyin Cahit Bey’sHüseyin Cahit Bey’s book, Dr. Nazım’s letters to Cavid Beybook, Dr. Nazım’s letters to Cavid Bey indicate his distrust and skeptindicate his distrust and skepti-i-cism cism ofof Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s capacity to govern the whole Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s capacity to govern the whole nationalnational indepenindependdenence war militarily and politically. Moreover, he is angry that ce war militarily and politically. Moreover, he is angry that Ankara excluded the Unionists from the National IndAnkara excluded the Unionists from the National Indeependence War. His pendence War. His letters letters showshow that Ankara distrustthat Ankara distrusteded prompromiinent Unionist figures like nent Unionist figures like himself. Ankara himself. Ankara also didalso did not allow Drnot allow Dr. Nazım . Nazım to join theto join the national movnational move-e-ment. Dr. Nazım ment. Dr. Nazım llaaterter meetsmeets Enver Pasha in his visitEnver Pasha in his visitss to Moscow and Ba-to Moscow and Ba-tum.tum.1138 Dr. NazımDr. Nazım’s’s letters showletters show thethe polarizpolarizinging didisscoursecourse among the among the UnionistsUnionists. His negative stance against Ankara in his letters is ringing the . His negative stance against Ankara in his letters is ringing the bells of tbells of the futurehe future coconnflict iflict in 1926.n 1926.

1137 Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın, Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın, İttihtaçı Liderlerin Gizli Mektuplarıİttihtaçı Liderlerin Gizli Mektupları, ed. Osman Sel, ed. Osman Selim Koca-im Koca-hahanoğnoğllu. (Iu. (Iststanbul:anbul: Temel YayınTemel Yayınlları, 2002). arı, 2002).

1138 Yalçın, Yalçın, İttihtaçıİttihtaçı Liderlerin Liderlerin GizliGizli MektupMektuplarıları, 127, 128, 130, 1, 127, 128, 130, 134, 136, 137.34, 136, 137.

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Figure 5.5:

Figure 5.5: Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s passport’s passport. This passport was. This passport was issued on June 14, issued on June 14, 19201920. . Talat Öncü Archive. Talat Öncü Archive.

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After ordering his affairs regarding his passport and visa, Cavid Bey

After ordering his affairs regarding his passport and visa, Cavid Bey oorrganized a meeting in Rome, where prominent Unionist meganized a meeting in Rome, where prominent Unionist members metmbers met for the lafor the last time. Cavid Bey arrived in Rome on December 6, 1920. He st time. Cavid Bey arrived in Rome on December 6, 1920. He stayed in Rome for more than a month and met highstayed in Rome for more than a month and met high--ranking politicians ranking politicians from both Turkey and Italy. Cavid Bey also met people from the Ankara from both Turkey and Italy. Cavid Bey also met people from the Ankara government including Bekir Sami Bey agovernment including Bekir Sami Bey and Cevat nd Cevat Bey, the miBey, the military assilitary assis-s-tant of Mustafa Kemal Pasha. He informs Bekir Sami Bey about financial tant of Mustafa Kemal Pasha. He informs Bekir Sami Bey about financial issues, especially those concerning France and Italy. On January 6, 1921, issues, especially those concerning France and Italy. On January 6, 1921, Talat Pasha arrives in Rome. Ahmet Rıza, Çürüksulu Mahmut Pasha, Talat Pasha arrives in Rome. Ahmet Rıza, Çürüksulu Mahmut Pasha, Hüseyin Hilmi Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, CâPasha, Câmi Bey (Baymi Bey (Baykurt), Reşid Safvet, and Galip Kkurt), Reşid Safvet, and Galip Keema-ma-li Bey also come to Rome for the meeting. The first meeting was held on li Bey also come to Rome for the meeting. The first meeting was held on January 16, 1921, and five subsequent meetings were heldJanuary 16, 1921, and five subsequent meetings were held afterafter. A. Allt-t-hough there were no concrete results from the meetings, new prhough there were no concrete results from the meetings, new proograms grams wewere discussere discussed. d.

After the Rome meeting, Cavid Bey participated in the London Co

After the Rome meeting, Cavid Bey participated in the London Con-n-ference held to convince the Greek and the Ottoman governments ference held to convince the Greek and the Ottoman governments toto re-re-visvisee the Sèvres Treaty. The invitation the Sèvres Treaty. The invitation toto the conference became a crthe conference became a criisis sis between Istanbul and Ankarabetween Istanbul and Ankara. Natural. Naturally, ly, the the AnkAnkara government ara government sawsaw itself as the only representative of the national will. At last,itself as the only representative of the national will. At last, anan offoffiicial cial invitation was also conveyed to the Ankara government. Cavid Bey ainvitation was also conveyed to the Ankara government. Cavid Bey ar-r-rived in London upon the invitation of Lloyd George on Marrived in London upon the invitation of Lloyd George on Marcch 2, h 2, 1921.1921.1139 OsOsman Nizamman Nizamî Pasha andî Pasha and Bekir Sami Bey, the head of the An-Bekir Sami Bey, the head of the An-kara delegationkara delegation, had asked , had asked Lloyd GeorLloyd Georgge and Lord Curzon e and Lord Curzon to dispatch to dispatch Cavid Bey to LondonCavid Bey to London. He participate. He participated d in the negotiations in the Finan-in the negotiations in the Finan-cial Cocial Commmittee with Bekir Sami Bey and Cami Bey. The Italian andmittee with Bekir Sami Bey and Cami Bey. The Italian and French iFrench issues ssues such such as railways, mines, as railways, mines, and the and the Syrian border were pri-Syrian border were pri-marily discussedmarily discussed.. AAccording to ccording to Cavid BeyCavid Bey, the discussions remained in-, the discussions remained in-conclconcluusive. The most positive development for him was the agreement sive. The most positive development for him was the agreement to rto reelease the Unionist prisoners in Malta. The Tlease the Unionist prisoners in Malta. The Turkish deurkish delegation legation agagreed with the British delegation on this issue. According to Cavid reed with the British delegation on this issue. According to Cavid Bey's diBey's diaaries covering this pries covering this peeriod, the Turkish delegation led by Bekir riod, the Turkish delegation led by Bekir

1139 Maliye Nazırı Cavid Bey. Maliye Nazırı Cavid Bey. Felaket Felaket Günleri MGünleri Mütareke Devrinin Feci Tarihi, Vol IIütareke Devrinin Feci Tarihi, Vol II. Istanbul: . Istanbul: Temel Yayınları, 2000), 127. Temel Yayınları, 2000), 127.

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Sami Bey was weak in terms of its knowledge of the Ottoman Empire's

Sami Bey was weak in terms of its knowledge of the Ottoman Empire's issues.issues. On the other hand,On the other hand, Bekir Sami Bekir Sami BeyBey would bwould be forced to resign e forced to resign due due to the concessions he gave during the talksto the concessions he gave during the talks. . The negotiations had been The negotiations had been conducted as in the preconducted as in the pre--war era, and the Great Powers perceived the war era, and the Great Powers perceived the Turkish side as one of the defeated countries of the First World War. Turkish side as one of the defeated countries of the First World War. As I As I mentionementioned above, Cad above, Cavid Bey contivid Bey continnues to conduct his work within the ues to conduct his work within the same framework and mindset assame framework and mindset as inin the prethe pre--war era. The differenwar era. The differencce be be-e-tween the two periods in Cavid Bey's state of mind is rather small. tween the two periods in Cavid Bey's state of mind is rather small. DuDur-r-ing the conference hing the conference he has no conception of the new nationae has no conception of the new national sensitivi-l sensitivi-ties uties unnfolding in Ankara. folding in Ankara.

On March 16, 1921, Cavid Bey hears about Talat Pasha’s murder. He

On March 16, 1921, Cavid Bey hears about Talat Pasha’s murder. He notes in his diarynotes in his diary that that ““he cried in his rooms for hours.he cried in his rooms for hours.”” Cavid Bey's Cavid Bey's prophecy in 1915 that Talat would be killed by an Armenian bullet had prophecy in 1915 that Talat would be killed by an Armenian bullet had come true. come true. Despite theDespite their clashes over the ir clashes over the years,years, they were very close. they were very close. Cavid Bey cancelled his appointments, and the next day, he leftCavid Bey cancelled his appointments, and the next day, he left LoLon-n-don.don.1140 Cavid Bey felt very sorry for all the Unionists who were killed. Cavid Bey felt very sorry for all the Unionists who were killed. Finally, on September 19, 1922, after an Armenian militantFinally, on September 19, 1922, after an Armenian militant killed Cemkilled Cemal al Pasha in Baku, the Ankara government declared that the Unionists were Pasha in Baku, the Ankara government declared that the Unionists were no longer against the National Forces (no longer against the National Forces (KKuvauva--i Milliyei Milliye) and that they may ) and that they may return to the new country. After Cavid Bey crossed into France in 1922, return to the new country. After Cavid Bey crossed into France in 1922, he was warned by the Frenchhe was warned by the French police abopolice about Armenian militants on April ut Armenian militants on April 13, 1922.13, 1922.1141

In 1921, significant changes occurred in Cavid Bey's life. Firstly, he

In 1921, significant changes occurred in Cavid Bey's life. Firstly, he met Hüseyin Cahit, who was released from prison in Malta. Secondly, he met Hüseyin Cahit, who was released from prison in Malta. Secondly, he married Aliye Hanımmarried Aliye Hanım1142 in the Swiss Alps on August 14, 1921. Thin the Swiss Alps on August 14, 1921. Thiirdly, rdly, in Oin October 1921, they moved to France with Hüseyin Cahit and his factober 1921, they moved to France with Hüseyin Cahit and his fammi-i-

1140 Maliye NaMaliye Nazırzırıı CaviCavid d Bey. Bey. FFelaket Günleelaket Günlerri Mütareke Devi Mütareke Devrinin Feci Tarihi,rinin Feci Tarihi, Vol IIVol II, 108, 108--153.153.

1141 CaCavid Bey, Meşrutiyet vid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, VoRuznâme, Voll IVIV, 357., 357.

1142 Nazlı Aliye Hanım was aNazlı Aliye Hanım was a CircassaCircassan (cherkes) won (cherkes) woman adopted by the palace in her early man adopted by the palace in her early year. She first married Buryear. She first married Burhaneddin haneddin EfeEfenndi, sdi, son of Abon of Abddülhamid II.ülhamid II. They had one sThey had one son, on, Ertuğrul OsmanErtuğrul Osman Efendi. AliEfendi. Aliye Haye Hannım andım and Burhaneddin Efendi weBurhaneddin Efendi were divorced inre divorced in 11919. 919. Aliye Hanım and Cavid Bey metAliye Hanım and Cavid Bey met in Istanin Istanbul. They were part of the bul. They were part of the same social milieu. same social milieu. They got married on 1921, and theThey got married on 1921, and their son, Şir son, Şiariar YalçıYalçın, was bn, was boorn in 1924.rn in 1924. AAcccording to cording to CCavid Bey’s diary kavid Bey’s diary kept for his ept for his son, son, ŞŞiar’ıniar’ın GünlüğüGünlüğü, they were co, they were content in theirntent in their mmaarrriage.riage.

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ly. Until July 1922, when he returned to Istanb

ly. Until July 1922, when he returned to Istanbuul, Cavid Bey lived prl, Cavid Bey lived pri-i-marily in Menton, a French city in the south. However, he traveled frmarily in Menton, a French city in the south. However, he traveled fre-e-quently to Italy and Britain. At this tiquently to Italy and Britain. At this timme, Huseyine, Huseyin Cahit Bey's position at Cahit Bey's position at the OPDA had expired, and Cavid Bey was nominated as his successor. the OPDA had expired, and Cavid Bey was nominated as his successor. On May 11, 1922, thOn May 11, 1922, thee OPDA assigned him as the representative of the OPDA assigned him as the representative of the Ottoman Empire. Cavid Bey nervously waited for Ankara's reaction. Ottoman Empire. Cavid Bey nervously waited for Ankara's reaction. When no objection When no objection ccame he retame he returned to Istanbul on July 3, 1922. During urned to Istanbul on July 3, 1922. During his travel back to Istanbul four years later, he calculated his debt this travel back to Istanbul four years later, he calculated his debt too his his friends. He drew a table in his diary. According to the table he borrowed friends. He drew a table in his diary. According to the table he borrowed 36,500 36,500 lliras during his exile. He received this moneyiras during his exile. He received this money from Necmefrom Necmeddin ddin Molla Bey, Kazım Emin Bey, Kibar Rıza Bey, and Mahmut Bey. He had to Molla Bey, Kazım Emin Bey, Kibar Rıza Bey, and Mahmut Bey. He had to work regularly for a few years to pay work regularly for a few years to pay ooff these debts. However, his new ff these debts. However, his new job was well suited for that. As the OPDA representative, Cavid Bey was job was well suited for that. As the OPDA representative, Cavid Bey was the second highest paid persthe second highest paid person in Turkon in Turkey after Mustafa Kemal Pasha. ey after Mustafa Kemal Pasha. His monthly salary was 1,600 His monthly salary was 1,600 llirairass. Cavid Bey had a quiet arrival in I. Cavid Bey had a quiet arrival in Is-s-tanbul, althtanbul, althoough his friends and journalists visited him frequently. Cavid ugh his friends and journalists visited him frequently. Cavid Bey was a person who liked to be with his friends.Bey was a person who liked to be with his friends.1143 A reporter who A reporter who sawsaw him at thhim at the Cercle d'Orient described him as having aged, ae Cercle d'Orient described him as having aged, allthough though his eyes his eyes keptkept their vitality. As soon as Cavid Beytheir vitality. As soon as Cavid Bey arrived, he began his arrived, he began his work at the OPDA. work at the OPDA.

While in Istanbul, Cavid Bey

While in Istanbul, Cavid Bey meets with his former Unionist friends, meets with his former Unionist friends, mainly in the office of Karamainly in the office of Kara Kemal, whKemal, who was again in charge of directing o was again in charge of directing his companies. His office was in the Mes'adet Inn in Sirkeci. Initially,his companies. His office was in the Mes'adet Inn in Sirkeci. Initially, the the new government did not exclude the former Unionists fromnew government did not exclude the former Unionists from positions of positions of power. Şükrü Bey, former minister of education, was the governorpower. Şükrü Bey, former minister of education, was the governor of of TrabzoTrabzon and later the deputy of n and later the deputy of İzmirİzmir. Celal (Bayar) Bey would become . Celal (Bayar) Bey would become the director of İş Bank (1924), İsmail Canbthe director of İş Bank (1924), İsmail Canbuulat was the deputy of Istalat was the deputy of Istan-n-bul, and Mahmut Şevket (Esendal) bul, and Mahmut Şevket (Esendal) Bey was the ambassador to Tehran. Bey was the ambassador to Tehran. The Unionists were also part of many collegiThe Unionists were also part of many collegial organizal organizations involved in ations involved in public debates focusing on different questions central to the formation public debates focusing on different questions central to the formation of the Republic,of the Republic, such as the economy. Kör Ali İhsan, a member of the such as the economy. Kör Ali İhsan, a member of the

1143 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuzRuznâme, Vol IVnâme, Vol IV, 373, 373--378.378.

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CUP, was

CUP, was leading this debate. Although Cavid Beyleading this debate. Although Cavid Bey was not involved dwas not involved di-i-rectly, this debatrectly, this debate alerted e alerted the Ankara Government of the ideological the Ankara Government of the ideological leanings of the Unionists.leanings of the Unionists. Kör Ali Bey supported the concept of OcKör Ali Bey supported the concept of Occupcupa-a-tional Representation as outlined in Ziya Gökalp's book tional Representation as outlined in Ziya Gökalp's book FFundamentals of undamentals of TurkismTurkism ((Türkçülüğün EsaslarıTürkçülüğün Esasları). This approach combined economic). This approach combined economics, s, sociolosociology, and political representation. It was also a response to the ligy, and political representation. It was also a response to the lib-b-eral arguments supported by Cavid Beyeral arguments supported by Cavid Bey. Z. Ziya Gökalp’s approach mixed iya Gökalp’s approach mixed sociology and economy sociology and economy toto bind up the wounds of tbind up the wounds of the Great War. Pub-he Great War. Pub-lished in 1923, the same year that the Republilished in 1923, the same year that the Republic was founc was founded, Ziya ded, Ziya Gökalp's Gökalp's Principles of TurkismPrinciples of Turkism was a manifesto in the field of ecwas a manifesto in the field of ecoonomics, nomics, in the words oin the words of Zafer Toprak. This theory enabled both horizof Zafer Toprak. This theory enabled both horizonntal and tal and vertical social mobilization vertical social mobilization through artisanthrough artisan--based planning ubased planning unnder both der both local and central orglocal and central organizationsanizations throughout the country. Gökalp's motto, throughout the country. Gökalp's motto, "There is no class; there are artisans (guild)," was a"There is no class; there are artisans (guild)," was at tt the epicenter of Kör he epicenter of Kör Ali İhsan Bey's argument. He was also inspired by Kara Kemal's poAli İhsan Bey's argument. He was also inspired by Kara Kemal's policies licies to establish national companies for a national ecoto establish national companies for a national econnomy. omy. This approThis approach ach was driven by Gökalp's promise that instead of class, society would be was driven by Gökalp's promise that instead of class, society would be organized around proorganized around profesfessional groups, from the local to the central, sional groups, from the local to the central, with representation in parliament. It was envisaged that fifty profes-with representation in parliament. It was envisaged that fifty profes-sional members would be present isional members would be present in the 1923n the 1923 Assembly. The concept of Assembly. The concept of Occupational Representation was intertwined with the rising ideologieOccupational Representation was intertwined with the rising ideologies s oof the Third Republic of France: solidarif the Third Republic of France: solidarityty, corpor, corporaatism, and populism. It tism, and populism. It aimed to heal the social wounds of the Great War. High inflation, specu-aimed to heal the social wounds of the Great War. High inflation, specu-latlation, war pion, war profits, and class conflict in Ottoman society allowed Turkish rofits, and class conflict in Ottoman society allowed Turkish intellectuals to address these printellectuals to address these probloblems for the first time. For this rea-ems for the first time. For this rea-son, inspired by Durkheim, economy and society have always been son, inspired by Durkheim, economy and society have always been thought of together in Turkey.thought of together in Turkey.1144

On August 29/30,

On August 29/30, Mustafa KMustafa Kemal Pasha ordered his chief of staff and emal Pasha ordered his chief of staff and army commanders to destroy the encircled enemy forcesarmy commanders to destroy the encircled enemy forces. O. On August 30, n August 30,

1144 The concept of populism, which was raised in the last yThe concept of populism, which was raised in the last years of tears of the he wwar, aar, also envilso envisages sages ththat tat thhe professionale professional groups that connegroups that connect the peoplct the people of e of ssocietyociety to another replace thto another replace the e class distinclass distinccttion, likening society to an organiion, likening society to an organism, viewism, viewing the professional groups as ng the professional groups as vital organs of this organism."vital organs of this organism." Toprak, Toprak, Atatürk KuAtatürk Kurucu Felsrucu Felsefeefennin Evin Evrimirimi,, 191966--200. 200.

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the Turks fought the Battle of the Supreme Commander. The Great Of-

the Turks fought the Battle of the Supreme Commander. The Great Of-fensive opened the way to the final destruction of the Greek forces ifensive opened the way to the final destruction of the Greek forces in n AnatoliaAnatolia. On September 9, Turkish forces entered . On September 9, Turkish forces entered İzmirİzmir. This victory was . This victory was the end of the war, a completethe end of the war, a complete vivictory.ctory.1145 Although Cavid BeyAlthough Cavid Bey included included this news in his diaries, he was not very enthusiastic about it and was this news in his diaries, he was not very enthusiastic about it and was instead more focused on his work.instead more focused on his work.1146 NeverNevertheless, ttheless, the Great Offensive he Great Offensive and its consequence ended with the victory on August 30. The Turkish and its consequence ended with the victory on August 30. The Turkish nationanational fl forces entered orces entered İzmirİzmir on September 9, 1922. This battle was the on September 9, 1922. This battle was the end of the military end of the military wwar, which opened the paar, which opened the pathth to the peace talks. From to the peace talks. From now on, the Tunow on, the Turkish goverkish government had changed the consrnment had changed the conseequences of the quences of the Great War. They would start the peace talks as the eGreat War. They would start the peace talks as the equaqual member and l member and victor of the victor of the wwar. ar. The vThe viicctory of the national forces also meanttory of the national forces also meant thatthat the the end of the Ottoman government, end of the Ottoman government, ssultanate, and the Eultanate, and the Emmpirepire woulwould bed be ssooneooner r thanthan later. Indeed, following this victory, the Elater. Indeed, following this victory, the Enntente powers in-tente powers in-vited Turkey to peace talks vited Turkey to peace talks on on neutral terrneutral terriitory in Lausanne, Switzer-tory in Lausanne, Switzer-land. Britain, France, Italy, and Greece were the hosts, and they invited land. Britain, France, Italy, and Greece were the hosts, and they invited both the Ankara and Istanbul governmboth the Ankara and Istanbul governments. The ents. The Grand Vizier of the Ot-Grand Vizier of the Ot-toman Empire, Tevfik Pasha, sent a telegram to Ankara to join the peace toman Empire, Tevfik Pasha, sent a telegram to Ankara to join the peace ttalkalks. On November 1, 1922, the National Assembly abolished the sul-s. On November 1, 1922, the National Assembly abolished the sul-tanate.tanate.1147 A Turkish delegation represented Turkey A Turkish delegation represented Turkey and was and was presided presided over by İsmet Pashaover by İsmet Pasha. The peac. The peace talks began on Ne talks began on Noovember 20, 1922, in vember 20, 1922, in Lausanne.Lausanne.1148 İsmetİsmet Pasha's duty was tough, bPasha's duty was tough, beecause severalcause several isissues sues

1145 WiWitthin a year, hin a year, alalll the foreign fthe foreign forces left Torces left Turkeyurkey.. They They evacuated Istanbul on evacuated Istanbul on October 6, October 6, 1921923.3. EEdward J. Erickson, "From Kırıkkidward J. Erickson, "From Kırıkkilise to the lise to the Great Offensive Turkish OperGreat Offensive Turkish Operaational tional Encirclement Planning, 1912Encirclement Planning, 1912--1922," 1922," Middle EaMiddle Eastern stern StuStudiesdies, 40,, 40, No. No. 1 (2004): 41 (2004): 455--64. 64.

1146 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmeRuznâme, Vol, Vol IIIIII, 3, 38888--89.89.

1147 The sultanateThe sultanate was abolishedwas abolished, , bubut the caliph remained post remait the caliph remained post remained. Abdülmened. Abdülmecit cit Efendi succeeded Vahdettin as a caliph until March 3, 1924Efendi succeeded Vahdettin as a caliph until March 3, 1924

1148 The Lausanne taThe Lausanne talks inlks inclucluded ded TurkeTurkey on y on one side andone side and the Uthe UK, France, IK, France, Italy, Japan, taly, Japan, GrGreece, Romanieece, Romania, ana, andd the Sthe Serboerbo--CroatCroat--Slovenian SSlovenian States. At the tates. At the rereququest of Turkey, Sest of Turkey, Soovi-vi-et Russia, Uket Russia, Ukraine, and Graine, and Georgia took part to discuss the Straits. The United States had eorgia took part to discuss the Straits. The United States had observer status. observer status. Among Among thethe ississues rues raisedaised at the confat the confeerencerence were the bowere the borders (Eastern rders (Eastern border, Iraqborder, Iraqi bori bordder, Syer, Syrian border, Aegean isrian border, Aegean islands, Thrace lands, Thrace bobordrder, Western Thrace er, Western Thrace border, Bosphborder, Bosphorus and Galorus and Gallipoli), capitulations, Ottoman debts, the army and navy, lipoli), capitulations, Ottoman debts, the army and navy,

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were still being negotiated, including technical i

were still being negotiated, including technical isssues such as finance. sues such as finance. Additionally, he had to negotiate with the most eAdditionally, he had to negotiate with the most exxperienced and domi-perienced and domi-nanant politicnt politicians of the Entente, such as Lord Cuians of the Entente, such as Lord Currzon, the British Foreign zon, the British Foreign Secretary. There were three main Secretary. There were three main toptopics of discuics of discusssion at the conference. sion at the conference. These were the territorial and military issues, economic and financial These were the territorial and military issues, economic and financial problems, and the position of foreignersproblems, and the position of foreigners and minorand minorities. The financial ities. The financial negotiations mainly covered the capitulations and Ottnegotiations mainly covered the capitulations and Ottooman debts. At man debts. At the rethe requequest of st of İsmetİsmet Pasha, Cavid BeyPasha, Cavid Bey was one of the cowas one of the connsultants in the sultants in the field of finance in Lausanne as his specialty had been working on the field of finance in Lausanne as his specialty had been working on the Ottoman debts sOttoman debts since 1908. Cavid Beyince 1908. Cavid Bey came to Lausanne with Hüseyin came to Lausanne with Hüseyin Cahit and Hamit Bey (Hasancan), who was also the head Cahit and Hamit Bey (Hasancan), who was also the head of of the Rethe Red d Crescent. This team worked closely with Hasan Saka, one of the Turkish Crescent. This team worked closely with Hasan Saka, one of the Turkish delegates. During the negotiations, the consuldelegates. During the negotiations, the consulttants agreed on an in-ants agreed on an in-ststallment plan to pay the interest on the Ottoman debts, not the capi-allment plan to pay the interest on the Ottoman debts, not the capi-tal.tal.1149 According to their argument, it According to their argument, it waswas scienscientiftifiically not possible to cally not possible to divide the capital of the Ottoman debt among the countries that were divide the capital of the Ottoman debt among the countries that were once under the Empire's sovereignty. Cavid Beyonce under the Empire's sovereignty. Cavid Bey aallleged that such an op-leged that such an op-eration would cost millions of eration would cost millions of llirasiras. After the Treaty of Berlin of 1878 . After the Treaty of Berlin of 1878 and the Baand the Balkalkan Warn Wars, the division of debts bs, the division of debts beetween the countries sepa-tween the countries sepa-rated from the Ottoman Empire was on the agenda, but the conditions rated from the Ottoman Empire was on the agenda, but the conditions were not determiwere not determined. Acned. According to Rıza Nur's mecording to Rıza Nur's memmoirs, he thought it oirs, he thought it could be possible to divide the debt, capitalcould be possible to divide the debt, capital,, and iand innterest, bterest, beetween tween the the countries separated from the Ottoman Empire. Rıza Nur Bey first con-countries separated from the Ottoman Empire. Rıza Nur Bey first con-sulted with Mr. Günther from Deutsche Bank and then with other fsulted with Mr. Günther from Deutsche Bank and then with other finan-inan-

new states, and the ri

new states, and the rights oghts of If Islamslamic inic institustitutions and fotions and fouundatindations. The prions. The primary priority mary priority oof the Turkisf the Turkish delh deleegationgation was the adoption of twas the adoption of the National Ache National Act.t. TToprak, oprak, Atatürk Kurucu Atatürk Kurucu FelsefeninFelsefenin EvrimiEvrimi,, 169169--71; Sevtap Demirci, 71; Sevtap Demirci, Belgelerle Lozan TaktikBelgelerle Lozan Taktik--StratejikStratejik--Diplomatik Diplomatik Mücadele 1922Mücadele 1922--19231923 ((IstIstanbuanbul: All: Alfa Bafa Basım Yayım, 2sım Yayım, 20013), 13), 6161--82.82.

1149 TheThe capitulations capitulations were first qwere first questiuestiooned inned internationally in Lausaternationally in Lausanne. In this wnne. In this wayay, , it was it was a treaty that removed thea treaty that removed the principles principles of equality from the Great Powers' monopoly foof equality from the Great Powers' monopoly fol-l-lowing the norms of internationallowing the norms of international law tlaw thathat werwere fore formed. med. CapitulationCapitulationss werewere at the be-at the be-giginning of the isnning of the issues that thsues that the Unie Unioon and n and Cavid Bey longed to geCavid Bey longed to get rid of sincet rid of since tthehe seseccond ond legitimacy. Cavid Bey relegitimacy. Cavid Bey remained in thmained in the government for a while after the agreement with e government for a while after the agreement with Germany in 1914, and his firstGermany in 1914, and his first job wjob was as to hto help aelp abolisbolish the capituh the capitullationationss

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cia

cial experts Additionally, since Cavid Beyl experts Additionally, since Cavid Bey had spent a lot of time with the had spent a lot of time with the French, he was considered strange by his French, he was considered strange by his colleagues in the Turkish del-colleagues in the Turkish del-egation. Although Cavid Beyegation. Although Cavid Bey had known and done business with the had known and done business with the French for more than a decade, the proximFrench for more than a decade, the proximity he ity he estaestabblished to them lished to them during the Lausanne talks drew a negative reaction. It was also clear during the Lausanne talks drew a negative reaction. It was also clear that he neither had closthat he neither had close relation with e relation with İsmetİsmet Pasha nor did he want to Pasha nor did he want to establish such relations. His proximity with the French delegation led to establish such relations. His proximity with the French delegation led to rumors that Carumors that Cavid Beyvid Bey had taken bribes from the Ehad taken bribes from the Enntente.tente.1150 Finally, Finally, Ferit Bey (Ahmet Ferit Tek) was called from Paris as a consultant, and it Ferit Bey (Ahmet Ferit Tek) was called from Paris as a consultant, and it was revealwas revealed that it was actually poed that it was actually posssible to pay off the debts. Contrary sible to pay off the debts. Contrary to what Cavid Beyto what Cavid Bey had said, it had been proven that thihad said, it had been proven that this operas operation could tion could be performed at a lower cost. Rıza Nur informs the consultants about be performed at a lower cost. Rıza Nur informs the consultants about the new plan. He also asks them to leave Lausanne the new plan. He also asks them to leave Lausanne as soon as possible. as soon as possible. Cavid BeyCavid Bey, Hüseyin , Hüseyin Cahit BeyCahit Bey, and Hamid Bey were dismissed from the , and Hamid Bey were dismissed from the Lausanne talks. Cavid BeyLausanne talks. Cavid Bey staystayed in Sed in Swiwittzerland for a while and re-zerland for a while and re-turned to Istanbul on February 11, 1922.turned to Istanbul on February 11, 1922.1151 Nevertheless, Cavid BeyNevertheless, Cavid Bey was subjected to the criticism of twas subjected to the criticism of the political milieu in Ahe political milieu in Annkara. Rıza Nur kara. Rıza Nur attackedattacked him because of his work in a fohim because of his work in a forreign institution.eign institution.1152 As thAs the rep-e rep-reresentative of tsentative of the OPDA, Cavid Beyhe OPDA, Cavid Bey was a representative of foreign capi-was a representative of foreign capi-tal, which was no longer welcome in Tutal, which was no longer welcome in Turrkey, at least as it had been be-key, at least as it had been be-fore.fore. The OPDA was a reminder The OPDA was a reminder of the buof the burrden of the capitulations and den of the capitulations and

1150 Yahya KeYahya Kemal, mal, Siyasi ve Siyasi ve Edebi PortelEdebi Portelerer. (. (IIstanbustanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınlarl: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2006), 115ı, 2006), 115--11116.6.

1151 Another problem was the paymeAnother problem was the payment funds. İsnt funds. İsmet Pasha made it clear in Lausanne that met Pasha made it clear in Lausanne that gold would not be accepted as a means ogold would not be accepted as a means of paymf paymentent. Ho. Howeverwever, thi, this issue was s issue was iimportmportant ant because because Ottoman debts wOttoman debts were more thaere more than haln halff of Tuof Turkey's budget. The holrkey's budget. The holders of the ders of the dedebtbt ssolved the problem. In addition, olved the problem. In addition, Turkey paid Turkey paid 107 million of the 160 million 107 million of the 160 million pounds of debt inherited from the Ottoman Empire.pounds of debt inherited from the Ottoman Empire. TopraToprak, k, AtatAtatürk Kürk Kurucuurucu Felsefenin Felsefenin EEvrimivrimi,, 172172--7373; ; NuNur, R. 1991. Rızr, R. 1991. Rıza Nur, a Nur, Dr. RDr. Rıza Nıza Nuur’un Lr’un Lozan Hatıralaozan Hatıraları (Istanrı (Istanbul: bul: Boğaziçi Boğaziçi YaYayıyınları, 1991), 144nları, 1991), 144--158. See also:158. See also: Şevket Şevket SüreSüreya Aydemirya Aydemir. . İkinci Adam 1884İkinci Adam 1884--1938 Vol I,1938 Vol I, (Istanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 1999)(Istanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 1999), , 236236--223737;; ŞevketŞevket SüSüreyyareyya AyAydemir. Ş.S. demir. Ş.S. TTek ek AdamAdam Mustafa KemMustafa Kemal 1922al 1922--19381938 (Istanbul: R(Istanbul: Remzi emzi KKitabevitabevi, 1999), 114i, 1999), 114--118118; ; İsmİsmail ail Hakkı YeniHakkı Yeniayay. . YeYeni Osmanlı Borçlarıni Osmanlı Borçları, (, (IstanbulIstanbul: Ekin Basımev: Ekin Basımevi, 1964)i, 1964);; Joseph J. Grew, Joseph J. Grew, Rıza Nur, Rıza Nur, Lozan Barış Konferansının Perde Arkası (1922Lozan Barış Konferansının Perde Arkası (1922--1921923)3) (Istan(Istanbul: bul: ÖrgÖrgün Yayıne-ün Yayıne-vi,vi, 2003)2003)..

1152 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet RuznâmRuznâme, Voe, Voll IV,IV, 551313--14.14.

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the heritage of the Ottoman Empire's fina

the heritage of the Ottoman Empire's finanncial scial subjugation. Inubjugation. In his his speech in parliament, speech in parliament, İsmetİsmet Pasha criticized Cavid BeyPasha criticized Cavid Bey for his behavior for his behavior at the Lausanne peace talks.at the Lausanne peace talks.1153 Cavid BeyCavid Bey's son Şiar Ya's son Şiar Yalcin writes thlcin writes that at Cavid BeCavid Beyy could not focould not forrget the harshness of get the harshness of İsmetİsmet Pasha’s criticism.Pasha’s criticism.1154 Cavid BeyCavid Bey's diary cove's diary coverring this period, ing this period, Şiar's NotebookŞiar's Notebook, consists of many , consists of many comments about comments about İsmetİsmet Pasha. Pasha.

On February 4,

On February 4, 1923,1923, the Entente gave a drathe Entente gave a drafft treaty to the Turkist treaty to the Turkish h delegation. İsmet Pashadelegation. İsmet Pasha and the Turkish delegatiand the Turkish delegation handed back over on handed back over 100 pages of amendments to the Entente.100 pages of amendments to the Entente.1155 The parties paused the The parties paused the Lausanne peace talks on the same day. During this interim period, siLausanne peace talks on the same day. During this interim period, sig-g-nificant developments occurrednificant developments occurred for Cavid Beyfor Cavid Bey and the and the other Unionists. other Unionists. First, MFirst, Mustafa Kemal Pasha met Kara Kemal Bey, as well as some jouustafa Kemal Pasha met Kara Kemal Bey, as well as some jour-r-nalists from the Istanbul press, in İzmit on January 16, 1923. Mustafa nalists from the Istanbul press, in İzmit on January 16, 1923. Mustafa Kemal Pasha asked Kara Kemal about his plans for the Unionists in IKemal Pasha asked Kara Kemal about his plans for the Unionists in Is-s-tanbul andtanbul and asked him to meet themasked him to meet them in order to better underin order to better understand their stand their future political plans.future political plans.1156 Cavid BeyCavid Bey notes in his diary, “Upon the as-notes in his diary, “Upon the as-sigsignnment to Kemal Bey, we decided to meet the notables of the CUP here ment to Kemal Bey, we decided to meet the notables of the CUP here (Cavid Bey(Cavid Bey's house) and to acquaint them with some of the 's house) and to acquaint them with some of the UUnionists” nionists” (including (including CCanbulat, Dr. Nazım, Nesimanbulat, Dr. Nazım, Nesimi, Ali Ihsan, Rusuhi, Rahman, Halil, i, Ali Ihsan, Rusuhi, Rahman, Halil, Şükrü, Hilmi, Hacı Adil, Nail).Şükrü, Hilmi, Hacı Adil, Nail).1157 This meeting, which was held upon the This meeting, which was held upon the request of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, would become one of the main sources request of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, would become one of the main sources of evidence against Cavid Beyof evidence against Cavid Bey in the Independenin the Independencece TriTriaals.ls.

1153 Pakalın, Pakalın, MaliMaliye Teşikilatı ye Teşikilatı TaTarihirihi (1442(1442--1930),1930), 248.248.

1154 Eski MaliEski Maliye Nazırı Caviye Nazırı Cavid Bey. d Bey. Şiar’ın DefteriŞiar’ın Defteri. (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 1995). (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 1995)

1155 Zürcher, Zürcher, A ModernA Modern TurTurkeykey, 160, 160--162.162.

1156 EErik Jan Zürcrik Jan Zürchher, er, Millî MücaMillî Mücadeleddelede İttihatçılıe İttihatçılık k (Istanbul:(Istanbul: İletİletiişim Yaşim Yayınları, 2005), 200yınları, 2005), 200--0101;; Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol IVRuznâme, Vol IV, 510, 510--511.511.

1157 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol IVRuznâme, Vol IV,, 510510--511. See also, Zürcher, E.J. "The L511. See also, Zürcher, E.J. "The Last Past Phashase e in in the Hthe Histoistory of the Cory of the Commmittee of Union anmittee of Union and Progresd Progress (19s (192323--1924)1924)””, 1, 1. A. Accccoording rding to to Zürcher, during thiZürcher, during this period, Cavis period, Cavid d BeyBey and Kara Kemal became the mostand Kara Kemal became the most influential influential and and prominent Unionists. On the one hand, Kara Kemal was the person Mustafa Kemaprominent Unionists. On the one hand, Kara Kemal was the person Mustafa Kemal Pa-l Pa-ssha ha consuconsulted lted withwith to learn abto learn aboout the plans of thut the plans of the Unionise Unionists. Ots. On the other n the other hand,hand, Cavid Cavid Bey was the main figurBey was the main figure under the spe under the spototliglight at the Independence Tribht at the Independence Tribuunalnal..

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On February 17, 1923,

On February 17, 1923, Mustafa Kemal Pasha organized the Mustafa Kemal Pasha organized the Econom-Econom-ic Congress of Turkey (Türkiye İktisat Kongresi, İzmir) in İzmir ic Congress of Turkey (Türkiye İktisat Kongresi, İzmir) in İzmir during during the interim period of the Lausanne talks. The economic negotiations the interim period of the Lausanne talks. The economic negotiations were most significant for the Ankara gowere most significant for the Ankara govvernment, bernment, because they were ecause they were among thamong the issues that halted e issues that halted the talks. Athe talks. Affter his problems with the Lau-ter his problems with the Lau-sanne delegation, Cavid Beysanne delegation, Cavid Bey remained far away from the Congress. remained far away from the Congress. However, the outcomes of the Congress However, the outcomes of the Congress werewere important for Cavid Beyimportant for Cavid Bey's 's position. During his speech at theposition. During his speech at the Congress, Mustafa Kemal Congress, Mustafa Kemal Pasha urged Pasha urged the delegthe delegates of the peace talks to secure the future of the negotiations ates of the peace talks to secure the future of the negotiations and determine Turkey's position. His main message was that the econ-and determine Turkey's position. His main message was that the econ-omy should be established according to the principles of national sover-omy should be established according to the principles of national sover-eignty.eignty. Failure to abolish the cFailure to abolish the capitulapitulaations, debt, ations, debt, and foreign capital nd foreign capital were a red line. Mustafa Kemal Pasha claimed that the capitulations were a red line. Mustafa Kemal Pasha claimed that the capitulations harmed the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire. There was no place for harmed the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire. There was no place for capitulations in the Republican Era, and the concept ocapitulations in the Republican Era, and the concept of the national f the national economy woeconomy would be realized. Turkuld be realized. Turkey would shape its economy according ey would shape its economy according to national concerns. One of the primary goals of the Republican Era to national concerns. One of the primary goals of the Republican Era was to establish a national economy. Therwas to establish a national economy. Thereefore, the nationalization of fore, the nationalization of financial institutions was among financial institutions was among Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s topMustafa Kemal Pasha’s top priorities. priorities. İş Bank,İş Bank, for example, was established in 1924 to meet these concerns. for example, was established in 1924 to meet these concerns. Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s vision for the nMustafa Kemal Pasha’s vision for the naational economy was based on tional economy was based on two main points that he outlined during the two main points that he outlined during the EconomicEconomic Congress. First, Congress. First, he was onehe was one of the officers who expeof the officers who experienced the harmful outcrienced the harmful outcomes of the omes of the liberal economic policies of the Second Constitutional Era. He under-liberal economic policies of the Second Constitutional Era. He under-stood that the economy and politics were intertwined, especially when stood that the economy and politics were intertwined, especially when resources are lacking, as in Turkey. For this reason, Musresources are lacking, as in Turkey. For this reason, Mustafa Kemal Pa-tafa Kemal Pa-sha adopted sha adopted statist policies. Duringstatist policies. During the Ottoman Era, including the Sec-the Ottoman Era, including the Sec-ond Consitutional Period, financial issues were related to international ond Consitutional Period, financial issues were related to international politics and relations. In the Republican Era, unlike the Ottoman experi-politics and relations. In the Republican Era, unlike the Ottoman experi-ence, the authority of the ence, the authority of the minister of fminister of fiinance wouldnance would be limited to econ-be limited to econ-omy aomy and financial issues. As this dissend financial issues. As this disserrtation clearly pointed out tation clearly pointed out through depicting the work of Cavid Beythrough depicting the work of Cavid Bey, the minister of finance often , the minister of finance often functioned like the minister of foreign affairs. This could change during functioned like the minister of foreign affairs. This could change during the Republican Era with tthe Republican Era with the abolishment of the cahe abolishment of the capitulations and na-pitulations and na-

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tionalization of the economy. The second point that Mustafa Kemal Pa-

tionalization of the economy. The second point that Mustafa Kemal Pa-sha raised during the sha raised during the Economic Congress Economic Congress of of TTurkey (Türkiyeurkey (Türkiye İktisat İktisat KongresiKongresi, , İzmir)İzmir) as the concept of national solidarity. Class and especial-as the concept of national solidarity. Class and especial-ly class conflict were something that the governments of the Republy class conflict were something that the governments of the Republican lican Era wanted to avoid. Inspired by the French economists Charles Gide Era wanted to avoid. Inspired by the French economists Charles Gide and Charles Rist, the founders ofand Charles Rist, the founders of the Republic sought to build the econ-the Republic sought to build the econ-omy on the princomy on the princiiples of solidarity and populism (ples of solidarity and populism (halkçılıkhalkçılık). ).

A few months after the Congress and Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s sugge

A few months after the Congress and Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s sugges-s-tion to convene a meeting of the Unionists in Istanbul, Kara Kemal ition to convene a meeting of the Unionists in Istanbul, Kara Kemal innvit-vit-ed the most promineed the most prominent Unionists to meet on April 12nt Unionists to meet on April 12––13, 1923 at Cavid 13, 1923 at Cavid BeyBey’s house, the CUP’s usual meeting ’s house, the CUP’s usual meeting place. The team consisted of fif-place. The team consisted of fif-teen or sixteen people, including Kara Kemal, Dr. Nazım, Dr. Rusuhi, teen or sixteen people, including Kara Kemal, Dr. Nazım, Dr. Rusuhi, Huseyin Cahit Bey, Yenibahçeli Nail, Filipeli Hilmi Bey, Ismail CanHuseyin Cahit Bey, Yenibahçeli Nail, Filipeli Hilmi Bey, Ismail Canbulat, bulat, Rahmi (Evranoz), Küçük Talat (Muşkara), Vehbi Bey, Ahmet Nesimi Rahmi (Evranoz), Küçük Talat (Muşkara), Vehbi Bey, Ahmet Nesimi (Sayman), and Ahm(Sayman), and Ahmet Şükrü Bey. This meeting lasted two days and was et Şükrü Bey. This meeting lasted two days and was like a CUP Congress. Due to the upcoming elections (June 1923), the Ulike a CUP Congress. Due to the upcoming elections (June 1923), the Un-n-ionists were anxious about whether or not Ankarionists were anxious about whether or not Ankara would criticize their a would criticize their meeting, since this meeting was held three months after Mustafa meeting, since this meeting was held three months after Mustafa KKe-e-mal's proposal. During the meeting, they decided not to participate in mal's proposal. During the meeting, they decided not to participate in the elections as an opposition party. They decided to accept Mustafa the elections as an opposition party. They decided to accept Mustafa Kemal Pasha's leadership aKemal Pasha's leadership and to support the candidates he would nd to support the candidates he would choose. They prepared a ninechoose. They prepared a nine--point program for a ppoint program for a party without a arty without a name. The manifesto had embraced the principles of the Second Constname. The manifesto had embraced the principles of the Second Consti-i-tutional Period and the CUP, although it was far from Enver Pasha's rad-tutional Period and the CUP, although it was far from Enver Pasha's rad-icalism and Kaicalism and Kara Kemal's corporatism. The manifesto covered nine ra Kemal's corporatism. The manifesto covered nine points, contrary to the Nine Principlpoints, contrary to the Nine Principles declared by Mustafa Kemal Pasha es declared by Mustafa Kemal Pasha as the program of Association for the Defense of Rights of Anatolia and as the program of Association for the Defense of Rights of Anatolia and Rumelia.Rumelia.

Although the Unionists’ manifest was written in a ne

Although the Unionists’ manifest was written in a new political era, w political era, it bore the traces of the CUP’s political agenda. The first article defit bore the traces of the CUP’s political agenda. The first article defined ined

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the CUP as a radical party supporting all kinds of freedoms.

the CUP as a radical party supporting all kinds of freedoms.1158 The The manifesto also included articles reminiscent of the Second Constitmanifesto also included articles reminiscent of the Second Constituution-tion-al Era such as the divisioal Era such as the division of powers, direct elections, a twon of powers, direct elections, a two--chamber chamber parliament, and Istanbul as the capital. Afparliament, and Istanbul as the capital. After this Congress, the CUP also ter this Congress, the CUP also offered Mustafa Kemal Pasha leadership of their movement. However, offered Mustafa Kemal Pasha leadership of their movement. However, he refused. On April 15, 1923, all political programs except for the he refused. On April 15, 1923, all political programs except for the Nine Nine Principles program were banned, and parliamentary elePrinciples program were banned, and parliamentary elecctions were tions were pushed back until pushed back until July 1923. Mustafa Kemal Pasha would later open the July 1923. Mustafa Kemal Pasha would later open the doors of the parliament with the candidates he has chdoors of the parliament with the candidates he has choosen himself. Not-sen himself. Not-ing the organic link between the CUP and Kemaling the organic link between the CUP and Kemalism, Ismail Canbulat ism, Ismail Canbulat and Şükrü Bey were elected as deputies.and Şükrü Bey were elected as deputies.1159 Cavid BeyCavid Bey continues to continues to meet Ismail Canbolat in private life, as he notes in his dimeet Ismail Canbolat in private life, as he notes in his diaaries. On the one ries. On the one hand, it is hard to imagine thathand, it is hard to imagine that the paths of the methe paths of the memmbers of such a bers of such a closed and sacred organizaclosed and sacred organization would diverge so greatly. On the other tion would diverge so greatly. On the other hand, it was certain that in any rule they would continue to challenge hand, it was certain that in any rule they would continue to challenge every kind of political order that they did not establish theevery kind of political order that they did not establish themmselves. The selves. The membemembers of the CUP saw themselves as men created for power politicsrs of the CUP saw themselves as men created for power politics. . As they had governed the Ottoman Empire for ten years and had be-As they had governed the Ottoman Empire for ten years and had be-come the most determinant political actors, they could not remain out-come the most determinant political actors, they could not remain out-side of politics. side of politics.

The Lausanne peace talks restarted in Ap

The Lausanne peace talks restarted in April 1923. The priority of the ril 1923. The priority of the Turkish delegation was full Turkish delegation was full polipolitical and economic tical and economic sovereignty. The Esovereignty. The En-n-tentetente’s’s position was position was now now weaker than weaker than Turkey’sTurkey’s asas they had little suthey had little sup-p-port from the port from the public public after four years of total war. İsmet Pasha after four years of total war. İsmet Pasha had had en-en-suresuredd Turkey's sovTurkey's sovereignty as an equal member of the iereignty as an equal member of the innternational ternational society. Indesociety. Indeed, the success of Lausanne, which would be fully coed, the success of Lausanne, which would be fully commplet-plet-ed ed afterafter the Montreux Agreementthe Montreux Agreement inin 1936, had given 1936, had given Ankara theAnkara the feeling feeling thatthat Turkey Turkey waswas equal with the Great Powersequal with the Great Powers,, or even had more dignior even had more dignityty,, during the early years of the Repuduring the early years of the Repubblic. The peace treaty wlic. The peace treaty would turn into ould turn into

1158 Faruk İliFaruk İlikan and Selma İlikan. kan and Selma İlikan. Ankara İstiklâl Mahkemesi, Ankara İstiklal MahkAnkara İstiklâl Mahkemesi, Ankara İstiklal Mahkeeme-me-si’nde Csi’nde Cereyaereyan En Eden Sden Suu--i Ki Kasd asd ve Taklibve Taklib--i i HHükumet Davası’na aükumet Davası’na ait Resmî it Resmî ZabıtZabıtlarlar (I(Isstan-tan-bubul: Sil: Simmurg Kiurg Kitapçılık, 2005) ,788. tapçılık, 2005) ,788.

1159 Zürcher, Zürcher, MiMillllî Mî Mücadelede İttihatçılıkücadelede İttihatçılık, 200, 200--05.05.

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an advantage for Turkey. However, first and utmost, Turkey had

an advantage for Turkey. However, first and utmost, Turkey had to to bbe-e-come an independent state politically and economically. The capitula-come an independent state politically and economically. The capitula-tions and concessions vanished from historytions and concessions vanished from history, at last. İsmet P, at last. İsmet Paasha signed sha signed the treaty on July 24, 1923.the treaty on July 24, 1923.1160 In a sense, tIn a sense, the Lausanne Treaty he Lausanne Treaty markedmarked the foundthe foundinging of the Turkish Republic. It was the first and last agreement of the Turkish Republic. It was the first and last agreement that turned the Paris agreements of 1918 uthat turned the Paris agreements of 1918 uppside down. These new, pos-side down. These new, pos-itive conditionitive conditions were achieved through the military campaign and polit-s were achieved through the military campaign and polit-ical struggle of Mustafa Kemal Pasha and his coical struggle of Mustafa Kemal Pasha and his collleagues. Cavid Beyleagues. Cavid Bey not-not-ed in his diary that ultimately, they, the Turks, were free now. Hoed in his diary that ultimately, they, the Turks, were free now. Howwever, ever, Cavid BeyCavid Bey was concerned for the future and the sustainabiwas concerned for the future and the sustainability of thlity of thisis peace. According to him, those who succeeded in military victories may peace. According to him, those who succeeded in military victories may not keep not keep lastinglasting peace. He was not as tolerant and patient with the Ana-peace. He was not as tolerant and patient with the Ana-tolian movement as he was with the CUP. Simtolian movement as he was with the CUP. Simiilarly, he did not tolerate larly, he did not tolerate the Jacobin chathe Jacobin charracter of the Racter of the Republic and Mustafa Kemal Pasha and epublic and Mustafa Kemal Pasha and would continue to criticize them until his fwould continue to criticize them until his fiinal days. nal days.

It is important to note that the Unionists were not the only oppos

It is important to note that the Unionists were not the only opposi-i-tion tion to the new government that emerged from amongto the new government that emerged from among the CUP. Lütfi the CUP. Lütfi Fikri Bey, former president of Fikri Bey, former president of the Ithe Isstanbul Bar and Cavid Beytanbul Bar and Cavid Bey’s fervent ’s fervent opponent, was also raised as a dissident in this popponent, was also raised as a dissident in this peeriod. He challenged riod. He challenged the rapid reforms of the Ankara government. Furthermore, other politthe rapid reforms of the Ankara government. Furthermore, other politi-i-cal figures who sided with Mustafa Kemal in the national struggle began cal figures who sided with Mustafa Kemal in the national struggle began to to move away from his political maneuvers and breathless reforms. move away from his political maneuvers and breathless reforms. Among these people were Refet Pasha (Bele), Kazim Pasha (Karabekir), Among these people were Refet Pasha (Bele), Kazim Pasha (Karabekir), Ali Fuat Pasha (Cebesoy), and Rauf Bey (Orbay). These crucial figures Ali Fuat Pasha (Cebesoy), and Rauf Bey (Orbay). These crucial figures began to feel excluded from the new political obegan to feel excluded from the new political orrder. der.

On October 29, 1923, through a political maneuver of Mustafa Kemal

On October 29, 1923, through a political maneuver of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, the Republican regime was established. Cavid BeyPasha, the Republican regime was established. Cavid Bey mentioned the mentioned the proclamation of the Republic in his diary. According to him, there had proclamation of the Republic in his diary. According to him, there had already been a de facto Republic, and he could nalready been a de facto Republic, and he could not understand why ot understand why people needed to create such noise. Cavid Beypeople needed to create such noise. Cavid Bey writes that there was no writes that there was no festive mood in Istanbul upon such a declaration. He met Adnan Adıvar festive mood in Istanbul upon such a declaration. He met Adnan Adıvar

1160 Zürcher, Zürcher, A Modern TurkeyA Modern Turkey, 162. , 162.

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to discuss the new developments; however, he also knew little about

to discuss the new developments; however, he also knew little about them. Although Cavid Beythem. Although Cavid Bey is nis not against the idea of the Republic, he is ot against the idea of the Republic, he is critical of the way it was declared and to those who declared it.critical of the way it was declared and to those who declared it.1161

On December 28, 1923, deputies and experts in Istanbul met and

On December 28, 1923, deputies and experts in Istanbul met and askaskeded Cavid BeyCavid Bey for his opinion on the city’s economy. Hamid Bey, Fazıl for his opinion on the city’s economy. Hamid Bey, Fazıl Bey, Faik NBey, Faik Nüzhet, and Hasan Tahsin Bey visit Cavid Beyüzhet, and Hasan Tahsin Bey visit Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey aaddvis-vis-es them to establish a commission and work more seriously on such is-es them to establish a commission and work more seriously on such is-sues. He tells them that he will write to Fethi Bey to express his opisues. He tells them that he will write to Fethi Bey to express his opinnion. ion. Fethi Bey evaluates Cavid BeyFethi Bey evaluates Cavid Bey’s proposal and establi’s proposal and establishes a commishes a commisssion sion within the Istanbul Chamber of Commerce to work on a report.within the Istanbul Chamber of Commerce to work on a report.1162 Ac-Ac-cording to Cavid Beycording to Cavid Bey's diary, he begins working on a report prepared on 's diary, he begins working on a report prepared on behalf of the Istanbul Chamber of Commerce titled “The Report Prbehalf of the Istanbul Chamber of Commerce titled “The Report Pre-e-pared by the Istanbul Economic Commispared by the Istanbul Economic Commission in the Chamber of Cosion in the Chamber of Com-m-merce and Industry.”merce and Industry.”1163 The report was published on November 26, The report was published on November 26, 1924. Cavid Bey1924. Cavid Bey was the commission's chairman. Cavid Beywas the commission's chairman. Cavid Bey also wrote a also wrote a preface on behalf of the commission to the introduction of the report. preface on behalf of the commission to the introduction of the report. According to his introductAccording to his introduction, the commission conducted 104 inteion, the commission conducted 104 inter-r-views with economic actors in Istanbul. Then, they researched the data views with economic actors in Istanbul. Then, they researched the data they obtained from the interviews. The report focuses on the reasons they obtained from the interviews. The report focuses on the reasons why Turks were less engaged in commerce in Istanbul. The report awhy Turks were less engaged in commerce in Istanbul. The report as-s-sesses Istasesses Istanbul’s commercial market, including the phases of produnbul’s commercial market, including the phases of produc-c-tion, imports, and exports. According to Cavid Beytion, imports, and exports. According to Cavid Bey’s introduction, Ista’s introduction, Istan-n-bul’s economy and psychology were rather dismal. If the government bul’s economy and psychology were rather dismal. If the government did not intervene, there would be no more reason to worry abodid not intervene, there would be no more reason to worry about the ut the Turkish majority or its dominance in Istanbul, because there would not Turkish majority or its dominance in Istanbul, because there would not be any commerce in the city. The most crucial point of the report is to be any commerce in the city. The most crucial point of the report is to understand the position of the Turks in Istanbul’s economy and the understand the position of the Turks in Istanbul’s economy and the

1161 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol IVRuznâme, Vol IV, , 598598--599.599.

1162 ThThis is is this the stoe story ory of the reportf the report according to Cavidaccording to Cavid Bey’s diary.Bey’s diary.

1163 Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Cavid Bey, Meşrutiyet Ruznâme, Vol IVRuznâme, Vol IV,, 628. 628.

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ways to elevate their roles.

ways to elevate their roles.1164 This repoThis report was Cavid Beyrt was Cavid Bey’s last major ’s last major work on public affairs in Turkey before his death.work on public affairs in Turkey before his death.

The Progressive Republican Party (PRP) was established on N

The Progressive Republican Party (PRP) was established on Noovem-vem-ber 17, 1924. The Progressive Republican Party was founded by the ber 17, 1924. The Progressive Republican Party was founded by the opposition group led by Hüseyin Rauf Bey. Refopposition group led by Hüseyin Rauf Bey. Refet Pasha, Kazım Pet Pasha, Kazım Paasha, sha, and Ali Fuat Pasha were among the party members. The exand Ali Fuat Pasha were among the party members. The ex--Unionist Unionist deputiesdeputies includingincluding Ismail Canbulat and Ahmet Şükrü also took their Ismail Canbulat and Ahmet Şükrü also took their place in the new party. The party program, the Fiftyplace in the new party. The party program, the Fifty--Five Points, was Five Points, was published on November 13, 1924.published on November 13, 1924. It seemed to observers and scholars It seemed to observers and scholars that the party’s economic program, which was that the party’s economic program, which was similar tosimilar to the ninethe nine--point point Unionist manifesto, reflectUnionist manifesto, reflecteded Cavid BeyCavid Bey’s ideas. The party's program ’s ideas. The party's program could be read as an extension of Cavid Beycould be read as an extension of Cavid Bey's intellectual world, arguing 's intellectual world, arguing that bthat both economic and financial issues should be addressed, emphasioth economic and financial issues should be addressed, emphasiz-z-ing the free market and foreign investment. This attracted the attention ing the free market and foreign investment. This attracted the attention of many academics to Cavid Beyof many academics to Cavid Bey. The similarity between the manifesto . The similarity between the manifesto of the Unionists and the of the Unionists and the Progressive Progressive Republican ParRepublican Party’s program also ty’s program also drew attention to Cavid Beydrew attention to Cavid Bey..1165 In addition to the economic points in In addition to the economic points in the program, the twelfth article of the party program directly tathe program, the twelfth article of the party program directly tarrgeted geted Mustafa Kemal Pasha. According to the article, the president should not Mustafa Kemal Pasha. According to the article, the president should not be the leader of any politbe the leader of any political party. This article was the most explicit ex-ical party. This article was the most explicit ex-prepresssion of concern about the authoritarianism of Mustafa Kemal Pasha. sion of concern about the authoritarianism of Mustafa Kemal Pasha. Yet still, Mustafa Kemal Pasha had a reconciliatory aYet still, Mustafa Kemal Pasha had a reconciliatory appproach towards proach towards the the pparty. He also arty. He also selectedselected Fethi Bey, a more conciliFethi Bey, a more conciliaatory fitory figgure cure com-om-parpareded ttoo İsmet Pashaİsmet Pasha,, as the prime minister. as the prime minister.

Overall, the years 1925 and 1926 were a period of increasing ec

Overall, the years 1925 and 1926 were a period of increasing eco-o-nomic problems and numerous political conflicts. In February 1925, the nomic problems and numerous political conflicts. In February 1925, the

1164 “Tic“Ticararet et ve Sanayi Odasında Müteşekkil Ive Sanayi Odasında Müteşekkil Istastanbul İktisnbul İktisat Komisyonu Raporu.” 2006. No: at Komisyonu Raporu.” 2006. No: 20062006--52. Istanbul: Istanbul Ticaret Odası. See 52. Istanbul: Istanbul Ticaret Odası. See also;also; SeSelim İlim İlkin lkin and and İlhan Tekeliİlhan Tekeli “1923 “1923 yılında Istayılında Istanbul’un İktisanbul’un İktisadi Durumudi Durumu veve IstaIstannbul Tibul Ticaret ve Sanayi Odası caret ve Sanayi Odası İktisat İktisat KomKomiisysyononu Ru Raporu” in aporu” in Cumhuriyetin Harcı KöCumhuriyetin Harcı Köktektenci Modernnci Modernitenin Ekonomik Politi-itenin Ekonomik Politi-kasının Gelişimi, VolIIkasının Gelişimi, VolII (Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi Üniversi(Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi tesi YayYayınlarınları, 20ı, 2010),10), 4545--106. 106.

1165 ZZürher, E. J. 2013.ürher, E. J. 2013. Cumhuriyetin Cumhuriyetin İlk Yıllaİlk Yıllarınrında Teda Terrakkipeakkiperver Cumhuriyet Fırkasrver Cumhuriyet Fırkasıı (1924(1924--1925).1925). IIstastanbul: İletişim Yayınları, p: 14nbul: İletişim Yayınları, p: 1466--1147, 150. 47, 150.

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Sheikh Sait rebellion brok

Sheikh Sait rebellion brokee out in the Southeastern provinces. İsmet Pout in the Southeastern provinces. İsmet Pa-a-shsha returned to the office of the prime ministry. Thena returned to the office of the prime ministry. Then,, martial law martial law was was declared in the southeastern provincesdeclared in the southeastern provinces,, and the Law on the Maintand the Law on the Mainte-e-nance of Order (nance of Order (TakrirTakrir--i Sükûni Sükûn) ) was was put into force. The RPP was closed put into force. The RPP was closed down for its abuse of religion for its political adown for its abuse of religion for its political aims. Cavid Beyims. Cavid Bey also ealso ex-x-presses his concerns about the government’s authoritarian policies; presses his concerns about the government’s authoritarian policies; however, he usually criticizehowever, he usually criticizedd İsmet Pasha rather than Mustafa Kemal İsmet Pasha rather than Mustafa Kemal Pasha.Pasha.1166

Mustafa Kemal Pasha published his memoirs in

Mustafa Kemal Pasha published his memoirs in MilliyetMilliyet newspaper newspaper in March 1926. He strongly criticized the irresponsible policies of the in March 1926. He strongly criticized the irresponsible policies of the Unionists in the Great War. He embarked on an official trip around the Unionists in the Great War. He embarked on an official trip around the WeWestern cities of Turkey on May 7, 1926. He had planned to arrive in stern cities of Turkey on May 7, 1926. He had planned to arrive in Bursa on June 14 and Bursa on June 14 and passpass--throughthrough İzmirİzmir on June 16. However, on June on June 16. However, on June 15, a tip came to the 15, a tip came to the İzmirİzmir Governor about an assassination attempt. Governor about an assassination attempt. The police arrested some Unionists led by Ziya HurşThe police arrested some Unionists led by Ziya Hurşit for their alleged it for their alleged involvement in the assassination attempt. After this incident, the meinvolvement in the assassination attempt. After this incident, the mem-m-bers of the Ankara Independence Tribunal arrive in bers of the Ankara Independence Tribunal arrive in İzmirİzmir on June 18. on June 18. The president of the court was Ali Çetinkaya, and the other members The president of the court was Ali Çetinkaya, and the other members were Kılıç Ali, Laz Ali (Zırwere Kılıç Ali, Laz Ali (Zırh), and Reşit Galip. The prosecutor of the Ih), and Reşit Galip. The prosecutor of the In-n-dependence Tribunal was Necip Ali (Küçüka). This court conducted trdependence Tribunal was Necip Ali (Küçüka). This court conducted tri-i-als in both als in both İzmirİzmir and Ankara. Interestingly, the court president Ali and Ankara. Interestingly, the court president Ali ÇeÇettinkaya himself was a Unionist who was a supporter of Enver Pasha inkaya himself was a Unionist who was a supporter of Enver Pasha until until the Great War. This incident again shows the organic links between the Great War. This incident again shows the organic links between the Unionists and Kemalists. the Unionists and Kemalists.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey was arrested in Istanbul on June 19, 1926, and sent to was arrested in Istanbul on June 19, 1926, and sent to İzmirİzmir, where the trial began on June 26, 1926. The wave of arrests was , where the trial began on June 26, 1926. The wave of arrests was widespreadwidespread——exceedinglyexceedingly momore than 100 peoplere than 100 people——and extended be-and extended be-yond the Unionists involved in the yond the Unionists involved in the İzmirİzmir assassination. Most notably, the assassination. Most notably, the aarrrest of Kazım Karabekir on June 22 drew a strong reaction from the rest of Kazım Karabekir on June 22 drew a strong reaction from the public. At the center of the prosecutor's claims was the public. At the center of the prosecutor's claims was the İzmirİzmir assassinassassina-a-tion tion attempt, which he used as evidence that the Unionists were trying attempt, which he used as evidence that the Unionists were trying

1166 Eski Maliye NazırıEski Maliye Nazırı Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Şiar’ın GünülüğüŞiar’ın Günülüğü, 28. , 28.

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to seize power through various means, includin

to seize power through various means, including establishing the PRP. g establishing the PRP. In this process, the nineIn this process, the nine--point program formed at Cavid Beypoint program formed at Cavid Bey's house 's house was considered as a piece of crucial evidence. On Juwas considered as a piece of crucial evidence. On July 8, 1926, the trial ly 8, 1926, the trial of Cavid Beyof Cavid Bey began, but the court was not well prepared for his interrbegan, but the court was not well prepared for his interro-o-gation.gation.

For this re

For this reason, a second ason, a second portionportion of of the the trial was opened in Ankara trial was opened in Ankara after the after the İzmirİzmir trial. At this point, we should note that according to the trial. At this point, we should note that according to the law on the establishment of the Independence Tribunal, defendants law on the establishment of the Independence Tribunal, defendants were not allowed to hire lawyers. Therefore, all the defenwere not allowed to hire lawyers. Therefore, all the defendants, includants, includ-d-ing Cavid Beying Cavid Bey, made their own defenses. The , made their own defenses. The İzmirİzmir triatrial ended with the l ended with the decision announced on July 12 to execute fifteen people, which was a decision announced on July 12 to execute fifteen people, which was a heavier sentence than the prosecutor's request. Thirteen were executed heavier sentence than the prosecutor's request. Thirteen were executed on the same day that the verdicton the same day that the verdict was issued. Kara Kemal took his own was issued. Kara Kemal took his own life while in hiding after flelife while in hiding after fleeing police custody. Abdülkadir Bey was eing police custody. Abdülkadir Bey was caught and executed while fleeing to Greece.caught and executed while fleeing to Greece.1167

The Ankara government, especially Mustafa Kemal Pasha, was u

The Ankara government, especially Mustafa Kemal Pasha, was un-n-comfortable with the CUP’s activities. Thecomfortable with the CUP’s activities. The tactics of the CUP, which had tactics of the CUP, which had been active in the political scene sbeen active in the political scene since 1908, were known to everyone. ince 1908, were known to everyone. The CUP did not want to leave power. It had contributed to the national The CUP did not want to leave power. It had contributed to the national struggle and thus wanted to participate in and contribute to political life struggle and thus wanted to participate in and contribute to political life in Turin Turkey. It was clear from the trials and defenses that the assassinkey. It was clear from the trials and defenses that the assassina-a-tition attempt was genuine. However, Ankara had transformed the on attempt was genuine. However, Ankara had transformed the İzmirİzmir assassination case into an allassassination case into an all--out confrontation with the dissidents of out confrontation with the dissidents of the Republican regime.the Republican regime.1168 This maneuver deeply concerThis maneuver deeply concernned Cavid Beyed Cavid Bey, , who did not want to cut his ties with politics. who did not want to cut his ties with politics. Although Cavid BeyAlthough Cavid Bey and and

1167 The list of the UnionitThe list of the Unionits exes executcuted aced accordicording tng to the verdico the verdictt of the of the İzmirİzmir IndeIndependence pendence TribuTribunal is: Znal is: Ziyaiya HurşHurşiit, Ahmt, Ahmet Şükrü, Gürcü Yusuf,et Şükrü, Gürcü Yusuf, Laz İsmail, SLaz İsmail, Sararı Eı Edip Efe, Çopur dip Efe, Çopur Himli, Abidin, HHimli, Abidin, Halialis Turgut, s Turgut, İsmail Canbulat, Rüştü Paşa, Hafız Ahmet, Rasim, Arif, Kara İsmail Canbulat, Rüştü Paşa, Hafız Ahmet, Rasim, Arif, Kara Kemal, Abdülkadir. SKemal, Abdülkadir. See moee more re on Inon Independependencdence Tribunal: e Tribunal: KKılıç Ali, Atatürk’ılıç Ali, Atatürk’ün Sırdaşı ün Sırdaşı KılKılıç Ali’niıç Ali’nin Hn Hatırlatırlaarırı, ed, ed. Hulusi Turgut (Istan. Hulusi Turgut (Istanbul: Türkiye İbul: Türkiye İş ş BanBankası Yayınları, 2016)kası Yayınları, 2016);; Feridun Feridun KanKandemir demir İzmirİzmir Suîkastinin İç Yüzü ISuîkastinin İç Yüzü I--IIII (Istanbul: Ekicil Matbaası, 1955)(Istanbul: Ekicil Matbaası, 1955)

1168 Ramazan Hakkı ÖzRamazan Hakkı Öztan, tan, ““RRepubliepublic of c of CConspiracies: Crossonspiracies: Cross--Border Plots anBorder Plots and the Mad the Making king of Modern of Modern TurkeyTurkey,,”” Journal of Contemporary HistoryJournal of Contemporary History 556, no. 16, no. 1, , (202(2021),1), 5555--176. 176.

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Mustafa Kemal Pasha did not have any face

Mustafa Kemal Pasha did not have any face--toto--face or direct political re-face or direct political re-lation, cooperation, or conflict, Cavid Beylation, cooperation, or conflict, Cavid Bey became a part of this tribbecame a part of this tribuunal nal due to his closeness widue to his closeness witth the Unionists.h the Unionists. Furthermore, he reprFurthermore, he repreesented sented the OPDA, a nightmare from the country’s Ottoman past.the OPDA, a nightmare from the country’s Ottoman past.

The first

The first dayday of the Ankarof the Ankara tria tribunal bunal took place on August 1, 1926. took place on August 1, 1926. FortyForty--five Unionists were interrogated before the court's mandate end-five Unionists were interrogated before the court's mandate end-ed on August 31. Thed on August 31. Thee defendants did not have the right to a lawyer. The defendants did not have the right to a lawyer. The most prominent figures accused were Cavid Beymost prominent figures accused were Cavid Bey and Kara Kemal, who and Kara Kemal, who had commhad committed suicide on July 27, 1926. Although Kara Kemal was dead, itted suicide on July 27, 1926. Although Kara Kemal was dead, his initiative and enterprises (such as 'the Black Gang') during thhis initiative and enterprises (such as 'the Black Gang') during thee Great Great War were brought up in the court. During Cavid BeyWar were brought up in the court. During Cavid Bey’s interrog’s interrogaation, the tion, the hall was full. Cavid Beyhall was full. Cavid Bey was often rwas often reebuked by tbuked by the president of the court, he president of the court, Ali Bey (Çetinkaya)Ali Bey (Çetinkaya), for small incidents such as pu, for small incidents such as puttting his hand in his ting his hand in his pocketpocket. Cavid Bey. Cavid Bey was considewas considerred as the head of the group that wished ed as the head of the group that wished to revive the CUP. The meetings at Cavid Beyto revive the CUP. The meetings at Cavid Bey's house, the manifesto of 's house, the manifesto of the Unionists, the Unionists, which was also prepared at his house, and his prowhich was also prepared at his house, and his pro--French French attitude were among the accusations against him. Aattitude were among the accusations against him. Allthough he prepared though he prepared lelenngthy and detailed defenses, he was never able to convince the prose-gthy and detailed defenses, he was never able to convince the prose-cutor. Cavid Beycutor. Cavid Bey also answered the prosecutor's questions ralso answered the prosecutor's questions regarding the egarding the Empire’s entrance into the Great War, his fEmpire’s entrance into the Great War, his faamous expression on the mous expression on the merits of the budget deficit, Kara Kemal’s comerits of the budget deficit, Kara Kemal’s commpanpaniies, et cetera. He also es, et cetera. He also developed an explanation about the state’s debt. His trial gave an ac-developed an explanation about the state’s debt. His trial gave an ac-count of the entire Second Constitcount of the entire Second Constitutional Putional Peeriod. He answered ques-riod. He answered ques-tions about his petions about his perrsonal wealth, the Armistice of Mudros, and his ab-sonal wealth, the Armistice of Mudros, and his ab-sence in Anatolia dusence in Anatolia durring the ing the NNational Struggle. He did not deny the ational Struggle. He did not deny the meetings at his home and the manifesto, but he stated that he did not meetings at his home and the manifesto, but he stated that he did not support the assasssupport the assassins. ins.

Following his testimony, the court outlined a five

Following his testimony, the court outlined a five--pronged plan that pronged plan that the CUP had allegedly devised to seize power. First, tthe CUP had allegedly devised to seize power. First, thhe Unionists were e Unionists were to unite the two groups in the parliament, gathering the Unionist leato unite the two groups in the parliament, gathering the Unionist lead-d-ers from both sides and creating a grouers from both sides and creating a group that would be active in the p that would be active in the Council of Ministers with the help of Rauf Bey. Second, the Unionists Council of Ministers with the help of Rauf Bey. Second, the Unionists would create a list of fifteewould create a list of fifteenn or twenty deputies working for the CUP or twenty deputies working for the CUP and put them in the Republican People's Party (RPP), again with the and put them in the Republican People's Party (RPP), again with the

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help of Rauf Bey.

help of Rauf Bey. Third, the Unionists would create a new political faThird, the Unionists would create a new political fac-c-tion and incite an open war by issuing nine points that directly chation and incite an open war by issuing nine points that directly chal-l-lenge tlenge thhe government’s Nine Principles. Fourth, the Unionists were to e government’s Nine Principles. Fourth, the Unionists were to break up the RPP by forming an opposition party, the break up the RPP by forming an opposition party, the PRPPRP, with m, with meem-m-bers elected on behalf of the RPP. Fifth, after the party's (PRP) closure, bers elected on behalf of the RPP. Fifth, after the party's (PRP) closure, under the conditions of the Law on the Maiunder the conditions of the Law on the Mainntenance otenance off Order (Order (TakrirTakrir--i i SükûnSükûn), the Unionists would gather at Cavid Bey), the Unionists would gather at Cavid Bey's house and plan for 's house and plan for the assassination of Mustafa Kemal Pashathe assassination of Mustafa Kemal Pasha. A. Acccording to the court, Cavid cording to the court, Cavid BeyBey, Dr. Nazım, Filibeli Hilmi, and Yenibahçeli Nail Bey were at the ep, Dr. Nazım, Filibeli Hilmi, and Yenibahçeli Nail Bey were at the epi-i-center of these plans. center of these plans.

Cavid Bey

Cavid Bey made an hoursmade an hours--long defense on August 24. Cavid Beylong defense on August 24. Cavid Bey end-end-ed his final letter dated August 25, which he wrote to his wife Aliyed his final letter dated August 25, which he wrote to his wife Aliye e Hanım, “Even if they announceHanım, “Even if they announced it (the verdict) today, we und it (the verdict) today, we understand derstand what will happen...”what will happen...”1169 From this sentence, it is possible to believe that From this sentence, it is possible to believe that he was still hopefulhe was still hopeful——or at least wanted to appear that wayor at least wanted to appear that way——that he that he would be proven innocent. The next day, on Auwould be proven innocent. The next day, on August 26, the court dgust 26, the court deecid-cid-ed thated that Cavid BeyCavid Bey, Dr. Nazim, Nail Bey of Yenibah, Dr. Nazim, Nail Bey of Yenibahççeli, and Filibeli Hilmi eli, and Filibeli Hilmi were to be executed at 23:00 that day.were to be executed at 23:00 that day.1170

Various

Various tangible pieces of evidencetangible pieces of evidence indicate that several Unionists indicate that several Unionists had had beenbeen involved in an assassination atinvolved in an assassination attempt agatempt agaiinst Mustafa Knst Mustafa Keemal mal Pasha in 1926Pasha in 1926. However, more people were arrested and taken to Inde-. However, more people were arrested and taken to Inde-pendence Tribunals than those involved in the assassination apendence Tribunals than those involved in the assassination atttempttempt——namely those who participated in the National Independence War and namely those who participated in the National Independence War and grew to think differently grew to think differently than Mustthan Mustaafa Kemal Pasha over time. This,fa Kemal Pasha over time. This, in in turn, leads us to question the scope of the Independence Tribturn, leads us to question the scope of the Independence Tribuunals. For nals. For example, Kazım Karabekir Pasha’s trial caused example, Kazım Karabekir Pasha’s trial caused aa reaction from the pub-reaction from the pub-

1169 Cavid Bey, Cavid Bey, Sevgili AliSevgili Aliye’ye’m, m, Maliye NazıMaliye Nazırı Cavid Beyrı Cavid Bey’’in Hapishane Mektupları ve in Hapishane Mektupları ve SavunSavunmalarımaları, ed.:, ed.: OsmaOsmann SelimSelim Kocahnoğlu (Kocahnoğlu (IstanIstanbul:bul: Temel YayınlaTemel Yayınlarırı:2006), 181. Se:2006), 181. See e also: Mehmed Cavialso: Mehmed Cavid Bd Beey, y, İdama beş kala yazılan satırlar Zindandan Mektuplarİdama beş kala yazılan satırlar Zindandan Mektuplar ((IstaIstan-n-bul: Liberte Yayınları, 2005)bul: Liberte Yayınları, 2005)

1170 İİliklikan an and and İlikaİlikan,n, Ankara İstiAnkara İstikklâl Mahkemesi, Ankara İstiklal Mlâl Mahkemesi, Ankara İstiklal Mahkemesi’ndeahkemesi’nde CereCereyyan an EdeEden Sun Su--i Kasd vi Kasd ve Take Takliblib--I Hükumet DavaI Hükumet Davasısı’na ait Resmî Z’na ait Resmî Zabıtlarabıtlar, 782. From , 782. From ApriAprill 1923 1923 to August 1926 see also Yalçın, H.C. to August 1926 see also Yalçın, H.C. Siyasal AnılSiyasal Anılarar, 273, 273--285285

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lic and military.

lic and military.1171 Although the capacity and power of the CUP at the Although the capacity and power of the CUP at the bbeginning eginning oof the 1920s f the 1920s waswas ambiguous, the ambiguous, the circle of trials circle of trials waswas quite ex-quite ex-tensive. This situation tensive. This situation created thecreated the pperception that the Inderception that the Indeependence pendence Trails had a political mission. The figures tried Trails had a political mission. The figures tried inin the Indthe Indeepenpenddence ence Tri-Tri-bunal bunal were undoubtedly still strong figures were undoubtedly still strong figures thatthat woulwouldd cast a cast a shadow shadow over over the futurethe future of the Republicof the Republic. .

1171 Hakan Özoğlu, Hakan Özoğlu, CumhuriyeCumhuriyetintin KurKuruluşunda İuluşunda İktidar Kavgaktidar Kavgassı 150’likler, Takrirı 150’likler, Takrir--i Sükûn ve i Sükûn ve İzmirİzmir SuikasSuikasti,ti, ((IIstanbustanbull: Kitap Yayın: Kitap Yayınevi, evi, 2012011), 220.1), 220.

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Figure 5.6 Cavid Bey during the Independence Tribunal, 1926. Taha

Toros Archive. Accessed on July 22, 2021.

http://openaccess.marmara.edu.tr/handle/11424/141615

5.2.1 Cavid Bey’s Estate

As part of the research, I conducted for my thesis, I examined the SALT

Galata Archives, which contain the archives of the Ottoman Bank, in November

2018. My goal was to find out whether Cavid Bey had an account

with the Ottoman Bank. However, what I came across was not an

account but his certificate of inheritance. This was a piece of information

that I had not encountered before in my research. In the Ottoman

Bank Archive, which was accessible with special permission, there

are two files that belong to Cavid Bey, coded “XKSO 073 1469700000”

and “XKSO1040004800000”. The first file contains information about

his safety deposit box at the bank and the certificate of inheritance

signed by his lawyer Mehmed Ali Bey. The second file contains only the

certificate of inheritance that he delivered to his lawyer. Despite the fact

that Cavid Bey was executed on August 26, 1926, the certificate of inheritance

(issued by: Civil Court of First Instance no.3, number: 929/2178)

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shoows the date of his death as ws the date of his death as AuAugustgust 27, 192627, 19261172 and that he was suand that he was sur-r-vived by his mother Fatma Hanım,vived by his mother Fatma Hanım, his wife Aliye Hanım and his son Os-his wife Aliye Hanım and his son Os-man Şiar. His estate was divided into 24 equal shares of which four man Şiar. His estate was divided into 24 equal shares of which four shares were allocated to his mother, three shashares were allocated to his mother, three shares to hires to hiss wife, and 17 wife, and 17 shares to his soshares to his son. In a document signed by Fatma Hn. In a document signed by Fatma Hanım on January 1, anım on January 1, 1929, she states that she was allocated 4,000 1929, she states that she was allocated 4,000 llira, which she left to Aliye ira, which she left to Aliye Hanım,Hanım,1173 warden of her grandson. Based on this figure, the total warden of her grandson. Based on this figure, the total amount of Cavid Beyamount of Cavid Bey’s e’s estate wasstate was 24,000 24,000 llirasiras. However, this am. However, this amount did ount did not come from the safety not come from the safety deposit box, and the documents do not state deposit box, and the documents do not state where exactly it went.where exactly it went.

The opening of the safety deposit box following Cavid Bey

The opening of the safety deposit box following Cavid Bey’s exec’s execu-u-tion was not an easy task due to bureaucratic obstation was not an easy task due to bureaucratic obstacles. Thcles. Thee safety dsafety de-e-posit box (number: 6posit box (number: 616), rented in the name of Mehmed 16), rented in the name of Mehmed Cavid BeyCavid Bey at at the Ottoman Bank's Galata Branch, was opened in the presence of the Ottoman Bank's Galata Branch, was opened in the presence of Süleyman Kani (İrtem) Bey, Cavid BeySüleyman Kani (İrtem) Bey, Cavid Bey’s friend from ’s friend from the the MektebMekteb--i İdadii İdadi--i i MülkiMülki,,1174 who was also the proxy for Cavid Beywho was also the proxy for Cavid Bey's mother and his wife 's mother and his wife Aliye Hanım,Aliye Hanım,1175 and bank staff on May 22, and bank staff on May 22, 1930. The1930. The contents included contents included five diamondfive diamond--encrusted daggers, a diamondencrusted daggers, a diamond--encrusted golden cigarette encrusted golden cigarette case engraved with the King of Germany's portrait, six gold cigarette case engraved with the King of Germany's portrait, six gold cigarette cases, one silver watch, one diamond watch and one string of pearls, cases, one silver watch, one diamond watch and one string of pearls, three chain watches three chain watches and one cand one chain, four Ottoman "five pieces of gold"; hain, four Ottoman "five pieces of gold"; four pieces of Ottoman gold, each valued at 1 four pieces of Ottoman gold, each valued at 1 llira; three pieces of Ottira; three pieces of Otto-o-man gold, valued at half a man gold, valued at half a llira; one piece of German gold, valued at half a ira; one piece of German gold, valued at half a llira, three cigarette holders, one cigar cutter, one smalira, three cigarette holders, one cigar cutter, one small golden l golden pen, two pen, two goldgold--plated enamel spoonsplated enamel spoons1176

1172 SecSeconondary sources mendary sources mention the date of htion the date of his is dedeath as August 26, 1926; however, in this ath as August 26, 1926; however, in this court decision,court decision, it is written that he died a day latit is written that he died a day later.er.

1173 SSalt Galataalt Galata Archives, XArchives, XKKSO 073 146 97 00006 E001 SO 073 146 97 00006 E001

1174 OsmaOsman Selim Kocan Selim Kocahanoğhanoğuullarılları İzmirİzmir SuikastiSuikasti ve İve İttittihatçılar Davashatçılar Davası ı Anakara YargılamAnakara Yargılama-a-ları Vol II Ankarları Vol II Ankara’da’daa beşbeş İdam Sehpasıİdam Sehpası, (Istanbul: Temel Yayınları, 2017), 333, (Istanbul: Temel Yayınları, 2017), 333..

1175 Salt Galata Archives, XKSO 073 14Salt Galata Archives, XKSO 073 146 96 97 007 00003, XKSO 003, XKSO 073 146 97 0073 146 97 000003 E001003 E001

1176 Salt Galata ArchivesSalt Galata Archives, XKSO 073 1, XKSO 073 146 9746 97 00002 00002 EE001001

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Notary documents, which were prepared according to the certificate

Notary documents, which were prepared according to the certificate of inheritance, provide us more information about Cavid Beyof inheritance, provide us more information about Cavid Bey’s family ’s family members. His mother Fatma Hanım was born in 1857 (1274 according members. His mother Fatma Hanım was born in 1857 (1274 according to the Islto the Islamic caleamic calendar) in Selânik. Her mother's name was Rakibe, and ndar) in Selânik. Her mother's name was Rakibe, and her father's (Cavid Beyher father's (Cavid Bey’s grandfather) name was Ali. These documents ’s grandfather) name was Ali. These documents also contain two addresses for Fatma Hanımalso contain two addresses for Fatma Hanım1177 in Istanbul and two diin Istanbul and two dif-f-ferent addresses for Aliye Hanım in Istanbul and Büyükada.ferent addresses for Aliye Hanım in Istanbul and Büyükada.1178

Since th

Since there is not much information about Cavid Beyere is not much information about Cavid Bey's private life, 's private life, especially about his family and his early life, this is the most detailed especially about his family and his early life, this is the most detailed information that has been uncovered. What is interesting here is the information that has been uncovered. What is interesting here is the modest number of possessions that came out omodest number of possessions that came out of Cavid Bf Cavid Beyey's safety d's safety de-e-posit box, taking into consideration the fact that he wrote in his journals posit box, taking into consideration the fact that he wrote in his journals many times in his life that he was short of money as well as considering many times in his life that he was short of money as well as considering that his opponents accused him of fraud. We can deduct from the cothat his opponents accused him of fraud. We can deduct from the con-n-tents of the safetents of the safety deposity deposit box that Cavid Beyt box that Cavid Bey had very little money and had very little money and only a few valuable items as well as that he was fond of smoking cigonly a few valuable items as well as that he was fond of smoking ciga-a-rettes and cigars.rettes and cigars.1179 During his last appearance in court, he states, “The During his last appearance in court, he states, “The day I die, my family will be hungry and indigent.”day I die, my family will be hungry and indigent.”1180 This pThis phrase mighrase might ht be an exaggeration, but it shows that he was honest about his financial be an exaggeration, but it shows that he was honest about his financial situation. There was one thing certain about Cavid Beysituation. There was one thing certain about Cavid Bey: he was not i: he was not in-n-volved in corruption and lived on the salary he earned. volved in corruption and lived on the salary he earned.

1177 Salt GaSalt Galata lata ArcArchives, XKSO 07hives, XKSO 073 3 146 97 00003, XK146 97 00003, XKSO 07314697 00006 SO 07314697 00006 E00E001 1

1178 Salt Galata Archives, XKSO 073 146 97 00009, XKSO 073Salt Galata Archives, XKSO 073 146 97 00009, XKSO 073 146 97 00003 E001146 97 00003 E001

1179 Hence, one of tHence, one of the he archarchive documeive documents mentionsnts mentions an incident when Cavid Bey's gilan incident when Cavid Bey's gilded ded cigarettcigarette case casee was lwas loost and then fst and then found ound agaagain. in.

BOA DH.BOA DH.EUEU.THR. /98/60/132.THR. /98/60/1328//l/08/1.8//l/08/1.

1180 İlikİlikanan anand İlikan,d İlikan, Ankara İstiklâl MahkemesiAnkara İstiklâl Mahkemesi, 710. , 710.

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Figure 5.7:

Figure 5.7: Aliye HanımAliye Hanım. Aliye Hanım. Aliye Hanım (sitting) with Zeynep Oyvar at (sitting) with Zeynep Oyvar at Mrs. Oyvar’s house in Yakacık. From the family archive of Emine Resa Mrs. Oyvar’s house in Yakacık. From the family archive of Emine Resa Selbes, nephew of Zeynep Oyvar. Selbes, nephew of Zeynep Oyvar.

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§ 5.3 Concluding Remarks: Cavid Bey, A Civil UnionistConcluding Remarks: Cavid Bey, A Civil Unionist

As this dissertation calls Cavid Bey a “civil” Un

As this dissertation calls Cavid Bey a “civil” Unionist, I would like to ionist, I would like to elaborate on my argument that Cavid Bey was a civil person. As meelaborate on my argument that Cavid Bey was a civil person. As men-n-tioned in detail above, Cavid Bey was raised as a model individual of La tioned in detail above, Cavid Bey was raised as a model individual of La Belle Epoque. He was a cosmopolitan Ottoman citizen, raised in Selanik Belle Epoque. He was a cosmopolitan Ottoman citizen, raised in Selanik as a son of a as a son of a DönmeDönme fafamily, who were experts in commerce. From his mily, who were experts in commerce. From his early years, he was well educated, and he was fluent in several laearly years, he was well educated, and he was fluent in several lan-n-guages. He enjoyed the multiguages. He enjoyed the multi--cultural urban life of Selanik in the Ha-cultural urban life of Selanik in the Ha-midian Era. Cavid Bey’s early life in Selanik was far from the suffocamidian Era. Cavid Bey’s early life in Selanik was far from the suffocatting ing atmosphere of Abdülhamid II’s Istanbul. Its residents were able to go to atmosphere of Abdülhamid II’s Istanbul. Its residents were able to go to a cafe to gather with friends around the White Tower while the breeze a cafe to gather with friends around the White Tower while the breeze blew in from the Aegean Sea. For this generation, Selanik was a model blew in from the Aegean Sea. For this generation, Selanik was a model secular and modern urban space. Selanik wassecular and modern urban space. Selanik was a cosmopolitan city in a cosmopolitan city in which the Young Turks were able to enjoy its multiwhich the Young Turks were able to enjoy its multi--cultural and bour-cultural and bour-geoise environment. The culture of urban life in Selanik was egeoise environment. The culture of urban life in Selanik was enngrained grained into the Unionists who were born or lived in the city such as Mustafa into the Unionists who were born or lived in the city such as Mustafa Kemal Pasha and Talat BKemal Pasha and Talat Bey. Although the city’s inhabitants (in this case, ey. Although the city’s inhabitants (in this case, mostly men) were still under the pressure of Abdulhamid II’s spy net-mostly men) were still under the pressure of Abdulhamid II’s spy net-work, they lived a relatively free lifestyle compared to most ciwork, they lived a relatively free lifestyle compared to most citties in the ies in the Empire. The city had a vast harbor and railway connections toEmpire. The city had a vast harbor and railway connections to both Is-both Is-tanbul and the Ottoman hinterland in Macedonia. Most impotanbul and the Ottoman hinterland in Macedonia. Most imporrtantly, the tantly, the relatively free environment of the city prepared the ground for the Un-relatively free environment of the city prepared the ground for the Un-ionists to organize political movements against the sultan. Aionists to organize political movements against the sultan. Allthough the though the rising nationalist movements cast arising nationalist movements cast a shadow over the coshadow over the commfort of the city, fort of the city, it became a hub for the Young Turks to organize against the sultan’s ab-it became a hub for the Young Turks to organize against the sultan’s ab-solutist regime. These young men who were involved in the Young solutist regime. These young men who were involved in the Young Turks were all members of the same generation mostly born in the Turks were all members of the same generation mostly born in the 1880s in Macedonia1880s in Macedonia; they were responsible for first establishing the ; they were responsible for first establishing the CUP, then launching the Second Constitutional Period, and then found-CUP, then launching the Second Constitutional Period, and then found-ing the Republic of Turkey. While the leaders of these movements ing the Republic of Turkey. While the leaders of these movements changed, it was this same generation that was always full of enthusiasm changed, it was this same generation that was always full of enthusiasm and passion to change, reform, and reconstruct the current political oand passion to change, reform, and reconstruct the current political or-r-der. They were educated in the most advanced high schools in the Ha-der. They were educated in the most advanced high schools in the Ha-

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midian Era, which gave them a chance to catch on to European ideas.

midian Era, which gave them a chance to catch on to European ideas. Moreover, the members of the CUP also bore close wMoreover, the members of the CUP also bore close witness to the Macitness to the Mace-e-donian Question. They felt the threat of foreign intervention while the donian Question. They felt the threat of foreign intervention while the CUP’s military members were combating the Bulgarian guerillas in the CUP’s military members were combating the Bulgarian guerillas in the mountains. This environment shaped their political stance. mountains. This environment shaped their political stance.

After graduating from middle school

After graduating from middle school in Selanik, Cavid Bey enrolled in Selanik, Cavid Bey enrolled in in Mülkiye,Mülkiye, where liberal economic doctrine had dominated since the where liberal economic doctrine had dominated since the middle of the nineteenth century through to the end of the Great War, middle of the nineteenth century through to the end of the Great War, and eventually graduated with a high degree. Indeed, and eventually graduated with a high degree. Indeed, MülkiyeMülkiye might might have had a twohave had a two--prongpronged ied immpact on Cavid Bey. While the academy’s main pact on Cavid Bey. While the academy’s main economic doctrine sueconomic doctrine suppported the laissezported the laissez--faire economy, it also empha-faire economy, it also empha-sized the importance of the state to its students, who would become fu-sized the importance of the state to its students, who would become fu-ture bureaucrats. This might have also affected Cavid Bey’s stance suture bureaucrats. This might have also affected Cavid Bey’s stance sup-p-porting centralist pporting centralist poolices and strong state institutions. In terms of Cavid lices and strong state institutions. In terms of Cavid Bey’s liberal aBey’s liberal appproach, an essential condition for progress was the con-proach, an essential condition for progress was the con-tinuous itinuous immprovement of commercial, financial, and cultural fluidity, as provement of commercial, financial, and cultural fluidity, as was seen in the development of port was seen in the development of port cities during this period. The criti-cities during this period. The criti-cal point here is that the superiority of the Western world was consid-cal point here is that the superiority of the Western world was consid-ered a given, and it was assumed that a different path would not be pos-ered a given, and it was assumed that a different path would not be pos-sible for the Osible for the Otttoman Empire or Turkey in the future. Although Cavid toman Empire or Turkey in the future. Although Cavid Bey’s worlBey’s worldview clashed with the policies of the CUP, in regard to build-dview clashed with the policies of the CUP, in regard to build-ing a strong state, robust institutions, and centralized governance, he ing a strong state, robust institutions, and centralized governance, he adjusted these priadjusted these prinnciples to fit the CUP’s agenda. However, the funda-ciples to fit the CUP’s agenda. However, the funda-mental difference bmental difference beetween Cavid Bey’s understanding otween Cavid Bey’s understanding of state and the f state and the Unionist’s undeUnionist’s underrstanding remained. Cavid Bey sought to minimize the standing remained. Cavid Bey sought to minimize the state's role in the economy, including support for industry, and to make state's role in the economy, including support for industry, and to make the individual entrepreneur one of the main actors in the economy. He the individual entrepreneur one of the main actors in the economy. He favored a strong state and pofavored a strong state and powerful institutions. He fundamentally be-werful institutions. He fundamentally be-lieved that there must be a management device based on law and insti-lieved that there must be a management device based on law and insti-tutions to ensure the flow of trade, services, and people for these pro-tutions to ensure the flow of trade, services, and people for these pro-cesses to function efficiently. However, the state should not interfere cesses to function efficiently. However, the state should not interfere with with this flow and determine its direction. Although the ideals of nine-this flow and determine its direction. Although the ideals of nine-teenthteenth--century liberalscentury liberals——and today’s neoliberalsand today’s neoliberals——are somewhat remi-are somewhat remi-

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niscent of the economic models persistent in the port cities of this era,

niscent of the economic models persistent in the port cities of this era, the rise of nationalist currents, the emergence of the rise of nationalist currents, the emergence of nationnation--states, and the states, and the adverse effects of wars drew the Ottoman Empire closer to national adverse effects of wars drew the Ottoman Empire closer to national economic policies. After the Balkan Wars, the nationalist policies that economic policies. After the Balkan Wars, the nationalist policies that gradually emerged throughout the Empire began to be implemented gradually emerged throughout the Empire began to be implemented during the First World War, anduring the First World War, and this world began to grow very different d this world began to grow very different from Cavid Bey's ideal liberal world. from Cavid Bey's ideal liberal world. FinallyFinally, it is also important to re-, it is also important to re-member that Cavid Bey’s concept of free will was also influential within member that Cavid Bey’s concept of free will was also influential within his own intellectual background as well as environmental his own intellectual background as well as environmental fafacctors.tors.

Cavid Bey was a part of the CUP early on in Selanik, long before the vid Bey was a part of the CUP early on in Selanik, long before the Young Turk Revolution on July 23, 1908. His friendship with Talat Bey, Young Turk Revolution on July 23, 1908. His friendship with Talat Bey, for example, went far back before their time in government. Although for example, went far back before their time in government. Although Cavid Bey was abroad on the eve of theCavid Bey was abroad on the eve of the revolutionrevolution, he returned imm, he returned immeedi-di-ately after. He was a gifted orator and gave speeches to the Ottoman ately after. He was a gifted orator and gave speeches to the Ottoman people on the constitution, representation, and parliament, sometimes people on the constitution, representation, and parliament, sometimes until he lost his voice. until he lost his voice. When Cavid Bey became a deputy for Selanik in When Cavid Bey became a deputy for Selanik in 1908, he had al1908, he had already graduready graduated from ated from MülkiyeMülkiye; he published his book in ; he published his book in economics, took a step forward in his life in the civil service, and be-economics, took a step forward in his life in the civil service, and be-came a teacher and then a school director in Selanik, gaining valuable came a teacher and then a school director in Selanik, gaining valuable work experience. work experience. After the elections, he started to work viAfter the elections, he started to work vigorously ingorously in parliament. He was the first Unionist to enter the cabinet in 1909. His parliament. He was the first Unionist to enter the cabinet in 1909. His early successes included preparing the first moearly successes included preparing the first moddern budget of the Ot-ern budget of the Ot-toman Empire in 1909 and regulating the Ottoman state’s finances ac-toman Empire in 1909 and regulating the Ottoman state’s finances ac-cording to modern methodology. He tricording to modern methodology. He tried to estabed to establish a transparent sys-lish a transparent sys-tem of checks and balances to regulate Ottoman ftem of checks and balances to regulate Ottoman fiinances. Although nances. Although there had been many attempts to modernize Ottoman finances, he tried there had been many attempts to modernize Ottoman finances, he tried to accelerate these steps in the financial area. His steps also aimed to to accelerate these steps in the financial area. His steps also aimed to increase the crincrease the credibility oedibility of the Ottoman state in European markets. His f the Ottoman state in European markets. His greatest obstacle was the political events that led to his departure from greatest obstacle was the political events that led to his departure from the ministry. He also clashed with one of the strongest figurethe ministry. He also clashed with one of the strongest figures of the pe-s of the pe-riod, Mahmut Şevket Pasha, the minister of war, largeriod, Mahmut Şevket Pasha, the minister of war, largely due to his insist-ly due to his insist-ence that the government audit the budget of the army. Although Cavid ence that the government audit the budget of the army. Although Cavid Bey had to step back from his position due to domestic turmoil, his ini-Bey had to step back from his position due to domestic turmoil, his ini-

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tiatives in the field of modern

tiatives in the field of modernizing state fizing state fiinances were quite consistent nances were quite consistent and bold. and bold.

The first phase of the Second Constitutional Era between 1908 and

The first phase of the Second Constitutional Era between 1908 and 1913 was a pluralistic and liberal period in Ottoman history. The mult1913 was a pluralistic and liberal period in Ottoman history. The multi-i-cultural backgrounds of the deputies, the richness of the qualitycultural backgrounds of the deputies, the richness of the quality and and quantity of debates in the parliament, the workingquantity of debates in the parliament, the working--class movement, class movement, workers’ strikes, and liveliness of the press represented a miniature of workers’ strikes, and liveliness of the press represented a miniature of an ideal democratic experience in 1908. These examples, however, do an ideal democratic experience in 1908. These examples, however, do not mean that the Second Constitutional Pernot mean that the Second Constitutional Period was a democratic piod was a democratic peeri-ri-od but rather a first step toward it. On the one hand, after the Revolod but rather a first step toward it. On the one hand, after the Revolu-u-tion of 1908, not only the elites but also the whole of society became tion of 1908, not only the elites but also the whole of society became concerned with politics. On the other hand, prior to the revolution there concerned with politics. On the other hand, prior to the revolution there had been no suchad been no such extensive experience of democracy in the Empire, ih extensive experience of democracy in the Empire, in-n-cluding during the First Constitutional Period (1876cluding during the First Constitutional Period (1876––1878). The 1908 1878). The 1908 Revolution thus transformed the Empire in many aspectsRevolution thus transformed the Empire in many aspects——from politfrom politi-i-cal life to daily life, especially in urban areas. Although July 23,cal life to daily life, especially in urban areas. Although July 23, 1908 is 1908 is noted as a moment of reform (noted as a moment of reform (inkılâpinkılâp), I prefer to call it a revolution a), I prefer to call it a revolution ac-c-cording the outcomes that it inspired, which irreversibly transformed cording the outcomes that it inspired, which irreversibly transformed political and social life inside the Empire. The 1908 Revolution was not political and social life inside the Empire. The 1908 Revolution was not like the French Revolution in like the French Revolution in that different social classes contributed to that different social classes contributed to the formation of a new republic. Rather than broad masses, the 1908 the formation of a new republic. Rather than broad masses, the 1908 Revolution was mainly supported by midRevolution was mainly supported by mid--rank civilian and military of-rank civilian and military of-ffiicers, though its outcomes deeply affected all layers of society. The rev-cers, though its outcomes deeply affected all layers of society. The rev-oolution exposed the extent of the political accumulation of society, lution exposed the extent of the political accumulation of society, which had remained silent over the previous thirty years. which had remained silent over the previous thirty years.

Another important outcome of the period from 1908 to 1913 was its

Another important outcome of the period from 1908 to 1913 was its legal attempts to strengthen legislative power and, in return,legal attempts to strengthen legislative power and, in return, restrain restrain executive power. The 1909 constitutional amendments, in which Cavid executive power. The 1909 constitutional amendments, in which Cavid Bey played a crucial role, were important to enlarge the democratic pBey played a crucial role, were important to enlarge the democratic po-o-litical zone within the Ottoman Empire. However, when it came to relitical zone within the Ottoman Empire. However, when it came to rec-c-onciling with the deputies in the parliaonciling with the deputies in the parliamment, the CUP faced the hardship ent, the CUP faced the hardship of imposing inclusive and reconciliatory democratic principles. Even of imposing inclusive and reconciliatory democratic principles. Even Cavid Bey sought ways to avoid the complex processes of the parliCavid Bey sought ways to avoid the complex processes of the parliaamen-men-tary regime. The rising opposition, although a natural outcome of the tary regime. The rising opposition, although a natural outcome of the

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political syste

political systemm, was also an obstacle for the Unionists. Despite the , was also an obstacle for the Unionists. Despite the revolution, the parliament was representative of various interests and revolution, the parliament was representative of various interests and ideologies that could not unite behind the CUP. This was the dilemma of ideologies that could not unite behind the CUP. This was the dilemma of the CUP in the first period of the Second Constitutional Ethe CUP in the first period of the Second Constitutional Erra. a.

Cavid Bey’s contribution to Ottoman finances brought him renown

Cavid Bey’s contribution to Ottoman finances brought him renown in both domestic and international platforms. The Ottoman economy in both domestic and international platforms. The Ottoman economy was entrusted to him. His foreign counterparts were content to see a was entrusted to him. His foreign counterparts were content to see a stateman and negotiator who shared their same valuesstateman and negotiator who shared their same values like Cavid Bey. like Cavid Bey. From his first day in office, his long, detailed speeches in the parliament From his first day in office, his long, detailed speeches in the parliament were a sight none of the other deputies wanted to miss, although he ewere a sight none of the other deputies wanted to miss, although he en-n-countered opposition from within parliament, especially from Lütfi countered opposition from within parliament, especially from Lütfi Fikri Bey and Zöhrap EfendFikri Bey and Zöhrap Efendii. His speeches were always printed and di. His speeches were always printed and dis-s-tributed to the local governors all over the Ottoman Empire. His budget tributed to the local governors all over the Ottoman Empire. His budget talk in 1917 was even translated into French. From his very first day in talk in 1917 was even translated into French. From his very first day in politics, he was close to Talat Bey, the strongest man in the Commitpolitics, he was close to Talat Bey, the strongest man in the Committtee ee and the grassroots CUP movement. However, Cavid Bey was also at the and the grassroots CUP movement. However, Cavid Bey was also at the epicenter of the political upheavals of his day. The civil wing of the CUP, epicenter of the political upheavals of his day. The civil wing of the CUP, led by Talat Bey, was more prominent than the military cadres of the led by Talat Bey, was more prominent than the military cadres of the CUP between 1908 and 1913. During theseCUP between 1908 and 1913. During these years, when Cavid Bey was years, when Cavid Bey was in Istanbul, he also helped Talat Bey solve the political problems of the in Istanbul, he also helped Talat Bey solve the political problems of the day. However, he was more involved with political issues in the 1908day. However, he was more involved with political issues in the 1908––1913 period than in the 19131913 period than in the 1913––1918 period of the Second Constitutional 1918 period of the Second Constitutional EraEra——the latter othe latter off which was dominated by the CUP’s military cadres. which was dominated by the CUP’s military cadres.

Throughout his time in office, Cavid Bey was also the target of the

Throughout his time in office, Cavid Bey was also the target of the CUP’s opponents, which included exCUP’s opponents, which included ex--Unionists, the Unionists, the ulamaulama, the ranker , the ranker soldiers (soldiers (alaylılaralaylılar), and liberals, among others. During the March ), and liberals, among others. During the March 331 I1 In-n-cident, Cavid Bey was also one of the main targets of the CUP’s oppcident, Cavid Bey was also one of the main targets of the CUP’s oppo-o-nents. In 1911, dissidents of the CUP attacked his identity, especially as nents. In 1911, dissidents of the CUP attacked his identity, especially as a freemason, and he had to resign from office. In the 1912 elections, he a freemason, and he had to resign from office. In the 1912 elections, he campaigned in Selanik to be electedcampaigned in Selanik to be elected once again as the deputy from the once again as the deputy from the city. This dissertation also tries to shine light on some interstices in the city. This dissertation also tries to shine light on some interstices in the historiography of the position of Selanik before it was lost to the Empire historiography of the position of Selanik before it was lost to the Empire during the Balkan Wars. The city had changed after the revolution andduring the Balkan Wars. The city had changed after the revolution and became one of the focal politics of the opposition. There was a dramatic became one of the focal politics of the opposition. There was a dramatic

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difference between its urban and rural regions. While the city was mo

difference between its urban and rural regions. While the city was mod-d-ern and liberal, the rural regions of Selanik such as Langaza had become ern and liberal, the rural regions of Selanik such as Langaza had become more conservative in terms of politics more conservative in terms of politics aand religion. In 1912, when the nd religion. In 1912, when the government was handed over to conservatives and monarchists, Cavid government was handed over to conservatives and monarchists, Cavid Bey became one of the leading figures in the parliament defending the Bey became one of the leading figures in the parliament defending the CUP. In the same year, he was sentenced to prison and had to flee the CUP. In the same year, he was sentenced to prison and had to flee the Empire during theEmpire during the First Balkan War. Between 1908 and 1913 he had to First Balkan War. Between 1908 and 1913 he had to flee the Empire twice, resign once, and serve time in prison. This is quite flee the Empire twice, resign once, and serve time in prison. This is quite the record for a financier. the record for a financier. This dissertation shows that daily coThis dissertation shows that daily connflicts of flicts of interest and confusion in domestic politics often intinterest and confusion in domestic politics often inteerrupted the poli-rrupted the poli-cies of the CUP such as the modernization of Ottoman finances. There-cies of the CUP such as the modernization of Ottoman finances. There-fore, many positive developments at the state level during this period fore, many positive developments at the state level during this period were often left unfinished.were often left unfinished.

Between 1909 and 1914, on the one hand, the classical tenets of the

Between 1909 and 1914, on the one hand, the classical tenets of the libeliberral economic system dominated the governance of the Ottoman al economic system dominated the governance of the Ottoman economy. On the other hand, a vivid discussion was emerging in this economy. On the other hand, a vivid discussion was emerging in this field on new economic concepts for the Ottoman Empire such as protefield on new economic concepts for the Ottoman Empire such as protec-c-tionism, corporatism, and the national economy. Cavid Bey wationism, corporatism, and the national economy. Cavid Bey wass one of one of the pioneers of the modern Ottoman economy and a critic of the old the pioneers of the modern Ottoman economy and a critic of the old economic order. In his parliamentary speeches, he argued that financial economic order. In his parliamentary speeches, he argued that financial independence was as important as political independence. While Cavid independence was as important as political independence. While Cavid Bey evaluated the Imperial Ottoman BankBey evaluated the Imperial Ottoman Bank as a “member of the family,” as a “member of the family,” he was skeptical of the Ottoman Public Debt Association. He was fiercely he was skeptical of the Ottoman Public Debt Association. He was fiercely against state subsidies, especially for industrial development. In the ear-against state subsidies, especially for industrial development. In the ear-lyly twentiethtwentieth century, the Ottoman Empire was still an agricultural coun-century, the Ottoman Empire was still an agricultural coun-try lacktry lackiing capital. According to Cavid Bey, the Empire’s economy had to ng capital. According to Cavid Bey, the Empire’s economy had to develop primarily via agricultural production and commerce to ensure develop primarily via agricultural production and commerce to ensure sustainable development. To reach this aim the Empire urgently needed sustainable development. To reach this aim the Empire urgently needed investments in infrastructure. His priority was not investments in infrastructure. His priority was not tto first take care of o first take care of national economic actors, although he ultimately wanted to enational economic actors, although he ultimately wanted to ennsure their sure their wellwell--being, too, but to make the best investments with the highest, being, too, but to make the best investments with the highest, quickest returns. This meant that the Ottoman Empire had to continue quickest returns. This meant that the Ottoman Empire had to continue to borrow and make concesto borrow and make concesssion agreements to obtain new iion agreements to obtain new innvestments vestments over the short to medium term. However, that meant the government over the short to medium term. However, that meant the government

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also had to spend the money in the right places and i

also had to spend the money in the right places and inncrease the coun-crease the coun-try's leverage in international negotiations. During this period Cavid try's leverage in international negotiations. During this period Cavid Bey not Bey not oonly developed into a great statesman but also as a talented ne-nly developed into a great statesman but also as a talented ne-gotiator. His job was not easy. During the Ottoman Egotiator. His job was not easy. During the Ottoman Emmpire’s negotia-pire’s negotia-tions with the Great Powers, the Great Powers came to the table with tions with the Great Powers, the Great Powers came to the table with the aim to achieve their longthe aim to achieve their long--term imperial goals. In theterm imperial goals. In the loan operation loan operation of 1910, Cavid Bey used all forms of leverage to avoid French control of 1910, Cavid Bey used all forms of leverage to avoid French control over the Ottoman treasury. Cavid Bey managed to steer clear of estab-over the Ottoman treasury. Cavid Bey managed to steer clear of estab-lishing the National Bank of Turkey and looked for alternative banks in lishing the National Bank of Turkey and looked for alternative banks in the Paris and London markets rthe Paris and London markets raather than the IOB, the stronther than the IOB, the stronggest finan-est finan-cial investor of the Empire. His actions caused a strong reaction from cial investor of the Empire. His actions caused a strong reaction from the French government. During this period, he also noticed how the the French government. During this period, he also noticed how the press was critical of these negotiations. A modern statesman with fluent press was critical of these negotiations. A modern statesman with fluent linguilinguisstic skills, Cavid Bey had maintained good relations with the for-tic skills, Cavid Bey had maintained good relations with the for-eign press since the 1908 Revolution. He understood that the press and eign press since the 1908 Revolution. He understood that the press and public relations were as much a part of the loan negotiations as Europe-public relations were as much a part of the loan negotiations as Europe-an politics. However, despite his good relations an politics. However, despite his good relations wwith the press, at the ith the press, at the end of these negotiations, the Germans labeled Cavid Bey a Fraend of these negotiations, the Germans labeled Cavid Bey a Franncophile, cophile, and the French were disappointed when he did not approve of French and the French were disappointed when he did not approve of French control over the treasury. Further, the British embassy in Istacontrol over the treasury. Further, the British embassy in Istannbul also bul also stigmatized him as a stigmatized him as a ccryptorypto--Jew and freemason who was not trustwor-Jew and freemason who was not trustwor-thy. Thus, the collective experience he gained in 1910/1911 was not a thy. Thus, the collective experience he gained in 1910/1911 was not a milestone but rather a critical incident that had a profound impact on milestone but rather a critical incident that had a profound impact on him and the Empire. him and the Empire.

One of the main issues of this thesis is to under

One of the main issues of this thesis is to undersstand both the role tand both the role and capacity of Cavid Bey in international debt and investment agree-and capacity of Cavid Bey in international debt and investment agree-ments and to determine the effects of these negotiation processes on ments and to determine the effects of these negotiation processes on Ottoman territorial integrity and finances. Ottoman territorial integrity and finances. Cavid Bey was also at the ep-Cavid Bey was also at the ep-icenter of international fiicenter of international finnancial relations between the imperial Great ancial relations between the imperial Great Powers at a time when financial and political interests were deeply iPowers at a time when financial and political interests were deeply in-n-tertwined. The loan negotiations were part of political interests in Paris, tertwined. The loan negotiations were part of political interests in Paris, Berlin, and London as much as they were in the Empire’s distant tBerlin, and London as much as they were in the Empire’s distant teerrrri-i-tories. Wars, reparations, territories, minority rights, loans, amortiztories. Wars, reparations, territories, minority rights, loans, amortiza-a-tion, railways, monopolies, customs tariffs, military missions, ports, ition, railways, monopolies, customs tariffs, military missions, ports, in-n-

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terest rates, coal, transportation routes, oil, dreadnoughts, military su

terest rates, coal, transportation routes, oil, dreadnoughts, military sup-p-plies, among many other issues, wplies, among many other issues, weere all intertwined and were dis-re all intertwined and were dis-cussed in the international negotiations in 1913 and 1914. The years cussed in the international negotiations in 1913 and 1914. The years 1913 and 1914 were a distinct period for Ottoman finances and politics. 1913 and 1914 were a distinct period for Ottoman finances and politics. Under the shadow of the Empire’s embarrassing defeat during the BaUnder the shadow of the Empire’s embarrassing defeat during the Bal-l-kan Wars, Cavid kan Wars, Cavid BBey went to Europe, again, both to obtain a sizable loan ey went to Europe, again, both to obtain a sizable loan and to solve the problems between the Great Powers concerning the and to solve the problems between the Great Powers concerning the Baghdad Railway and other issues. Baghdad Railway and other issues. During this period, Cavid Bey moved During this period, Cavid Bey moved his expertise in the field of finance onto the international plhis expertise in the field of finance onto the international plaatform and tform and expanded his powers and responsibilities. expanded his powers and responsibilities. Cavid Bey’s detailed, colossal Cavid Bey’s detailed, colossal diary thus also depicts the complex relationship between the Great diary thus also depicts the complex relationship between the Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire as he recounts the multilateral and bPowers and the Ottoman Empire as he recounts the multilateral and bi-i-lateral negotiations surrounding theslateral negotiations surrounding thesee various issues.various issues.

For this reason, I wanted to allocate a chapter to this period. There

For this reason, I wanted to allocate a chapter to this period. There are several important insights to gain from examining international nare several important insights to gain from examining international ne-e-gotiations during these two years. Firstly, the debts of the Ottoman Egotiations during these two years. Firstly, the debts of the Ottoman Em-m-pire should be evaluated inpire should be evaluated in the context of the international relations of the context of the international relations of the day. Secondly, domestic problems such as the Armenian Question the day. Secondly, domestic problems such as the Armenian Question had already become a subject of international relations as early as 1913. had already become a subject of international relations as early as 1913. Cavid Bey’s diaries also allow us to question the scope and consCavid Bey’s diaries also allow us to question the scope and conseequequennc-c-es of this issue in international relations prior to the Great War. Thirdly, es of this issue in international relations prior to the Great War. Thirdly, examining the agreements of 1913 and 1914 allow us to draw a map of examining the agreements of 1913 and 1914 allow us to draw a map of the Ottoman Empire according to the Great Powers’ spheres of influ-the Ottoman Empire according to the Great Powers’ spheres of influ-ence. It is possible to argue that these maence. It is possible to argue that these mapps are similar to the maps that s are similar to the maps that would be drawn up when negotiating the Sykeswould be drawn up when negotiating the Sykes--Picot (1916) and Sévres Picot (1916) and Sévres (1920) treaties, because they were drawn according to infr(1920) treaties, because they were drawn according to infraastructure structure investments and oil. I consider that these later agreements are not sur-investments and oil. I consider that these later agreements are not sur-prising if we sprising if we sccrutinize the 1913rutinize the 1913––1914 agreements. In terms of Cavid 1914 agreements. In terms of Cavid Bey’s biography, I focus on two things: his discourse and how he per-Bey’s biography, I focus on two things: his discourse and how he per-ceived the outcomes of these agreements. In terms of his diceived the outcomes of these agreements. In terms of his disscourse, course, Cavid Bey typically followed official, nationalist discourse in thCavid Bey typically followed official, nationalist discourse in thee negoti-negoti-ations when it came to addressing the extensive demands of and negoti-ations when it came to addressing the extensive demands of and negoti-ations with the Great Powers. His arguments were fully compatations with the Great Powers. His arguments were fully compatiible with ble with the CUP’s stance. On the one hand, Cavid Bey could have been overexag-the CUP’s stance. On the one hand, Cavid Bey could have been overexag-

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gerating his nationalist sentiments so

gerating his nationalist sentiments so tthat he was perceived to have hat he was perceived to have adopted the official approach as a statesman playing political games. On adopted the official approach as a statesman playing political games. On the other hand, there is no reason to question his sincerity in the face of the other hand, there is no reason to question his sincerity in the face of the demands of the Great Powers.the demands of the Great Powers.

Cavid Bey sought to legitimize these agreeme

Cavid Bey sought to legitimize these agreemennts in front of the Ots in front of the Ot-t-toman public by highlighting their benefits such as the rise of customs toman public by highlighting their benefits such as the rise of customs duties. However, as Sir Mark Sykes interjected while discussing the duties. However, as Sir Mark Sykes interjected while discussing the French agreement in the British Parliament, these agreements often French agreement in the British Parliament, these agreements often meant creating or expandingmeant creating or expanding spheres of influence in the Ottoman Espheres of influence in the Ottoman Em-m-pire. As mentioned in detail throughout this dissertation, the negotipire. As mentioned in detail throughout this dissertation, the negotia-a-tion processes were also difficult for Cavid Bey. He conducted them ution processes were also difficult for Cavid Bey. He conducted them un-n-der great pressure from Istanbul, which was often appealing for more der great pressure from Istanbul, which was often appealing for more money. Tmoney. Thhese agreements bound the Empire politically and economese agreements bound the Empire politically and economiical-cal-ly to the Great Powers. In the grand scheme of things, even the ily to the Great Powers. In the grand scheme of things, even the inncrease crease in customs duties meant little compared to the longin customs duties meant little compared to the long--term iterm innvestments vestments and concessions of the Great Powers within the Empire’sand concessions of the Great Powers within the Empire’s borders, from borders, from Zonguldak to Basra. LongZonguldak to Basra. Long--term negotiations on the Geterm negotiations on the Gerrman military man military mission, Aegean islands, and the Armenian Question were all examples mission, Aegean islands, and the Armenian Question were all examples for the Unionist leaders of just how vulnerable the country was. As far for the Unionist leaders of just how vulnerable the country was. As far as we know, only Parvus Efendi wasas we know, only Parvus Efendi was vocal about the negvocal about the negaative future out-tive future out-comes of these agreements during this period. Therefore, in order to get comes of these agreements during this period. Therefore, in order to get a clearer picture of the Empire’s political and financial state upon enter-a clearer picture of the Empire’s political and financial state upon enter-ing the Great War, the 1913ing the Great War, the 1913––1914 agreements should be scrutinized 1914 agreements should be scrutinized from a from a bbroader perspective regarding their scope and aims. How and roader perspective regarding their scope and aims. How and why Cavid Bey considered that the Empire’s political power was solid why Cavid Bey considered that the Empire’s political power was solid enough to resist any negative consequences from these agreements is enough to resist any negative consequences from these agreements is unclear. He optimistically evaluated the agreements as neceunclear. He optimistically evaluated the agreements as necesssary to ob-sary to ob-tain a certain amount of revenue for the country’s dtain a certain amount of revenue for the country’s deevelopment amid velopment amid the implementation of a liberal economic order. the implementation of a liberal economic order.

After the Ottoman Empire lost its Balkan territories, Cavid Bey i

After the Ottoman Empire lost its Balkan territories, Cavid Bey im-m-mediately advocated for investing in Anatolia. He prioritized mediately advocated for investing in Anatolia. He prioritized iinfrastrunfrastruc-c-ture investments from abroad. However, he was also acutely aware that ture investments from abroad. However, he was also acutely aware that the capitulations and concessions were the heaviest burden on Ottoman the capitulations and concessions were the heaviest burden on Ottoman finances. For this reason, removing the capitulations and concessions finances. For this reason, removing the capitulations and concessions

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during the 1913

during the 1913––1914 negotiations we1914 negotiations werre of vital importance. On the eve e of vital importance. On the eve of the Great War Cavid Bey was optimistic that at last the Empire would of the Great War Cavid Bey was optimistic that at last the Empire would be able to increase customs duties, abolish monopolies, and nbe able to increase customs duties, abolish monopolies, and neegotiate a gotiate a sizeable loan. On the same accord, however, since the Hamidian Era the sizeable loan. On the same accord, however, since the Hamidian Era the BaghdaBaghdadd Railway had been accelerating the formation of spheres of in-Railway had been accelerating the formation of spheres of in-fluence. In 1913 and 1914, the lengthy negotiations Cavid Bey led also fluence. In 1913 and 1914, the lengthy negotiations Cavid Bey led also crystalized the rivalry between the Great Powers in Mesopotamia. Fur-crystalized the rivalry between the Great Powers in Mesopotamia. Fur-thermore, as mentioned above, these negotiations paved thermore, as mentioned above, these negotiations paved tthe way for the he way for the SykesSykes--Picot and Sevres agreements. Overall, the Unionist elites, includ-Picot and Sevres agreements. Overall, the Unionist elites, includ-ing Cavid Bey, harbored little skepticism toward the Great Powers. The ing Cavid Bey, harbored little skepticism toward the Great Powers. The national or financial independence of the CUP was different form the national or financial independence of the CUP was different form the understanding of national sovunderstanding of national soveereignty of the Nreignty of the Naational Forces of Ankara tional Forces of Ankara ((KuvvacıKuvvacı). While the first still existed within i). While the first still existed within immperialist networks and perialist networks and relations, the latter resisted it and adopted an antirelations, the latter resisted it and adopted an anti--imperialist attitude.imperialist attitude.

The aftermath of the Balkan Wars overlaps with the rise of Turkis

The aftermath of the Balkan Wars overlaps with the rise of Turkishh nationalism in the Ottoman Empire. Cavid Bey was a patriotic person. It nationalism in the Ottoman Empire. Cavid Bey was a patriotic person. It is easy to understand this reading his diary, especially during the negis easy to understand this reading his diary, especially during the nego-o-tiation periodstiation periods——however, his patriotism was not rooted in the same however, his patriotism was not rooted in the same ethnoethno--nationalism that was rising in those nationalism that was rising in those ddays. For Cavid Bey, natioays. For Cavid Bey, nationnal-al-ism was an extreme ideology, connected with military measures. Fuism was an extreme ideology, connected with military measures. Fur-r-thermore, it contradicted the multiculturalism of the Ottoman Empire in thermore, it contradicted the multiculturalism of the Ottoman Empire in which he was raised. He wanted to keep this multicultural and liwhich he was raised. He wanted to keep this multicultural and libberal eral structure. Before tstructure. Before thhe collapse of the Empire, the new nationalist ideoe collapse of the Empire, the new nationalist ideollo-o-gy had taken root specifically among the Empire’s Muslim sugy had taken root specifically among the Empire’s Muslim subbjects. jects. Turkish nationalism was the latest and most lasting form of nTurkish nationalism was the latest and most lasting form of naationalism tionalism that took root inside the Empire, and therefore, it was the hardthat took root inside the Empire, and therefore, it was the hardeest to re-st to re-sist. As other nations had been breaking off from the Esist. As other nations had been breaking off from the Emmpire for the past pire for the past one hundred years, the remaining parts drew together under the new one hundred years, the remaining parts drew together under the new nationalist aims and collective suffering inflicted upon them by the nationalist aims and collective suffering inflicted upon them by the Great Powers and their imperialist poGreat Powers and their imperialist pollicies. During this time Cavid Bey icies. During this time Cavid Bey clung harder to his liberal dogma. He advocated for the West to carry clung harder to his liberal dogma. He advocated for the West to carry out development projects throughout the Empire. He aout development projects throughout the Empire. He arrgued that no gued that no model should be copied other than the British or the French modelsmodel should be copied other than the British or the French models——despite his constadespite his constannt frustration with France’s policies toward the Et frustration with France’s policies toward the Em-m-

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pire. Although he had admired some parts of Germany, for example,

pire. Although he had admired some parts of Germany, for example, German factories, during his stay there, overall, he could not reconcile German factories, during his stay there, overall, he could not reconcile implementing the German model in Turkey. implementing the German model in Turkey.

The Ottoman defeat in th

The Ottoman defeat in thee Balkan Wars and the coup d'état of 1913 Balkan Wars and the coup d'état of 1913 strengthened the military wing of the CUP. Civil figures such as Cavid strengthened the military wing of the CUP. Civil figures such as Cavid Bey were excluded from the decisionBey were excluded from the decision--making processes of the CUP dumaking processes of the CUP dur-r-ing these years. The party was in the hands of the soldiers or civilians ing these years. The party was in the hands of the soldiers or civilians whowho subscribed to the CUP’s military approach, including Talat Bey. As subscribed to the CUP’s military approach, including Talat Bey. As mentioned above, Talat Bey and Cavid Bey were close. However, I amentioned above, Talat Bey and Cavid Bey were close. However, I asssess sess that their political coalescence was damaged prior to the coup d'état, that their political coalescence was damaged prior to the coup d'état, when Cavid Bey refused to return to Istanbul uwhen Cavid Bey refused to return to Istanbul uppon Talat Bey's call. on Talat Bey's call. Tasked with the heavy burden of reconstructing the Empire after the Tasked with the heavy burden of reconstructing the Empire after the Balkan Wars, the CUPBalkan Wars, the CUP——now led by its military cadresnow led by its military cadres——had finally had finally grasped power. The government urgently needed money to resettle the grasped power. The government urgently needed money to resettle the thousands of refugees who fled frothousands of refugees who fled fromm Macedonia and to purchase dread-Macedonia and to purchase dread-noughts to recapture the Aegean islands. Talat Bey, Enver Pasha, Bey, noughts to recapture the Aegean islands. Talat Bey, Enver Pasha, Bey, and Cemal Pasha were known as the triumvirate of the CUP and gov-and Cemal Pasha were known as the triumvirate of the CUP and gov-erned the country from 1913 until the end of the Great War. erned the country from 1913 until the end of the Great War.

The Ottoman entrance into th

The Ottoman entrance into thee Great War in 1914 was a stressful, Great War in 1914 was a stressful, conflictual period between the CUP and Cavid Bey. Firstly, Cavid Bey conflictual period between the CUP and Cavid Bey. Firstly, Cavid Bey was disappointed when he learned of the CUP’s secret alliance with was disappointed when he learned of the CUP’s secret alliance with Germany that was formed on August 2, 1914. However, despite his diGermany that was formed on August 2, 1914. However, despite his dissa-a-greements Cavidgreements Cavid Bey stayed in the cabinet and led the antiBey stayed in the cabinet and led the anti--war wing of war wing of the cabinet and parliament until his resignation on October 2. The most the cabinet and parliament until his resignation on October 2. The most crucial financial operation of this period was the abolishment of capitcrucial financial operation of this period was the abolishment of capitu-u-lations. His resignation after the Empire’s entrance intlations. His resignation after the Empire’s entrance intoo the war shook the war shook his relationship with the CUP. His colleagues’ reactions, especially Dr. his relationship with the CUP. His colleagues’ reactions, especially Dr. Nazım’s, had a profound impact on him. Between 1914 and 1917, Cavid Nazım’s, had a profound impact on him. Between 1914 and 1917, Cavid Bey was mainly traveling between Berlin and Vienna, though from time Bey was mainly traveling between Berlin and Vienna, though from time to time he returned to Istanbuto time he returned to Istanbull and depicted his observations of the city and depicted his observations of the city in his diary. During these years he conducted negotiations on behalf of in his diary. During these years he conducted negotiations on behalf of the Empire concerning monetary emissions and importthe Empire concerning monetary emissions and import--export deals for export deals for supplies needed during the war. Between 1914 and 1917, Cavid Bey was supplies needed during the war. Between 1914 and 1917, Cavid Bey was knknoown as the shadow minister of finance. However, as seen from his di-wn as the shadow minister of finance. However, as seen from his di-

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aries, Talat Bey often acted without asking for his ideas on ec

aries, Talat Bey often acted without asking for his ideas on ecoonomic is-nomic is-sues. Especially when it came to domestic economic affairs, Tsues. Especially when it came to domestic economic affairs, Taalat Bey lat Bey largely acted on his own. Cavid Bey often did nlargely acted on his own. Cavid Bey often did noot approve of these deci-t approve of these deci-sions, which contributed to the rise of the national economy. For exam-sions, which contributed to the rise of the national economy. For exam-ple, he criticized Kara Kemal and his many national compple, he criticized Kara Kemal and his many national compaanies. Cavid nies. Cavid Bey also prevented the government from seizing the IOB. Even during Bey also prevented the government from seizing the IOB. Even during the war years, Cavid Bey the war years, Cavid Bey cconsidered that the world would return to its onsidered that the world would return to its prepre--war order, and for this reason, he believed that the Empire should war order, and for this reason, he believed that the Empire should obey international law even during the war. obey international law even during the war.

Two of Cavid Bey’s major contributions to his country during the

Two of Cavid Bey’s major contributions to his country during the war period were the foundatiwar period were the foundatioon of the National Credit Bank and the in of the National Credit Bank and the in-n-ternal loan in 1917. Cavid Bey became the minister of finance in 1917 ternal loan in 1917. Cavid Bey became the minister of finance in 1917 until the end of the Great War. However, although his criticism of the until the end of the Great War. However, although his criticism of the CUP was wellCUP was well--known, his ministry was questioned on different occknown, his ministry was questioned on different occa-a-sions. Hesions. He had become an integral part of the war government in the had become an integral part of the war government in the Great War. However, after becoming a government minister, he did not Great War. However, after becoming a government minister, he did not criticize the outcomes of the war or the government's policies. On the criticize the outcomes of the war or the government's policies. On the contrary, he even praised war profiteering due to its ‘poscontrary, he even praised war profiteering due to its ‘posiitive’ effects tive’ effects allowing Turks to become entrepreneurs. allowing Turks to become entrepreneurs.

At the end of the Great War, the Unionist leaders fled the country.

At the end of the Great War, the Unionist leaders fled the country. Cavid Bey, for a short time, entered the Izzet Pasha cabinet. However, Cavid Bey, for a short time, entered the Izzet Pasha cabinet. However, after being courtafter being court--martialed and sentenced to 15 years of hardmartialed and sentenced to 15 years of hard labor, he labor, he hid in his friends’ houses. After receiving an implicit rejection from Ahid in his friends’ houses. After receiving an implicit rejection from An-n-kara, Cavid Bey fled to Europekara, Cavid Bey fled to Europe——although he had never tried to go to although he had never tried to go to Ankara. Mr. Weil, the former director of the Régie, helped him escape Ankara. Mr. Weil, the former director of the Régie, helped him escape the country with the help of Frencthe country with the help of Frenchh occupation forces. Cavid Bey was in occupation forces. Cavid Bey was in exile for two years and ten months, mainly in Switzerland. After he rexile for two years and ten months, mainly in Switzerland. After he re-e-ceived his passport and visa, he was able to meet the Unionists scaceived his passport and visa, he was able to meet the Unionists scat-t-tered around Europe. In Rome, Cavid Bey organized a meeting in which tered around Europe. In Rome, Cavid Bey organized a meeting in which prominent Uprominent Unnionists gathered for the last time. He also connected with ionists gathered for the last time. He also connected with the representatives of the Ankara government. Cavid Bey contributed to the representatives of the Ankara government. Cavid Bey contributed to the negotiations at the London Conference next to the Ankara goverthe negotiations at the London Conference next to the Ankara govern-n-ment. Following the conference, he returned to Switzerlandment. Following the conference, he returned to Switzerland and maand mar-r-

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ried Aliye Hanım, whom he loved dearly and made him happy. He r

ried Aliye Hanım, whom he loved dearly and made him happy. He re-e-turned to Istanbul as a representative of the OPDA on July 3, 1922.turned to Istanbul as a representative of the OPDA on July 3, 1922.

After the Great War, Cavid Bey failed to comprehend how the world

After the Great War, Cavid Bey failed to comprehend how the world and Turkey had changed. Although he was in Switzerand Turkey had changed. Although he was in Switzerlland and had and and had friends in Europe, he did not mention the workingfriends in Europe, he did not mention the working--class revolts taking class revolts taking place in Europe at the time or the catastrophe and the misery of the Eu-place in Europe at the time or the catastrophe and the misery of the Eu-ropean people after the war. He again continued to examine the world ropean people after the war. He again continued to examine the world through the lens of his closed cthrough the lens of his closed ciircle, surrounded by local and forcle, surrounded by local and forreign eign figures who had similar views. Although the French government had figures who had similar views. Although the French government had helped him escape Istanbul, it was not complimentary of Cavid Bey’s helped him escape Istanbul, it was not complimentary of Cavid Bey’s work or position after the war. Despite this, Mr. Weil remained connect-work or position after the war. Despite this, Mr. Weil remained connect-ed to Cavid ed to Cavid BBey throughout his life and had the chance to coey throughout his life and had the chance to connvey many vey many messages to him from the French government. Cavid Bey fmessages to him from the French government. Cavid Bey foocused on his cused on his Unionist friends during his years in exile. He was very busy maintaining Unionist friends during his years in exile. He was very busy maintaining and developing relations with both his fellow Unionists and developing relations with both his fellow Unionists iin exile and the n exile and the Ankara government. As he remained a part of the political (and in a way Ankara government. As he remained a part of the political (and in a way financial) old guard elite, he could not feel the social and economic financial) old guard elite, he could not feel the social and economic changes of the postchanges of the post--war period. He was surrounded by the same people, war period. He was surrounded by the same people, locally or internationally,locally or internationally, as he had been before the war. He was, indeed, as he had been before the war. He was, indeed, mentally distanced from the spirit, ideas, and ideals of the National mentally distanced from the spirit, ideas, and ideals of the National Struggle. He did not experience the consequences of the war and he did Struggle. He did not experience the consequences of the war and he did not understand the scope and hardship of the National Independence not understand the scope and hardship of the National Independence WWar. He was wellar. He was well--known for his arrogance and loved to be in the com-known for his arrogance and loved to be in the com-pany of those who praised him. He was very young when he became the pany of those who praised him. He was very young when he became the overlord of Ottoman finances. In his midoverlord of Ottoman finances. In his mid--thirties, he was already con-thirties, he was already con-versing with prominent and influential leaders acrosversing with prominent and influential leaders acrosss Europe, including Europe, including Winston Churchill, Raymond Poincaré, Karl HelWinston Churchill, Raymond Poincaré, Karl Helffferich, Arthur Zimmer-ferich, Arthur Zimmer-man, among others. Thus, it was nearly impossman, among others. Thus, it was nearly impossiible for him to feel that ble for him to feel that he was mistaken about the future of the world order. While this is not he was mistaken about the future of the world order. While this is not necessarily a scientific obnecessarily a scientific obsservation, this hervation, this hyypothesis checks out with pothesis checks out with many different sources. Although biographical observations are not a many different sources. Although biographical observations are not a scientific method, they often help us to uncover the nature of fundamen-scientific method, they often help us to uncover the nature of fundamen-tal human issues as observed throughout hital human issues as observed throughout hisstory. tory.

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Cavid Bey failed to und

Cavid Bey failed to undeerstand the changes in the postrstand the changes in the post--war era and war era and the meaning of the National Independence War. During the Lausanne the meaning of the National Independence War. During the Lausanne peace talks, which can be evaluated as the last chance for him to break peace talks, which can be evaluated as the last chance for him to break the ice, he insisted on reinforcing his claims on the debt issue, which the ice, he insisted on reinforcing his claims on the debt issue, which wewerre refuted by the Ankara government. The Lausanne talks were pee refuted by the Ankara government. The Lausanne talks were per-r-haps his last chance to appease the Ankara government. haps his last chance to appease the Ankara government.

Between 1922 and 1926, Cavid Bey and Kara Kemal became the

Between 1922 and 1926, Cavid Bey and Kara Kemal became the most prominent Unionists left in the new Republic of Turkey. Cavid Bey most prominent Unionists left in the new Republic of Turkey. Cavid Bey and Kaand Karra Kemal were seen as the last remaining prominent figures in a Kemal were seen as the last remaining prominent figures in the economic sphere inherited from the Ottoman Era. Politically, they the economic sphere inherited from the Ottoman Era. Politically, they were perceived as dangerous to the new regime. The meeting of the Uwere perceived as dangerous to the new regime. The meeting of the Un-n-ionists at Cavid Bey’s house resulted in the developmentionists at Cavid Bey’s house resulted in the development of a nineof a nine--point point program, which was a direct challenge to the Nine Principles of Mustafa program, which was a direct challenge to the Nine Principles of Mustafa Kemal Pasha. The program even mentioned the CUP in the first article. Kemal Pasha. The program even mentioned the CUP in the first article. Additionally, the program of the Progressive Republican Party was very Additionally, the program of the Progressive Republican Party was very similar to this manifesto.similar to this manifesto. Ankara was anxious over the existence and Ankara was anxious over the existence and activities of the Unionists. Although the National Forces had won the activities of the Unionists. Although the National Forces had won the independence war, they felt that they still had to fight for a place in polindependence war, they felt that they still had to fight for a place in poli-i-tics. By 1926, Cavid Bey, Kara Kemal, and Kör Ali İhsan Bey were petics. By 1926, Cavid Bey, Kara Kemal, and Kör Ali İhsan Bey were per-r-ceived as the greatest internal challengers to Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s ceived as the greatest internal challengers to Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s plans for the Republic of Turkey. plans for the Republic of Turkey.

Cavid Bey, who did not feel in either his mind or his heart the im-

Cavid Bey, who did not feel in either his mind or his heart the im-poporrtance or necessity of developing a strong national identity, tried to tance or necessity of developing a strong national identity, tried to stay away frstay away froom the politics of the new nationalist regime. His work, his m the politics of the new nationalist regime. His work, his ideidenntity, and his political and economic ideas were not compatible with tity, and his political and economic ideas were not compatible with the Ankara government. Although Mustafa Kemal Pasha opened the the Ankara government. Although Mustafa Kemal Pasha opened the doors of Ankara to the Unionists, who had compromised with tdoors of Ankara to the Unionists, who had compromised with thhe Na-e Na-tional Forces during the National independence War, Cavid Bey, under tional Forces during the National independence War, Cavid Bey, under no cino cirrcumstances, could compromise with the politics of the Republic. cumstances, could compromise with the politics of the Republic. He had longHe had long--lasting prejudices against the new leaders of the Republic, lasting prejudices against the new leaders of the Republic, as meas menntioned in the previous sections. Ationed in the previous sections. Allthough the leaders were for-though the leaders were for-mer members of the CUP, Cavid Bey did not regard them as true Union-mer members of the CUP, Cavid Bey did not regard them as true Union-ists, even if both groups had a Jacobin character. As said by Cavid Bey’s ists, even if both groups had a Jacobin character. As said by Cavid Bey’s son, who lost his father when he was only two years old, Cavid Bey was son, who lost his father when he was only two years old, Cavid Bey was

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not tolerant of

not tolerant of tthe latter’s Jacobinsim. The founders of the new Republic he latter’s Jacobinsim. The founders of the new Republic sought to establish a new country according to nationalist principles, sought to establish a new country according to nationalist principles, and thus Cavid Bey remained outside of this process. As the republic and thus Cavid Bey remained outside of this process. As the republic was established after a difficult war, ethnowas established after a difficult war, ethno--religious natreligious natiionalism was onalism was the glue that bound the people together and continued to be the stronthe glue that bound the people together and continued to be the strong-g-est ideology in Turkey, which Cavid Bey refused to support. est ideology in Turkey, which Cavid Bey refused to support.

Cavid Bey and the Unionists challenged this new political structure

Cavid Bey and the Unionists challenged this new political structure of Turkey. On the one hand, the methods of tof Turkey. On the one hand, the methods of thhe CUPe CUP and its challenges to and its challenges to the political orderthe political order had beenhad been wellwell--known for decades. On the other hand, known for decades. On the other hand, the Unionists maintained their collegial structure containing varthe Unionists maintained their collegial structure containing variious ous figures within itself. The main question in relation to Cavid Bey’s fate figures within itself. The main question in relation to Cavid Bey’s fate waswas whether whether oor not Cavid Bey knew about the assassination ar not Cavid Bey knew about the assassination atttempt in tempt in İzmirİzmir. Although Cavid Bey’s diaries indicate that he did not know about . Although Cavid Bey’s diaries indicate that he did not know about the assassination attempt, it is impossible be one hundred pethe assassination attempt, it is impossible be one hundred perrcent sure cent sure about this. Taking up arms is not within Cavid Bey’s tyabout this. Taking up arms is not within Cavid Bey’s typpical revolutioical revolution-n-ary toolkit. He never supported the violeary toolkit. He never supported the violent actions of the CUP prior to nt actions of the CUP prior to thisthis——although he also did not leave the Committee after dialthough he also did not leave the Committee after disscovering its covering its violent actions. Therefore, it is possible to conclude that Cavid Bey’s pviolent actions. Therefore, it is possible to conclude that Cavid Bey’s po-o-litical and economic ilitical and economic iddeology simply aggravated the new regimeeology simply aggravated the new regime and he and he likely dilikely did not participate in the assassination attemptd not participate in the assassination attempt. .

All of his life, Cavid Bey was a

All of his life, Cavid Bey was a homo economicushomo economicus, or a man of ec, or a man of eco-o-nomics. However, in the final years of his life, he became a nomics. However, in the final years of his life, he became a homo polithomo politi-i-cuscus who aimedwho aimed to challenge the young Republican regime. As Mustafa to challenge the young Republican regime. As Mustafa KemKemal mentions in his Great Speech (al mentions in his Great Speech (NutukNutuk), the Independence Trib), the Independence Tribu-u-nals were used to save the nals were used to save the rrepublic and ensure the security and life of epublic and ensure the security and life of the state. Cavid Bey was a figure who had strong ties to the intthe state. Cavid Bey was a figure who had strong ties to the inteernrnaational tional financial milieu, which was controversial accofinancial milieu, which was controversial according to the ecrding to the ecoonomic pol-nomic pol-icies of Mustafa Kemal Pasha. Therefore, the Ankara govericies of Mustafa Kemal Pasha. Therefore, the Ankara governnment could ment could never include him in the government of the new state. Cavid Bey’s un-never include him in the government of the new state. Cavid Bey’s un-timely execution shows that although timely execution shows that although CCavid Bey was predomavid Bey was predomiinantly a nantly a homo economicushomo economicus, he was als, he was also a force to be reckoned with as a o a force to be reckoned with as a homo homo politicuspoliticus. .

Last but not least, what does this long biography tell us in terms of

Last but not least, what does this long biography tell us in terms of historiography? First of all, by tracing Cavid Bey’s life in detail, it bhistoriography? First of all, by tracing Cavid Bey’s life in detail, it be-e-

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com

comees possible to crystalize a picture of the Ottoman Empires possible to crystalize a picture of the Ottoman Empire’s domestic ’s domestic and international affairs during its final years. The complexity of the and international affairs during its final years. The complexity of the Empire’s relations and its engagement with the European Great Powers Empire’s relations and its engagement with the European Great Powers can be clearly seen through reading Cavid Bey’can be clearly seen through reading Cavid Bey’ss diaries. After reading diaries. After reading and studying his diaries, I checand studying his diaries, I checked many of the historical and personal ked many of the historical and personal events against archival documents and secondary resources. While his events against archival documents and secondary resources. While his diaries were first published in diaries were first published in Tanin Tanin daily, the latest version of his didaily, the latest version of his dia-a-ries published bries published byy thethe Turkish Historical Society (Turkish Historical Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu)Türk Tarih Kurumu)——whicwhich I used as the primary reference while writing my dissertationh I used as the primary reference while writing my dissertation——examines events from a macro perspective. The complexity of internexamines events from a macro perspective. The complexity of interna-a-tional finances, investments, longtional finances, investments, long--term plans, and Ottoman intereststerm plans, and Ottoman interests were like a puzzle ready to be sorted out and solved frowere like a puzzle ready to be sorted out and solved from his account of m his account of events in his diary. Although we already know how these negotiations events in his diary. Although we already know how these negotiations ended, Cavid Bey’s account of the negotiation processes is stimulating ended, Cavid Bey’s account of the negotiation processes is stimulating and sheds new light on the characteristicsand sheds new light on the characteristics of the Ottoman Empire in the of the Ottoman Empire in the prepre--war period. After inveswar period. After investigating his diaries in detail, the reader gains tigating his diaries in detail, the reader gains a clearer perspective of the Ottoman entrance into the Great War and a clearer perspective of the Ottoman entrance into the Great War and the Empire’s wartime policies. The intricate detail of the 1913the Empire’s wartime policies. The intricate detail of the 1913––1914 1914 negotiationsnegotiations helps the reader understand the many dimensions of fohelps the reader understand the many dimensions of for-r-eieign intervention and financial pressure over the Ottoman Empire and gn intervention and financial pressure over the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of de facto spheres of influence. This dissertation futhe establishment of de facto spheres of influence. This dissertation fur-r-ther depicts the capacity and capabilities of the Unioniststher depicts the capacity and capabilities of the Unionists to change the to change the current international conditions in favor current international conditions in favor of the Ottoman Empire. To this of the Ottoman Empire. To this end, Cavid Bey’s role as a financier conducting the 1910end, Cavid Bey’s role as a financier conducting the 1910––1911 and 1911 and 19131913––1914 negotiations is particularly worth investigating. Although 1914 negotiations is particularly worth investigating. Although many scholars study his work and many scholars study his work and llegacy in the financial sphere, this egacy in the financial sphere, this dissertation completdissertation completes the puzzle by adding these missing pieces to the es the puzzle by adding these missing pieces to the historiography. historiography.

This dissertation highlights Cavid Bey’s broader role as a financier

This dissertation highlights Cavid Bey’s broader role as a financier during the Second Constitutional Period in the Ottoman Empireduring the Second Constitutional Period in the Ottoman Empire.. His His identity, role in the loan negotiations, and politiidentity, role in the loan negotiations, and political position in the early cal position in the early Republican Era often pulled him outside the confides of what is peRepublican Era often pulled him outside the confides of what is per-r-ceived as the traditional role of a state financier. One critical point is ceived as the traditional role of a state financier. One critical point is that the CUP, and especially Tathat the CUP, and especially Tallat Bey, were determined to keep Cavid at Bey, were determined to keep Cavid

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Bey active in his

Bey active in his role as a financier in the Committee despite disagrerole as a financier in the Committee despite disagree-e-ments between them. He was one of few experts in this field, and the ments between them. He was one of few experts in this field, and the Committee praised Cavid Bey for his work as a financier throughout the Committee praised Cavid Bey for his work as a financier throughout the SecondSecond Constitutional Period. The Committee was unwavering in iConstitutional Period. The Committee was unwavering in its ts support for Cavid Bey and his financial policies. Although during the support for Cavid Bey and his financial policies. Although during the war years the CUP aimed to implement new economic policies counter war years the CUP aimed to implement new economic policies counter to Cavid Bey’s economic ideology, they never brushed aside to Cavid Bey’s economic ideology, they never brushed aside CCavid Bey. avid Bey. At the same time, Cavid Bey provided the EmpirAt the same time, Cavid Bey provided the Empire with security, espe with security, espe-e-cially in times of trouble: he was always ready to act and impart his ecially in times of trouble: he was always ready to act and impart his ex-x-perience and knowledge in order to advance the interests of the Eperience and knowledge in order to advance the interests of the Emmpire. pire. One of the most critical points ofOne of the most critical points of this dissertation is that it depicts Cavid this dissertation is that it depicts Cavid Bey as an eagBey as an eager politician. In addition to his vast work in finance, Cavid er politician. In addition to his vast work in finance, Cavid Bey was still willing to participate in politics and become the de facto Bey was still willing to participate in politics and become the de facto minister of foreign affairs during the negotiation processes. Aminister of foreign affairs during the negotiation processes. Alltthough hough the line between politics and state finances was othe line between politics and state finances was often ambigften ambiguuous at that ous at that time, Cavid Bey was aware that he had limits in the political sphere. time, Cavid Bey was aware that he had limits in the political sphere.

Cavid Bey represented the spectre of the Empire and the CUP that

Cavid Bey represented the spectre of the Empire and the CUP that haunted the young Republic of Turkey. Thhaunted the young Republic of Turkey. Thee original value of this disser-original value of this disser-tation is its effort to untation is its effort to understand the multiderstand the multi--dimensional structure of the dimensional structure of the story of a generation and a country with its dream of political and eco-story of a generation and a country with its dream of political and eco-nomic independence, wars, conflicts, human networks, and transitions nomic independence, wars, conflicts, human networks, and transitions between idebetween ideoologies and actions. Cavid Bey’s biography aims to cover logies and actions. Cavid Bey’s biography aims to cover this local story through a more international lens examining the transi-this local story through a more international lens examining the transi-tion from the long nineteenth century to the twentieth century, which tion from the long nineteenth century to the twentieth century, which led to the collapse of empires and founding of nationled to the collapse of empires and founding of nation--statstatees. Although s. Although Cavid Bey’s life was shortCavid Bey’s life was short——he was only 52 yehe was only 52 years old when he diedars old when he died——the the intensity of his life was enormous, and he is still one of the most sym-intensity of his life was enormous, and he is still one of the most sym-bolic names of this extraordinary era. bolic names of this extraordinary era. On a final note, I once again want On a final note, I once again want to highlight Cavid Bey’s domito highlight Cavid Bey’s dominnant character as a “Civil Unionist”: a civil ant character as a “Civil Unionist”: a civil man in confman in conflict and a Unionist in times of peace.lict and a Unionist in times of peace.

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