ANADOLU SELÇUKLU DEVLETİ: 301

From Empire to Nation

Declaration of Originality

The intellectual content of this thesis, which has been written by me and

The intellectual content of this thesis, which has been written by me and for which I take full responsibility, is myfor which I take full responsibility, is my own, original work, and it has own, original work, and it has not been previously or concurrently submitted elsewhere for any other not been previously or concurrently submitted elsewhere for any other examination or degree of higher education. The sources of all para-examination or degree of higher education. The sources of all para-phrased and quoted materials, concepts, and ideas are fully cited, and the phrased and quoted materials, concepts, and ideas are fully cited, and the admissible coadmissible contributions and assistance of others with respect to the ntributions and assistance of others with respect to the conception of the work as well as to linguistic expression are explicitly conception of the work as well as to linguistic expression are explicitly acknowledged herein.acknowledged herein.

This work is licensed under

This work is licensed under a Creative CommonsCreative Commons

From Empire to Nation-State:State:

This thesis providesprovides the biography of Filibeli Ali Fehmi, a Young Turk the biography of Filibeli Ali Fehmi, a Young Turk from Bulgafrom Bulgaria, and ria, and examines examines the firstthe first-year issues of his year issues of his MuvazeneMuvazene news-news-paper. When suspicions arose about Ali Fehmi's connections to the Young paper. When suspicions arose about Ali Fehmi's connections to the Young Turks, the Ottoman government terminated his official duties, Turks, the Ottoman government terminated his official duties, forcingforcing him to return to his hometown of Filibe, where he begahim to return to his hometown of Filibe, where he began publishing n publishing MuvazeneMuvazene in 1897. After the Russoin 1897. After the Russo-Ottoman WarOttoman War (18771877-18781878), Muslims , Muslims in Bulgaria, who were former subjects of the Ottoman Empire, had be-in Bulgaria, who were former subjects of the Ottoman Empire, had be-come citizens of the newly emerged Principality of Bulgaria. The Balkan come citizens of the newly emerged Principality of Bulgaria. The Balkan Muslims sought to redefine the futureMuslims sought to redefine the future of their community, and the Mus-of their community, and the Mus-lim intellectuals in particular believed that they could achieve a rejuve-lim intellectuals in particular believed that they could achieve a rejuve-nation through culture and politics. Ali Fehmi was an active participant nation through culture and politics. Ali Fehmi was an active participant who contributed to achieving these goals. This thesis demonstrates how who contributed to achieving these goals. This thesis demonstrates how Ali FehAli Fehmi’s MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper engaged with its readers by addressing newspaper engaged with its readers by addressing common problems and common problems and publicizing publicizing issues issues of of corruption. This study also corruption. This study also shows the pivotal role played by Ali Fehmi and his shows the pivotal role played by Ali Fehmi and his MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper newspaper in the establishment of the Young Turk ideology in Buin the establishment of the Young Turk ideology in Bulgaria. lgaria. WithoutWithout at-at-tributing tributing a single identity to Ali Fehmi, this thesis examines how Ali single identity to Ali Fehmi, this thesis examines how Ali Fehmi was perceived differently by the Young Turks, the Bulgarian gov-Fehmi was perceived differently by the Young Turks, the Bulgarian gov-ernment, and the Ottoman government, thereby acquiring a plural and ernment, and the Ottoman government, thereby acquiring a plural and indefinite identity in this coindefinite identity in this context. Ali Fehmi, taking advantage of the rel-ntext. Ali Fehmi, taking advantage of the rel-ative freedom in Bulgaria, published his newspaper, which led to his sur-ative freedom in Bulgaria, published his newspaper, which led to his sur-veillance by the Ottoman government veillance by the Ottoman government viavia spies and spies and itsits commissionerommissioner in in BulgariaBulgaria. As a result ofAs a result of the escalating tension between Ali Fehmi andthe escalating tension between Ali Fehmi and the the Ottoman government, he was deported by the Bulgarian government in Ottoman government, he was deported by the Bulgarian government in

vii

1905. Afterward, he resided in Paris, Geneva, Egypt, and Afghanistan. The

1905. Afterward, he resided in Paris, Geneva, Egypt, and Afghanistan. The work work also emphasizesalso emphasizes that Ali Fehmi dedicated himself to the advance-that Ali Fehmi dedicated himself to the advance-ment and progress of Muslims and Turks, fiment and progress of Muslims and Turks, first locally and then globally. rst locally and then globally. Most of the primary sources used in this work are the Ottoman Archives Most of the primary sources used in this work are the Ottoman Archives and the firstand the first-year issues of year issues of MuvazeneMuvazene. This thesis aims to contribute to . This thesis aims to contribute to the existing literature on the Muslims in Bulgaria in general and the the existing literature on the Muslims in Bulgaria in general and the Young TurksYoung Turks in particular.in particular.

42.47

42.471 wordswords

Özet

İmparatorluktan Ulus Devlete:

Filibeli Ali Fehmi (1871-1922) ve Muvazene Gazetesi

Elif Sabah Tüfekçi, Yüksek Lisans Adayı, 2023

Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılap Tarihi Enstitüsü

Doktor Öğretim Üyesi Ramazan Hakkı Öztan, Tez Danışmanı

Bu tez, Bulgaristan Jön Türklerinden olan Filibeli Ali Fehmi'nin biyografisini ve Muvazene gazetesinin birinci yıl nüshalarını incelemektedir. Ali Fehmi'nin Jön Türk bağlantıları olduğu yönünde şüpheler doğunca Osmanlı hükümeti, Ali Fehmi’nin resmi görevine son

vererek memleketi Filibe'ye dönmesine neden oldu ve Ali Fehmi burada 1897'de Muvazene'yi yayınlamaya başladı. 1877-1878 Rus-Osmanlı Savaşı'ndan sonra, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun eski tebaası olan

Bulgaristan'daki Müslümanlar, yeni kurulan Bulgaristan Prensliği'nin vatandaşı olmuştu. Balkan Müslümanları toplumlarının geleceğini yeniden tanımlamaya çalışırken özellikle de Müslüman entelektüeller kültür ve siyaset yoluyla durumlarının daha iyiye gideceğine inanıyordu. Ali Fehmi, bu hedeflere ulaşılmasına katkıda bulunan

entelektüellerdendir. Bu tez, Ali Fehmi’nin yayınladığı Muvazene

gazetesinin, Bulgaristan’daki Müslümanların ortak sorunları ve yolsuzluk meselelerini ele alarak okurlarıyla nasıl ilişki kurduğunu

göstermektedir. Çalışma, aynı zamanda Ali Fehmi ve Muvazene

gazetesinin Bulgaristan’da Jön Türk ideolojisinin yerleşmesinde oynadığı

önemli rolü de göstermektedir. Ali Fehmi'ye tekil bir kimlik atfetmekten kaçınan bu tez, onun Jön Türkler, Bulgar hükümeti ve Osmanlı hükümeti tarafından nasıl farklı algılandığını ve böylece bu bağlamda nasıl çoğul ve belirsiz bir kimlik kazandığını incelemektedir. Ali Fehmi, Bulgaristan'daki özgürlükten yararlanarak gazetesini özgürce yayınlamış

ve bu da Osmanlı hükümeti tarafından hafiyeler ve Bulgar Komiseri

aracılıg􀇍ıyla gözetlenmesine yol açmıştır. Ali Fehmi ile Osmanlı hükümeti

arasında artan gerginliğe ek olarak, 1905'te Bulgar hükümeti tarafından

da sınır dışı edilmiştir. Daha sonra Paris, Cenevre, Mısır ve Afganistan'da

bulunmuştur. Bu tez, Ali Fehmi'nin kendisini önce yerel, sonra küresel

olarak Müslümanların ve Türklerin gelişip ilerlemelerine adadığının da

altını çizmektedir. Bu araştırmada kullanılan başlıca kaynakların çoğu Osmanlı arşiv belgeleri ve Muvazene'nin birinci yıl nüshalarıdır. Bu tez, genel olarak Bulgaristan'daki Müslümanlar ve özellikle de Jön Türkler hakkındaki mevcut literatüre katkıda bulunmayı amaçlamaktadır.

42.471 kelime

Ali Tüfekçi, annem, babam, ablam ve Cüneyd abime…

xiii

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements xvxv

1 INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION 11

1.1

1.1 The New Ottomans and The New Ottomans and the Young Turksthe Young Turks 44

1.2

1.2 MuvazeneMuvazene 88

1.3

1.3 State of the FieldState of the Field 99

1.4

1.4 Chapter OutlineChapter Outline 1717

2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUNHISTORICAL BACKGROUNDD 2121

2.1

2.1 The Tanzimat PeriodThe Tanzimat Period 2424

2.2

2.2 The Young OttomansThe Young Ottomans 2525

2.3

2.3 First Tanzimat Reforms on the BalkansFirst Tanzimat Reforms on the Balkans 2727

2.4

2.4 18771877--1878 Russo1878 Russo--Ottoman War and the Berlin CongressOttoman War and the Berlin Congress 2828

2.5

2.5 Consequences of the WConsequences of the War and the Berlin Settlementar and the Berlin Settlement 3131

2.6

2.6 The Principality of BulgariaThe Principality of Bulgaria 3232

2.7

2.7 ProblemsProblems 3535

2.8

2.8 Struggle for Ottoman DominationStruggle for Ottoman Domination 3939

2.9

2.9 New Bulgarian and Muslim IdentitiesNew Bulgarian and Muslim Identities 4545

3 ALI FEHMI AND INTELLALI FEHMI AND INTELLECTUALS IN AUTONOMOUECTUALS IN AUTONOMOUS BULGARIAS BULGARIA 4949

3.1

3.1 The Turkish Press in BulgariaThe Turkish Press in Bulgaria 5252

3.2

3.2 The Biography of AlThe Biography of Ali Fehmii Fehmi 5757

4 ALI FEHMI’S ALI FEHMI’S MUVAZENEMUVAZENE NEWSPAPERNEWSPAPER (1897(1897--1898)1898) 8585

4.1

4.1 The The MuvazeneMuvazene NewspaperNewspaper 8787

4.2

4.2 Major Topics Covered in Major Topics Covered in MuvazeneMuvazene 9494

4.3

4.3 Letters from the ReadersLetters from the Readers 113113

4.4

4.4 Articles of Osman Nuri from Tarnovo: “A Few Words About Our Articles of Osman Nuri from Tarnovo: “A Few Words About Our National Education”National Education” 111155

4.5

4.5 Ali Fehmi’s Articles and his Ideas in Ali Fehmi’s Articles and his Ideas in MuvazeneMuvazene 117117

4.6

4.6 EnEngagement with the Readersgagement with the Readers 125125

xiv

5 CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION 133

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY 13 9

Acknowledgements

Before expressing my gratitude to the people for their valuable contribu-

Before expressing my gratitude to the people for their valuable contribu-tions tions duringduring the process of writing my thesis, I would like to emphasize the process of writing my thesis, I would like to emphasize that the people I am thankfulthat the people I am thankful for did not come into my life as a result of for did not come into my life as a result of any exchange. They remind me that life is not a transaction, and that some any exchange. They remind me that life is not a transaction, and that some beauties enter our lives as gifts, enriching it. I would like them to know beauties enter our lives as gifts, enriching it. I would like them to know that they remind me of this.that they remind me of this.

First and foremost, I would lik

First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to my advisor, e to express my gratitude to my advisor, Assistant Assistant ProfessorProfessor Ramazan HRamazan Hakkıakkı Öztan. Throughout the process, he Öztan. Throughout the process, he patientlypatiently responded to responded to my inquiriesmy inquiries, providing detailed answers that fa-, providing detailed answers that fa-cilitated my writing journey. I will never forget the support my advisor cilitated my writing journey. I will never forget the support my advisor provided both in academic and motivational aspects. I would like to ex-provided both in academic and motivational aspects. I would like to ex-prepress my gratitude to ss my gratitude to ProfessorProfessor Aydın Babuna, who was not only a mem-Aydın Babuna, who was not only a mem-ber of my thesis defense committee but also my instructor for a semester. ber of my thesis defense committee but also my instructor for a semester. I greatly benefited from his guidance and recommendations while con-I greatly benefited from his guidance and recommendations while con-ducting literature reviews.ducting literature reviews. I wouldI would also like to elike to express my gratitude toxpress my gratitude to AssociateAssociate ProfessorProfessor Can NacarCan Nacar, not only for being a member of my thesis , not only for being a member of my thesis defense committee but defense committee but for for providing valuable feedback that significantly providing valuable feedback that significantly contributed to my thesis.contributed to my thesis.

I am immensely thankful to Zeynep Berktaş, a professional edit

I am immensely thankful to Zeynep Berktaş, a professional editor, who or, who provided unwavering support since I started my research. She not only provided unwavering support since I started my research. She not only assisted me in reading Ottoman archival documents but also greatly assisted me in reading Ottoman archival documents but also greatly eased my thesiseased my thesis-writing process psychologically. I am also grateful to writing process psychologically. I am also grateful to Selim Ahmetoğlu for recommending academiSelim Ahmetoğlu for recommending academic sources and guiding me c sources and guiding me when I needed assistance. I would like to thank my colleagues at work, when I needed assistance. I would like to thank my colleagues at work, Osman Okçu, Savaş Özdemir, and Muharrem Varol, who made me feel Osman Okçu, Savaş Özdemir, and Muharrem Varol, who made me feel their support throughout this process and always motivated me. I owe a their support throughout this process and always motivated me. I owe a

debt of gratitud Biri Sungu alu, one of my greatest supporters since 2015. I express my gratitude to my beloved mothe , Saadet Erkul, with whom shared the dream of attending Boğaziçi University while was high school. thank my fathe Muammer Erkul, for listening attentively to everything I told him throughout my academic journe , taking a keen interest in my assignments, and helping me gain the right perspective on life. I am grateful to my siste , who, during my most exhausted moments, managed to cheer me up and bring clarity to both my and heart, along with her precious husband. am thankful for my little niece and nephe , who has enriched my life. am infinitely grateful to the greatest supporter my life; my dear husband, Ali Tüfekçi, who has been by my side since the moment he en-tered my life, supporting me patiently during the intense and tiring mo-ments of my thesis-writing process. Lastl , I would like to thank TUBI AK

1IntroductionIntroduction

he consequences of 1877

he consequences of 1877-1878 Russo1878 Russo-Ottoman War were devastat-Ottoman War were devastat-ing for the ing for the Ottoman Empire. The majority of Ottoman provinces in Ottoman Empire. The majority of Ottoman provinces in the Balkans became either independent or autonomous, and the Berlin the Balkans became either independent or autonomous, and the Berlin Treaty served as a guarantee for these newly established states. Among Treaty served as a guarantee for these newly established states. Among them were the Autonomous Province of Eastern Rumelia and Indepenthem were the Autonomous Province of Eastern Rumelia and Independ- ent Principality of Bulgaria. In 1885, the Principality annexed Eastern Ru-ent Principality of Bulgaria. In 1885, the Principality annexed Eastern Ru-melia, further erasing the already diminished Ottoman control. Besides melia, further erasing the already diminished Ottoman control. Besides challenging political struggles faced by the Ottoman state, this turning challenging political struggles faced by the Ottoman state, this turning point also initiated a challenging pepoint also initiated a challenging period for the Muslim population that riod for the Muslim population that remained outside of the Ottoman territories. Indeed, the citizenship remained outside of the Ottoman territories. Indeed, the citizenship rights of Muslims and Turks in Bulgaria became a critical issue, which rights of Muslims and Turks in Bulgaria became a critical issue, which occupied the diplomatic agendas of both countries for over a century.occupied the diplomatic agendas of both countries for over a century. 1

While Mu

While Muslims and Turks in the Balkans were trying to adapt to the slims and Turks in the Balkans were trying to adapt to the new historical context, the endeavors of intellectuals like Filibeli Ali new historical context, the endeavors of intellectuals like Filibeli Ali FehmiFehmi2 should be carefully examined. The common thread among Mus-should be carefully examined. The common thread among Mus-lim intellectuals living in Bulgaria in the late nineteenth lim intellectuals living in Bulgaria in the late nineteenth century was their century was their endeavor to locate themselves in a broader world and ponder on this endeavor to locate themselves in a broader world and ponder on this matter. While closely following events happening worldwide, they also matter. While closely following events happening worldwide, they also 1 Kemal Kemal H. Karpat, Karpat, Balkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve MilliyetçilikBalkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve Milliyetçilik, (İstanbul: Timaş Yayınları, , (İstanbul: Timaş Yayınları, 2019), 244.019), 244. 2 Filibeli means “from Filibe;” Ali Fehmi is known with his birthplace.Filibeli means “from Filibe;” Ali Fehmi is known with his birthplace.

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

empathized with other Muslims who shared similar experiences. In order

empathized with other Muslims who shared similar experiences. In order to overcome the struggles Musto overcome the struggles Muslims faced, they aimed to reform the insti-lims faced, they aimed to reform the insti-tutions, reviving national consciousness among the Muslim community, tutions, reviving national consciousness among the Muslim community, and to get rid of corrupted religious authorities.and to get rid of corrupted religious authorities. 3 Furthermore, Balkan Furthermore, Balkan intellectuals thought that the Ottoman maladministration was responsi-intellectuals thought that the Ottoman maladministration was responsi-bleble for all these existential anxieties. Most of them, including Filibeli Ali for all these existential anxieties. Most of them, including Filibeli Ali Fehmi, embraced the Young Turk ideology, and advocated for significant Fehmi, embraced the Young Turk ideology, and advocated for significant changes within the Ottoman governance. changes within the Ottoman governance.

In the existing literature, Ali Fehmi remains an understudied figure,

In the existing literature, Ali Fehmi remains an understudied figure, and there is no study that centers on the and there is no study that centers on the MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper itself. This newspaper itself. This thesis will evaluate the newly acquired status of the Muslim population thesis will evaluate the newly acquired status of the Muslim population in Bulgaria and the new situations that come with it through the prism of in Bulgaria and the new situations that come with it through the prism of the biography of Ali Fehmi and his nthe biography of Ali Fehmi and his newspaper ewspaper MuvazeneMuvazene. It. It also aims to also aims to provide new perspectives on a number of important issues. In the context provide new perspectives on a number of important issues. In the context of the late nineteenth century, studying Ali Fehmi and of the late nineteenth century, studying Ali Fehmi and Muvazene,Muvazene, firstly, firstly, offers detailed information about the Young Turk press in Bulgaria. Sec-offers detailed information about the Young Turk press in Bulgaria. Sec-ond ly, it sheds light on various conditions faced by Muslim communities ly, it sheds light on various conditions faced by Muslim communities in Principality of Bulgaria. Finally, it offers a chance to comprehend in Principality of Bulgaria. Finally, it offers a chance to comprehend where Ali Fehmi was standing in comparison with other Young Turks, where Ali Fehmi was standing in comparison with other Young Turks, and how and how MuvazeneMuvazene compared to the diverse Young Tucompared to the diverse Young Turk publications.rk publications.

Ali Fehmi was born in Filibe in 1871. During the Russo

Ali Fehmi was born in Filibe in 1871. During the Russo-Ottoman War Ottoman War of 1877of 1877-1878, he migrated to Istanbul with his family and returned to 1878, he migrated to Istanbul with his family and returned to their hometown after the war. As he graduated from the local their hometown after the war. As he graduated from the local middle middle school (rüşdiye), he went to İstanbul and he graduated from the school (rüşdiye), he went to İstanbul and he graduated from the MülkiyeMülkiye school in 1889. He worked as a teacher and school principal in various school in 1889. He worked as a teacher and school principal in various schools in the empire for eight years. However, probably due to his sym-schools in the empire for eight years. However, probably due to his sym-pathy towards Young Turks, he was dpathy towards Young Turks, he was dismissed from his profession. His ismissed from his profession. His job applications yielded no results, and in job applications yielded no results, and in 18961896, he had no choice but to , he had no choice but to return to his homeland Filibe again. return to his homeland Filibe again. 3 Milena B. Methodieva, Milena B. Methodieva, Between Empire and Nation: Muslim Reforms in the BalkansBetween Empire and Nation: Muslim Reforms in the Balkans, (Cal-, (Cal-ifornia: Stanford University Press, ifornia: Stanford University Press, 20212021), ), 178178-179 .

F I L I B E L I A L I F EHMI ( 1871 - 1 9 2 2 ) A ND MUVA Z E NE NEWS PA P E R

Filibe had become a part of the autonomous Eastern Rumelia with the

Filibe had become a part of the autonomous Eastern Rumelia with the signing of the Berlin Treaty in 1878, and signing of the Berlin Treaty in 1878, and the province had lost its “auton-the province had lost its “auton-omous” status in 1885 by the annexation of the Principality of Bulgaria. omous” status in 1885 by the annexation of the Principality of Bulgaria. The Muslim minority, as in all of Bulgaria, thereby, was laying the foun-The Muslim minority, as in all of Bulgaria, thereby, was laying the foun-dations for the terrifying “uncertainty” mentioned by Zygmunt Bauman: dations for the terrifying “uncertainty” mentioned by Zygmunt Bauman: foreignerforeigners who made classification and determination uncontrollable, s who made classification and determination uncontrollable, who threatened nationwho threatened nation-building, who fit neither into the category of building, who fit neither into the category of “friends” nor “enemies,” and whose identity could not be decided.“friends” nor “enemies,” and whose identity could not be decided.4 Be-Be-sides, the Ottoman struggle for dominance continued in thesides, the Ottoman struggle for dominance continued in the autonomous autonomous province of Eastern Rumelia even after the annexation in 1885, regard-province of Eastern Rumelia even after the annexation in 1885, regard-less of how successful it was. less of how successful it was. Even the words used in Ottoman documents Even the words used in Ottoman documents were symbolic, suggesting continued Ottoman claims of sovereignty over were symbolic, suggesting continued Ottoman claims of sovereignty over the regionthe region.5

Ali Fehmi was born

Ali Fehmi was born in Filibe in 1871, while the city was not yet a part in Filibe in 1871, while the city was not yet a part of any Bulgarian government. Soon, he was declared as a “foreigner” in of any Bulgarian government. Soon, he was declared as a “foreigner” in Bulgaria after 1885, as an “enemy” by the Ottoman central administra-Bulgaria after 1885, as an “enemy” by the Ottoman central administra-tion from 1897 onwards, and a reformist “friend” for the Young Ttion from 1897 onwards, and a reformist “friend” for the Young Turks. urks. However, he identified himself as the “friend” of the Muslim population However, he identified himself as the “friend” of the Muslim population in Bulgaria, the “enemy” of the misconducts and corruptions of Ottoman in Bulgaria, the “enemy” of the misconducts and corruptions of Ottoman administrators, and a “stranger” in the factionalized nature of the Young administrators, and a “stranger” in the factionalized nature of the Young Turks. Yet, he had made importantTurks. Yet, he had made important contributions to the local settlement contributions to the local settlement of the Young Turks in the Balkans, and by using his ideology and reformist of the Young Turks in the Balkans, and by using his ideology and reformist attitude as a tool, made great effort on behalf of the Muslim population’s attitude as a tool, made great effort on behalf of the Muslim population’s benefit in Bulgaria. benefit in Bulgaria. His newspaper His newspaper MuvazeneMuvazene became one of the most became one of the most powerful Young Turk propaganda tools. For the Young Turks, the condi-powerful Young Turk propaganda tools. For the Young Turks, the condi-tion of Muslims in Bulgaria “was a vivid portrayal of many of the prob-tion of Muslims in Bulgaria “was a vivid portrayal of many of the prob-lems Muslims around the world experienced.”lems Muslims around the world experienced.”6 MuvazeneMuvazene became an in-became an in-structive instrument supporting these opinions and “structive instrument supporting these opinions and “articulating local articulating local 4 Zygmunt Bauman, Zygmunt Bauman, Modernlik ve Modernlik ve MüphemlikMüphemlik, trans. İsmail Türkmen (İstanbul: Ayrıntı , trans. İsmail Türkmen (İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları, 2020), 85Yayınları, 2020), 85-89. 5 Mahir Aydın, “Bulgaristan Komiserliği,” Mahir Aydın, “Bulgaristan Komiserliği,” Belgeler: Türk Tarih Belgeleri DergisiBelgeler: Türk Tarih Belgeleri Dergisi 17(21), 71.17(21), 71. 6 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation, 126., 126.

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

Muslim grievances.”

Muslim grievances.”7 In In MuvazeneMuvazene, he dedicated himself to connect any , he dedicated himself to connect any kind of issue to the progression and salvation of the Muslim community.kind of issue to the progression and salvation of the Muslim community.

Ali Fehmi advocated neutrality against factionalism within the Young

Ali Fehmi advocated neutrality against factionalism within the Young Turk organization. He was Turk organization. He was a defender of reason and logic, but he a defender of reason and logic, but he waswas not a positivist and materialist. At the time when the first copy of a positivist and materialist. At the time when the first copy of MuvazeneMuvazene was published in 1897, Ali Fehmi was a “Bulgarian Muslim;” he was con-was published in 1897, Ali Fehmi was a “Bulgarian Muslim;” he was con-cerned about the education and progress of the Muslim population. cerned about the education and progress of the Muslim population. Like Like all the Young Turks, he dealt with social problems like a doctor, ponder all the Young Turks, he dealt with social problems like a doctor, ponder on these problems, created solutions, and made criticisms in order to on these problems, created solutions, and made criticisms in order to heal the “patient.”heal the “patient.” 8

Ali Fehmi witnessed the endeavor of maintaining the symbolic exist-

Ali Fehmi witnessed the endeavor of maintaining the symbolic exist-ence of the Ottoman ence of the Ottoman Empire, all kinds of abuses of office, poverty, and the Empire, all kinds of abuses of office, poverty, and the bad conditions of Muslim schools. He tried to create a solution through bad conditions of Muslim schools. He tried to create a solution through his newspaper his newspaper MuvazeneMuvazene from an intellectual and an instructive perspec-from an intellectual and an instructive perspec-tive. So where exactly does Ali Fehmi stand in historical tive. So where exactly does Ali Fehmi stand in historical literature? Did literature? Did his views coincide with the Young Turk ideological agenda? Does the way his views coincide with the Young Turk ideological agenda? Does the way he examined issues in he examined issues in MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper, his rhetoric and his sugges-newspaper, his rhetoric and his sugges-tions contribute to our understanding of his identity and those of the tions contribute to our understanding of his identity and those of the Young Turks? What informatioYoung Turks? What information does his life story give us about Ali n does his life story give us about Ali Fehmi’s identity? In order to analyze these questions, Ali Fehmi and the Fehmi’s identity? In order to analyze these questions, Ali Fehmi and the MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper should be examined regarding the social, cultural, newspaper should be examined regarding the social, cultural, political and economic situations in Bulgaria; the ideologies and activitpolitical and economic situations in Bulgaria; the ideologies and activities ies of the Young Turks.of the Young Turks.

§ 1.1 The New Ottomans and The Young TurksThe New Ottomans and The Young Turks

The New Ottomans demanded the establishment of a constitution within

The New Ottomans demanded the establishment of a constitution withinthe Empire. With this motivation, the Young Ottomans, who developed the Empire. With this motivation, the Young Ottomans, who developedthe Ottoman Empire's first constitution and parliamentarythe Ottoman Empire's first constitution and parliamentary system, be-system, be-lieved that these developments were crucial for the Empire.lieved that these developments were crucial for the Empire. 9 Despite not Despite not7 IbidIbid. 8 Şerif Mardin, Şerif Mardin, Jön TürkleriJön Türklerin Siyasî Fikirleri (1895n Siyasî Fikirleri (1895-1908)1908) (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2008), 21.2008), 21. 9 IbidIbid, 30., 30.

F I L I B E L I A L I F EHMI ( 1871 - 1 9 2 2 ) A ND MUVA Z E NE NEWS PA P E R

achieving a homogeneous unity among themselves, New Ottomans had

achieving a homogeneous unity among themselves, New Ottomans had an ambition to modernize the Ottoman government in common. Thus, an ambition to modernize the Ottoman government in common. Thus, some of the new Ottomans had the opportunsome of the new Ottomans had the opportunity to apply reforms they had ity to apply reforms they had prepared, to participate in the activities of preparing the constitution prepared, to participate in the activities of preparing the constitution - with the encouragement of Mithat Paşa.with the encouragement of Mithat Paşa. 10

The Young Ottomans were disbanded in 1877 by the Sultan, they were

The Young Ottomans were disbanded in 1877 by the Sultan, they were sent into exile. However, some members of tsent into exile. However, some members of the Young Ottomans such as he Young Ottomans such as İsmail Kemal Bey, Sami Paşazade Sezai Bey and Murad Bey continued İsmail Kemal Bey, Sami Paşazade Sezai Bey and Murad Bey continued their suspicious activities abroad.their suspicious activities abroad. 11 After the disbanding of the Young Ot-After the disbanding of the Young Ot-tomans, Bulgaria became one of the places where the reformist move-tomans, Bulgaria became one of the places where the reformist move-ments gained momentum. Tments gained momentum. The teachers assigned to Muslim schools in he teachers assigned to Muslim schools in Bulgaria were still coming from the center. The free intellectual life in Bulgaria were still coming from the center. The free intellectual life in Bulgaria encouraged many Turks who went there to engage in libertarian Bulgaria encouraged many Turks who went there to engage in libertarian publications herepublications here. 12

The Young Turks were formed in 1889 and continue

The Young Turks were formed in 1889 and continued their activities d their activities until 1922. Ibrahim Temo’s memoirs about the foundation of the Young until 1922. Ibrahim Temo’s memoirs about the foundation of the Young Turk movement, which originated in Military Medicine, are quite instruc-Turk movement, which originated in Military Medicine, are quite instruc-tive.tive.13 The Istanbul branch of the CUP was established in 1895. Its The Istanbul branch of the CUP was established in 1895. Its branches were also opened in Pbranches were also opened in Paris and in Egypt. Among the factors that aris and in Egypt. Among the factors that motivated the Young Turks, as Şerif Mardin argued, was the discrepancy motivated the Young Turks, as Şerif Mardin argued, was the discrepancy of the value judgements between the “ideal” community they envisioned of the value judgements between the “ideal” community they envisioned and the community of the period under the rule of Sultan Abdand the community of the period under the rule of Sultan Abdülhamid II. lhamid II. In addition, “proton addition, “proto-nationalism” was a consequence of the new environ-nationalism” was a consequence of the new environ-ment provided by the organization of the provincial administration.ment provided by the organization of the provincial administration. 14

Immediately after, a wave of arrest began, and the Young Turks volun-

Immediately after, a wave of arrest began, and the Young Turks volun-tarily started to exile. Exile in Europe was bothtarily started to exile. Exile in Europe was both practical and formative practical and formative for some young Turks. It provided links with either Western government for some young Turks. It provided links with either Western government

10 IbidIbid, 33., 33.

11 IbidIbid.

12 IbidIbid, 47., 47.

13 Stefano Taglia, Stefano Taglia, Intellectuals and Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Young Turks on the Intellectuals and Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Young Turks on the Challenges of ModernityChallenges of Modernity (London: Routledge, 2(London: Routledge, 2015), 29.015), 29.

14 IbidIbid, 20., 20.

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

or civil society, and at the same time, contacts with the European intelli-

or civil society, and at the same time, contacts with the European intelli-gentsia, which heavily influenced the intellectual development of the or-gentsia, which heavily influenced the intellectual development of the or-ganization.ganization. 15 The Paris branch under Ahmed Rıza’s leadership had be-The Paris branch under Ahmed Rıza’s leadership had be-come the meeting point. Although the Paris branch was dissolved for a come the meeting point. Although the Paris branch was dissolved for a while, the fact that Damat Mahmut Paşa fled to Paris with his sons in 1899 while, the fact that Damat Mahmut Paşa fled to Paris with his sons in 1899 changed the balance and the Paris branch gained a new dimechanged the balance and the Paris branch gained a new dimension.nsion. 16 In In a short time, names such as Ali Haydar Mithat and Ismail Kemal also a short time, names such as Ali Haydar Mithat and Ismail Kemal also joined the organization.joined the organization.

Although publishing was a non

Although publishing was a non--profit business, it was the main prop-profit business, it was the main prop-aganda tool for the Young Turks. There were important newspapers pub-aganda tool for the Young Turks. There were important newspapers pub-lished differentlished different regions. For instance, Murad Bey’s newspaper regions. For instance, Murad Bey’s newspaper MizanMizan was was published first in Cairo and then Geneva. published first in Cairo and then Geneva. MeşveretMeşveret was published first in was published first in Paris, and then Geneva and Brussels. Paris, and then Geneva and Brussels. Osmanlı, Osmanlı, similarly, was firstly pub-similarly, was firstly pub-lished in Geneva, then London and Folkstone; and lished in Geneva, then London and Folkstone; and VatanVatan was published was published in Athens. in Athens.

That such newspapers were published abroad naturally related to the

That such newspapers were published abroad naturally related to the regime’s ongoing pressures on freedom of thought in the Ottoman Em-regime’s ongoing pressures on freedom of thought in the Ottoman Em-pire. When Abdpire. When Abdüülhamid II ascended to the throne in 1876, the Constitu-lhamid II ascended to the throne in 1876, the Constitu-tional Law (Kanuntional Law (Kanun--i Esasi)i Esasi) was promulgated, which allowed press organs was promulgated, which allowed press organs to operate within the framework of the law. In other words, there to operate within the framework of the law. In other words, there emerged press freedom for a while starting from 1876. In the following emerged press freedom for a while starting from 1876. In the following years, however, the scrutiny over newspapers increased. In the initial years, however, the scrutiny over newspapers increased. In the initial yeayear of Abdülhamid's rule, before the parliament was dissolved, the first r of Abdülhamid's rule, before the parliament was dissolved, the first discussions concerning printed materials were triggered by the satirical discussions concerning printed materials were triggered by the satirical press. Following these deliberations, the Senate, still functioning at that press. Following these deliberations, the Senate, still functioning at that time, adopted a modified version of time, adopted a modified version of the 1864 regulation on May 24, 1877, the 1864 regulation on May 24, 1877, leading to the ban on satirical magazines. Although this altered version leading to the ban on satirical magazines. Although this altered version of the 1864 Press Regulations remained theoretically in effect during of the 1864 Press Regulations remained theoretically in effect during

15 IbidIbid, 35., 35.

16 IbidIbid, 39., 39.

F I L I B E L I A L I F EHMI ( 1871 - 1 9 2 2 ) A ND MUVA Z E NE NEWS PA P E R

Abdülhamid II's reign, in practice, press matters were governed by dis-

Abdülhamid II's reign, in practice, press matters were governed by dis-cretiocretionary measuresnary measures.17 In 1885, a new bureau was established within the In 1885, a new bureau was established within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, entitled Administration of Foreign Press Af-Ministry of Foreign Affairs, entitled Administration of Foreign Press Af-fairs (Matbuâtfairs (Matbuât-i Ecnebiye Müdürlüğü).i Ecnebiye Müdürlüğü).18 A commission was established A commission was established in order to control publications in 1881, and prein order to control publications in 1881, and pre-censorship was applied ensorship was applied to all printing processes in 1888.to all printing processes in 1888.19 Nevertheless, journalism had become Nevertheless, journalism had become a profession that the Sultan closely monitored, encouraged, and provided a profession that the Sultan closely monitored, encouraged, and provided financial support as long as they refrain from publishing oppositional financial support as long as they refrain from publishing oppositional content. Journaliscontent. Journalistic activities were supported by Abdülhamid II, and the tic activities were supported by Abdülhamid II, and the Ottoman government provided financial support to newspapers it Ottoman government provided financial support to newspapers it deemed loyal. deemed loyal.

By the year 1896, as the Young Turks continued to flee to the Balkans,

By the year 1896, as the Young Turks continued to flee to the Balkans, they had begun to consolidate their networks acrossthey had begun to consolidate their networks across the region. The most the region. The most influential name in the organization of the Young Turks in the Balkans influential name in the organization of the Young Turks in the Balkans was Ibrahim Temo, he established new local branches in Tutrakan, Lom, was Ibrahim Temo, he established new local branches in Tutrakan, Lom, Filibe, Sofia, and Pazarcık. Mustafa Ragıp was able to be appointed as a Filibe, Sofia, and Pazarcık. Mustafa Ragıp was able to be appointed as a French teacher at a French teacher at a school in Vidin thanks to the mediation of the local school in Vidin thanks to the mediation of the local committee, which proves that İbrahim Temo had sowed the seeds of a committee, which proves that İbrahim Temo had sowed the seeds of a strong Young Turk network in the Balkans. During this period, the Palace strong Young Turk network in the Balkans. During this period, the Palace also continued to follow the Young Turks. The Ottoman Bulgarianalso continued to follow the Young Turks. The Ottoman Bulgarian Com-Com-missioner Necib Melhame has followed Ibrahim Temo’s activities strictly, missioner Necib Melhame has followed Ibrahim Temo’s activities strictly, just as he had followed those of Ali Fehmi. The palace had sent spies to just as he had followed those of Ali Fehmi. The palace had sent spies to Bulgaria, and one of the issues criticized in Ali Fehmi’s Bulgaria, and one of the issues criticized in Ali Fehmi’s MuvazeneMuvazene news-news-paper was the activities of Ottomanpaper was the activities of Ottoman intelligence and spies in their midst.intelligence and spies in their midst.20

17 Mustafa Kemal Sincer, “Edhem Ruhi ve Balkan Gazetesi (1907Mustafa Kemal Sincer, “Edhem Ruhi ve Balkan Gazetesi (1907-1908),” Master Thesis, 1908),” Master Thesis, İstanbul Üniversitesi, 2018, 54.İstanbul Üniversitesi, 2018, 54.

18 İpek K. İpek K. Yosmaoğlu, “Yosmaoğlu, “Chasing the Printed Word: Press Censorship in the Ottoman Empire, Chasing the Printed Word: Press Censorship in the Ottoman Empire, 1876 -1913, ” The Turkish Studies Association Journal , 2003, Vol. 27, No. 1/2 (2003),The Turkish Studies Association Journal , 2003, Vol. 27, No. 1/2 (2003), 24.

19 Sincer, “Edhem Ruhi ve Balkan Gazetesi (1907Sincer, “Edhem Ruhi ve Balkan Gazetesi (1907-1908),” 54.1908),” 54.

20 M. M.Şükrü Hanioğlu, Şükrü Hanioğlu, Bir Siyasal Örgüt Olarak Osmanlı İttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti ve Jön Bir Siyasal Örgüt Olarak Osmanlı İttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti ve JönTürklük (1889Türklük (1889-190 2) (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 1986), 263.(İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 1986), 263.

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

§ 1.2 MuvazeneMuvazene

First published on September 1, 1897, the purpose of

First published on September 1, 1897, the purpose of MuvazeneMuvazene was to was toprovide scientific, statistical, pedagogical information to Muslims of Bul-provide scientific, statistical, pedagogical information to Muslims of Bul-garia. In a short time, the newspaper had become a widely accgaria. In a short time, the newspaper had become a widely accepted so-epted so-cial platform in which readers could find the opportunity to share their cial platform in which readers could find the opportunity to share theirproblems and read about public discussions of Bulgarian Muslims. It is problems and read about public discussions of Bulgarian Muslims. It isnoteworthy that noteworthy that MuvazeneMuvazene, which started its publication life on the eve , which started its publication life on the eveof the twentieth century, had beof the twentieth century, had become the most popular Young Turk pub-come the most popular Young Turk pub-lication in Bulgaria. lication in Bulgaria.

Muvazene

Muvazene newspaper contain important data on the social history of newspaper contain important data on the social history of Muslims who became a minority group after the establishment of the Muslims who became a minority group after the establishment of the Principality of Bulgaria and the annexation of Eastern Rumelia Principality of Bulgaria and the annexation of Eastern Rumelia by the by the Principality. Ali Fehmi’s biography and his newspaper Principality. Ali Fehmi’s biography and his newspaper MuvazeneMuvazene, thus, , thus, gain importance in offering the history and sociogain importance in offering the history and socio-cultural situation of the cultural situation of the region. It provides prominent information about the problems that Mus-region. It provides prominent information about the problems that Mus-lims faced, especially those aboutlims faced, especially those about having a minority status in Bulgaria; having a minority status in Bulgaria; the abuses in pious foundations led to intense criticism of muftis, schools, the abuses in pious foundations led to intense criticism of muftis, schools, spies and misconduct in office. It also provides important information spies and misconduct in office. It also provides important information about Ali Fehmi’s Young Turk identity.about Ali Fehmi’s Young Turk identity.

Through a discussion of

Through a discussion of MuvazeMuvazene , this study will focus on Ali Fehmi, , this study will focus on Ali Fehmi, who became one of the most active names of the Young Turks in the Bal-who became one of the most active names of the Young Turks in the Bal-kans. In so doing, this study will explore the changing dynamics in the kans. In so doing, this study will explore the changing dynamics in the region, how the population was affected by these changes, and the way region, how the population was affected by these changes, and the way Ali FAli Fehmi dealt with these issues by using his newspaper as a tool. In ad-ehmi dealt with these issues by using his newspaper as a tool. In ad-dition, the editorial attitude of dition, the editorial attitude of MuvazeneMuvazene, its materialistic features, the , its materialistic features, the social network it gathered around itself, the issues of the Muslim and social network it gathered around itself, the issues of the Muslim and Turkish minorities in Bulgaria, the problTurkish minorities in Bulgaria, the problems that the newspaper was ems that the newspaper was sensitive to, the intellectual articles it contains, the dialogues established sensitive to, the intellectual articles it contains, the dialogues established between different copies will be discussed. between different copies will be discussed. Thus, Ali Fehmi's understud-Thus, Ali Fehmi's understud-ied life story will be helpful in comprehending where the ied life story will be helpful in comprehending where the MuvazeneMuvazene news-news-paper stpaper stands within the Young Turk publications and Ali Fehmi’s place ands within the Young Turk publications and Ali Fehmi’s place within the Young Turks.within the Young Turks.

F I L I B E L I A L I F EHMI ( 1871 - 1 9 2 2 ) A ND MUVA Z E NE NEWS PA P E R

This thesis focuses solely on the first

This thesis focuses solely on the first-year issues of year issues of MuvazeneMuvazene news-news-paper, which was a deliberate choice. After all, the firstpaper, which was a deliberate choice. After all, the first-year issues of year issues of MuvazeneMuvazene are quite significaare quite significant sources that provide information about Ali nt sources that provide information about Ali Fehmi’s mission and vision. Additionally, the firstFehmi’s mission and vision. Additionally, the first-year issues of year issues of Muva-Muva-zenezene also help us see whether Ali Fehmi remained loyal to the newspa-also help us see whether Ali Fehmi remained loyal to the newspa-per’s vision and mission or not. This does not mean that documents thatper’s vision and mission or not. This does not mean that documents that deal with later periods are neglected. To the contrary, various archival deal with later periods are neglected. To the contrary, various archival sources have been consulted in reconstructing Ali Fehmi’s biography.sources have been consulted in reconstructing Ali Fehmi’s biography.

Muvazene

Muvazene became one of the longestbecame one of the longest-running Muslim journals in Bul-running Muslim journals in Bul-garia until its closure in 1905. When consideredgaria until its closure in 1905. When considered together with the biog-together with the biog-raphy of Ali Fehmi, raphy of Ali Fehmi, MuvazeneMuvazene’s popularity provides an assessment of Bul-’s popularity provides an assessment of Bul-garia from the Muslim perspective. Besides, although he claimed his garia from the Muslim perspective. Besides, although he claimed his impartiality about the fractions between Young Turks, both impartiality about the fractions between Young Turks, both MuvazeneMuvazene’s ’s popularity and Ali Fehmipopularity and Ali Fehmi’s biography helps us to understand Young Turks ’s biography helps us to understand Young Turks and the Young Turk press in Bulgaria much better. and the Young Turk press in Bulgaria much better.

I hope this study will motivate new studies about Ali Fehmi and

I hope this study will motivate new studies about Ali Fehmi and Muva-Muva-zenezene. I studied archival records in order to understand the attitude of the . I studied archival records in order to understand the attitude of the empire towardempire towards MuvazeneMuvazene and Ali Fehmi. Although I have mainly focused and Ali Fehmi. Although I have mainly focused on the copies of on the copies of MuvazeneMuvazene’s first year, further studies surely will offer ’s first year, further studies surely will offer much more information which will lead researchers to get a comprehen-much more information which will lead researchers to get a comprehen-sive perspective about history of Turkish and Muslim minosive perspective about history of Turkish and Muslim minorities in Bul-rities in Bul-garia.garia.

§ 1.3 State of the FieldState of the Field

In 1984, as part of the assimilation policies implemented by the Bulgar-

In 1984, as part of the assimilation policies implemented by the Bulgar-ian government towards Turkish citizens, more than a million Turks ian government towards Turkish citizens, more than a million Turkswere forcibly compelled to change their names into Bulgarian. This pro-were forcibly compelled to change their names into Bulgarian. This pro-cess, aimcess, aiming to assimilate all aspects of Turkish language, publications, ing to assimilate all aspects of Turkish language, publications,speech, and Turkish identity, continued until 1989. While it was already speech, and Turkish identity, continued until 1989. While it was alreadyknown that half a million Turks had migrated from Bulgaria between known that half a million Turks had migrated from Bulgaria between1923 and 1979, the explosive events of the 1980s tr1923 and 1979, the explosive events of the 1980s triggered a new wave iggered a new wave

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

of migration.

of migration. 21 These events, which received considerable attention, led These events, which received considerable attention, led to a significant awareness about Bulgarian Turks in Turkey. Tense diplo-to a significant awareness about Bulgarian Turks in Turkey. Tense diplo-matic relations between Bulgaria and Turkey brought to the forefront matic relations between Bulgaria and Turkey brought to the forefront similar struggles experisimilar struggles experienced in the past, encouraging research about the enced in the past, encouraging research about the shared history of these two countries. As a result, studies about Bulgarian shared history of these two countries. As a result, studies about Bulgarian Turks saw a significant increase in the late twentieth century in Turkey.Turks saw a significant increase in the late twentieth century in Turkey.

Regardless of which sub

Regardless of which sub-discipline they belong, many of discipline they belong, many of these histor-these histor-ical accounts question the possibility of establishing a “friendship” be-ical accounts question the possibility of establishing a “friendship” be-tween Turkey and Bulgaria, and many of them make references to recent tween Turkey and Bulgaria, and many of them make references to recent political events. Bilal N. Şimşir’s political events. Bilal N. Şimşir’s Bulgaristan TürkleriBulgaristan Türkleri is one of the most is one of the most useful and prominent worksuseful and prominent works in this field, which deals with the relations in this field, which deals with the relations between Turkey and Bulgaria from the late nineteenth century to 2008, between Turkey and Bulgaria from the late nineteenth century to 2008, approaching the Bulgarian minority question from cultural, political, his-approaching the Bulgarian minority question from cultural, political, his-torical and anthropological perspectives.torical and anthropological perspectives.22 Hüseyin Avni Bıçaklı’s Hüseyin Avni Bıçaklı’s Tü-Tü-rkiyerkiye-Bulgaristan İlişkileri: 1878Bulgaristan İlişkileri: 1878-2008 2008 is also one of the most important is also one of the most important and useful works similar to that of Şimşir’s book.and useful works similar to that of Şimşir’s book.23 Although the planning Although the planning of these books are very similar, in comparison to Şimşir’s book, Bıçaklı’s of these books are very similar, in comparison to Şimşir’s book, Bıçaklı’s book focuses more intensively obook focuses more intensively on diplomatic relations between Bulgaria n diplomatic relations between Bulgaria and Turkey and less on cultural perspective. Ömer Turan’s and Turkey and less on cultural perspective. Ömer Turan’s Turkish Minor-Turkish Minor-ity in Bulgaria (1878ity in Bulgaria (1878-1908) 1908) can also be evaluated in this category.can also be evaluated in this category.24 These These works mainly focus on Turks who remained in Bulgaria and Turks who works mainly focus on Turks who remained in Bulgaria and Turks who werwere forced to migrate under the pressure of diplomatic relations.e forced to migrate under the pressure of diplomatic relations. Justin Justin McCarthy’s McCarthy’s Death and ExileDeath and Exile is another example to the works that focus on is another example to the works that focus on Muslims’ experiences of exile. Yet, McCarthy’s book differs from the Muslims’ experiences of exile. Yet, McCarthy’s book differs from the works that I have mentioned above since itsworks that I have mentioned above since its geographical scale includes geographical scale includes not only the Balkans but wherever Muslims faced ethnic struggles not only the Balkans but wherever Muslims faced ethnic struggles throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The book offers throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The book offers an account about Muslims’ experiences of exile, migration and misery af-an account about Muslims’ experiences of exile, migration and misery af-ter the Empire’s wter the Empire’s withdrawal from their homelands. Just like McCarthy’s ithdrawal from their homelands. Just like McCarthy’s

21 Bilal N. Şimşir, Bilal N. Şimşir, Bulgaristan Türkleri Bulgaristan Türkleri (İstanbul: Bilgi Yayınevi, 2012), 388.(İstanbul: Bilgi Yayınevi, 2012), 388.

22 IbidIbid.

23 Hüseyin Avni Bıçaklı,Hüseyin Avni Bıçaklı, TürkiyeTürkiye-Bulgaristan İlişkileri (1878Bulgaristan İlişkileri (1878-2008) (Ankara: İmge Kitabevi, (Ankara: İmge Kitabevi, 2016).2016).

24 Ömer Turan, Ömer Turan, The TurThe Turkish Minority in Bulgariakish Minority in Bulgaria (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1998).(Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1998).

F I L I B E L I A L I F EHMI ( 1871 - 1 9 2 2 ) A ND MUVA Z E NE NEWS PA P E R

book, each piece of these studies provides valuable data and comprehen-

book, each piece of these studies provides valuable data and comprehen-sive perspective about the stimulators and consequences of ethnic strug-sive perspective about the stimulators and consequences of ethnic strug-gles. gles.

Mahir Aydın’s work “The Bulgarian Commissioners” offers

Mahir Aydın’s work “The Bulgarian Commissioners” offers another another important perspective that sheds light upon specifically the late nine-important perspective that sheds light upon specifically the late nine-teenth century. Aydın explains that the Ottoman commissioners in Bul-teenth century. Aydın explains that the Ottoman commissioners in Bul-garia were symbolic power on behalf of the Ottoman Empire, but over garia were symbolic power on behalf of the Ottoman Empire, but over time it turned into an institution dealintime it turned into an institution dealing with the vakıf and mufti issues. g with the vakıf and mufti issues. The Bulgarian commissioners, who were directly connected and loyal to The Bulgarian commissioners, who were directly connected and loyal to Sultan AbdSultan Abdülhamid II, took critical duties in terms of informing the palace lhamid II, took critical duties in terms of informing the palace about the Young Turk activities in the Balkans.about the Young Turk activities in the Balkans.25 In this context, Aydın’s In this context, Aydın’s work reveals both the Empire’s losses and its effort to dominate the ork reveals both the Empire’s losses and its effort to dominate the Young Turks. Aydın’s work titled Young Turks. Aydın’s work titled The Eastern Rumelia VilayetThe Eastern Rumelia Vilayet also stands also stands out as a detailed source based on archival documents about the for-out as a detailed source based on archival documents about the for-mation, administration and annexation of the Eastmation, administration and annexation of the Eastern Rumelia.ern Rumelia. 26

The study of Muslim and Turkish minorities in Bulgaria was another

The study of Muslim and Turkish minorities in Bulgaria was another field of research for scholars such as Ali Eminov, Türker Acaroğlu, and field of research for scholars such as Ali Eminov, Türker Acaroğlu, and Hüseyin Memişoğlu. For example, Ali Eminov’s Hüseyin Memişoğlu. For example, Ali Eminov’s Turkish and Other Muslim Turkish and Other Muslim Minorities in BulgariaMinorities in Bulgaria27 problemaproblematizes the issues of Bulgarian national-tizes the issues of Bulgarian national-ism and its impacts on Muslim and Turkish minorities. While Türker Ac-ism and its impacts on Muslim and Turkish minorities. While Türker Ac-aroğlu’s works have an approach similar to Ali Eminov’s, Acaroğlu also aroğlu’s works have an approach similar to Ali Eminov’s, Acaroğlu also concentrates on linguistic and literary research. Especially the second concentrates on linguistic and literary research. Especially the second volumevolume of of Bulgaristan Türkleri Üzerine Araştırmalar,Bulgaristan Türkleri Üzerine Araştırmalar,28 Bulgarlar ve Bul-Bulgarlar ve Bul-garistan Üzerine Yüzyıllı Türkçe Kaynakça (1878garistan Üzerine Yüzyıllı Türkçe Kaynakça (1878-1908) 29 and and Azınlıklar ve Azınlıklar ve Yabancıların Aldığı Adlar ve Soyadlar SözlüğüYabancıların Aldığı Adlar ve Soyadlar Sözlüğü30 are examples of them are examples of them

25 Aydın, “Bulgaristan Komiserliği”.Aydın, “Bulgaristan Komiserliği”.

26 Mahir Aydın, Mahir Aydın, Şarkî Rumeli VilâyetiŞarkî Rumeli Vilâyeti (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1992).(Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1992).

27 Ali Eminov, Ali Eminov, Turkish and Other Muslim Minorities in Bulgaria Turkish and Other Muslim Minorities in Bulgaria (London: Hurst, 1997).(London: Hurst, 1997).

28 M. M. Türker Acaroğlu, Türker Acaroğlu, Bulgaristan Türkleri Üzerine Araştırmalar IIBulgaristan Türkleri Üzerine Araştırmalar II (İstanbul: IQ Kültür Sa-(İstanbul: IQ Kültür Sa-nat Yayıncılık, 2007).nat Yayıncılık, 2007).

29 M. Türker Acaroğlu, M.Türker Acaroğlu, Bulgarlar ve Bulgaristan Üzerine Yüzyıllık Türkçe Kaynakça (1878Bulgarlar ve Bulgaristan Üzerine Yüzyıllık Türkçe Kaynakça (1878-1978) (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1997).(Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1997).

30 M. TürkerM.Türker Acaroğlu, Acaroğlu, Azınlıklar ve Yabancıların Aldığı Türkçe Adlar ve Soyadlar SözlüğAzınlıklar ve Yabancıların Aldığı Türkçe Adlar ve Soyadlar Sözlüğü (İstanbul: IQ Kültür Sanat Yayıncılık, 2009).(İstanbul: IQ Kültür Sanat Yayıncılık, 2009).

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

written by Acaroğlu. Hüseyin Memişoğlu’s book

written by Acaroğlu. Hüseyin Memişoğlu’s book BulgaBulgaristan’da Türk ristan’da Türk KültürüKültürü31 can also be considered as cultural research that investigate the can also be considered as cultural research that investigate the condition of artifacts (mosques, masjids, shrines, schools) that carry sig-condition of artifacts (mosques, masjids, shrines, schools) that carry sig-nals from the culture of Turks.nals from the culture of Turks.

Among the works that question the newly emerged definitions,

Among the works that question the newly emerged definitions, polit-polit-ical and cultural boundaries, and identities of the late nineteenth century, ical and cultural boundaries, and identities of the late nineteenth century, KemalKemal H. Karpat’sKarpat’s Balkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve MilliyetçilikBalkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve Milliyetçilik32 problem-problem-atizes strict definitions and explains how the concepts of ‘nation’ and ‘na-atizes strict definitions and explains how the concepts of ‘nation’ and ‘na-tionality’ inherited from the Ottoman tradition had undergone changes tionality’ inherited from the Ottoman tradition had undergone changes with modernity. Similarly, with modernity. Similarly, The Orient WithinThe Orient Within33 and and ImaginingImagining the Bal-the Bal-kanskans34 motivate researchers to make critical thinking about strict defini-motivate researchers to make critical thinking about strict defini-tions. tions. Yonca Köksal has also conducted significant research on Bulgaria. Yonca Köksal has also conducted significant research on Bulgaria. Particularly, her research yields important insights into the process of Particularly, her research yields important insights into the process of constructing national identityconstructing national identity alongside the emergence of nationalongside the emergence of nation-states states in the late nineteenth centuryin the late nineteenth century.35 Köksal who explains Muslim and Turkish Köksal who explains Muslim and Turkish minorities’ relationship with the Bulgarian state also touches upon the minorities’ relationship with the Bulgarian state also touches upon the connections and relationships established by members of Turkish and connections and relationships established by members of Turkish and Mu slim minorities with their contemporaries in other parts of the world.slim minorities with their contemporaries in other parts of the world.

Following the extensive literature that emerged after the 1980s, the

Following the extensive literature that emerged after the 1980s, the newest studies presented a different and revisionist perspective. These newest studies presented a different and revisionist perspective. These new studies examine minorities regarding thenew studies examine minorities regarding the changing dynamics of the changing dynamics of the late nineteenth century. For instance, studying the history of Muslims in late nineteenth century. For instance, studying the history of Muslims in Bulgaria in the late nineteenth century, Milena Methodieva investigates Bulgaria in the late nineteenth century, Milena Methodieva investigates Muslims’ experiences of modernity in Bulgaria, thus moving the issue be-Muslims’ experiences of modernity in Bulgaria, thus moving the issue be-yond migratioyond migration and minority issues. While Methodieva focuses on the ef-n and minority issues. While Methodieva focuses on the ef-forts of Muslimforts of Muslim intellectuals, she highlights that Muslims aimed to reform intellectuals, she highlights that Muslims aimed to reform

31 Hüseyin Memişoğlu, Hüseyin Memişoğlu, Bulgaristan’da Türk KültürüBulgaristan’da Türk Kültürü (Ankara: Türk Kültürünü Araştırma (Ankara: Türk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü, 1995).Enstitüsü, 1995).

32 Karpat, Karpat, Balkanlarda OsmanlıBalkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve Milliyetçilik.Mirası ve Milliyetçilik.

33 Mary Neuburger, Mary Neuburger, The Orient The Orient Within: Muslim minorities and the negotiation of nationhood ithin: Muslim minorities and the negotiation of nationhood in modern Bulgaria, in modern Bulgaria, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004).(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004).

34 Maria Todorova, Maria Todorova, Imagining the Balkans, Imagining the Balkans, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 20(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).09).

35 Yonca Köksal, “Transnational Networks and Kin States: the Turkish Minority in Bulgaria, Yonca Köksal, “Transnational Networks and Kin States: the Turkish Minority in Bulgaria, 1878 –1940,” 1940,” Nationalities Papers 38Nationalities Papers 38, no. 2 (2010): 191, no. 2 (2010): 191–211.

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their institutions, to revive national consciousness among the Muslim

their institutions, to revive national consciousness among the Muslim community, and to get rid of corrupted religious authocommunity, and to get rid of corrupted religious authorities in order to rities in order to overcome the struggles they faced. This perspective presents itself as a overcome the struggles they faced. This perspective presents itself as a highly productive field because it prompts contemplation about the al-highly productive field because it prompts contemplation about the al-ternative identities of the Muslim minority in Bulgaria. Another study ternative identities of the Muslim minority in Bulgaria. Another study that conceptually problethat conceptually problematizes the historical process leading from the matizes the historical process leading from the Ottoman imperial past to the Bulgarian national identity is Anna Ottoman imperial past to the Bulgarian national identity is Anna Mirkova’s book Mirkova’s book Muslim LandMuslim Land, Christian Labor.Christian Labor. 36 The vakıf issue, which is The vakıf issue, which is one of the issues that Ali Fehmi often addressed in one of the issues that Ali Fehmi often addressed in MuvazeneMuvazene and criti-and criti-cized the managers, is examined in Mirkova’s work as a tool for the Bul-cized the managers, is examined in Mirkova’s work as a tool for the Bul-garian national identity building process. While problematizing the issue garian national identity building process. While problematizing the issue of property, Mirkova sheds light on the sociopolitical history of the re-of property, Mirkova sheds light on the sociopolitical history of the re-gion, at the same time questioning the gion, at the same time questioning the limits of pluralism in the Balkans.limits of pluralism in the Balkans.

There are also various articles that make great contributions to our

There are also various articles that make great contributions to our comprehension about the history of Muslim minority in Bulgaria. For in-comprehension about the history of Muslim minority in Bulgaria. For in-stance, Miloš Jovanović questions what did destroying the Ottoman past stance, Miloš Jovanović questions what did destroying the Ottoman past and building national capitals mean for Balkanand building national capitals mean for Balkan bourgeoisie at a time bourgeoisie at a time when the nation states were rising.when the nation states were rising.37 The work emphasizes that for the The work emphasizes that for the Balkan bourgeoisie, it was not a goal in itself, but was the first step on the Balkan bourgeoisie, it was not a goal in itself, but was the first step on the way to industrial modernity, examining the two elements in a symbiotic way to industrial modernity, examining the two elements in a symbiotic way. The artiway. The article provides important data by touching upon the pragmatic cle provides important data by touching upon the pragmatic facts behind the heroic narratives attributed to the growth of the cities of facts behind the heroic narratives attributed to the growth of the cities of Sofia and Belgrade. And again, it offers comparisons between the urban Sofia and Belgrade. And again, it offers comparisons between the urban transformation breakthrough initiated by Mithat Ptransformation breakthrough initiated by Mithat Paşa in the Tuna prov-aşa in the Tuna prov-ince. It also contains traces of how the narrative of liberation from Otto-ince. It also contains traces of how the narrative of liberation from Otto-man rule turned into a narrative of heroism in the Balkan geography, man rule turned into a narrative of heroism in the Balkan geography, where the empire retreated and the nation states rose.where the empire retreated and the nation states rose.

36 Anna Mirkova, Anna Mirkova, Muslim LandMuslim Land, Christian Labor: Transforming Ottoman Imperial Subjects Christian Labor: Transforming Ottoman Imperial Subjects into Bulgariainto Bulgarian National Citizens (1878n National Citizens (1878-1939) (1939) (New York: Central European University, New York: Central European University, 2017).2017).

37 Miloš Jovanović, “Bourgeois Balkans: WorldMiloš Jovanović, “Bourgeois Balkans: World-Building in Belgrade and Sofia, 1830Building in Belgrade and Sofia, 1830-1912,” 1912,” PhD Dissertation, (Illimois: University of Illinois at UrbanaPhD Dissertation, (Illimois: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2016).Champaign, 2016).

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Popek contributes to the literature o

Popek contributes to the literature of Muslim migrations with an al-f Muslim migrations with an al-ternative migration narrative.ternative migration narrative.38 While focusing on the Bulgarian migra-While focusing on the Bulgarian migra-tions that took place between 1878 and 1900, he evaluates the popula-tions that took place between 1878 and 1900, he evaluates the popula-tion flow to the largest cities of the Principality of Bulgaria. The tion flow to the largest cities of the Principality of Bulgaria. The population mobility population mobility offers useful inferences when read together with offers useful inferences when read together with Mirkova’s book.Mirkova’s book.39 The article also underlines the degree to which migra-The article also underlines the degree to which migra-tions have played a major role in historiography. The common point of all tions have played a major role in historiography. The common point of all these works is that they question the historical narratives of these works is that they question the historical narratives of the twenti-the twenti-eth century and are distanced from sentimental narratives.eth century and are distanced from sentimental narratives.

Another article by Popek’s also focuses on the topic of

Another article by Popek’s also focuses on the topic of muftimufti institu-institu-tion, which is also often discussed in tion, which is also often discussed in MuvazeneMuvazene.40 The article analyzes the The article analyzes the functioning of the mufti institution in Bulfunctioning of the mufti institution in Bulgaria at the end of the nine-garia at the end of the nine-teenth century and at the beginning of the twentieth century. With this teenth century and at the beginning of the twentieth century. With this theme, reasonably reach some arguments about the other Muslim insti-theme, reasonably reach some arguments about the other Muslim insti-tutions. In this context, Popek examines the attitude of Bulgarians to-tutions. In this context, Popek examines the attitude of Bulgarians to-wards Muslim minoriwards Muslim minority and examines the symbolic meanings of ty and examines the symbolic meanings of SheikhulislamSheikhulislam, mufti and other Muslim officials. This assumes another di-, mufti and other Muslim officials. This assumes another di-mension of the Muslim minorities in Bulgaria. It is possible to catch im-mension of the Muslim minorities in Bulgaria. It is possible to catch im-portant clues about institutional corruptions that are the subject of cportant clues about institutional corruptions that are the subject of criti-riti-cism from this article.cism from this article.

While there exists a rich literature on the history of post

While there exists a rich literature on the history of post-1878 Bul-1878 Bul-garia and Muslim minorities in the country, it is necessary to carry out a garia and Muslim minorities in the country, it is necessary to carry out a careful examination of archival sources and related passages from the careful examination of archival sources and related passages from the copies of copies of MuvazMuvazeneene to reconstruct the biography of Ali Fehmito reconstruct the biography of Ali Fehmi. Although Although some of the studies about the Young Turks, Turkish and Muslim minori-some of the studies about the Young Turks, Turkish and Muslim minori-ties in Bulgaria, and Turkish press in Bulgaria mention Ali Fehmi and ties in Bulgaria, and Turkish press in Bulgaria mention Ali Fehmi and MuvazeneMuvazene, there is not any detailed and comprehensive work abo, there is not any detailed and comprehensive work about him. ut him.

38 Krzysztof Popek, “The Bulgarian Migrations and the End of Ottoman Rule in Bulgaria Krzysztof Popek, “The Bulgarian Migrations and the End of Ottoman Rule in Bulgaria (18(1878 -1900),” 1900),” Historijski ZbornikHistorijski Zbornik 71(1), 2018, 4571(1), 2018, 45-59.

39 Mirkova, Mirkova, Muslim LandMuslim Land, Christian Labor.Christian Labor.

40 Krzysztof Popek, “The Functioning of the Mufti Institution in Bulgaria at the Beginning Krzysztof Popek, “The Functioning of the Mufti Institution in Bulgaria at the Beginning of the 20th Century: A Case Study,” of the 20th Century: A Case Study,” Studia z Dziejów Rosji i Europy ŚrodStudia z Dziejów Rosji i Europy Środkowokowo-Wschodniej,Wschodniej, 53(3), 2018, 21753(3), 2018, 217-232.

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Through a careful analysis of archival sources and

Through a careful analysis of archival sources and MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper, newspaper, this study attempts to fill this gap benefiting from secondary sources this study attempts to fill this gap benefiting from secondary sources mentioning Ali Fehmi and synthesizing these secondary sources with pri-mentioning Ali Fehmi and synthesizing these secondary sources with pri-mary materials.mary materials.

Adem Ruhi Karagöz’s

Adem Ruhi Karagöz’s Bulgaristan Türk BasınıBulgaristan Türk Basını offers information offers information about the Turkish press in Bulgaria between 1879 and 1945.about the Turkish press in Bulgaria between 1879 and 1945.41 This This source includes Ali Fehmi and his source includes Ali Fehmi and his MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper but does not pro-newspaper but does not pro-vide a comparative perspective about him due to the organization of the vide a comparative perspective about him due to the organization of the book. Mbook. Muammer Göçmen's uammer Göçmen's İsviçre’de Jön Türk Basınıİsviçre’de Jön Türk Basını can also be evaluated can also be evaluated in this category.in this category. 42 Besides being orderly sources written about the Turk-Besides being orderly sources written about the Turk-ish press in Bulgaria and containing organized and useful information ish press in Bulgaria and containing organized and useful information about the authors and newspapers, none of them prabout the authors and newspapers, none of them provides sufficient in-ovides sufficient in-formation about Ali Fehmi and formation about Ali Fehmi and MuvazeneMuvazene..

The publishing activities of the Balkan Turks cannot be considered in

The publishing activities of the Balkan Turks cannot be considered in isolation from the history of the Young Turks. Among the works about isolation from the history of the Young Turks. Among the works about Young Turk organization and their activities, Young Turk organization and their activities, The Young TThe Young Turks in Opposi-urks in Opposi-tion,tion,43 Osmanlı İttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti ve Jön Türklük,Osmanlı İttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti ve Jön Türklük,44 andand Prepara-Prepara-tion for a Revolutiontion for a Revolution45 are quite important ones.are quite important ones. These are written by one These are written by one of the most important researchers of the field, of the most important researchers of the field, M. M. Şükrü Hanioğlu. In Şükrü Hanioğlu. In Preparation for a RevolutionPreparation for a Revolution, Hanioğlu offers a, Hanioğlu offers a relatively detailed biog-relatively detailed biog-raphy of Ali Fehmi and he tells the story of how his newspaper became raphy of Ali Fehmi and he tells the story of how his newspaper became the most important young Turk newspaper in the Balkans. Şerif Mardin’s the most important young Turk newspaper in the Balkans. Şerif Mardin’s book book Jön Türklerin Siyasi FikirleriJön Türklerin Siyasi Fikirleri describes in detail the ideological back-describes in detail the ideological back-ground of the ground of the Young Turks and how their ideas have developed over Young Turks and how their ideas have developed over

41 Adem Ruhi Karagöz, Adem Ruhi Karagöz, Bulgaristan Türk Basını: 1879Bulgaristan Türk Basını: 1879--19451945 (İstanbul: Üniversite Matbaası, (İstanbul: Üniversite Matbaası, 1945).1945).

42 Muammer Göçmen, Muammer Göçmen, İsviçre’de Jön Türk Basını ve Türk siyasal hayatına etkileri: (1889İsviçre’de Jön Türk Basını ve Türk siyasal hayatına etkileri: (1889--1902)1902) (İstanbul: Kitabevi, 1995).(İstanbul: Kitabevi, 1995).

43 M. Şükrü Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü Hanioğlu, The Young Turks in OppositionThe Young Turks in Opposition, (New York: Oxford University Press, , (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).1995).

44 Hanioğlu, Hanioğlu, Bir Siyasal Örgüt OlarakBir Siyasal Örgüt Olarak..

45 M. Şükrü Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü Hanioğlu, Preparation for a Revolution: The Young Turks 1902Preparation for a Revolution: The Young Turks 1902--1908,1908, (New York: (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).Oxford University Press, 2001).

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time.

time.46 Ali Fehmi and Ali Fehmi and MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper are briefly mentioned in Mar-newspaper are briefly mentioned in Mar-din’s work, as well. Nonetheless, Ali Fehmi did not attract much attention din’s work, as well. Nonetheless, Ali Fehmi did not attract much attention compared to the major Young Turk activities in general. compared to the major Young Turk activities in general.

Ali

Ali Fehmi witnessed the symbolic existence of the Ottoman Empire in Fehmi witnessed the symbolic existence of the Ottoman Empire in Filibe, observed all kinds of struggles such as poverty and lack of educa-Filibe, observed all kinds of struggles such as poverty and lack of educa-tion, and he tried to find solutions to them. Still, he was not much re-tion, and he tried to find solutions to them. Still, he was not much re-searched among the minor Young Turks either. As searched among the minor Young Turks either. As the owner and chief the owner and chief editor of editor of MuvazeneMuvazene, however, he offered a debate platform to the readers, , however, he offered a debate platform to the readers, suggested solutions, and as the most important publishing organ of the suggested solutions, and as the most important publishing organ of the Young Turk press in the Balkans, he kept his newspaper alive from 1897 Young Turk press in the Balkans, he kept his newspaper alive from 1897 to 1910 one way or ato 1910 one way or another.nother.

The most detailed information and comprehensive research about Ali

The most detailed information and comprehensive research about Ali Fehmi and Fehmi and MuvazeneMuvazene can be found in Methodieva’s book can be found in Methodieva’s book Between Empire Between Empire and Nation,and Nation, which approaches Balkan history from a revisionist perspec-which approaches Balkan history from a revisionist perspec-tive.tive.47 She uses Bulgarian and Turkish archiShe uses Bulgarian and Turkish archival materials, and newspa-val materials, and newspa-pers published in Bulgaria, in addition to numerous secondary sources. pers published in Bulgaria, in addition to numerous secondary sources. After giving information about historical context, Methodieva highlights After giving information about historical context, Methodieva highlights where to locate the Young Turks, the Ottoman administration, Muslim in-where to locate the Young Turks, the Ottoman administration, Muslim in-tellectuals in Butellectuals in Bulgaria, and the Bulgarian government within this back-lgaria, and the Bulgarian government within this back-ground. Various initiatives of Ali Fehmi and other intellectuals in Bul-ground. Various initiatives of Ali Fehmi and other intellectuals in Bul-garia, hence, reach significance in her book. For this reason, Methodieva’s garia, hence, reach significance in her book. For this reason, Methodieva’s book became one of the most contributing works while prebook became one of the most contributing works while preparing the de-paring the de-tailed biography of Ali Fehmi and conducting an intailed biography of Ali Fehmi and conducting an in-depth examination of depth examination of the the MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper in my thesis. On the other hand, my contribu-newspaper in my thesis. On the other hand, my contribu-tion to Ali Fehmi’s biography was to synthesize any findings that could tion to Ali Fehmi’s biography was to synthesize any findings that could fill the gaps in a logical framefill the gaps in a logical framework and present them chronologically. In work and present them chronologically. In addition, reading the first 52 issues of addition, reading the first 52 issues of Muvazene Muvazene provided detailed infor-provided detailed infor-mation about Almation about Ali Fehmi’s ideas about local issues such as schools, vakıf i Fehmi’s ideas about local issues such as schools, vakıf properties, muftis in Bulgaria, and global events. properties, muftis in Bulgaria, and global events.

Of course, the problems that Ali Fehmi addressed in

Of course, the problems that Ali Fehmi addressed in MuvazeneMuvazene did not did not appear together all of a sudden after the Russoappear together all of a sudden after the Russo-Ottoman war of 1877Ottoman war of 1877-78. 78.

46 Mardin, Mardin, Jön Türklerin Siyasi Fikirleri.Jön Türklerin Siyasi Fikirleri.

47 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation.

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There

Therefore, to study these problems properly, one need to have a general fore, to study these problems properly, one need to have a general idea of the history of the region, migration movements, the ideas of the idea of the history of the region, migration movements, the ideas of the Young Turks, the construction of the Bulgarian national identity. All this Young Turks, the construction of the Bulgarian national identity. All this information is essential for placing Ali information is essential for placing Ali Fehmi and Fehmi and MuvazeneMuvazene in an appro-in an appro-priate historical context.priate historical context.

§ 1.4 Chapter OutlineChapter Outline

The first chapter of this thesis aims to reveal the developments that in-

The first chapter of this thesis aims to reveal the developments that in-fluenced the late nineteenth century by discussing the factors that paved fluenced the late nineteenth century by discussing the factors that pavedthe way for the Tanzimat reforms. Thethe way for the Tanzimat reforms. The first chapter focuses specifically first chapter focuses specificallyon the reflections of the Tanzimat reforms in the Balkans, briefly address-on the reflections of the Tanzimat reforms in the Balkans, briefly address-ing both the physical and ideological dimensions of the reform move-ing both the physical and ideological dimensions of the reform move-ment, particularly in the pilot region of the Tuna Province under Midhat ment, particularly in the pilot region of the Tuna Province under MidhatPaşa'sPaşa's initiatives. After emphasizing that many endeavors in the region initiatives. After emphasizing that many endeavors in the regionwere disrupted by the 1877were disrupted by the 1877-1878 Russo1878 Russo-Ottoman War, causing disrup-Ottoman War, causing disrup-tions in population balance and stability while completely altering eco-tions in population balance and stability while completely altering eco-nomic equilibrium, the chapter proceeds to discuss hownomic equilibrium, the chapter proceeds to discuss how the reform the reformmovement initiated with Tanzimat continued through Bulgaria, although movement initiated with Tanzimat continued through Bulgaria, althoughthe motivation behind the reforms underwent a drastic change. This way, the motivation behind the reforms underwent a drastic change. This way,the first chapter provides a perspective on “continuing” and “erasing” el-the first chapter provides a perspective on “continuing” and “erasing” el-ements in the region, brieflyements in the region, briefly touching on both positive and negative ex-touching on both positive and negative ex-periences of Muslims in the new order. After providing information about periences of Muslims in the new order. After providing information aboutthe implementation of minority rights provisions in the Berlin Treaty af-the implementation of minority rights provisions in the Berlin Treaty af-ter the war, the efforts of Sultan Abdter the war, the efforts of Sultan Abdülhamid to sustain symbolic Ottlhamid to sustain symbolic Ottoman omanrule in the region are examined. Against this historical background, the rule in the region are examined. Against this historical background, themutual shaping of Ottoman and Bulgarian identities in the late nine-mutual shaping of Ottoman and Bulgarian identities in the late nine-teenth century is highlighted.teenth century is highlighted.

The second chapter starts with a brief introduction to the history of

The second chapter starts with a brief introduction to the history of the Young the Young Turks and their activities in the Balkans. Following this, a de-Turks and their activities in the Balkans. Following this, a de-tailed biography of Ali Fehmi is presented. In order to offer a comprehen-tailed biography of Ali Fehmi is presented. In order to offer a comprehen-sive and detailed biography, this chapter compares how Ali Fehmi de-sive and detailed biography, this chapter compares how Ali Fehmi de-scribed himself in the scribed himself in the MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper and how thinewspaper and how this selfs self-description description is reflected in Ottoman archival documents. It is conveyed that despite is reflected in Ottoman archival documents. It is conveyed that despite

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numerous attempts by the Ottoman government to shut down the critical

numerous attempts by the Ottoman government to shut down the critical MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper, Ali Fehmi benefited from press freedom in Bul-newspaper, Ali Fehmi benefited from press freedom in Bul-garia from 1897 to 1905. The cgaria from 1897 to 1905. The chapter continues with his relocation of the hapter continues with his relocation of the newspaper to Geneva after being expelled from Bulgaria due to his in-newspaper to Geneva after being expelled from Bulgaria due to his in-creasingly provocative style, his travel through Egypt to Afghanistan creasingly provocative style, his travel through Egypt to Afghanistan since he was banned from entering Russia, his diplomatic responsibilities since he was banned from entering Russia, his diplomatic responsibilities there, and how he kept members of the Committee of Union and Progress there, and how he kept members of the Committee of Union and Progress informed about his actions. In order to provide informative insights into informed about his actions. In order to provide informative insights into his activities and aspirations in Afghanistan, this chapter details the tele-his activities and aspirations in Afghanistan, this chapter details the tele-gram Ali Fehmi sent from Afghanistangram Ali Fehmi sent from Afghanistan to the Meclisto the Meclis--i Mebusan (Ottoman i Mebusan (Ottoman parliament) shortly after the proclamation of the Second Constitutional parliament) shortly after the proclamation of the Second Constitutional Era. The second chapter concludes by covering the period up to Ali Era. The second chapter concludes by covering the period up to Ali Fehmi’s death in Fehmi’s death in 19221922..

The third chapter focuses on the first

The third chapter focuses on the first--year issues of the year issues of the MuMuvazenevazene newspaper. It presents Ali Fehmi’s journalistic mission and vision, exam-newspaper. It presents Ali Fehmi’s journalistic mission and vision, exam-ining the newspaper’s headlines, sources of information used in the ining the newspaper’s headlines, sources of information used in the newspaper, its readers, and the strong communication it established with newspaper, its readers, and the strong communication it established with its audience.its audience. It also explores how It also explores how MMuvazeneuvazene transformed into a social transformed into a social platform discussing the problems of Muslims in Bulgaria through exam-platform discussing the problems of Muslims in Bulgaria through exam-ples from the newspaper. Furthermore, the chapter highlights that the ples from the newspaper. Furthermore, the chapter highlights that the subjects Ali Fehmi criticized the most and sought solutions for, such as subjects Ali Fehmi criticized the most and sought solutions for, such as endowments endowments (vakıf), muftis, and schools, were the most prominent top-(vakıf), muftis, and schools, were the most prominent top-ics covered in the ics covered in the MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper. newspaper.

The nineteenth century was characterized by reform

The nineteenth century was characterized by reform movementsmovements in in the Ottoman Empire. Old, multithe Ottoman Empire. Old, multi--ethnic, and traditional governance sys-ethnic, and traditional governance sys-tems were giving way to netems were giving way to new ideologies such as nationalism, com-w ideologies such as nationalism, com-munism, socialism, and secularism.munism, socialism, and secularism.48 While shifting power dynamics and While shifting power dynamics and differing ideologies globally helped explain the decline of empires, biog-differing ideologies globally helped explain the decline of empires, biog-raphies of individuals who cannot be precisely defined and whose iden-raphies of individuals who cannot be precisely defined and whose iden-tities tities do not fit neatly into a single category are particularly valuable in do not fit neatly into a single category are particularly valuable in

48 Jack A. Goldstone, “Foreword,” in the Jack A. Goldstone, “Foreword,” in the Age of Rogues: Rebels, Revolutionaries and Racket-Age of Rogues: Rebels, Revolutionaries and Racket-eers at the Frontiers of Empireseers at the Frontiers of Empires, ed. Ramazan Hakkı Öztan and Alp Yenen (Edinbur, ed. Ramazan Hakkı Öztan and Alp Yenen (Edinburgh: gh: Edinburgh University Press, 2021), xix.Edinburgh University Press, 2021), xix.

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understanding this era. Although Ali Fehmi’s life is full of intriguing de-

understanding this era. Although Ali Fehmi’s life is full of intriguing de-tails, the complexities in his biography make it challenging for research-tails, the complexities in his biography make it challenging for research-ers to label him in one category. He waers to label him in one category. He was a foreigner of Bulgaria, he became s a foreigner of Bulgaria, he became an enemy of Hamidian regime over time, and a neutral member of the an enemy of Hamidian regime over time, and a neutral member of the Young Turks. As emphasized in Jack A. Goldstone foreword Young Turks. As emphasized in Jack A. Goldstone foreword to Age of Age of RoguesRogues, “many, “many-sided” figures who lived in frontiers were “both products sided” figures who lived in frontiers were “both products of their timeof their time and shapers of it.”and shapers of it.”49 The aim of this thesis is, therefore, not The aim of this thesis is, therefore, not to categorize Ali Fehmi. On the contrary, this thesis focuses on the plural to categorize Ali Fehmi. On the contrary, this thesis focuses on the plural identities adopted by Ali Fehmi during a period of turmoil in the world identities adopted by Ali Fehmi during a period of turmoil in the world order. In this context, Ali Fehmi’s biographorder. In this context, Ali Fehmi’s biography becomes one of the promi-y becomes one of the promi-nent sources for understanding thenent sources for understanding the complexities of thecomplexities of the late nineteenth late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and early twentieth centuries in the Ottoman Empire.the Ottoman Empire.

49 Ibid, xxi.Ibid, xxi.

2Historical BackgroundHistorical Background

n the Ottoman

n the Ottoman milletmillet system, communities that preferred to maintain system, communities that preferred to maintain their their own religious beliefs rather than accepting Islam in the con-own religious beliefs rather than accepting Islam in the con-quered territories were placed under the authority of their own religious quered territories were placed under the authority of their own religious leaders. The leaders. The milletmillet system drew a clear distinction between these com-system drew a clear distinction between these com-munities, known as ‘Zimmi,’ meaning ‘protected nonmunities, known as ‘Zimmi,’ meaning ‘protected non-Mu slim population,’ slim population,’ and the Muslim subjects. In the Ottoman state system governed by Sharia and the Muslim subjects. In the Ottoman state system governed by Sharia and Kanun, Sharia emphasized that the government's power derived di-and Kanun, Sharia emphasized that the government's power derived di-rectly from religious sources, while the laws comprehensively encom-rectly from religious sources, while the laws comprehensively encom-passed all aspects of society.passed all aspects of society.1

The Ottoman government established a chain of intermediaries rather

The Ottoman government established a chain of intermediaries rather than directly governing all than directly governing all milletmillets to administer the vast territories under s to administer the vast territories under its rule.its rule.2 Under a strong central authority, this system was highly effective Under a strong central authority, this system was highly effective for the empire. However, periodsfor the empire. However, periods of weakened central authority affected of weakened central authority affected the provinces, thereby disrupted the imperial system. By the eighteenth the provinces, thereby disrupted the imperial system. By the eighteenth century, the power imbalance between local administration and central century, the power imbalance between local administration and central authority became distinct. The authority became distinct. The ayan ayan (local notables), who served as rep-(local notables), who served as rep-resresentatives of the central government in the Ottoman provinces, began entatives of the central government in the Ottoman provinces, began 1 Barbara Jelavich, Barbara Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi: 18. ve 19. YüzyıllarBalkan Tarihi: 18. ve 19. Yüzyıllar, çev. İhsan Durdu, Gülçin Tunalı, , çev. İhsan Durdu, Gülçin Tunalı, Haşim Koç (İstanbul: Küre Yayınları, 2013), 44.Haşim Koç (İstanbul: Küre Yayınları, 2013), 44. 2 IbidIbid, 53., 53.

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to exhibit exploitative behaviors as the central authority weakened,

to exhibit exploitative behaviors as the central authority weakened, deeply unsettling the local population with such corrupt practices. deeply unsettling the local population with such corrupt practices.

Just like the

Just like the milletmillet system, another longstanding system, another longstanding Ottoman arrange-Ottoman arrange-ment was the land tenure. In the Ottoman Empire, the concept of land ment was the land tenure. In the Ottoman Empire, the concept of land ownership was characterized by two different understandings until the ownership was characterized by two different understandings until the enactment of the Land Code. ‘enactment of the Land Code. ‘Miri’Miri’ lands were considered as statelands were considered as state-owned, owned, while ‘while ‘mülk’mülk’ lands were recoglands were recognized as private property owned by indi-nized as private property owned by indi-viduals or specific communities. Additionally, there was a third category viduals or specific communities. Additionally, there was a third category of land known as ‘vakıfof land known as ‘vakıf’ or ‘charitable foundation,’ which comprised prop-or ‘charitable foundation,’ which comprised prop-erties allocated for religious or philanthropic purposes. These vakıf erties allocated for religious or philanthropic purposes. These vakıf lands lands typically served public interests, and the state did not seize control over typically served public interests, and the state did not seize control over them.them.3 However, çiftliks, particularly in the Balkans, blurred the clear le-However, çiftliks, particularly in the Balkans, blurred the clear le-gal distinction between miri and mülk lands in the Ottoman Empire. gal distinction between miri and mülk lands in the Ottoman Empire. These çiftliks were typically vaThese çiftliks were typically vast agricultural properties operated by ten-st agricultural properties operated by ten-ant farmers. Peasants would pay fees to acquire land and the right to cul-ant farmers. Peasants would pay fees to acquire land and the right to cul-tivate it through inheritance, while tax collectors and officials would tivate it through inheritance, while tax collectors and officials would strengthen their positions and accumulate land as they carried out thstrengthen their positions and accumulate land as they carried out their eir duties. The Ottoman governmentduties. The Ottoman government’s regulations concerning çiftliks in the s regulations concerning çiftliks in the Balkans were limited, which constituted another source of unrest and Balkans were limited, which constituted another source of unrest and discontent.discontent.4 The individual registration of land parcels was encouraged, The individual registration of land parcels was encouraged, which in turn created unrest among thewhich in turn created unrest among the estate owners who de facto pos-estate owners who de facto pos-sessed state land.sessed state land.

As these longstanding Ottoman arrangements proved inadequate to

As these longstanding Ottoman arrangements proved inadequate to satisfy internal and external demands, Balkans experienced a period satisfy internal and external demands, Balkans experienced a period filled with complex issues and challenges involving various ethnic and filled with complex issues and challenges involving various ethnic and relreligious groups during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centu-igious groups during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centu-ries. Although the Ottoman Empire officially embraced a general Otto-ries. Although the Ottoman Empire officially embraced a general Otto-man identity for all its citizens, the Balkans witnessed widespread social man identity for all its citizens, the Balkans witnessed widespread social discrimination and unequal treatment among difdiscrimination and unequal treatment among different ethnic and reli-ferent ethnic and reli-gious groups due administrational deficiencies. Inefficiency within the gious groups due administrational deficiencies. Inefficiency within the Ottoman provincial administrative system, widespread corruption, and Ottoman provincial administrative system, widespread corruption, and 3 Mirkova, Mirkova, Muslim LandMuslim Land, Christian LaborChristian Labor, 63.63. 4 IbidIbid, 63, 63-66.

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favoritism led to significant inequality in the treatment of citizens, which

favoritism led to significant inequality in the treatment of citizens, which also manifested also manifested as socioas socio--economic barriers in other regions of the em-economic barriers in other regions of the em-pire. These inequalities became particularly pronounced under the gov-pire. These inequalities became particularly pronounced under the gov-ernance of different nations within the empire. The Ottoman subjects ernance of different nations within the empire. The Ottoman subjects (reaya), driven primarily by economic grievances, turned to the g(reaya), driven primarily by economic grievances, turned to the govern-overn-ment with their complaints, which prepared the groundwork for peasant ment with their complaints, which prepared the groundwork for peasant uprisings, as it happened in 1835.uprisings, as it happened in 1835.5

Although it cannot be denied that the liberal and national movements,

Although it cannot be denied that the liberal and national movements, which greatly influenced Europe, had an impact on triggering the upris-which greatly influenced Europe, had an impact on triggering the upris-ingsings in the Balkans, the emergence of large ayan estates from the eight-in the Balkans, the emergence of large ayan estates from the eight-eenth century onward essentially constituted the main cause of peasant eenth century onward essentially constituted the main cause of peasant discontent in the Balkans during the nineteenth century.discontent in the Balkans during the nineteenth century.6 The dissatis-The dissatis-faction arising from the weakness of authority afaction arising from the weakness of authority and the abuses by regional nd the abuses by regional administrators led to a quest for a comprehensive legal system based on administrators led to a quest for a comprehensive legal system based on the principle of equality for the citizens. The search for such a system was the principle of equality for the citizens. The search for such a system was driven by the desire to address the grievances of the people caused by the driven by the desire to address the grievances of the people caused by the lack olack of effective governance and the exploitation by regional authorities, f effective governance and the exploitation by regional authorities, which paved the way for what are known as Tanzimat reforms in the Ot-which paved the way for what are known as Tanzimat reforms in the Ot-toman Empire.toman Empire.

Overall, the Gülhane Edict, which brought about legal equality be-

Overall, the Gülhane Edict, which brought about legal equality be-tween Muslims and nontween Muslims and non--Muslims, abolishedMuslims, abolished arbitrary punishments, and arbitrary punishments, and granted a central position to the people in state administration, was pro-granted a central position to the people in state administration, was pro-claimed as a political necessity due to various internal and external pres-claimed as a political necessity due to various internal and external pres-sures.sures.7 As İnalcık describes, the Tanzimat period was closely linked to the As İnalcık describes, the Tanzimat period was closely linked to the WesteWesternization movement and was a part of the modernization process, rnization movement and was a part of the modernization process, aiming to reorganize the empire’s corrupted institutions. This effort aiming to reorganize the empire’s corrupted institutions. This effort driven by the empire’s struggle to survive, according to him, would cul-driven by the empire’s struggle to survive, according to him, would cul-

5 Halil İnalcık, Halil İnalcık, DevletDevlet--i Aliyye: Ayanlar, Tanzimat, Meşrutiyet, i Aliyye: Ayanlar, Tanzimat, Meşrutiyet, C. IV, (İstanbul: Türkiye İş C. IV, (İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2017), 199; Jelavich, Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2017), 199; Jelavich, Balkan TarihiBalkan Tarihi, , 371371..

6 Halil İnalcık, “Çiftlik,” Halil İnalcık, “Çiftlik,” in in TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi,TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, ((İstanbul: TDV İslâİstanbul: TDV İslâm Araştırmaları m Araştırmaları Merkezi, 1993). Merkezi, 1993). https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ciftlik (https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ciftlik (June June 1818, , 20232023).).

7 İnalcık, İnalcık, DevletDevlet--i Aliyyei Aliyye, 145., 145.

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

minate in 1876 with the Ottoman Constitution (Kanun

minate in 1876 with the Ottoman Constitution (Kanun-i Esasi), establish-i Esasi), establish-ing an Ottoman unity where legal equality for all imperial subjects was ing an Ottoman unity where legal equality for all imperial subjects was ensured.ensured.8

§ 2.1 The Tanzimat PeriodThe Tanzimat Period

The

The Tanzimat reforms in 1839 brought about a comprehensive and ex-Tanzimat reforms in 1839 brought about a comprehensive and ex-tensive modernization movement to the Empire, aimed at regaining thtensive modernization movement to the Empire, aimed at regaining the confidence of the West due to the Ottoman Empire's military defeats. Ad-confidence of the West due to the Ottoman Empire's military defeats. Ad-ditionally, influenced by the allure of nationalist discourse, minority ditionally, influenced by the allure of nationalist discourse, minoritygroups began questioning the imposed but unrealistic ‘Ottoman’ identity, groups began questioning the imposed but unrealistic ‘Ottoman’ identity,leading to efforts to bring the Empireleading to efforts to bring the Empire closer to universal standards and closer to universal standards andsimultaneously strengthen the loyalty of nonsimultaneously strengthen the loyalty of non-Muslim citizens to the Ot-Muslim citizens to the Ot-toman state.toman state.9 The Tanzimat reforms aimed to confirm the loyalty of mi-The Tanzimat reforms aimed to confirm the loyalty of mi-norities to the Ottoman Empire by granting them equal rights and to pre-norities to the Ottoman Empire by granting them equal rights and to pre-serve the userve the unity and integrity of the empire. The Ottoman millet system, nity and integrity of the empire. The Ottoman millet system,which faced the danger of its foundations being undermined, was revital-which faced the danger of its foundations being undermined, was revital-ized in a way, and the reforms sought to emphasize an Ottoman identity ized in a way, and the reforms sought to emphasize an Ottoman identitythat encompassed all communities.that encompassed all communities.

During the Tanzimat

During the Tanzimat period, the first step taken was to make changes period, the first step taken was to make changes in the provincial administration. Until then, governors had extensive in the provincial administration. Until then, governors had extensive powers, which they often abused. Limits were placed on the influence of powers, which they often abused. Limits were placed on the influence of governors, and the aim was to ensure the participation of all sogovernors, and the aim was to ensure the participation of all social clas-cial clas-ses in governance to a certain extent.ses in governance to a certain extent.10 The land issue, which had long The land issue, which had long remained unresolved and determined the material and social conditions remained unresolved and determined the material and social conditions of the reaya had to be addressed, according to the Ottoman administra-of the reaya had to be addressed, according to the Ottoman administra-tion. It was a difficult, complex, antion. It was a difficult, complex, and highly delicate matter, as disturbing d highly delicate matter, as disturbing one of the parties involved could jeopardize the integrity of the land. For one of the parties involved could jeopardize the integrity of the land. For instance, the 1849 uprisings in Bosnia were primarily triggered by the instance, the 1849 uprisings in Bosnia were primarily triggered by the rebellion of the rebellion of the bey s (local nobility) who realized the extent of thes (local nobility) who realized the extent of their 8 IbidIbid, 197197. 9 Taglia, Taglia, Intellectuals and Reform in the Ottoman EmpireIntellectuals and Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 2.

10 İnalcık, “Çiftlik,” İnalcık, “Çiftlik,” 199 .

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losses in interest due to the measures taken to prevent the uprising of the

losses in interest due to the measures taken to prevent the uprising of the reaya.reaya.11 Regardless of the circumstances, a shift towards individual own-Regardless of the circumstances, a shift towards individual own-ership was embraced during this period, emphasizing individualistic and ership was embraced during this period, emphasizing individualistic and private rights. The assessment andprivate rights. The assessment and collection of taxes also underwent collection of taxes also underwent profound changes, transitioning from communityprofound changes, transitioning from community-based taxation to a fo-based taxation to a fo-cus on individual taxpayers.cus on individual taxpayers.12

As part of the reforms that aimed to protect the rights of non

As part of the reforms that aimed to protect the rights of non-Muslims, Muslims, the system of tax farming (iltizam) was abolishedthe system of tax farming (iltizam) was abolished, and through the Re-, and through the Re-form Edict (Islahat Fermanı), the principle of complete equality in taxa-form Edict (Islahat Fermanı), the principle of complete equality in taxa-tion was declared, converting taxes into a military levy.tion was declared, converting taxes into a military levy.13 In order to free In order to free tax collection affairs from the control of governors and local elites (ayan), tax collection affairs from the control of governors and local elites (ayan), tax collectax collectors were appointed from the central government. tors were appointed from the central government. 14 Officials Officials and officers no longer collected fees from the people under various and officers no longer collected fees from the people under various names. In 1856, the jizya tax was abolished and replaced with military names. In 1856, the jizya tax was abolished and replaced with military service fees.service fees.15 These reforms aimed to establish a more eThese reforms aimed to establish a more equitable and quitable and standardized system throughout the empire.standardized system throughout the empire.16

§ 2.2 The Young OttomansThe Young Ottomans

As the non

As the non-Muslim citizens of the Ottoman Empire began to demand Muslim citizens of the Ottoman Empire began to demandequal treatment and rights, Ottoman reformers, believing in the continu-equal treatment and rights, Ottoman reformers, believing in the continu-ation of the imperial order, started to seeation of the imperial order, started to seek more inclusive versions of ‘na-k more inclusive versions of ‘na-tionalism.’ The solution they adopted, tionalism.’ The solution they adopted, OttomanismOttomanism, was an ideology de-, was an ideology de-rived not from the people, but the pragmatic requisites in order to protect rived not from the people, but the pragmatic requisites in order to protectthe empire. According to this ideology, all nations (Albanians, Arabs, Ar-the empire. According to this ideology, all nations (Albanians, Arabs, Ar-menianmenians, Bulgarians, Greeks, Kurds, Serbs, Syrians, Turks, etc.) would be s, Bulgarians, Greeks, Kurds, Serbs, Syrians, Turks, etc.) would be

11 İnalcık, İnalcık, DevletDevlet-i Ai Aliyye,liyye, 203 .

12 Mirkova, Mirkova, Muslim LandMuslim Land, Christian Labor,Christian Labor, 63 .

13 İnalcık, İnalcık, DevletDevlet-i Aliyye,i Aliyye, 199 .

14 IbidIbid, 151 .

15 Ibid,Ibid, 155 .

16 Mirkova, Mirkova, Muslim Land, Christian Labor,Muslim Land, Christian Labor, 66 .

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

considered equal as part of the Ottoman nation in order to reduce ethnic

considered equal as part of the Ottoman nation in order to reduce ethnic and religious tensions.and religious tensions. 17

At this point, Şerif Mardin's thesis about the moral conflict among the

At this point, Şerif Mardin's thesis about the moral conflict among the Tanzimat bureaucrats comes to mind. Mardin argues that the influence Tanzimat bureaucrats comes to mind. Mardin argues that the influence of the Enlightenment ideas in Europe reached the Ottoman territories not of the Enlightenment ideas in Europe reached the Ottoman territories not through philosophers but rather through nethrough philosophers but rather through new institutions that were re-w institutions that were re-luctantly adopted from the West.luctantly adopted from the West.18 In the 1860s, Tanzimat bureaucrats, In the 1860s, Tanzimat bureaucrats, emphasized that constitutionalism was in line with the true spirit of Is-emphasized that constitutionalism was in line with the true spirit of Is-lam, as consultation (meşveret) is fundamental in Islam. This effort to lam, as consultation (meşveret) is fundamental in Islam. This effort to harmonize the tharmonize the two, the “modern” and “Islamic,” can be clearly ob-wo, the “modern” and “Islamic,” can be clearly ob-served.served.19

The early proponents of

The early proponents of OttomanismOttomanism naturally consisted of bureau-naturally consisted of bureau-crats from the Tanzimat period, known as the Young Ottomans. In re-crats from the Tanzimat period, known as the Young Ottomans. In re-sponse to the challenges faced by the Ottoman Empire, they proposed sponse to the challenges faced by the Ottoman Empire, they proposed the the establishment of a consultative assembly (meclisestablishment of a consultative assembly (meclis--i meşveret), division of i meşveret), division of powers, and the declaration of a new constitution as solutions.powers, and the declaration of a new constitution as solutions.20 Accord-Accord-ing to the Young Ottomans, the Imperial Edict of Gülhane and the Reform ing to the Young Ottomans, the Imperial Edict of Gülhane and the Reform Edict (Islahat Fermanı) did not fulEdict (Islahat Fermanı) did not fully achieve this goal. Although these re-ly achieve this goal. Although these re-forms satisfied Europe to some extent, they did not provide longforms satisfied Europe to some extent, they did not provide long--term term contributions to the welfare of the Ottoman Empire. Particularly, the contributions to the welfare of the Ottoman Empire. Particularly, the widewide--ranging rights granted to nonranging rights granted to non--Muslims through the Reform Edict Muslims through the Reform Edict had the phad the potential to increase tensions between different religious groups otential to increase tensions between different religious groups in the future.in the future.21 According to the Young Ottomans, unless equal participa-According to the Young Ottomans, unless equal participa-tion in the decisiontion in the decision--making process was granted to all Ottoman citizens making process was granted to all Ottoman citizens without discrimination based on religion and ethwithout discrimination based on religion and ethnicity, other reforms nicity, other reforms aimed at meeting the demands of nonaimed at meeting the demands of non--Muslims would provide an oppor-Muslims would provide an oppor-tunity for European intervention in Ottoman internal affairs. Indeed, the tunity for European intervention in Ottoman internal affairs. Indeed, the

17 Taglia, Taglia, Intellectuals and Reform in the Ottoman Empire,Intellectuals and Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 33..

18 Mardin, Mardin, Jön TürkleJön Türklerin Siyasî Fikirleririn Siyasî Fikirleri, , 1919..

19 Taglia, Taglia, Intellectuals and Reform in the Ottoman Empire,Intellectuals and Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 33..

20 Mardin, Mardin, Jön Türklerin Siyasi FikirleriJön Türklerin Siyasi Fikirleri,, 3333..

21 Nazan Çiçek, Nazan Çiçek, The Young Ottomans: Turkish Critics of Eastern Question in the Late Eight-The Young Ottomans: Turkish Critics of Eastern Question in the Late Eight-eenth Centuryeenth Century (New York: Taurus(New York: Taurus Academic Studies, Academic Studies, 20102010), ), 116116..

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non -Muslim subjects could seek assistance from their European coMuslim subjects could seek assistance from their European co-reli-reli-gionists at any time. In gionists at any time. In such a situation, a de facto division could arise such a situation, a de facto division could arise between Muslims and nonbetween Muslims and non-Muslims, as nonMuslims, as non-Muslims would find support Muslims would find support from outside sources while the Muslim subjects would have no counter-from outside sources while the Muslim subjects would have no counter-part. In their criticisms of the reforms, the Young Ottomans point to apart. In their criticisms of the reforms, the Young Ottomans point to a new new environment of inequality where Muslims are being oppressed.environment of inequality where Muslims are being oppressed.22

§ 2.3 First Tanzimat Reforms on the BalkansFirst Tanzimat Reforms on the Balkans

By the nineteenth century, the education of Muslims and Bulgarian Or-

By the nineteenth century, the education of Muslims and Bulgarian Or-thodox populations in the Balkans was solely based on religious princi-thodox populations in the Balkans was solely based on religious princi-ples. Muslimples. Muslims had access to mosques had access to mosque-based madrasas and neighborhood based madrasas and neighborhoodreligious schools (mekteps), while Bulgarians had schools called religious schools (mekteps), while Bulgarians had schools called Kiliyni Kiliyniuçiliştauçilişta.23 In 1838, the first imperial secondary schools (rüşdiyes) were In 1838, the first imperial secondary schools (rüşdiyes) wereopened.opened.24 Education tools were renewed, and maps and gloEducation tools were renewed, and maps and globes were in-bes were in-troduced to some schools. The number of primary schools (sıbyan troduced to some schools. The number of primary schools (sıbyanmekteps) and secondary schools increased, making the Tuna province mekteps) and secondary schools increased, making the Tuna provinceone of the most developed centers in terms of education, after Istanbul. one of the most developed centers in terms of education, after Istanbul.A provincial printing house was establishA provincial printing house was established, and schoolbooks started to ed, and schoolbooks started tobe printed there.be printed there.25 There has been a significant increase in the number of There has been a significant increase in the number ofmosques, medreses, schools, rüşdiyes, tekkes, and mescits.mosques, medreses, schools, rüşdiyes, tekkes, and mescits.

Petrov examines the reflections of the Tanzimat period in the Balkans

Petrov examines the reflections of the Tanzimat period in the Balkans during the tenure of Mduring the tenure of Midhat Paşa (1864idhat Paşa (1864-1868), the first governor of the 1868), the first governor of the Tuna province.Tuna province.26 The Tuna province encompassed the region from the The Tuna province encompassed the region from the Danube River to the Balkan Mountains including the regions of Silistre, Danube River to the Balkan Mountains including the regions of Silistre, Vidin, and Niş, while the Edirne province included the area from theVidin, and Niş, while the Edirne province included the area from the Bal- kan Mountains to the Marmara Sea.kan Mountains to the Marmara Sea.27 Tuna province was established in Tuna province was established in

22 IbidIbid, 120 .

23 Şimşir, Şimşir, Bulgaristan TürkleriBulgaristan Türkleri, 35 .

24 Ibid,Ibid, 35 .

25 IbidIbid, 36 .

26 Milen Petrov, “Tanzimat for the Countryside: Midhat Paşa and the Vilayet of Danube, Milen Petrov, “Tanzimat for the Countryside: Midhat Paşa and the Vilayet of Danube, 1864 -1868 ,” PhD Dissertation, Princeton University, ,” PhD Dissertation, Princeton University, 20062006.

27 Şimşir, Şimşir, Bulgaristan Türkleri,Bulgaristan Türkleri, 25 .

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

1864, and was designated as a testing ground for comprehensive reforms

1864, and was designated as a testing ground for comprehensive reforms during the Tanzimat era. As the governor, Midhat Paşa took the lead in during the Tanzimat era. As the governor, Midhat Paşa took the lead in implementing legal, institutional, infrastimplementing legal, institutional, infrastructural, communicational, and ructural, communicational, and economic reforms. The reforms aimed to build a more inclusive and just economic reforms. The reforms aimed to build a more inclusive and just society based on the principles of the rule of law and equal treatment, society based on the principles of the rule of law and equal treatment, while also preserving the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire. while also preserving the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire. During thisDuring this period, Christians began to participate in administrative period, Christians began to participate in administrative councils. Projects such as road construction, bridge building, school es-councils. Projects such as road construction, bridge building, school es-tablishment, and model farms were undertaken, and efforts were made tablishment, and model farms were undertaken, and efforts were made to facilitate the education of Bulgarian youths abroad.to facilitate the education of Bulgarian youths abroad.28 The number of The number of Bulgarian schools in the Tuna province also increased, reaching Bulgarian schools in the Tuna province also increased, reaching 1,5041,504 by by the year the year 18771877. Three years after the establishment of the Tuna Province, . Three years after the establishment of the Tuna Province, following the Tuna example, the Edirne province was founded in following the Tuna example, the Edirne province was founded in 18671867.

The Education Regulation (M

The Education Regulation (Maarif Nizamnamesi) was issued in the aarif Nizamnamesi) was issued in the same year with the establishment of Edirne province, and it encom-same year with the establishment of Edirne province, and it encom-passed the education system as a whole. According to the regulation, passed the education system as a whole. According to the regulation, there would be elementary schools (sıbyan mektebi) in neighborhoods there would be elementary schools (sıbyan mektebi) in neighborhoods and villages, secand villages, secondary schools (rüşdiye) in towns with more than 500 ondary schools (rüşdiye) in towns with more than 500 households, high schools (idadi) in towns with a thousand households, households, high schools (idadi) in towns with a thousand households, and imperial colleges (sultani) in provincial capitals. However, the open-and imperial colleges (sultani) in provincial capitals. However, the open-ing of high schools and imperial colleges in the Balkans wasing of high schools and imperial colleges in the Balkans was postponed, postponed, and after the 1877and after the 1877-1878 Russo1878 Russo-Ottoman War, this issue remained com-Ottoman War, this issue remained com-pletely suspended. The Tuna and Edirne provinces were unable to benefit pletely suspended. The Tuna and Edirne provinces were unable to benefit from the high schools that started to be established in other regions of from the high schools that started to be established in other regions of the empire after the 1880s.the empire after the 1880s.29

§ 2.4 1877877-1878 Russo1878 Russo-Ottoman War and the Berlin CongressOttoman War and the Berlin Congress

The nineteenth century was a tumultuous period for the Ottoman Em-

The nineteenth century was a tumultuous period for the Ottoman Em-pire, since it was a time when states such as Russia and Austria supported pire, since it was a time when states such as Russia and Austria supported

28 Jelavich, Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi,Balkan Tarihi, 371371.

29 Şimşir, Şimşir, Bulgaristan TürkleriBulgaristan Türkleri, 40 .

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nationalist uprisings among Balkan nations. After France’s defeat

nationalist uprisings among Balkan nations. After France’s defeat by Ger-by Ger-many in 1870, Russia was freed from the provisions of the Paris Treaty many in 1870, Russia was freed from the provisions of the Paris Treaty and began to pursue a more active policy towards the Ottoman Balkans. and began to pursue a more active policy towards the Ottoman Balkans. It supported the creation of public opinion against the Muslim Turks dur-It supported the creation of public opinion against the Muslim Turks dur-ing the Bulgarian uprising, while pring the Bulgarian uprising, while providing military aid to the Balkan na-oviding military aid to the Balkan na-tions and engaging in activities to isolate the Ottoman Empire in Euro-tions and engaging in activities to isolate the Ottoman Empire in Euro-pean politics by supporting the uprisings in Herzegovina and Bulgaria. pean politics by supporting the uprisings in Herzegovina and Bulgaria. Unlike the previous Bulgarian uprisings that the Ottoman Empire had Unlike the previous Bulgarian uprisings that the Ottoman Empire had managed tomanaged to suppress, the 1876 uprisings, which were externally sup-suppress, the 1876 uprisings, which were externally sup-ported and organized, could not be quelledported and organized, could not be quelled.30 Russia, by encouraging the Russia, by encouraging the Slavic population in Bulgaria to revolt, was backing the idea of establish-Slavic population in Bulgaria to revolt, was backing the idea of establish-ing a separate state. Its primary goal was to remove ting a separate state. Its primary goal was to remove the Ottoman Empire he Ottoman Empire from the Balkans through panfrom the Balkans through pan-Slavic policies and reach southward to the Slavic policies and reach southward to the Aegean Sea by creating a state with a border thereAegean Sea by creating a state with a border there.31

Another country that played a role in the Bulgarian uprisings was the

Another country that played a role in the Bulgarian uprisings was the British, where Gladstone came to power in 1British, where Gladstone came to power in 1868, ushering in a liberal ad-868, ushering in a liberal ad-ministration. During Gladstone's tenure, the policy of protecting the Ot-ministration. During Gladstone's tenure, the policy of protecting the Ot-toman Empire was abandoned, and a more assertive policy against the toman Empire was abandoned, and a more assertive policy against the Ottoman Empire was adopted.Ottoman Empire was adopted.32 In the 1870s, the British allowed the es-In the 1870s, the British allowed the es-tablishment of pantablishment of pan-Slavic committees in London and turned a blind eye Slavic committees in London and turned a blind eye to Panslavists engaging in guerrilla warfare against the Turksto Panslavists engaging in guerrilla warfare against the Turks.33

The uprisings in Bulgaria and Herzegovina in 1876, along with the

The uprisings in Bulgaria and Herzegovina in 1876, along with the Ottoman Empire's inability to repay its foreign debts, contributed to a Ottoman Empire's inability to repay its foreign debts, contributed to a negative image of the Turks in European public opinionnegative image of the Turks in European public opinion.34 The Ottoman The Ottoman Empire was seeking a way to reconcile with Western powersEmpire was seeking a way to reconcile with Western powers.35 With Rus-With Rus-sia’s encouragement, Serbia and Montenegro declared war against the sia’s encouragement, Serbia and Montenegro declared war against the

30 Bıçaklı, Bıçaklı, TürkiyeTürkiye-Bulgaristan İlişkileriBulgaristan İlişkileri, 84, 84

31 IbidIbid, 85 . 32 İnalcık, DevletDevlet-i Aliyye, i Aliyye, 292.

33 Bıçaklı, Bıçaklı, TürkiyeTürkiye-Bulgaristan İlişkileriBulgaristan İlişkileri, 85., 85.

34 Aydın, “Doksanüç Harbi.”Aydın, “Doksanüç Harbi.”

35 Mithat Aydın, Mithat Aydın, “OsmanlıOsmanlı-İngİngiliz İlişkilerinde İstanbul Konferansı (1876)iliz İlişkilerinde İstanbul Konferansı (1876)’nın Yerinın Yeri,” Tarih Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi Araştırmaları Dergisi 25 (2006): 25 (2006): 102 .

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

Ottoman Empire. Following these battles that ended

Ottoman Empire. Following these battles that ended with Ottoman vic-with Ottoman vic-tory, a conference was held in Istanbul with the participation of England, tory, a conference was held in Istanbul with the participation of England, France, Russia, Germany, Austria, Italy, and the Ottoman Empire. During France, Russia, Germany, Austria, Italy, and the Ottoman Empire. During the conference, it was especially the proposals presented by the British the conference, it was especially the proposals presented by the British representative Salisrepresentative Salisbury, which were in line with Russia's interests, that bury, which were in line with Russia's interests, that indicated a shift in Britain's foreign policyindicated a shift in Britain's foreign policy..36 The Ottoman Empire re-The Ottoman Empire re-jected the proposals presented to them. Russia accelerated its war prep-jected the proposals presented to them. Russia accelerated its war prep-arations in the new political context, secured Austria’s neutarations in the new political context, secured Austria’s neutrality, and ul-rality, and ul-timately declared war on the Ottoman Empire on April 24, 1877timately declared war on the Ottoman Empire on April 24, 1877..37

After the war which had resulted in the defeat of the Ottoman forces

After the war which had resulted in the defeat of the Ottoman forces in the fronts of the Danube and Eastern Anatolia, the Principality of Bul-in the fronts of the Danube and Eastern Anatolia, the Principality of Bul-garia, with a local government and mgaria, with a local government and militias, while paying taxes to the Sub-ilitias, while paying taxes to the Sub-lime Porte, was established in the Balkans. The independence of Serbia, lime Porte, was established in the Balkans. The independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania would be recognized, and BosniaMontenegro, and Romania would be recognized, and Bosnia--Herze-Herze-govina would be granted autonomy. War indemnities would be paid to govina would be granted autonomy. War indemnities would be paid to Russia, and RussiaRussia, and Russia would be granted certain privilegeswould be granted certain privileges..38 However, the However, the region's division outlined in the Treaty of San Stefano, signed on March region's division outlined in the Treaty of San Stefano, signed on March 3, 1878, did not satisfy the Great Powers, leading to the convening of a 3, 1878, did not satisfy the Great Powers, leading to the convening of a congress in Berlincongress in Berlin..39

According to the Berlin Treaty, whic

According to the Berlin Treaty, which consisted of 64 articles, the Bul-h consisted of 64 articles, the Bul-garian territories determined in the Treaty of San Stefano were divided garian territories determined in the Treaty of San Stefano were divided into three regions. First of all, a Bulgarian principality, which remained into three regions. First of all, a Bulgarian principality, which remained under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire but had internal freedom, under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire but had internal freedom, was was established in the administrative divisions (sancaks) of Sofya, Vidin, established in the administrative divisions (sancaks) of Sofya, Vidin, Rusçuk, Tırnova, and Varna, which were part of the former Tuna prov-Rusçuk, Tırnova, and Varna, which were part of the former Tuna prov-ince. The prince of the principality would be elected by the people and ince. The prince of the principality would be elected by the people and approved by the Great Powers.approved by the Great Powers.

36 Aydın, Aydın, “Osmanlı“Osmanlı--İngiliz İlişkilerinde,” İngiliz İlişkilerinde,” 113113

37 Aydın, “Doksanüç Harbi.”Aydın, “Doksanüç Harbi.”

38 Ibid.Ibid.

39 Bıçaklı,Bıçaklı, TürkiyeTürkiye--Bulgaristan İlişkileriBulgaristan İlişkileri,, 8484..

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Secondly, the pr

Secondly, the province of Eastern Rumelia, which would be adminis-ovince of Eastern Rumelia, which would be adminis-tratively independent but politically and militarily connected to the Otto-tratively independent but politically and militarily connected to the Otto-man Empire, was established with its center in Filibe). Aleko Paşa, of Bul-man Empire, was established with its center in Filibe). Aleko Paşa, of Bul-garian origin and born in Istanbul, was appointed as the gogarian origin and born in Istanbul, was appointed as the governor.vernor.40 It It would be governed by a Christian governor appointed with the approval would be governed by a Christian governor appointed with the approval of European states. The autonomous Eastern Rumelia Province was es-of European states. The autonomous Eastern Rumelia Province was es-tablished in the regions of Filibe and İslimye, which were part of the for-tablished in the regions of Filibe and İslimye, which were part of the for-mer Ottoman Edirne province. And tmer Ottoman Edirne province. And the third region, Macedonia, after un-he third region, Macedonia, after un-dergoing reforms, would remain within the Ottoman Empire.dergoing reforms, would remain within the Ottoman Empire.41

§ 2.52.5 Consequences of the War and the Berlin SettlementConsequences of the War and the Berlin Settlement

In 1876, although the Bulgarian population was constituting the majority

In 1876, although the Bulgarian population was constituting the majority on the region, it was not superior toon the region, it was not superior to nonnon--Bulgarians. For instance, in Bulgarians. For instance, in 1876, in the İslimiye and Filibe sanjaks, there were 100,500 Bulgarians 1876, in the İslimiye and Filibe sanjaks, there were 100,500 Bulgarians compared to 186,400 noncompared to 186,400 non--Bulgarians, and in the Filibe sanjak, there were Bulgarians, and in the Filibe sanjak, there were 382,500 Bulgarians compared to 564,000 non382,500 Bulgarians compared to 564,000 non--Bulgarians.Bulgarians.42 Yet, the Yet, the 18771877--78 war 78 war had profoundly disrupted the population balance in the Bal-had profoundly disrupted the population balance in the Bal-kans. During the sevenkans. During the seven--monthmonth--long war on the Tuna front, approximately long war on the Tuna front, approximately one million Muslims had to abandon their villages and homes and flee.one million Muslims had to abandon their villages and homes and flee.43 Half a million Muslims were also devastated later in theHalf a million Muslims were also devastated later in the years 1877years 1877--78 78 due to massacres, famine, cold, and epidemic diseases. Considering those due to massacres, famine, cold, and epidemic diseases. Considering those who could not return, Muslims in the Tuna and Edirne provinces became who could not return, Muslims in the Tuna and Edirne provinces became a numerical minority.a numerical minority.44

The Berlin Treaty, initially prepared as a protector of minority rights

The Berlin Treaty, initially prepared as a protector of minority rights anand the interests of religious and ethnic communities in Bulgarian terri-d the interests of religious and ethnic communities in Bulgarian terri-tories, had a complex legacy in terms of its actual implementation and tories, had a complex legacy in terms of its actual implementation and

40 IbidIbid, , 7474..

41 Ali İhsAli İhsan Gencer, “Berlin Antlaşması,” an Gencer, “Berlin Antlaşması,” in in TDV İslâm AnsiklopedisiTDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, , ((İstanbul: TDV İslâm İstanbul: TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi, 1992). Araştırmaları Merkezi, 1992). https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/berlinhttps://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/berlin--antlasmasi antlasmasi ((June June 1818, , 20232023).).

42 Şimşir, Şimşir, Bulgaristan Türkleri,Bulgaristan Türkleri, 4040..

43 Bıçaklı, Bıçaklı, TürkiyeTürkiye--Bulgaristan İlişkilBulgaristan İlişkileri, eri, 8383..

44 Şimşir, Şimşir, Bulgaristan Türkleri,Bulgaristan Türkleri, 2626..

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

effectiveness. The dynamic nature of its implementation calls for a

effectiveness. The dynamic nature of its implementation calls for a thoughtful examination that considers temporal thoughtful examination that considers temporal and regional contexts. and regional contexts. Delving into the reasons behind the gaps in the implementation of the Delving into the reasons behind the gaps in the implementation of the provisions of the Berlin Treaty reveals a wide range of factors. Among provisions of the Berlin Treaty reveals a wide range of factors. Among these factors are the internal and external pressures that Bulgaria has these factors are the internal and external pressures that Bulgaria has been struggling withbeen struggling with throughout its process of national formation, as well throughout its process of national formation, as well as the complexities like other newly established nationas the complexities like other newly established nation-states in the late states in the late nineteenth century. Property disputes, discrimination, and restrictions nineteenth century. Property disputes, discrimination, and restrictions on religious practices were not only isolated incidenton religious practices were not only isolated incidents specific to Bul-s specific to Bul-garia, but also emblematic of the challenges faced by many regions un-garia, but also emblematic of the challenges faced by many regions un-dergoing political and social transitions during that period. The impact dergoing political and social transitions during that period. The impact of local dynamics, administrative capacity, and the attitudes of regional of local dynamics, administrative capacity, and the attitudes of regional authorities may have plauthorities may have played a significant role in determining the extent ayed a significant role in determining the extent to which the treaty's articles were implemented. It is essential to to which the treaty's articles were implemented. It is essential to acknowledge that the overarching goal of the Berlin Treaty was to protect acknowledge that the overarching goal of the Berlin Treaty was to protect minority rights in Bulgarian territories, but the comprehensive minority rights in Bulgarian territories, but the comprehensive and flaw-and flaw-less execution of its provisions depended on the prevailing conditions of less execution of its provisions depended on the prevailing conditions of that era.that era.

§ 2.6 The Principality of BulgariaThe Principality of Bulgaria

Since the establishment of the Principality of Bulgaria, significant politi-

Since the establishment of the Principality of Bulgaria, significant politi-cal, social, and cultural developments have taken place in cal, social, and cultural developments have taken place in the region, the region,marking the beginning of a period characterized by Bulgarian national marking the beginning of a period characterized by Bulgarian nationalidentity. First and foremost, the Principality of Bulgaria, with the help of identity. First and foremost, the Principality of Bulgaria, with the help ofthe Russians, acquired a solid military organization and a strong army the Russians, acquired a solid military organization and a strong armybetween 1878 and 1880.between 1878 and 1880.45 In 1885, the Principality of Bulgaria expanded 1885, the Principality of Bulgaria expandedits territory by annexing Eastern Rumelia, and the unification of these its territory by annexing Eastern Rumelia, and the unification of thesetwo regions represented a much greater loss for the Ottoman Empire in two regions represented a much greater loss for the Ottoman Empire interms of the previous socioterms of the previous socio-political situation.political situation.46

45 Bıçaklı, Bıçaklı, TürkiyeTürkiye-Bulgaristan İlişkileri, Bulgaristan İlişkileri, 75 .

46 Şimşir, Şimşir, Bulgaristan Türkleri,Bulgaristan Türkleri, 25 .

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Secondly, during t

Secondly, during this period, Bulgaria adopted and established a con-his period, Bulgaria adopted and established a con-stitutional monarchy, which was an important step towards the institu-stitutional monarchy, which was an important step towards the institu-tionalization of democratic governance in the country. The Ttionalization of democratic governance in the country. The Tarnovo con-rnovo con-stitution and the 1879 Bulgarian constitutional assembly establishestitution and the 1879 Bulgarian constitutional assembly established a d a liberal political system in Bulgaria. The constitution, drafted by the Rus-liberal political system in Bulgaria. The constitution, drafted by the Rus-sian administration, contributed to the country's adoption of one of the sian administration, contributed to the country's adoption of one of the most liberal electoral regimes of that time.most liberal electoral regimes of that time.47 However, political parties However, political parties lacked clear ideologies, and thelacked clear ideologies, and their leaders were not charismatic figures. ir leaders were not charismatic figures. They aligned themselves with external powers, with some being proThey aligned themselves with external powers, with some being pro-Rus-Rus-sian and the majority being prosian and the majority being pro-Western. In this context, Muslims, prag-Western. In this context, Muslims, prag-matically supporting antimatically supporting anti-Russian views, rallied behind both the Stam-Russian views, rallied behind both the Stam-bolovibolovist and Radolovist branches of the National Liberal Party. Yet, voting st and Radolovist branches of the National Liberal Party. Yet, voting was not an individual practice but a collective experience for Muslims. was not an individual practice but a collective experience for Muslims. Notables were holding influence among the Muslim community but join-Notables were holding influence among the Muslim community but join-ing different parties, often leading them to thing different parties, often leading them to the losing side. Muslim leaders e losing side. Muslim leaders were aware of their constitutional rights and sought to promote their in-were aware of their constitutional rights and sought to promote their in-volvement in parliamentary politics on following decades. Sultan volvement in parliamentary politics on following decades. Sultan AbdAbdülhamid II personally took an interest in the participation of Bulgar-lhamid II personally took an interest in the participation of Bulgar-ia's Muslims in pia's Muslims in politics, viewing it as beneficial for their community.olitics, viewing it as beneficial for their community.48

Thirdly, the Bulgarian government implemented various reforms

Thirdly, the Bulgarian government implemented various reforms aimed at the country's modernization. These modernization efforts ini-aimed at the country's modernization. These modernization efforts ini-tially began with the declaration of the Tanzimat during the Ottoman tially began with the declaration of the Tanzimat during the Ottoman pe-pe-riod, under the governorship of Midhat Paşa in the Tuna province. How-riod, under the governorship of Midhat Paşa in the Tuna province. How-ever, the Bulgarian government attributed different meanings to the ever, the Bulgarian government attributed different meanings to the modernization, which included incorporating a homogeneous and na-modernization, which included incorporating a homogeneous and na-tional movement, breaking free from its old imperial tional movement, breaking free from its old imperial roots. In Bulgaria’s roots. In Bulgaria’s new modernization movement developed and strengthened infrastruc-new modernization movement developed and strengthened infrastruc-ture, education, healthcare, and judicial systems, while the goal of sup-ture, education, healthcare, and judicial systems, while the goal of sup-porting Bulgarian identity remained a constant focus. After the war, the porting Bulgarian identity remained a constant focus. After the war, the fields, vineyards, and garfields, vineyards, and gardens of the Turks were temporarily transferred dens of the Turks were temporarily transferred

47 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation, 178 .

48 IbidIbid, 179179.

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

to the Russian interim government and then to the Bulgarian administra-

to the Russian interim government and then to the Bulgarian administra-tion. By 1880, Bulgaria had over 30 urban development plans in place, tion. By 1880, Bulgaria had over 30 urban development plans in place, but the aim of eliminating the Ottoman legacy resulted in mosques, vabut the aim of eliminating the Ottoman legacy resulted in mosques, vakıf kıf buildings, and Muslim cemeteries to be demolished or repurposed. Espe-buildings, and Muslim cemeteries to be demolished or repurposed. Espe-cially due to conversions of vakıf properties meant destruction of finan-cially due to conversions of vakıf properties meant destruction of finan-cial resources of Muslims’ schools, mosques, and madrasas.cial resources of Muslims’ schools, mosques, and madrasas.49 Ironically, Ironically, Muslims were still required to pay taxeMuslims were still required to pay taxes for these destroyed or disman-s for these destroyed or disman-tled vakıf properties. tled vakıf properties. 50

On the other hand, the 1877

On the other hand, the 1877-78 War and the Berlin Treaty accelerated 78 War and the Berlin Treaty accelerated the transition to a “primitive capitalist regime based on private property the transition to a “primitive capitalist regime based on private property and assumed free enterprise” in southeast Europe, as desand assumed free enterprise” in southeast Europe, as described by Kar-cribed by Kar-pat. Relative modern banking, communication, and taxation systems, pat. Relative modern banking, communication, and taxation systems, along with various economic innovations, followed one another. The pro-along with various economic innovations, followed one another. The pro-cess of economic modernization that began during the Ottoman period cess of economic modernization that began during the Ottoman period gained significant momentum in the pergained significant momentum in the period following the Berlin Treaty.iod following the Berlin Treaty.51 Jovanovic examines and provides inJovanovic examines and provides in-depth observations on the two capi-depth observations on the two capi-tals of the Balkans, namely Sofia and Belgrade, in this context. Witnessing tals of the Balkans, namely Sofia and Belgrade, in this context. Witnessing urban innovations during the Ottoman Empire, the Principality of Bul-urban innovations during the Ottoman Empire, the Principality of Bul-garia pergaria period, and beyond, Sofia was thereby establishing an ‘ideological’ iod, and beyond, Sofia was thereby establishing an ‘ideological’ foundation extending from the capital to the entire country. In the first foundation extending from the capital to the entire country. In the first half of the nineteenth century, Sofia was a relatively insignificant admin-half of the nineteenth century, Sofia was a relatively insignificant admin-istrative center within the Ottoman Empire,istrative center within the Ottoman Empire, ranking fifth in terms of pop-ranking fifth in terms of pop-ulation as a mediumulation as a medium-sized town. It lagged behind major port cities like sized town. It lagged behind major port cities like Rusçuk and Varna, connected to the Eastern Railway owned by the Rusçuk and Varna, connected to the Eastern Railway owned by the French. Additionally, Sofia was smaller than cities such as Filibe French. Additionally, Sofia was smaller than cities such as Filibe and and Şumnu, which were early industrial centers for textile, knitting, and rose Şumnu, which were early industrial centers for textile, knitting, and rose oil production. Furthermore, it had the lowest urban population in the oil production. Furthermore, it had the lowest urban population in the Tuna province, which marginalized Sofia, and rendered it a small regional Tuna province, which marginalized Sofia, and rendered it a small regional

49 Şimşir, Şimşir, Bulgaristan TürkleriBulgaristan Türkleri, 44 .

50 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between EBetween Empire and Nationmpire and Nation, 85 -86 .

51 Karpat, Karpat, Balkanlarda Osmanlı MirasıBalkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve Milliyetçilikve Milliyetçilik, 191191.

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center until the 1870s. However,

center until the 1870s. However, with the establishment of an independ-with the establishment of an independ-ent Bulgarian state in 1878, it expanded to become a central point for a ent Bulgarian state in 1878, it expanded to become a central point for a broader region.broader region.52

§ 2.7 ProblemsProblems

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Tuna and Edirne prov-

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Tuna and Edirne prov-inces were among the most advanced regions econominces were among the most advanced regions economically. Ottoman ically. OttomanMuslims living here were economically superior to the Bulgarians, as Muslims living here were economically superior to the Bulgarians, asthey owned 70% of the cultivable land.they owned 70% of the cultivable land.53 Following 1878, as numerous Following 1878, as numerousMuslim landowners opted to sell their estates and migrate to the Otto-Muslim landowners opted to sell their estates and migrate to the Otto-man Empire by following 1878, certman Empire by following 1878, certain lands were left deserted. Besides, ain lands were left deserted. Besides,Muslims, who were able to return within a threeMuslims, who were able to return within a three-year period after the year period after thetreaty, contributed to a shift in the dynamics of the land market by selling treaty, contributed to a shift in the dynamics of the land market by sellingtheir properties. The availability of land at low prices prompted peastheir properties. The availability of land at low prices prompted peasants antsto take out loans, resulting in the proliferation of this practice. Over time, to take out loans, resulting in the proliferation of this practice. Over time,there was an increasing demand for land. In Bulgaria, where agriculture there was an increasing demand for land. In Bulgaria, where agricultureprevailed, Bulgarian villagers resorted to pressuring their Muslim neigh-prevailed, Bulgarian villagers resorted to pressuring their Muslim neigh-bors into selling or abandonbors into selling or abandoning their lands through acts of aggression.ing their lands through acts of aggression.54Although some were able to continue cultivating rice and tobacco, the Although some were able to continue cultivating rice and tobacco, theMuslim landowner class in Bulgarian territories was nearly eradicated Muslim landowner class in Bulgarian territories was nearly eradicatedafter 1878. Between 1879 and 1949, 80% of the Bulgarian Turks re-after 1878. Between 1879 and 1949, 80% of the Bulgarian Turks re-mained mained as small -scale farmers.scale farmers.55

While it was generally believed that Christian properties were slightly

While it was generally believed that Christian properties were slightly larger than those owned by Muslims, the reality was that most large es-larger than those owned by Muslims, the reality was that most large es-tates were in the hands of Muslims. Many Muslims who fled and en-tates were in the hands of Muslims. Many Muslims who fled and en-trusted their properties trusted their properties to Bulgarians returned to find that their proper-to Bulgarians returned to find that their proper-ties had been sold at a fraction of their value. Crowds from mountain ties had been sold at a fraction of their value. Crowds from mountain villages descended to settle in the vacant farms. The temporary Russian villages descended to settle in the vacant farms. The temporary Russian administration in northern Bulgaria encouraged the eviction procesadministration in northern Bulgaria encouraged the eviction process. s.

52 Jovanović, “Bourgeois BalkansJovanović, “Bourgeois Balkans,” 24 .

53 Şimşir, Şimşir, Bulgaristan TürkleriBulgaristan Türkleri, 28 .

54 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and Nation,Between Empire and Nation, 95 .

55 Şimşir, Şimşir, Bulgaristan Türkleri,Bulgaristan Türkleri, 29 .

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

Later, the restriction on migrant property ownership was lifted, and it

Later, the restriction on migrant property ownership was lifted, and it was stated that those who had their properties confiscated and forcibly was stated that those who had their properties confiscated and forcibly taken from them should be compensated. However, compensation was taken from them should be compensated. However, compensation was rarely provided. The lands held by migratingrarely provided. The lands held by migrating Muslims changed hands Muslims changed hands continuously. The lands were generally sold at low prices because the continuously. The lands were generally sold at low prices because the market was saturated. By 1888, land changed hands at about onemarket was saturated. By 1888, land changed hands at about one-third third of the price it held under Ottoman rule.of the price it held under Ottoman rule.56 The liquidation process reduced The liquidation process reduced the burdens on the pthe burdens on the peasantry and provided them with greater access to easantry and provided them with greater access to land. A portion of the income that had previously returned to commercial land. A portion of the income that had previously returned to commercial landowners was redistributed to laborers. As a result, the resources landowners was redistributed to laborers. As a result, the resources made available to peasants increased.made available to peasants increased.57

On the other hand, the ev

On the other hand, the evacuation of the Muslim population resulted acuation of the Muslim population resulted in significant losses in both the quantity and quality of agricultural pro-in significant losses in both the quantity and quality of agricultural pro-duction. Observations from Eastern Rumelia indicate that Turks were duction. Observations from Eastern Rumelia indicate that Turks were practical farmers who worked more diligently and meticulously than practical farmers who worked more diligently and meticulously than otheother ethnic groups. As an example given by Palairet, the Filibe province r ethnic groups. As an example given by Palairet, the Filibe province used to export rice worth at least 13 to 14 million piastres annually and used to export rice worth at least 13 to 14 million piastres annually and produce 500,000 to 600,000 kilograms of rice. But rice cultivation was produce 500,000 to 600,000 kilograms of rice. But rice cultivation was suspended after the war. It was reintrodususpended after the war. It was reintroduced under restrictive conditions ced under restrictive conditions in 1884 but later abandoned in over half of the agricultural lands due to in 1884 but later abandoned in over half of the agricultural lands due to high wages and exorbitant rents demanded by the administration.high wages and exorbitant rents demanded by the administration.58

The Bulgarian economy, freed from Ottoman Institutions, structurally

The Bulgarian economy, freed from Ottoman Institutions, structurally converged with converged with the Serbian economy. This was most notably evident in the Serbian economy. This was most notably evident in the presentation of agriculture, which aimed to decrease land productiv-the presentation of agriculture, which aimed to decrease land productiv-ity, reduce the importance of the urban sector, and eliminate rural indus-ity, reduce the importance of the urban sector, and eliminate rural indus-try. Both countries witnessed the emergence of predominanttry. Both countries witnessed the emergence of predominantly rural ly rural economies focused on selfeconomies focused on self-sufficiency. The decline of largesufficiency. The decline of large-scale agricul-scale agricul-

56 Michael Michael Palairet, Palairet, The Balkan Economies c.1800The Balkan Economies c.1800-1914: Evolution without development1914: Evolution without development (UK: Cambridge University Press, (UK: Cambridge University Press, 19971997), ), 175 .

57 IbidIbid, 177177-278 .

58 IbidIbid,185 .

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ture hindered market growth. The Bulgarian proto

ture hindered market growth. The Bulgarian proto-industry left rem-industry left rem-nants that would eventually be replaced by factory production, but this nants that would eventually be replaced by factory production, but this sector was still insignificant.sector was still insignificant.59

Fol

Following the Berlin Treaty, Muslim migration to the Empire became lowing the Berlin Treaty, Muslim migration to the Empire became a distinct feature of Ottoman life. Muslim Tatars had already been mi-a distinct feature of Ottoman life. Muslim Tatars had already been mi-grated in large groups to the empire due to the pressure exerted by the grated in large groups to the empire due to the pressure exerted by the Russian Empire in the Caucasus, with an estimated 1Russian Empire in the Caucasus, with an estimated 1.2 million refugees .2 million refugees arriving. After the losses in Central Europe and the pressures on Muslim arriving. After the losses in Central Europe and the pressures on Muslim peasants, approximately one million refugees sought asylum in the em-peasants, approximately one million refugees sought asylum in the em-pire, and only half a million returned. All of these events reinforced antipire, and only half a million returned. All of these events reinforced anti-Christian sentimentChristian sentiments among Muslims all over the world, which, among s among Muslims all over the world, which, among the other factors, strengthened the national clashes in the following dec-the other factors, strengthened the national clashes in the following dec-ades.ades.60 Although the Berlin Treaty guaranteed equal rights for all inhab-Although the Berlin Treaty guaranteed equal rights for all inhab-itants on both sides, its provisions were not strictly followeditants on both sides, its provisions were not strictly followed and the ref-and the ref-ugee crisis remained a great problem. Particularly in Eastern Rumelia, ugee crisis remained a great problem. Particularly in Eastern Rumelia, issues of land ownership were intertwined with the sovereignty prob-issues of land ownership were intertwined with the sovereignty prob-lems of the Ottoman Empire and the newly established border region. lems of the Ottoman Empire and the newly established border region. During this period, the multifaceted iDuring this period, the multifaceted interaction of political, social, and nteraction of political, social, and economic factors provide insights into the complex nature of land rela-economic factors provide insights into the complex nature of land rela-tions in the Ottoman Balkans.tions in the Ottoman Balkans.61

The Porte attempted to make some arrangements for Bulgarians and

The Porte attempted to make some arrangements for Bulgarians and refugees to return to their own lands, but some of threfugees to return to their own lands, but some of those who managed to ose who managed to return were forced to sell their properties at ultralow prices and returned return were forced to sell their properties at ultralow prices and returned to Ottoman cities. According to the data provided by Karpat, the total to Ottoman cities. According to the data provided by Karpat, the total value of the lands sold or disposed of by Muslims returning or migrating value of the lands sold or disposed of by Muslims returning or migrating to Turkey reachedto Turkey reached 108 million kuruş between 1879 and 1883.108 million kuruş between 1879 and 1883.62 A signif-A signif-icant number of Muslim smallicant number of Muslim small-scale farmers, artisans, and traders in Bul-scale farmers, artisans, and traders in Bul-garia were either expelled from their properties or forced to sell them garia were either expelled from their properties or forced to sell them and migrate to Turkey. It can be said that alongside social fand migrate to Turkey. It can be said that alongside social factors, there actors, there

59 IbidIbid, 202 .

60 Erik Jan Zürcher, Erik Jan Zürcher, Modernleşen Türkiye’nin TarihiModernleşen Türkiye’nin Tarihi (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2016)(İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2016), 128 .

61 Mirkova, Mirkova, Muslim Land, Christian LaborMuslim Land, Christian Labor, 71 .

62 Karpat, Karpat, Balkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve MilliyetçilikBalkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve Milliyetçilik, 193 .

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

was a national

was a national--ethnic motivation at play. Indeed, the ideology of the ethnic motivation at play. Indeed, the ideology of the newly established nationnewly established nation--state in Bulgaria aimed to construct a “national state in Bulgaria aimed to construct a “national bourgeoisie,” Bulgaria desired its national bourgeoisie to be Bulgarian ei-bourgeoisie,” Bulgaria desired its national bourgeoisie to be Bulgarian ei-ther ethnically or as lother ethnically or as loyal citizens accepting the hegemony of the Bulgar-yal citizens accepting the hegemony of the Bulgar-ian state. As Karpat states, “social transformation and the journey to-ian state. As Karpat states, “social transformation and the journey to-wards a national state accompanied and completed each other in terms wards a national state accompanied and completed each other in terms of spiritual meaning and ideological perspective.”of spiritual meaning and ideological perspective.”63

Another problem

Another problem was about demolished Muslim buildings, especially was about demolished Muslim buildings, especially the public ones. It is known that between 1877 and 1878, 938 Muslim the public ones. It is known that between 1877 and 1878, 938 Muslim houses, mosques, and madrasas were demolished in the Tatarpazarcığı houses, mosques, and madrasas were demolished in the Tatarpazarcığı district of Filibe. In the central district of Filibe, out of the exisdistrict of Filibe. In the central district of Filibe, out of the existing 29 ting 29 schools and madrasas, only 2 remained standing in 1879, while the rest schools and madrasas, only 2 remained standing in 1879, while the rest were completely destroyed.were completely destroyed.64 The RussoThe Russo--Ottoman War was a disaster for Ottoman War was a disaster for educational buildings of Turks, as well. Approximately 1,500 Muslim educational buildings of Turks, as well. Approximately 1,500 Muslim schools were destroyed, and many Muslim schools were destroyed, and many Muslim teachers migrated. Until 1886, teachers migrated. Until 1886, finding and training teachers was a major problem. According to the finding and training teachers was a major problem. According to the school censuses of the 1894school censuses of the 1894--1898 academic year, it is observed that most 1898 academic year, it is observed that most Muslim teachers in Bulgaria were elderly. Out of 1,500 teachers, 703 had Muslim teachers in Bulgaria were elderly. Out of 1,500 teachers, 703 had completed pcompleted primary school, and 550 had graduated from madrasas. There rimary school, and 550 had graduated from madrasas. There were 132 teachers who had completed secondary education (rüşdiye).were 132 teachers who had completed secondary education (rüşdiye).65

As the vakıf properties were plundered, the income source of Muslim

As the vakıf properties were plundered, the income source of Muslim schools also shrank, and the salaries of Muslim teachers were schools also shrank, and the salaries of Muslim teachers were quite low.quite low.66 In the face of these problems, the Bulgarian Commissioner referred to In the face of these problems, the Bulgarian Commissioner referred to Article 5 of the Berlin Treaty and sought assistance from the major pow-Article 5 of the Berlin Treaty and sought assistance from the major pow-ers, but little response was received.ers, but little response was received.67 The Grand Mufti of Bulgaria was The Grand Mufti of Bulgaria was responsible for supervising Musresponsible for supervising Muslim schools and maintaining connections lim schools and maintaining connections with the homeland.with the homeland.68 During this period, TurkishDuring this period, Turkish--language press had a language press had a

63 IbidIbid, , 193193..

64 Şimşir, Şimşir, Bulgaristan TürkleriBulgaristan Türkleri, , 4444..

65 IbidIbid, , 4949..

66 IbidIbid, , 3232..

67 IbidIbid, , 4444..

68 IbidIbid, , 5454..

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significant influence on Turkish education in Bulgaria. Some Young Turks

significant influence on Turkish education in Bulgaria. Some Young Turks who had fled from the Ottoman Empire established newspapers in Bul-who had fled from the Ottoman Empire established newspapers in Bul-garia, agaria, and out of the 44 newspapers published in Bulgaria between 1878 nd out of the 44 newspapers published in Bulgaria between 1878 and 1908, 25 served as the mouthpiece of the Young Turk cause, and and 1908, 25 served as the mouthpiece of the Young Turk cause, and many of these publications addressed the problems that Muslim popula-many of these publications addressed the problems that Muslim popula-tion of Bulgaria faced.tion of Bulgaria faced.69 In that period, newspapers becameIn that period, newspapers became tools of dis-tools of dis-cussing the Muslim culture, education, progression, and of learning about cussing the Muslim culture, education, progression, and of learning about the problems that other Muslim communities faced all over the world. the problems that other Muslim communities faced all over the world. Newspapers became a platform that provided a collective representation Newspapers became a platform that provided a collective representation of the common challenging expof the common challenging experiences faced by Muslims worldwide.eriences faced by Muslims worldwide.

The muftis were not just a religious institution, since they served a

The muftis were not just a religious institution, since they served a political purpose as well. They represented the Islamic community and political purpose as well. They represented the Islamic community and functioned as other government offices in Bulgaria. But the pathologies functioned as other government offices in Bulgaria. But the pathologies of goveof government offices, such as violence in competition, malicious negli-rnment offices, such as violence in competition, malicious negli-gence, illegal dismissals, and appointments, were also present in the gence, illegal dismissals, and appointments, were also present in the mufti offices. This was not only a fault in mentality but also a result of the mufti offices. This was not only a fault in mentality but also a result of the immaturity of democratic institutions in Buimmaturity of democratic institutions in Bulgaria. Both Muslims and lgaria. Both Muslims and Christians had become accustomed to the autocratic rule of corrupt sul-Christians had become accustomed to the autocratic rule of corrupt sul-tans or paşas.tans or paşas.70

§ 2.8 Struggle for Ottoman DominationStruggle for Ottoman Domination

2.8.1 Ottoman Attempts for Internal DominationOttoman Attempts for Internal Domination

After the Berlin Treaty of 1877

After the Berlin Treaty of 1877-78, the Ottoman Empire lost approxi-78, the Ottoman Empire lost approxi-mat ely oneely one-third of its territory and around 20% of its total population.third of its territory and around 20% of its total population.71Sultan AbdSultan Abdülhamid II governed the empire through a 30lhamid II governed the empire through a 30-year autocratic year autocraticregime after indefinitely suspending the Meclisregime after indefinitely suspending the Meclis-i Umumi (General As-i Umumi (General As-sembly) due to a state of emergency. During Abdsembly) due to a state of emergency. During Abdülhamid's centralist ab-lhamid's centralist ab-solutist regime, significant advancements were made in communication solutist regime, significant advancements were made in communication

69 IbidIbid, 55 .

70 Popek, “The FuPopek, “The Functioning of the Mufti Institutionnctioning of the Mufti Institution,” 230230.

71 Zürcher, Zürcher, Modernleşen Türkiye’nin Tarihi,Modernleşen Türkiye’nin Tarihi, 127127.

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and education throughout the empire.

and education throughout the empire.72 This period contained elements This period contained elements of continuity with the Tanzimat era but also exhibited certain contradic-of continuity with the Tanzimat era but also exhibited certain contradic-tions. Zürcher emphasiztions. Zürcher emphasizes that both perspectives have some validity es that both perspectives have some validity from different angles. For example, developments indicating the continu-from different angles. For example, developments indicating the continu-ity of reforms include the improvement of telegraph lines connecting Is-ity of reforms include the improvement of telegraph lines connecting Is-tanbul to the European system, the enhancement of communication be-tanbul to the European system, the enhancement of communication be-twetween the central government and the provinces, the expansion of the en the central government and the provinces, the expansion of the railway network through investments in the empire, the integration of railway network through investments in the empire, the integration of certain sectors of the Ottoman economy with the capitalist system certain sectors of the Ottoman economy with the capitalist system through steamships and railways, the increase in the cthrough steamships and railways, the increase in the capacity to educate apacity to educate trained personnel at various bureaucratic levels starting from the 1880s, trained personnel at various bureaucratic levels starting from the 1880s, and a noticeable increase in the number of schools and teachers until and a noticeable increase in the number of schools and teachers until 1895. Additionally, the emergence of more professional newspapers 1895. Additionally, the emergence of more professional newspapers compared to the 1860s and tcompared to the 1860s and the wider reach of newspapers, such as the he wider reach of newspapers, such as the annual appearance of 9 to 10 new magazines in Istanbul between 1876 annual appearance of 9 to 10 new magazines in Istanbul between 1876 and 1888, demonstrate the vibrancy of cultural activities.and 1888, demonstrate the vibrancy of cultural activities.73

On the other hand, Sultan established a system in which a network of

On the other hand, Sultan established a system in which a network of communication expcommunication expanded between the center and the provinces, encour-anded between the center and the provinces, encour-aging individuals at all levels to report on each other's activities. This in-aging individuals at all levels to report on each other's activities. This in-tensive communication system within the empire further exacerbated tensive communication system within the empire further exacerbated bribery and favoritism at lower levels and prioritized loyaltybribery and favoritism at lower levels and prioritized loyalty in the em-in the em-ployment of personnel in government offices. As a result, some govern-ployment of personnel in government offices. As a result, some govern-ment offices became ineffective in carrying out their duties.ment offices became ineffective in carrying out their duties.74

The emergence of the private Ottoman press earlier on had forced the

The emergence of the private Ottoman press earlier on had forced the Ottoman government to control the press throuOttoman government to control the press through laws. This began with gh laws. This began with the introduction of the Kararnamethe introduction of the Kararname-i Ali in 1867. Despite being silenced i Ali in 1867. Despite being silenced through various methods, journalists made efforts to express their ideas through various methods, journalists made efforts to express their ideas beyond the borders of the empire.beyond the borders of the empire.75 Actually, the Ottoman ConstitutionActually, the Ottoman Constitution (KanunKanun-i Esasii Esasi) stated that the press was free within the framework of stated that the press was free within the framework of

72 Taglia, Taglia, Intellectuals and Reform in the Ottoman EmpireIntellectuals and Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 4.

73 Zürcher, Zürcher, Modernleşen Türkiye’nin Tarihi,Modernleşen Türkiye’nin Tarihi, 122122-124 .

74 IbidIbid, 126126-127 .

75 Erol Baykal, “The Ottoman PreErol Baykal, “The Ottoman Press (1908ss (1908-1923),”1923),” PhD Dissertation, (Cambridge: Univer-PhD Dissertation, (Cambridge: Univer-sity of Cambridge, sity of Cambridge, 20132013), ), 27 . .

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the law, and indeed, in the first few years, the freedom of the press was

the law, and indeed, in the first few years, the freedom of the press was untouched. However, in the following years, pressure on newspapers untouched. However, in the following years, pressure on newspapers gradually increased. In 1881, the ‘Encümengradually increased. In 1881, the ‘Encümen-i Teftii Teftiş ve Muayene ş ve Muayene Müdürlüğü’ was established, followed by the establishment of the TetkikMüdürlüğü’ was established, followed by the establishment of the Tetkik-i Müellefat Commission under the Ministry of Education. In 1888, a prei Müellefat Commission under the Ministry of Education. In 1888, a pre-censorship system was implemented for all printing activities, which censorship system was implemented for all printing activities, which meant that all printed documentmeant that all printed documents had to obtain permission before being s had to obtain permission before being published. As a result of these developments, there was a significant de-published. As a result of these developments, there was a significant de-crease in the number of newspapers being published.crease in the number of newspapers being published.76

The press became a tool to strengthen the legitimacy of Sultan

The press became a tool to strengthen the legitimacy of Sultan AbdAbdülhamid II. An examinatiolhamid II. An examination of a total of 147 publications published n of a total of 147 publications published between 1861 and 1908 revealed that, starting from 1885 until the sec-between 1861 and 1908 revealed that, starting from 1885 until the sec-ond constitutional revolution in 1908, most of the new publications ex-ond constitutional revolution in 1908, most of the new publications ex-pressed gratitude to Sultan Abdpressed gratitude to Sultan Abdülhamid II in their first issues. In 44 outlhamid II in their first issues. In 44 out of 76 prefaces from 1885 to 1907, Sultan was explicitly mentioned and of 76 prefaces from 1885 to 1907, Sultan was explicitly mentioned and thanked.thanked.77 The censorship implemented in 1888 extinguished the vitality The censorship implemented in 1888 extinguished the vitality of the press. The discussion of ideas criticizing the regime was banned. of the press. The discussion of ideas criticizing the regime was banned. During this period, any element in the woDuring this period, any element in the world press, theater stages, or all rld press, theater stages, or all other public forums that could depict an unfavorable image of Sultan other public forums that could depict an unfavorable image of Sultan AbdAbdülhamid's reputation or the policies he pursued was attempted to be lhamid's reputation or the policies he pursued was attempted to be neutralized.neutralized.78

2.8.2 Ottoman Attempts for External DominationOttoman Attempts for External Domination

From the Berlin Treaty in

From the Berlin Treaty in 1878 until Bulgaria declared its full independ-1878 until Bulgaria declared its full independ-ence in 1908, the Ottoman Empire used various strategies to increase its ence in 1908, the Ottoman Empire used various strategies to increase its theoretical and practical dominance over Bulgarian territories in the late theoretical and practical dominance over Bulgarian territories in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. After the Russonineteenth and early twentieth centuries. After the Russo-OttoOttoman War, man War, the Ottoman Empire turned into a weak but resisting force in the Tuna the Ottoman Empire turned into a weak but resisting force in the Tuna and Edirne provinces. However, Sultan Abdand Edirne provinces. However, Sultan Abdülhamid II made efforts to lhamid II made efforts to

76 Sincer, “Edhem Ruhi ve Balkan Gazetesi,”Sincer, “Edhem Ruhi ve Balkan Gazetesi,” 54 .

77 Baykal, “The Ottoman Press,” Baykal, “The Ottoman Press,” 25 .

78 Selim Deringil, elim Deringil, İktidarın Sembolleri ve İdeoloji: II. Abdülhamid Dönemi (1876İktidarın Sembolleri ve İdeoloji: II. Abdülhamid Dönemi (1876-1909 ) (İs-(İs-tanbul: Doğan Kitap, tanbul: Doğan Kitap, 2014 ), ), 28 .

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maintain his influence in the region and used various strategies. One fa-

maintain his influence in the region and used various strategies. One fa-mous policy of Abdmous policy of Abdüülhamid IIlhamid II was was inteintelligence gathering and the use of lligence gathering and the use of spies, spies, which which also became widespread in Bulgaria during this period. The also became widespread in Bulgaria during this period. The Bulgarian Commission, which claimed to represent Ottoman authority in Bulgarian Commission, which claimed to represent Ottoman authority in the Eastern Rumeliathe Eastern Rumeliann Province, became the intermediary of Ottoman Province, became the intermediary of Ottoman dominance in tdominance in the region.he region.

The institution of commissionership, which emerged in the late nine-

The institution of commissionership, which emerged in the late nine-teenth century and was observed in both Egypt and Bulgaria, was estab-teenth century and was observed in both Egypt and Bulgaria, was estab-lished by the Ottoman administration to protect the rights of the Ottoman lished by the Ottoman administration to protect the rights of the Ottoman population in the ‘autonomous’ terrpopulation in the ‘autonomous’ territories.itories.79 As Mahir Aydın explains, As Mahir Aydın explains, until the internal regulation of the Principality of Bulgaria was prepared, until the internal regulation of the Principality of Bulgaria was prepared, it would be administered by a Russian commissioner, and during this pro-it would be administered by a Russian commissioner, and during this pro-cess, a group consisting of the Ottoman commissioner and consuls from cess, a group consisting of the Ottoman commissioner and consuls from EnglEngland, France, Russia, Germany, Austria, Italy, Greece, Romania, and and, France, Russia, Germany, Austria, Italy, Greece, Romania, and Serbia would assist the Russian commissioner for a period not exceeding Serbia would assist the Russian commissioner for a period not exceeding nine months. At the end of the process, the presence of the Ottoman com-nine months. At the end of the process, the presence of the Ottoman com-missioner was portrayed as if he would only demissioner was portrayed as if he would only deal with Turkish founda-al with Turkish founda-tions, and the existence and status of the commissionership continued in tions, and the existence and status of the commissionership continued in the region without being clearly defined.the region without being clearly defined.80

The commissionership primarily dealt with the supervision of

The commissionership primarily dealt with the supervision of mosques and foundation properties in Bulgaria. In additiomosques and foundation properties in Bulgaria. In addition, the commis-n, the commis-sioners were involved in political affairs and endeavored to pursue poli-sioners were involved in political affairs and endeavored to pursue poli-cies that served Ottoman interests. Bulgarian commissioners dealt with cies that served Ottoman interests. Bulgarian commissioners dealt with issues such as the Macedonian issue, the acceptance of Muslim people issues such as the Macedonian issue, the acceptance of Muslim people who had to leave their homes bawho had to leave their homes back to their former homeland, the resolu-ck to their former homeland, the resolu-tion of political issues arising from the annexation of Eastern Rumelia tion of political issues arising from the annexation of Eastern Rumelia Province, the extradition of criminals, incidents at the borders, the regis-Province, the extradition of criminals, incidents at the borders, the regis-tration of real estate and inheritance matters of Muslim individuals wtration of real estate and inheritance matters of Muslim individuals who ho

79 “For an insightful discussion, see Aimee M. Genell, “Autonomous Provinces and the Prob-“For an insightful discussion, see Aimee M. Genell, “Autonomous Provinces and the Prob-lem of ‘Semilem of ‘Semi--Sovereignty’ in European International Law,” Sovereignty’ in European International Law,” Journal of Balkan and Near Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern StudiesEastern Studies ((20162016), ), 18:618:6, , 534534, , 80 Aydın,Aydın, ““Bulgaristan Komiserliği,” Bulgaristan Komiserliği,” 7373..

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were scattered and forced to migrate towards Anatolia or settled else-

were scattered and forced to migrate towards Anatolia or settled else-where, as well as those who lost their lives during the process. Bulgarian where, as well as those who lost their lives during the process. Bulgarian Commissaries had to be Muslim, have the capacity to resolve real estate Commissaries had to be Muslim, have the capacity to resolve real estate issues related to stateissues related to state-owned, foundaowned, foundation, and private lands in Bulgaria, tion, and private lands in Bulgaria, and and be knowledgeable about the general politics of the period.knowledgeable about the general politics of the period.81

2.8.3 The Ottoman Empire’s Imperial Endevors and Bulgaria’s Na-The Ottoman Empire’s Imperial Endevors and Bulgaria’s Na-tional Endevorstional Endevors

The Young Turks, who were influenced by liberal and constitutional ideas

The Young Turks, who were influenced by liberal and constitutional ideas and the pand the previous generation of Young Ottomans, established the first or-revious generation of Young Ottomans, established the first or-ganized opposition group in 1889, and they were primarily students of ganized opposition group in 1889, and they were primarily students of schools like Mülkiye and Harbiye.schools like Mülkiye and Harbiye.82 The Sultan actively struggled against The Sultan actively struggled against the members of the society while some were fleeing the members of the society while some were fleeing abroad to avoid ar-abroad to avoid ar-rest and others were either detained or sent into internal exile. The rest and others were either detained or sent into internal exile. The Young Turks, who aimed to reinstate the the Ottoman Constitution Young Turks, who aimed to reinstate the the Ottoman Constitution (Kanun(Kanun-i Esasi) remained active until 1922, advocating for the full en-i Esasi) remained active until 1922, advocating for the full en-dorsement of the rule of law and dorsement of the rule of law and the reintroduction of the constitutional the reintroduction of the constitutional system.system.83 The Young Turks who lived as fugitives in other countries and The Young Turks who lived as fugitives in other countries and especially in Principality of Bulgaria were closely monitored by the cen-especially in Principality of Bulgaria were closely monitored by the cen-tral administration since they were opposed to the Sultan. The Sultan ex-tral administration since they were opposed to the Sultan. The Sultan ex-panded his spy network to prevent those who had dethroned Sultans suc-panded his spy network to prevent those who had dethroned Sultans suc-cessfully before from launching a movement against himself. Hence, he cessfully before from launching a movement against himself. Hence, he utilized his authority and intelligence, gathered strategies, stayed in-utilized his authority and intelligence, gathered strategies, stayed in-formed about everything, and closely monitoredformed about everything, and closely monitored the activities of the the activities of the Young Turks in Bulgaria. In this regard, he benefited significantly from Young Turks in Bulgaria. In this regard, he benefited significantly from the Bulgarian Commission and particularly from Necib Melhame Paşa. the Bulgarian Commission and particularly from Necib Melhame Paşa.

Necib Melhame, who was appointed as the Bulgarian Commissioner

Necib Melhame, who was appointed as the Bulgarian Commissioner in 1898, despite not fulfilliin 1898, despite not fulfilling the primary requirement of being a Muslim, ng the primary requirement of being a Muslim, gained the trust of the Sultan and was loyal to the Ottoman regime.gained the trust of the Sultan and was loyal to the Ottoman regime.84 One One

81 Ibid.Ibid.

82 Zürcher, Zürcher, Modernleşen Türkiye’nin TarihiModernleşen Türkiye’nin Tarihi, 136 .

83 Taglia,Taglia, Intellectuals and Reform in the Ottoman Empire,Intellectuals and Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 29

84 Emine Taşkın, “Necib Melhame Paşa’nın siyasî hayatı (1856Emine Taşkın, “Necib Melhame Paşa’nın siyasî hayatı (1856-1927),” Master Thesis, Mar-1927),” Master Thesis, Mar-mara University,mara University, 20192019, 2.

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of the most trusted generals during the reign of Abd

of the most trusted generals during the reign of Abdülhamid II, Melhame lhamid II, Melhame had already gained the Sultan's trust through his duty in Egypt. had already gained the Sultan's trust through his duty in Egypt. He played He played a pioneering role in the establishment of the spy network in 1880. Necib a pioneering role in the establishment of the spy network in 1880. Necib Melhame also gained the Sultan’s appreciation during his mission in Paris Melhame also gained the Sultan’s appreciation during his mission in Paris by convincing many students in Europe to return to Istanbul as loyal cit-by convincing many students in Europe to return to Istanbul as loyal cit-izens of the government.izens of the government.85

When Necib Melhame started his duty in 1898, it was difficult to hen Necib Melhame started his duty in 1898, it was difficult to speak of the influence of the Ottoman governmental influence in Bul-speak of the influence of the Ottoman governmental influence in Bul-garia, but yet the Empire sought for it. While in a diplomatic struggle garia, but yet the Empire sought for it. While in a diplomatic struggle with European states and Russia, various revolutionawith European states and Russia, various revolutionary committees were ry committees were also actively operating on the territory. Bulgarians, like other Balkan peo-also actively operating on the territory. Bulgarians, like other Balkan peo-ples, were still considering under which country’s protection they should ples, were still considering under which country’s protection they should pursue their independence goals.pursue their independence goals.86 On the other hand, according to the On the other hand, according to the official Ottoman sofficial Ottoman statistical books, Bulgaria was listed as an autonomous tatistical books, Bulgaria was listed as an autonomous province, but its unique status was highlighted by placing it separately. province, but its unique status was highlighted by placing it separately. Even after Eastern Rumelia became part of the Principality of Bulgaria in Even after Eastern Rumelia became part of the Principality of Bulgaria in 1885, it was continued to be considered as an autonom1885, it was continued to be considered as an autonomous Ottoman ous Ottoman province. Although Ferdinand was acknowledged as the prince of Bul-province. Although Ferdinand was acknowledged as the prince of Bul-garia, the Ottoman press referred to him as the governor of Eastern Ru-garia, the Ottoman press referred to him as the governor of Eastern Ru-melia, which caused dissatisfaction among Bulgarian officials.melia, which caused dissatisfaction among Bulgarian officials.87 The Bul-The Bul-garians sought to establish their autgarians sought to establish their authority and showcase their hority and showcase their sovereignty over the state. They rejected foreign representatives who sovereignty over the state. They rejected foreign representatives who held letters of introduction to the Ottoman government rather than the held letters of introduction to the Ottoman government rather than the Bulgarian government. They required AustroBulgarian government. They required Austro-Hungarian ships in Bulgar-Hungarian ships in Bulgar-ian waters to fly theian waters to fly the Bulgarian flag and instructed foreign diplomats not Bulgarian flag and instructed foreign diplomats not to wear fezzes. Furthermore, they emphasized Bulgaria's distinctive po-to wear fezzes. Furthermore, they emphasized Bulgaria's distinctive po-sition compared to neighboring Balkan countries, underscoring that Bul-sition compared to neighboring Balkan countries, underscoring that Bul-garia's establishment through an international conference was cgaria's establishment through an international conference was consid-onsid-ered a more legitimate compared to Serbia and Romania, which were ered a more legitimate compared to Serbia and Romania, which were founded through a sultanic decree.founded through a sultanic decree.88

85 Ibid, Ibid, 21 .

86 Ibid, Ibid, 31 .

87 Ibid, Ibid, 36 .

88 Ibid, Ibid, 36 .

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§ 2.9 New Bulgarian and Muslim IdentitiesNew Bulgarian and Muslim Identities

To understand nationalist and independence movements, it is necessary

To understand nationalist and independence movements, it is necessaryto analyze the broad historical context. Ito analyze the broad historical context. It is also important to examine the t is also important to examine theproblems the Ottoman Empire faced in governing the Tuna provinces at problems the Ottoman Empire faced in governing the Tuna provinces atthe beginning of the nineteenth century and its responses to these chal-the beginning of the nineteenth century and its responses to these chal-lenges. The issues and search for solutions explained earlier shed light lenges. The issues and search for solutions explained earlier shed lightabout thabout the Tuna and Edirne provinces during this period. There was un-e Tuna and Edirne provinces during this period. There was un-rest due to weak central authority, military losses, and active armed rest due to weak central authority, military losses, and active armedgroups (çetes) in the region. Furthermore, nationalist uprisings in the fu-groups (çetes) in the region. Furthermore, nationalist uprisings in the fu-ture would have sought roots from the cultural awaketure would have sought roots from the cultural awakening, national ning, nationalroots, national myths, and would have interpreted past events through roots, national myths, and would have interpreted past events throughthe lens of the nationthe lens of the nation-state.state.

The wave of nationalism was a significant and an obvious factor

The wave of nationalism was a significant and an obvious factor alongside all the sociopolitical factors that gave a shape to the nineteenth alongside all the sociopolitical factors that gave a shape to the nineteenth century. The second half of the century witnessed the rise of nationalist century. The second half of the century witnessed the rise of nationalist sentiments among nonsentiments among non-Muslim populations such as Serbs, Bulgarians, Muslim populations such as Serbs, Bulgarians, Greeks, and Romanians. After the establishment of the Principality of Greeks, and Romanians. After the establishment of the Principality of Bulgaria, two concepts of the nation existed Bulgaria, two concepts of the nation existed within the Bulgarian imagi-within the Bulgarian imagi-nation. One concept encompassed a broader civicnation. One concept encompassed a broader civic-based nation, known based nation, known as the Bulgarian ‘narod’ or people, which included all residents of the as the Bulgarian ‘narod’ or people, which included all residents of the country regardless of their ethnicity, religion, or culture. They were con-country regardless of their ethnicity, religion, or culture. They were con-sidered citizenssidered citizens of the same homeland, bound by civic loyalty, and enti-of the same homeland, bound by civic loyalty, and enti-tled to equal rights under the law. This inclusive notion of the nation was tled to equal rights under the law. This inclusive notion of the nation was reflected in legislation and frequently invoked by government officials, reflected in legislation and frequently invoked by government officials, intellectuals, and patriots in their communications intellectuals, and patriots in their communications with various audi-with various audi-ences, foreign officials, and discussions related to legislation. It encom-ences, foreign officials, and discussions related to legislation. It encom-passed diverse nationalities such as Bulgarians, Turks, Jews, Greeks, and passed diverse nationalities such as Bulgarians, Turks, Jews, Greeks, and Roma, all of whom enjoyed equal individual rights, just like the Young Ot-Roma, all of whom enjoyed equal individual rights, just like the Young Ot-tomans embraced altomans embraced all milletmillets with the Ottoman identity during the Tan-s with the Ottoman identity during the Tan-zimat Period.zimat Period.89 However, Bulgaria faced challenges in nationHowever, Bulgaria faced challenges in nation-building building and governing a country with a significant nonand governing a country with a significant non-Bulgarian population. Bulgarian population.

89 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation, 49 .

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During its early years, Bulgaria prioritized asserting independence

During its early years, Bulgaria prioritized asserting independence and and developing a unique national identity separate from the Ottoman Empire. developing a unique national identity separate from the Ottoman Empire. This nationThis nation-building process and Bulgarian aspirations exhibited an antibuilding process and Bulgarian aspirations exhibited an anti-Ottoman character, which carried both internal and external dimen-Ottoman character, which carried both internal and external dimen-sions. 90

To understand the internal dimens

To understand the internal dimension of Bulgarian period, one should ion of Bulgarian period, one should compare and contrast the Tanzimat ‘modernization’ and the subsequent compare and contrast the Tanzimat ‘modernization’ and the subsequent reforms undertaken by the national state of Bulgaria after gaining auton-reforms undertaken by the national state of Bulgaria after gaining auton-omy. Both modernization periods aimed to address the region's needs, omy. Both modernization periods aimed to address the region's needs, displayingdisplaying a continuity when viewed from an ideological perspective but a continuity when viewed from an ideological perspective but the reforms during the Tanzimat era were carried out under the frame-the reforms during the Tanzimat era were carried out under the frame-work of a suprawork of a supra-Ottoman identity, while the postOttoman identity, while the post-1878 reforms were un-1878 reforms were un-der the umbrella of the Bulgarian national state. Althougder the umbrella of the Bulgarian national state. Although there seems to h there seems to be continuity when examined solely on a physical level, a significant rup-be continuity when examined solely on a physical level, a significant rup-ture is evident at the ideological level. The modernization and develop-ture is evident at the ideological level. The modernization and develop-ment movement that began in the 1830s turned into a profound ideolog-ment movement that began in the 1830s turned into a profound ideolog-ical rupture. The Tanzimat ical rupture. The Tanzimat reforms aimed to build, restore, and revitalize reforms aimed to build, restore, and revitalize the imperial legacy of the Ottoman Empire, while the Bulgarian national the imperial legacy of the Ottoman Empire, while the Bulgarian national reforms sought to create a new identity by erasing the Ottoman imperial reforms sought to create a new identity by erasing the Ottoman imperial past. Progress and development were associated with the Ottoman past. Progress and development were associated with the Ottoman iden-iden-tity politics during the Tanzimat era, whereas in posttity politics during the Tanzimat era, whereas in post-1878 Bulgaria, the 1878 Bulgaria, the restructuring process aligned with the ideology of the nationrestructuring process aligned with the ideology of the nation-state, as Jo-state, as Jo-vanovic also mentioned, creating a synthesis of development, progress, vanovic also mentioned, creating a synthesis of development, progress, and national myth in Sofia.and national myth in Sofia.91

On t he external dimensions of the nationhe external dimensions of the nation-building process, there was building process, there was a desire to expand the Bulgarian state to include Macedonia and Thrace, a desire to expand the Bulgarian state to include Macedonia and Thrace, which were under Ottoman control. The Macedonian and Thracian issues which were under Ottoman control. The Macedonian and Thracian issues became prominent since the 1890s, and in addition became prominent since the 1890s, and in addition to the Ottoman Em-to the Ottoman Em-pire, Greece and Serbia also played influential roles in the regional poli-pire, Greece and Serbia also played influential roles in the regional poli-tics. The events in Macedonia would shape Bulgarian nationalism and tics. The events in Macedonia would shape Bulgarian nationalism and

90 IbidIbid, 35 .

91 Jovanović, “Bourgeois BalkansJovanović, “Bourgeois Balkans,” 6.

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have a decisive impact on Bulgaria's future attitude towards Muslims, as

have a decisive impact on Bulgaria's future attitude towards Muslims, as well.well.92

In the new contex

In the new context of Bulgaria, nationalism and the definition of ‘self’ t of Bulgaria, nationalism and the definition of ‘self’ became clearer as they defined the boundaries of what they were not. became clearer as they defined the boundaries of what they were not. The population living within those boundaries found themselves in a The population living within those boundaries found themselves in a state of being ‘outside’ despite physically residing within Bulstate of being ‘outside’ despite physically residing within Bulgarian bor-garian bor-ders. They held a status of being part of a group that was within Bulgaria ders. They held a status of being part of a group that was within Bulgaria but felt outside in terms of identity. For Bulgarian Muslim intellectuals but felt outside in terms of identity. For Bulgarian Muslim intellectuals who found themselves in the midst of existential anxiety, education and who found themselves in the midst of existential anxiety, education and the social context playedthe social context played a crucial role in shaping and preserving their a crucial role in shaping and preserving their national identity. national identity. KıraathanesKıraathanes (coffeehouses) served as gathering places (coffeehouses) served as gathering places for discussions and planning, while theaters were considered institutions for discussions and planning, while theaters were considered institutions that imparted moral values and patriotism, and were associated with re-that imparted moral values and patriotism, and were associated with re-form efforts. Turkish and Muslim intellectuals in Bulgariaform efforts. Turkish and Muslim intellectuals in Bulgaria engaged in engaged in publishing articles, participating in public debates, and critiquing both publishing articles, participating in public debates, and critiquing both Ottoman and Bulgarian politics. They presented Islam as morally supe-Ottoman and Bulgarian politics. They presented Islam as morally supe-rior and praised constitutionalism by referencing hadiths (the sayings of rior and praised constitutionalism by referencing hadiths (the sayings of the Prophet), and saw the cothe Prophet), and saw the constitution as the only way of Empire’s salva-nstitution as the only way of Empire’s salva-tion. Their emphasis on modern sciences and positive knowledge was in-tion. Their emphasis on modern sciences and positive knowledge was in-fluenced by the ideas of the Young Turks.fluenced by the ideas of the Young Turks.93

92 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and Nation,Between Empire and Nation, 34 .

93 See Methodieva, See Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation.

3Ali Fehmi and Intellectuals in Autonomous BulgariaAli Fehmi and Intellectuals in Autonomous Bulgaria

he Imperial School of Medicine (Mek

he Imperial School of Medicine (Mektebteb-I TıbbiyeI Tıbbiye-i Şahane) served i Şahane) served as the birthplace of the first organized opposition against the Sultan, as the birthplace of the first organized opposition against the Sultan, which later evolved into the Young Turk movement. The foundations of which later evolved into the Young Turk movement. The foundations of the Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) were laid on June the Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) were laid on June 2, 1889, by stud2, 1889, by students attending to the military medical college, and it ents attending to the military medical college, and it quickly spread among the students of the school and later in other edu-quickly spread among the students of the school and later in other edu-cational institutions. The founding members were İbrahim Temo (1865cational institutions. The founding members were İbrahim Temo (1865-1939), an Albanian from Macedonia, İshak Sukuti (18681939), an Albanian from Macedonia, İshak Sukuti (1868-1093), a 1093), a Jew Jew born in Diyarbakır, Mehmet Reşid (1873born in Diyarbakır, Mehmet Reşid (1873-1919) from the Caucasus, and 1919) from the Caucasus, and Abdullah Cevdet (1869Abdullah Cevdet (1869-1932) of Kurdish origin. They met on July 2, 1932) of Kurdish origin. They met on July 2, 1889.1889.1

After the first investigation into the society was launched in 1894,

After the first investigation into the society was launched in 1894, AbdAbdülhamid II considered these activitieslhamid II considered these activities as a student incident and par-as a student incident and par-doned them. However, in 1895, the society sought to expand its activities doned them. However, in 1895, the society sought to expand its activities by gaining the support of prominent religious scholars (by gaining the support of prominent religious scholars (ulemaulema). Ahmed ). Ahmed Rıza, a staunch positivist, was making serious plans for the organization Rıza, a staunch positivist, was making serious plans for the organization 1 Taglia, Taglia, Intellectuals and Reform in the Ottoman EmpireIntellectuals and Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 29 .

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and the

and the political course the society would follow.political course the society would follow.2 By 1895, the Commit-By 1895, the Commit-tee of Union and Progress (CUP) had established its central branch in Is-tee of Union and Progress (CUP) had established its central branch in Is-tanbul, as well as two external branches in Paris and Cairo. The following tanbul, as well as two external branches in Paris and Cairo. The following year, a wave of arrests led to the voluntary eyear, a wave of arrests led to the voluntary exile of many Young Turks. xile of many Young Turks. Consequently, a gradual immigration of Young Turks abroad took place, Consequently, a gradual immigration of Young Turks abroad took place, as they concluded that political activities within the empire became in-as they concluded that political activities within the empire became in-creasingly difficult to pursue.creasingly difficult to pursue.3 As a result of the fugitives, the Young Turks As a result of the fugitives, the Young Turks became morbecame more knowledgeable about the civil society in the West, estab-e knowledgeable about the civil society in the West, estab-lished contacts with members of the European intelligentsia, and broad-lished contacts with members of the European intelligentsia, and broad-ened their horizons regarding organizational activities.ened their horizons regarding organizational activities.4 Murad Bey pub-Murad Bey pub-lished lished MizanMizan newspaper first in Egypt and later in Genevanewspaper first in Egypt and later in Geneva. Ahmed Rıza . Ahmed Rıza published published MeşveretMeşveret newspaper in Paris, Geneva, and Brussels. The newspaper in Paris, Geneva, and Brussels. The Otto-Otto-manman newspaper was published in Geneva, London, and Folkstone, while newspaper was published in Geneva, London, and Folkstone, while VatanVatan newspaper was published in Athens. Despite being a nonnewspaper was published in Athens. Despite being a non-profit profit profession, new publications and the cprofession, new publications and the continuation of the Young Turk ontinuation of the Young Turk struggle can be observed during this period. Particularly in Bulgaria, the struggle can be observed during this period. Particularly in Bulgaria, the Young Turks took advantage of the free intellectual environment and en-Young Turks took advantage of the free intellectual environment and en-gaged in publications promoting liberty. Their publications between gaged in publications promoting liberty. Their publications between 1895 and 19081895 and 1908 adopted an antiadopted an anti-despotist stance and maintained com-despotist stance and maintained com-munication with each other.munication with each other. MeşveretMeşveret newspaper became CUP’s publica-newspaper became CUP’s publica-tion organ in 1895, and the official administrative center was set in Paris tion organ in 1895, and the official administrative center was set in Paris at the beginning of 1896. Mizancı Murad, who had fled abroad and estab-at the beginning of 1896. Mizancı Murad, who had fled abroad and estab-lished contacts with England and France, revitalized the Cairo branch lished contacts with England and France, revitalized the Cairo branch of of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) in late December 1895. By the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) in late December 1895. By 1896, in addition to CUP centers in Paris, Geneva, Istanbul, and Cairo, 1896, in addition to CUP centers in Paris, Geneva, Istanbul, and Cairo, other branches were established in Ankara, Beirut, Edirne, Hama, Homs, other branches were established in Ankara, Beirut, Edirne, Hama, Homs, Damascus, Tripoli, Izmir, Trabzon, and TriDamascus, Tripoli, Izmir, Trabzon, and Tripolitania. The organization also politania. The organization also formed branches in Bosniaformed branches in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Cyprus, Romania, as well as Herzegovina, Cyprus, Romania, as well as 2 M. M.Şükrü Hanioğlu, “İttihat ve Terakkî Cemiyeti”, Şükrü Hanioğlu, “İttihat ve Terakkî Cemiyeti”, in in TDV İslâm AnsiklopedisiTDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, (İstanbul: İstanbul:TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi, 2001).TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi, 2001). https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ittihathttps://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ittihat-ve -terakkiterakki-cemiyeticemiyeti (July July 18 , 20232023). 3 Taglia, Taglia, Intellectuals and Reform in the Ottoman Empire,Intellectuals and Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 42 . 4 IbidIbid, 35 .

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Bulgaria, where the activities concentrated specifically in Köstendil, Fil-

Bulgaria, where the activities concentrated specifically in Köstendil, Fil-ibe, Lom, Hacıoğlupazarcığı,ibe, Lom, Hacıoğlupazarcığı,5 Rusçuk, Tutrakan, Varna, Vidin, and Rusçuk, Tutrakan, Varna, Vidin, and Yanbolu.Yanbolu.6

The e

The efforts of the Young Turks between 1889 and 1902 did not pro-fforts of the Young Turks between 1889 and 1902 did not pro-duce tangible results.duce tangible results.7 During this period, due to the increasing number During this period, due to the increasing number of individuals fleeing abroad, particularly to the Balkans, a kind of local of individuals fleeing abroad, particularly to the Balkans, a kind of local Young Turk movement emerged in the Balkan regionYoung Turk movement emerged in the Balkan region as a result of these as a result of these fugitives.fugitives.8 According to the Young Turks in the region, the hardships faced According to the Young Turks in the region, the hardships faced by Bulgarian Muslims resembled the experiences of Muslims worldwide: by Bulgarian Muslims resembled the experiences of Muslims worldwide: they were all under oppression, limited educational opportunities left they were all under oppression, limited educational opportunities left them ignorant, andthem ignorant, and they were victims of corrupt religious leaders.they were victims of corrupt religious leaders.9 In the In the early 1890s, while the number of direct committee members or active early 1890s, while the number of direct committee members or active participants in Young Turk activities in Bulgaria was limited, almost all participants in Young Turk activities in Bulgaria was limited, almost all intellectuals were influenced by the ideas of the Young Tintellectuals were influenced by the ideas of the Young Turk. Rather than urk. Rather than striving to overthrow Sultan Abdstriving to overthrow Sultan Abdülhamid II, they preferred to discuss the lhamid II, they preferred to discuss the developments in the Ottoman Empire through their publications. How-developments in the Ottoman Empire through their publications. How-ever, Muslims observed a clear weakness and felt abandoned by the only ever, Muslims observed a clear weakness and felt abandoned by the only power that could protect thepower that could protect them, leading to concerns about their future.m, leading to concerns about their future.10

On the other hand, when the activities of the society members involved

On the other hand, when the activities of the society members involved in planning a coup in 1896 and 1897 were exposed, the government in-in planning a coup in 1896 and 1897 were exposed, the government in-tervened, resulting in a significant decline in the domestic activities oftervened, resulting in a significant decline in the domestic activities of the the 5 “The town mentioned, known as Hacıoğlu Pazarcık, Hacıoğlu Pazarı, or Pazarcık in var-“The town mentioned, known as Hacıoğlu Pazarcık, Hacıoğlu Pazarı, or Pazarcık in var-ious sources, is now known as Dobrich. It was established in the 16ious sources, is now known as Dobrich. It was established in the 16th centcentury as an Ot-ury as an Ot-toman town in the inland region of Dobruja (toman town in the inland region of Dobruja (…)” Machiel Kiel, “Hacıoğlupazarcığı”, )” Machiel Kiel, “Hacıoğlupazarcığı”, in in TDV İslâm AnsiklopedisiTDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, (İstanbul: TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi, 2020İstanbul: TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi, 2020). https://is-https://is-lamansiklopedisi.org.tr/hacioglupazarcigilamansiklopedisi.org.tr/hacioglupazarcigi, (July July 18 , 2023 ). 6 HanioğluHanioğlu, “İttihat ve Terakkî Cemiyeti.”, “İttihat ve Terakkî Cemiyeti.” 7 Hanioğlu, Hanioğlu, Preparation for a RevolutionPreparation for a Revolution, 4. 8 Hanioğlu, Hanioğlu, Bir Siyasal Örgüt OlaraBir Siyasal Örgüt Olarak, 263 . 9 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation, 126 .

10 IbidIbid, 127 .

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society.

society.11 On July 20, 1897, Mizancı Murad was convinced to return to Is-On July 20, 1897, Mizancı Murad was convinced to return to Is-tanbul.tanbul.12 Two days later, the Paris Embassy announced that the fugitives Two days later, the Paris Embassy announced that the fugitives who were planning to return to the country would be pardoned. Accord-who were planning to return to the country would be pardoned. Accord-ing to the agreement between the Committee of Union aning to the agreement between the Committee of Union and Progress d Progress (CUP) and the government, the Sultan would enact the requested re-(CUP) and the government, the Sultan would enact the requested re-forms, declare a general amnesty, and halt all forms of Young Turk publi-forms, declare a general amnesty, and halt all forms of Young Turk publi-cations.cations.13

§ 3.1 The Turkish Press in BulgariaThe Turkish Press in Bulgaria

In Bulgaria, there was an effort to contribute to the development

In Bulgaria, there was an effort to contribute to the development and pro-and pro-gress of the local Muslims driven by existential concerns, and this effort gress of the local Muslims driven by existential concerns, and this effortwas reflected in Young Turk publications that featured a similar rhetoric. was reflected in Young Turk publications that featured a similar rhetoric.Notably, figures such as Ali Fehmi, Tahir Lütfü, and Mehmed Masum took Notably, figures such as Ali Fehmi, Tahir Lütfü, and Mehmed Masum tooksignificant steps in adaptinsignificant steps in adapting the Unionist ideology to the local context.g the Unionist ideology to the local context.14

In fact, the roots of Turkish

In fact, the roots of Turkish-language periodicals in Bulgaria date back to language periodicals in Bulgaria date back tothe Tanzimat period. Under his provincial rule, Midhat Paşa established the Tanzimat period. Under his provincial rule, Midhat Paşa establishedin 1865 a provincial printing house in the city of Rusçuk, win 1865 a provincial printing house in the city of Rusçuk, which was once hich was oncethe cultural center of the Turkishthe cultural center of the Turkish-speaking Muslim people along the speaking Muslim people along theTuna. The first TurkishTuna. The first Turkish-language newspaper, named language newspaper, named Tuna Tuna (Danube) was (Danube) waslargely official in character, began to be published in two languages, Turk-largely official in character, began to be published in two languages, Turk-ish and Bulgarian, twice a weekish and Bulgarian, twice a week, and continued to be published uninter-, and continued to be published uninter-rupted until the Russorupted until the Russo-Ottoman War of 1877Ottoman War of 1877-78.78.15

Following the establishment of the Principality of Bulgaria and the

Following the establishment of the Principality of Bulgaria and the suspension of the parliament in the Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria became suspension of the parliament in the Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria became the source of Turkishthe source of Turkish-language planguage publications, especially due to the re-ublications, especially due to the re-strictions imposed on opposition publications in the empire. During this strictions imposed on opposition publications in the empire. During this period, regime opponents who fled from the empire could continue their period, regime opponents who fled from the empire could continue their

11 Hanioğlu, “İttihat ve Terakkî CemiyetiHanioğlu, “İttihat ve Terakkî Cemiyeti.”

12 Mardin, Mardin, Jön TürklJön Türklerin Siyasî Fikirlerierin Siyasî Fikirleri, 141 .

13 Hanioğlu, “İttihat ve Terakkî CemiyetiHanioğlu, “İttihat ve Terakkî Cemiyeti.”

14 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation, 126126.

15 Harun Bekir, “XIX. Yüzyıldan Günümüze Kadar Filibe'de Türkçe Basın”, Balkanlarda TuBalkanlarda Türk rk Dili ve Edebiyatı Araştırmaları Dili ve Edebiyatı Araştırmaları 3(2), 23(2), 223 .

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journalistic activities freely in Bulgaria, which contributed to the devel-

journalistic activities freely in Bulgaria, which contributed to the devel-oopment of Turkishpment of Turkish--language press. In Bulgaria, the first Muslim maga-language press. In Bulgaria, the first Muslim maga-zines emerged through the initiative of Bulgarian authorities. For exam-zines emerged through the initiative of Bulgarian authorities. For exam-ple, Yusuf Ali, who settled in Bulgaria after the 1877ple, Yusuf Ali, who settled in Bulgaria after the 1877--78 Russo78 Russo--Ottoman Ottoman War, gained the trust of Bulgarians by translaWar, gained the trust of Bulgarians by translating the Bulgarian constitu-ting the Bulgarian constitu-tion into Ottoman Turkish and was appointed to the publication of tion into Ottoman Turkish and was appointed to the publication of TarlaTarla, , the country's first Muslim newspaper. Prince Battenberg believed that the country's first Muslim newspaper. Prince Battenberg believed that such an initiative could serve the Muslim population.such an initiative could serve the Muslim population.16 TarlaTarla, published , published for six monthsfor six months in 1882, was released in Ottoman Turkish and Bulgarian. in 1882, was released in Ottoman Turkish and Bulgarian. Yusuf Ali later published a newspaper called Yusuf Ali later published a newspaper called NadasNadas, followed by , followed by DikkatDikkat, , which was published intermittently until 1886. Yusuf Ali, lastly, pub-which was published intermittently until 1886. Yusuf Ali, lastly, pub-lished lished İttifakİttifak in 1894 and immigrated to the Ottoman Empirin 1894 and immigrated to the Ottoman Empire a few years e a few years afterward.afterward.17

Methodieva emphasizes that such initiatives should not be seen solely

Methodieva emphasizes that such initiatives should not be seen solely as means of increasing the loyalty of Muslim citizens to the Bulgarian as means of increasing the loyalty of Muslim citizens to the Bulgarian state.state.18 Although they were not able to have complete freedom of publi-Although they were not able to have complete freedom of publi-cation, these newspacation, these newspapers were valuable platforms for discussing the pers were valuable platforms for discussing the problems faced by Muslims. In Eastern Rumelia, problems faced by Muslims. In Eastern Rumelia, HilalHilal (1883(1883--1885), 1885), which discussed provincial issues, and which discussed provincial issues, and Varna PostasıVarna Postası (1887(1887--1888) and 1888) and Serbest BulgaristanSerbest Bulgaristan (1888(1888--1889), both published by Necib Nadir, a sec-1889), both published by Necib Nadir, a sec-ondary school teacher in Varna, are important examples among Muslim ondary school teacher in Varna, are important examples among Muslim newspapers. These newspapers, which carefully expressed their criti-newspapers. These newspapers, which carefully expressed their criti-cisms, were followed bcisms, were followed by a period in which no Muslim newspaper was y a period in which no Muslim newspaper was published after 1889. At this point, Stambolov's insistence to have cordial published after 1889. At this point, Stambolov's insistence to have cordial relations with the Ottoman sultan, alongside his own political interests, relations with the Ottoman sultan, alongside his own political interests, also had an influence in the decrease of publications by the lalso had an influence in the decrease of publications by the local Mus-ocal Mus-lims.lims.19

By the mid

By the mid--1890s, a new era of publishing began in Bulgaria. Muslim 1890s, a new era of publishing began in Bulgaria. Muslim reformists in Bulgaria benefited from the independent Muslim press and reformists in Bulgaria benefited from the independent Muslim press and the liberalization of the Bulgarian political environment starting from the the liberalization of the Bulgarian political environment starting from the

16 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation, , 104104..

17 IbidIbid, , 105105..

18 IbidIbid..

19 IbidIbid, , 106106..

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mid -1890s. Between 1894 a1890s. Between 1894 and 1908, twentynd 1908, twenty-seven Muslim newspapers seven Muslim newspapers emerged, while a total of 44 Turkish newspapers and magazines were emerged, while a total of 44 Turkish newspapers and magazines were published in Bulgaria between 1880 and 1908, with 25 of them being published in Bulgaria between 1880 and 1908, with 25 of them being Young Turk publications.Young Turk publications.20 In the period after 1890, half of the newspa-In the period after 1890, half of the newspa-pers were alpers were aligned with the Young Turks, while the remaining newspapers igned with the Young Turks, while the remaining newspapers emphasized their loyalty to the Sultan in various ways.emphasized their loyalty to the Sultan in various ways.21 Furthermore, it Furthermore, it is known that 12 of these newspapers were published in Filibe during is known that 12 of these newspapers were published in Filibe during this period, including the this period, including the MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper, which benewspaper, which belonged to Ali longed to Ali Fehmi, one of the most important figures of the “minor Young Turk” Fehmi, one of the most important figures of the “minor Young Turk” group.group.22

Filibe and Rusçuk emerged as centers of Muslim journalism, with Fil-Filibe and Rusçuk emerged as centers of Muslim journalism, with Fil-ibe eventually gaining a reputation as the capital of Muslim journalism.ibe eventually gaining a reputation as the capital of Muslim journalism.23 From 1890s, the newspaperFrom 1890s, the newspapers were entirely personal initiatives of Muslim s were entirely personal initiatives of Muslim intellectuals and reflected their observations, suggestions, and the social intellectuals and reflected their observations, suggestions, and the social experiences of Muslims in the region.experiences of Muslims in the region.24 In the first issue of In the first issue of MuvazeneMuvazene, Ali , Ali Fehmi mentioned that there were great opportunities in FilFehmi mentioned that there were great opportunities in Filibe for prac-ibe for prac-ticing the profession of journalism, such as roads, telegraphs, mails, tele-ticing the profession of journalism, such as roads, telegraphs, mails, tele-phones, and radio. European and Istanbul telegraphs passed through Fil-phones, and radio. European and Istanbul telegraphs passed through Fil-ibe, and agency telegraphs were made available for free use. The city ibe, and agency telegraphs were made available for free use. The city library provided free access library provided free access to the most famous political, scientific, ped-to the most famous political, scientific, ped-agogical, and statistical publications from all around the world.agogical, and statistical publications from all around the world.25

20 Şimşir, Şimşir, Bulgaristan TürkleriBulgaristan Türkleri, 329 .

21 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and Nation,Between Empire and Nation, 106 .

22 Hanioğlu, Hanioğlu, Preparation for a Revolution,Preparation for a Revolution, 50 .

23 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between EmpiBetween Empire and Nation,re and Nation, 107 .

24 IbidIbid.

25 “Mesele“Mesele-i Maruzatımız,” i Maruzatımız,” Muvazene, Muvazene, 1. Sayı, 20 Ağustos 1313 (1 Eylül 1897), 1. 1. Sayı, 20 Ağustos 1313 (1 Eylül 1897), 1. “Among “Among these explanations, it is stated that Filibe's proximity to the world is most beneficial for these explanations, it is stated that Filibe's proximity to the world is most beneficial for Muvazene. European and Istanbul telegrams paMuvazene. European and Istanbul telegrams pass through Filibe daily, and agency tele-ss through Filibe daily, and agency tele-grams are also made available to the public in coffeehouses and music halls without any grams are also made available to the public in coffeehouses and music halls without any charge. Therefore, there is an added convenience in Muvazene's affairs related to Filibe. charge. Therefore, there is an added convenience in Muvazene's affairs related to Filibe. [Bu izahat arasında Filibe’nin dünyaya[Bu izahat arasında Filibe’nin dünyaya en yakın bulunması Muvazene’ye en ziyade faideli en yakın bulunması Muvazene’ye en ziyade faideli olduğunu varesteolduğunu vareste-i izahatdır. Avrupa ve İstanbul telgrafları günlük Filibe’den geçmekde, i izahatdır. Avrupa ve İstanbul telgrafları günlük Filibe’den geçmekde, kahveden ma’da gazinolarda da ajans telgrafları ehlinin bilâ ücret nazarkahveden ma’da gazinolarda da ajans telgrafları ehlinin bilâ ücret nazar-ı istifadelerine ı istifadelerine konulmakda olduğundan Muvazkonulmakda olduğundan Muvazene’ye aid mesailde bir kat daha suhulet hasıl ene’ye aid mesailde bir kat daha suhulet hasıl olmakdadır.]” olmakdadır.]”

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The journals that were loyal to Abd

The journals that were loyal to Abdülhamid II refrained from making lhamid II refrained from making critical publications, while also avoiding to reference the opposition’s critical publications, while also avoiding to reference the opposition’s new spapers. One of the most famous examples was Rıza Paşa, who pub-spapers. One of the most famous examples was Rıza Paşa, who pub-lished the renowned lished the renowned GayretGayret newspaper. Launching the newspaper. Launching the GayretGayret newspaper newspaper in 1895, Rıza Paşa had initially operated it without censorship and was in 1895, Rıza Paşa had initially operated it without censorship and was among the reformist journalists. In 1898, however, hamong the reformist journalists. In 1898, however, he aligned with the e aligned with the Sultan, abandoned opponent publishing, and was rewarded by Ottoman Sultan, abandoned opponent publishing, and was rewarded by Ottoman officials. Rıza Paşa, in terms of its extended publishing duration, had be-officials. Rıza Paşa, in terms of its extended publishing duration, had be-come a competitor to come a competitor to MuvazeneMuvazene. Despite occasional divisions, . Despite occasional divisions, GayretGayret con- tinued to be published untinued to be published until 1902. In contrast to the publications sympa-til 1902. In contrast to the publications sympa-thetic to the Sultan, the first reformist publication, thetic to the Sultan, the first reformist publication, SebatSebat (1895(1895-96), was 96), was published in Rusçuk. The most influential reformist newspaper was published in Rusçuk. The most influential reformist newspaper was MuvazeneMuvazene (1897(1897-1905), published by Ali Fehmi, a graduate of Mekteb1905), published by Ali Fehmi, a graduate of Mekteb-i Mülkiye. The first Muslim daily newspaper, Mülkiye. The first Muslim daily newspaper, TunaTuna, along with its weekly , along with its weekly publication publication UhuvvetUhuvvet, and the daily , and the daily BalkanBalkan became the spokespersons of became the spokespersons of reformist publishing in the region and played a significant role in increas-reformist publishing in the region and played a significant role in increas-ing social awareness along with ing social awareness along with MuvazeMuvazene . After the closure of . After the closure of MuvazeneMuvazene in 1905, the other journals continued the legacy of reform.in 1905, the other journals continued the legacy of reform.26 For instance, For instance, Mehmed Sabri, the brother of Ali Fehmi, built upon the legacy of Mehmed Sabri, the brother of Ali Fehmi, built upon the legacy of Muva-Muva-zenezene by publishing a newspaper titled by publishing a newspaper titled AhaliAhali.

The Ottoman

The Ottoman-language press in Bullanguage press in Bulgaria played a significant role in garia played a significant role in shaping the mindset of local Muslims. Prominent intellectuals associated shaping the mindset of local Muslims. Prominent intellectuals associated with the Young Turk ideas felt a similar responsibility to find a solution with the Young Turk ideas felt a similar responsibility to find a solution to the challenging conditions experienced by the Muslim community. One to the challenging conditions experienced by the Muslim community. One su ch intellectual was Ali Fehmi, who, as argued by Methodieva, was a ma-ch intellectual was Ali Fehmi, who, as argued by Methodieva, was a ma-jor critic of the Ottoman regime during that time in the region, and his jor critic of the Ottoman regime during that time in the region, and his biography was one of the most important of the period.biography was one of the most important of the period.27

On the other hand, the sole motivation behind journalism a

On the other hand, the sole motivation behind journalism activities in ctivities in the region was not just to freely oppose the regime. Journalism, as a sub-the region was not just to freely oppose the regime. Journalism, as a sub-set of cultural activities, served as a confirmation of the national exist-set of cultural activities, served as a confirmation of the national exist-ence of Muslims and Turks who remained as minorities in Bulgaria. Many ence of Muslims and Turks who remained as minorities in Bulgaria. Many

26 Methodieva,Methodieva, Between Empire and Nation,Between Empire and Nation, 108 .

27 See Methodieva, See Methodieva, Between Empire and Nation.Between Empire and Nation.

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Turkish publications in B

Turkish publications in Bulgaria addressed common themes such as the ulgaria addressed common themes such as the education, economic situation, health, and problems faced by Muslims education, economic situation, health, and problems faced by Muslims worldwide. These publications not only informed the Muslim minorities worldwide. These publications not only informed the Muslim minorities about global developments, but also published articles about social prob-about global developments, but also published articles about social prob-lems that Muslims were facing, passages in which readers shared their ems that Muslims were facing, passages in which readers shared their ideas or advices about such problems, depending on the publisher’s ini-ideas or advices about such problems, depending on the publisher’s ini-tiative.tiative.

The Ottoman authorities were able to regulate

The Ottoman authorities were able to regulate the the officially approved officially approved journals journals that circulated withinthat circulated within the emthe empire. However, their control over pire. However, their control over the Muslim press in Bulgaria was inherently restricted. Meanwhile, the the Muslim press in Bulgaria was inherently restricted. Meanwhile, the Bulgarians were not reluctant to leverage local Muslim publications for Bulgarians were not reluctant to leverage local Muslim publications for negotiation. Faced with this situation, Ottoman officials employed di-negotiation. Faced with this situation, Ottoman officials employed di-verse tactverse tactics to suppress dissenting publications. They would offer finan-ics to suppress dissenting publications. They would offer finan-cial incentives to editors of opposing newspapers to cease publication, cial incentives to editors of opposing newspapers to cease publication, extend assistance to compliant publications adhering to censorship extend assistance to compliant publications adhering to censorship rules, and permit the circulation of such newspapers wrules, and permit the circulation of such newspapers within the empire.ithin the empire.28

This was the context in which Ali Fehmi emerged as one of the most

This was the context in which Ali Fehmi emerged as one of the most important figures of the “minor Young Turk” group in Bulgaria.important figures of the “minor Young Turk” group in Bulgaria.29 The ap-The ap-pearpearance of his journal ance of his journal MuvazeneMuvazene gave momentum to the oppositional gave momentum to the oppositional activities in the country. The jactivities in the country. The journal emerged as the main platform for ournal emerged as the main platform for debating Muslim affairs, and many Muslims looked to it for guidance and debating Muslim affairs, and many Muslims looked to it for guidance and advice. In turn, Ali Fehmi, well aware of its signifiadvice. In turn, Ali Fehmi, well aware of its significance, cast himself as a cance, cast himself as a new kind of intellectual and political leader.new kind of intellectual and political leader.30 Ali Fehmi, who waAli Fehmi, who was born in s born in Filibe and had lived within the borders of the Ottoman Empire in his pro-Filibe and had lived within the borders of the Ottoman Empire in his pro-fessional life after the Treaty of Berlin, was dismissed from his position fessional life after the Treaty of Berlin, was dismissed from his position due to his proximity to the opposition. After returning to Filibe, he was due to his proximity to the opposition. After returning to Filibe, he was not given any job in govenot given any job in government offices. Therefore, he decided to engage rnment offices. Therefore, he decided to engage in publishing. in publishing.

28 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and Nation,Between Empire and Nation, 105 .

29 Hanioğlu, Hanioğlu, Preparation for a Revolution, Preparation for a Revolution, 50 .

30 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and Nation,Between Empire and Nation, 107 .

F I L I B E L I A L I F EHMI ( 1871 - 1 9 2 2 ) A ND MUVA Z E NE NEWS PA P E R

§ 3.2 The Biography of Ali FehmiThe Biography of Ali Fehmi

To understand the life story of Ali Fehmi and his interactions with the understand the life story of Ali Fehmi and his interactions with theYoung Turks through Young Turks through MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper, it is important to provide his newspaper, it is important to provide hisdetailed biography andetailed biography and gain a good understanding of both his relation-d gain a good understanding of both his relation-ships with Ottoman officials and his position among the Young Turks. In ships with Ottoman officials and his position among the Young Turks. Inaddition to biographical information gleaned from the Ottoman archival addition to biographical information gleaned from the Ottoman archivalmaterials, the details of Ali Fehmi's life story emerges out of tmaterials, the details of Ali Fehmi's life story emerges out of the pages of he pages ofMuvazeneMuvazene newspaper, which was regularly published between 1897 and newspaper, which was regularly published between 1897 and1905 but drew government’s reaction due to its content and Ali Fehmi’s 1905 but drew government’s reaction due to its content and Ali Fehmi’ssuspicious activities.suspicious activities.31 Ali Fehmi, who was a Muslim Ottoman subject, Ali Fehmi, who was a Muslim Ottoman subject,was the son of Kızanlıklı Ahmet Faik Hacı Şaban Ağazade Mehmed Ağa. was the son of Kızanlıklı Ahmet Faik Hacı Şaban Ağazade Mehmed Ağa.His younger brother's name was Mehmed Sabri, who was two years His younger brother's name was Mehmed Sabri, who was two yearsyounger than him.younger than him.32

Ali Fehmi was born in 1871. During the 1877

Ali Fehmi was born in 1871. During the 1877-1878 Russo1878 Russo-OttoOttoman man War, Ali Fehmi and his family migrated to Istanbul due to the defeat suf-War, Ali Fehmi and his family migrated to Istanbul due to the defeat suf-fered in their homeland. After the signing of the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, fered in their homeland. After the signing of the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, they returned to Filibe, which was within the newly established autono-they returned to Filibe, which was within the newly established autono-mous province of Rumelimous province of Rumeli-i Şarki (Ei Şarki (Eastern Rumelia). Ali Fehmi completed astern Rumelia). Ali Fehmi completed his education at a local secondary school (rüşdiye) and graduated from his education at a local secondary school (rüşdiye) and graduated from the Mülkiye School in Istanbul in 1889.the Mülkiye School in Istanbul in 1889.33 Throughout the rest of his life, Throughout the rest of his life, Ali Fehmi was referred to himself with the title of his graduation, and Ali Fehmi was referred to himself with the title of his graduation, and “o ne of the graduates of Mülkiye School” (Mektebne of the graduates of Mülkiye School” (Mekteb-i Mülkiye Mezunların-i Mülkiye Mezunların-dan) became a standard addition to his byline following each article he dan) became a standard addition to his byline following each article he wrote. wrote.

After graduating from Mülkiye School, Ali Fehmi began his career as a

After graduating from Mülkiye School, Ali Fehmi began his career as a teacher. For eight years, he served as teacher. For eight years, he served as a teacher and school principal in a teacher and school principal in Anatolia under the Ottoman rule. While teaching at Gelibolu High School Anatolia under the Ottoman rule. While teaching at Gelibolu High School (Gelibolu İdadisi), he was promoted and started his duty at Kırkkilise (Gelibolu İdadisi), he was promoted and started his duty at Kırkkilise

31 MuvazeneMuvazene’s last issue was published in 1911 but its regular weekly publication period ’s last issue was published in 1911 but its regular weekly publication period included the years between 1897included the years between 1897-1905. MuvazeneMuvazene, 5 Teşrinievvel 1327., 5 Teşrinievvel 1327.

32 Karagöz, Karagöz, Bulgaristan Türk BasınıBulgaristan Türk Basını.

33 IbidIbid, 120.120.

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

High School (Kırkkilise İdadi Mektebi) in 1892.

High School (Kırkkilise İdadi Mektebi) in 1892.34 According to the infor-According to the infor-mation pmation provided by Mesut Ayar, Ali Fehmi was appointed as the school rovided by Mesut Ayar, Ali Fehmi was appointed as the school principal at Kırkkilise School as a result of a promotion. Teaching staff for principal at Kırkkilise School as a result of a promotion. Teaching staff for the 1894the 1894-95 academic year shows that in addition to his role as a school 95 academic year shows that in addition to his role as a school principal, he was also responsible for teachprincipal, he was also responsible for teaching French, sciences (Malu-ing French, sciences (Malu-mat -ı Fenniye), and accounting (Usulı Fenniye), and accounting (Usul-i Defterî).i Defterî).35 Originally, Kırkkilise Originally, Kırkkilise School, which began providing education in the late 1860s, was initially School, which began providing education in the late 1860s, was initially established as a secondary school (rüşdiye). In the year Ali Fehmi started established as a secondary school (rüşdiye). In the year Ali Fehmi started his duty his duty in 1892, the curriculum changed, and it was transformed into a in 1892, the curriculum changed, and it was transformed into a high school (idadi). However, the students, most of the teachers, and the high school (idadi). However, the students, most of the teachers, and the building remained the same.building remained the same.36

It appears that Ali Fehmi did not stay in his position in Kırkkilise for

It appears that Ali Fehmi did not stay in his position in Kırkkilise for long. Upon realilong. Upon realizing that an investigation was being conducted against zing that an investigation was being conducted against him in October 1894, he was forced to resign from his position due to the him in October 1894, he was forced to resign from his position due to the allegations directed at him about six months later.allegations directed at him about six months later.37 Indeed, during his Indeed, during his tenure at Kırkkilise School, it was claimed and reflecttenure at Kırkkilise School, it was claimed and reflected in archival docu-ed in archival docu-ments that he showed negligence in matters of religion, failed to satisfy ments that he showed negligence in matters of religion, failed to satisfy the students, and engaged in inappropriate behavior:the students, and engaged in inappropriate behavior:

Ali Fehmi, as a native of Filibe, initially began his educational journey

Ali Fehmi, as a native of Filibe, initially began his educational journey at the prestigious Imperial Civil Sat the prestigious Imperial Civil School (Mektebi Mülkiyechool (Mektebi Mülkiye-i Şahane) i Şahane) under the shadow of the government's support for education. How-under the shadow of the government's support for education. How-ever, during his time at the Kırkkilise School (Kırkkilise Mektebever, during his time at the Kırkkilise School (Kırkkilise Mekteb-i İdad-i İdad-isi), due to negligence in religious matters and certain misconducts isi), due to negligence in religious matters and certain misconducts that could disappoithat could disappoint his fellow countrymen, he was dismissed from nt his fellow countrymen, he was dismissed from there. After a while, he arrived in Filibe, where he made efforts to pre-there. After a while, he arrived in Filibe, where he made efforts to pre-serve his original circle and subsequently took up teaching positions. serve his original circle and subsequently took up teaching positions.

34 IbidIbid.

35 Mesut Ayar, “Kırklareli (Kırkkilise) MektebMesut Ayar, “Kırklareli (Kırkkilise) Mekteb-i İdadisi” i İdadisi” History StudiesHistory Studies, Volume , Volume 2/32/3, 20102010, 48 .

36 Ayar, “Kırklareli (Kırkkilise) MektebAyar, “Kırklareli (Kırkkilise) Mekteb-i İdadisi,” i İdadisi,” 48 .

37 Ibid.Ibid.

F I L I B E L I A L I F EHMI ( 1871 - 1 9 2 2 ) A ND MUVA Z E NE NEWS PA P E R

Later, he was appointed as the director of Ankara School (Ankara

Later, he was appointed as the director of Ankara School (Ankara MektebMekteb--i İdadisi).i İdadisi).38

Upon his return from Filibe, he was appointed as the principal of An-

Upon his return from Filibe, he was appointed as the principal of An-kara High School (Ankara Mektebkara High School (Ankara Mekteb--i İdadisi). However, he could not stay i İdadisi). However, he could not stay in this position for long, either, as his career was disrupted due to his in-in this position for long, either, as his career was disrupted due to his in-volvement in a fire volvement in a fire incident at the school.incident at the school.39 He was compelled to resign He was compelled to resign from Ankara School in a distressed manner and, despite later being from Ankara School in a distressed manner and, despite later being proven innocent, he was not assigned to any official position for a period proven innocent, he was not assigned to any official position for a period of eight months despite his efforts and applications, which fiof eight months despite his efforts and applications, which finally forced nally forced him to return to his family home in Filibe in 1896. Despite being a tal-him to return to his family home in Filibe in 1896. Despite being a tal-ented teacher, his job applications to schools in Filibe also remained un-ented teacher, his job applications to schools in Filibe also remained un-answered.answered.40 In July 1897, Ali Fehmi wrote a petition to the Bulgarian In July 1897, Ali Fehmi wrote a petition to the Bulgarian Commissioner's Office of the MCommissioner's Office of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Bulgaristan inistry of Foreign Affairs (Bulgaristan Komiserliği KitabetKomiserliği Kitabet--i Vekaleti Vekalet--i Behiyyesi) in Filibe, in which he expressed i Behiyyesi) in Filibe, in which he expressed his life's turning point. In this petition, he stated that as a resident of Fil-his life's turning point. In this petition, he stated that as a resident of Fil-ibe, within the framework of the rights granted to him by theibe, within the framework of the rights granted to him by the public law public law in Bulgaria, he could publish a newspaper called in Bulgaria, he could publish a newspaper called MuvazeneMuvazene and earn a and earn a

38 BOA, HR.SFR.BOA, HR.SFR.0404.., .., 453/25/4453/25/4, M, M--1414--0101--19051905..

39 BOA, Y..PRK.MK.., 7/78/1. HBOA, Y..PRK.MK.., 7/78/1. H--0606--0202--13151315

40 “I am a native of “I am a native of FilibeFilibe and a graduate of the prestigious Imperial Civil School. I served as and a graduate of the prestigious Imperial Civil School. I served as a teacher and school director for eight years, fulfilling my duties diligently. However, dur-a teacher and school director for eight years, fulfilling my duties diligently. However, dur-ing my last official position in Ankara, an unfortunating my last official position in Ankara, an unfortunate fire incident occurred, leading to my e fire incident occurred, leading to my dismissal. Although the hardship I faced was evident and undeniable, I found myself in a dismissal. Although the hardship I faced was evident and undeniable, I found myself in a difficult situation when it came to securing another position due to various challenging difficult situation when it came to securing another position due to various challenging circumstances. As a result, after enducircumstances. As a result, after enduring hardships for eight months, I was compelled to ring hardships for eight months, I was compelled to seek refuge with my parents in seek refuge with my parents in FilibeFilibe (...) [Acizlerin Filibe ahalisinden ve millet(...) [Acizlerin Filibe ahalisinden ve millet--i Mektebi Mekteb--i i MülkiyeMülkiye--i Şahane mezunlarından olup sekiz sene müddet muallimlik ve mektep i Şahane mezunlarından olup sekiz sene müddet muallimlik ve mektep müdürlüğüyle ifamüdürlüğüyle ifa--yı hizmet etmiş vyı hizmet etmiş ve son memuriyete son memuriyet--i acizanem olan Ankara’da her nasılsa i acizanem olan Ankara’da her nasılsa zuhur eden bir yangın sebebiyle maduren infisal etmiş ve her ne kadar mağduriyetzuhur eden bir yangın sebebiyle maduren infisal etmiş ve her ne kadar mağduriyet--i ha-i ha-rimerime--i çakeranem tebeyyün ve tahakkuk etmiş ise de tekrar bir memuriyete i çakeranem tebeyyün ve tahakkuk etmiş ise de tekrar bir memuriyete kayırılmaklığım hususunda düçarkayırılmaklığım hususunda düçar--ı müşkşilatı müşkşilat--ı adîde olduğuma rağmen sekiz mah ı adîde olduğuma rağmen sekiz mah müddet ve son derece sebat neticesinde halmüddet ve son derece sebat neticesinde hal--i çakeraneme münasip bir hizmetle i çakeraneme münasip bir hizmetle kayırılamadığımdan zaruretkayırılamadığımdan zaruret--i fevkalgaye tesiratıyla filibe’de nezdi fevkalgaye tesiratıyla filibe’de nezd--i peder ve madere i peder ve madere ilticaya mecbur oldum (...)]” ilticaya mecbur oldum (...)]” BOA, Y..PRK.MK.., 7/78/1, HBOA, Y..PRK.MK.., 7/78/1, H--0606--0202--13151315..

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

living through journalism. He also mentioned that he could take on duties

living through journalism. He also mentioned that he could take on duties such as serving as a district governor (şehbender) or working at an em-such as serving as a district governor (şehbender) or working at an em-bassy or consulate, as emphasizbassy or consulate, as emphasized in the 11th and 12th articles of his cer-ed in the 11th and 12th articles of his cer-tificate (şehadetname). He expressed his desire to find employment as tificate (şehadetname). He expressed his desire to find employment as quickly as possible.quickly as possible.41

Ali Fehmi's appeal to the Ottoman representatives in Bulgaria was ac-

Ali Fehmi's appeal to the Ottoman representatives in Bulgaria was ac-tually normal, as even Mizancı Murad Bey, a member otually normal, as even Mizancı Murad Bey, a member of the Young Turks, f the Young Turks, had agreed to stop his activities against the Sultan in exchange for being had agreed to stop his activities against the Sultan in exchange for being pardoned and rewarded in the capital with employment.pardoned and rewarded in the capital with employment.42

It seems that the reason Ali Fehmi was not assigned to any position in

It seems that the reason Ali Fehmi was not assigned to any position in the state bureaucracy or any schoolthe state bureaucracy or any school, including those in rural areas, was , including those in rural areas, was because of his sympathies towards the Young Turks. Most likely due to because of his sympathies towards the Young Turks. Most likely due to suspicions about his activities, he was unjustly accused and forced to re-suspicions about his activities, he was unjustly accused and forced to re-sign from his last position in Ankara following a fire incident, similar tosign from his last position in Ankara following a fire incident, similar to what happened at Kırkkilise School. An archival document recorded in what happened at Kırkkilise School. An archival document recorded in January 1905 supports this view.January 1905 supports this view.43 In this document, Ali Fehmi's activi-In this document, Ali Fehmi's activi-ties, ideas, and life story are mentioned, and he is accused of being negli-ties, ideas, and life story are mentioned, and he is accused of being negli-gent in religious matters, just like his gent in religious matters, just like his time at Kırkkilise School. time at Kırkkilise School.

Rıza Paşa, the editor of the

Rıza Paşa, the editor of the GayretGayret newspaper, who showed sympathy newspaper, who showed sympathy towards the Sultan, was sent to convince Ali Fehmi to join his publication towards the Sultan, was sent to convince Ali Fehmi to join his publication under the guidance of Ottoman officials.under the guidance of Ottoman officials.44 However, despite his applica-However, despite his applica-tion in July 189tion in July 1897, Ali Fehmi could not obtain any results and was not ap-7, Ali Fehmi could not obtain any results and was not ap-pointed to any position. As a result, he started to approach Ottoman pointed to any position. As a result, he started to approach Ottoman promises with skepticism.promises with skepticism.45 Therefore, rejecting officials’ promises and Therefore, rejecting officials’ promises and offers, he finally launched offers, he finally launched MuvazeneMuvazene on September 2, 1897. on September 2, 1897. Despite var-Despite var-ying degrees of intensity over time, the newspaper maintained its critical ying degrees of intensity over time, the newspaper maintained its critical stance throughout its publication and remained ideologically consistent. stance throughout its publication and remained ideologically consistent. Although some sources indicate that the first issue was dated August 20, Although some sources indicate that the first issue was dated August 20,

41 BOA, Y..PRK.MK.., BOA, Y..PRK.MK.., 7/78/17/78/1. H. H-06 -02 -1315 .

42 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation, 108108.

43 BOA, HR.SFR.BOA, HR.SFR.04 . 453/25/4453/25/4, M, M-14 -01 -1905 .

44 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation, 108108.

45 IbidIbid, 108 .

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1896, the accurate date

1896, the accurate date is September 2, 1897. The first issue was printed is September 2, 1897. The first issue was printed at Tırgovska Peçatniska printing house in Filibe.at Tırgovska Peçatniska printing house in Filibe.46

On September 12, 1897, a document was sent from Bulgarian Com-

On September 12, 1897, a document was sent from Bulgarian Com-missioner's Office (Bulgaristan Komiserliği) to Imperial Court of the Sul-missioner's Office (Bulgaristan Komiserliği) to Imperial Court of the Sul-tan (Mabeyntan (Mabeyn-i Hümayui Hümayun-u Cenabu Cenab-ı Mülukane Başkitabetı Mülukane Başkitabet-i Celilesi) re-i Celilesi) re-garding the newspaper.garding the newspaper.47 In this document, the Bulgarian Commissioner In this document, the Bulgarian Commissioner Nasuhi Bey, stated that he had informed Stoylof on September 4, 1897, Nasuhi Bey, stated that he had informed Stoylof on September 4, 1897, that Ali Fehmi did not fulfill the promises he made when obtaining per-that Ali Fehmi did not fulfill the promises he made when obtaining per-mission for ission for MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper. Nasuhi Bey mentioned that he would newspaper. Nasuhi Bey mentioned that he would call Ali Fehmi to the Commissioner's Office once again to try to convince call Ali Fehmi to the Commissioner's Office once again to try to convince him to shut down him to shut down MuvazeneMuvazene. If Ali Fehmi agreed to close the newspaper . If Ali Fehmi agreed to close the newspaper and ask for forgiveness, Nasuhi Bey promised hand ask for forgiveness, Nasuhi Bey promised him amnesty.im amnesty.48

3.2.1 Imperial Strategies Against Muvazene in a Foreign CountryImperial Strategies Against Muvazene in a Foreign Country

Initially, Filibeli Ali Fehmi had no intention of shutting down

Initially, Filibeli Ali Fehmi had no intention of shutting down MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper, and his family supported his endeavor. His brother, Mehmed newspaper, and his family supported his endeavor. His brother, Mehmed Sabri, provided both editorial and likelySabri, provided both editorial and likely writing support, while his writing support, while his brotherbrother-in -law, Tırnovalı Osman Nuri, published articles on pedagogy law, Tırnovalı Osman Nuri, published articles on pedagogy and education in and education in MuvazeneMuvazene.49 The period in which The period in which MuvazeneMuvazene started its started its publication was a fragile time for Muslim publishing in Bulgaria, and the publication was a fragile time for Muslim publishing in Bulgaria, and the success of the nsuccess of the newspaper was uncertain at first.ewspaper was uncertain at first.50 One of the reasons for One of the reasons for this fragility was that the Istanbul government silenced, closed, or this fragility was that the Istanbul government silenced, closed, or changed the names of opposition publications by promising rewards and changed the names of opposition publications by promising rewards and incentives. For example, incentives. For example, Hamiyet, EmniyetHamiyet, Emniyet, and , and BedrekaBedreka-i Seli Selametamet news-news-papers were closed in this way.papers were closed in this way.51 According to According to MuvazeneMuvazene’s account, the ’s account, the owner of owner of EmniyetEmniyet and and BedrekaBedreka-i Selameti Selamet newspapers, Hilmi Efendi from newspapers, Hilmi Efendi from Selanik sold his moveable types and left Filibe, while Selanik sold his moveable types and left Filibe, while HamiyetHamiyet newspaper newspaper

46 Karagöz, Karagöz, Bulgaristan Türk BasınıBulgaristan Türk Basını, 119 .

47 BOA, Y..MTV., BOA, Y..MTV., 166/204166/204, H, H-14 -04 -1315 .

48 Ibid.Ibid.

49 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation, 109109.

50 Ibid.Ibid.

51 IbidIbid, 109, 109.

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

reported this news to its readers a

reported this news to its readers and added that it had learned a lesson nd added that it had learned a lesson from the situation. Ali Fehmi shared with from the situation. Ali Fehmi shared with MuvazeneMuvazene readers that Hilmi readers that Hilmi Efendi had gone to Istanbul to obtain a government positionEfendi had gone to Istanbul to obtain a government position.52 However, However, the Bulgarian administration turned a blind eye to the Bulgarian administration turned a blind eye to MuvazeneMuvazene’s activities. ’s activities. Ott oman officials could not intervene with oman officials could not intervene with MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper, which newspaper, which operated under Bulgarian jurisdiction for a period of eight years until operated under Bulgarian jurisdiction for a period of eight years until 1905. As Methodieva claims, it is possible that 1905. As Methodieva claims, it is possible that MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper newspaper served as a bargaining tool between Bulgaria's ruleserved as a bargaining tool between Bulgaria's rulers and the Ottoman rs and the Ottoman Empire.Empire.53

It is notable that the most significant attempts to shut down

It is notable that the most significant attempts to shut down MuvazeneMuvazene came from Necib Melhame, the Ottoman Commissioner in Sofia at the came from Necib Melhame, the Ottoman Commissioner in Sofia at the time. Although Theodore Ivanchof, who was then the Prime Minister of time. Although Theodore Ivanchof, who was then the Prime Minister of Bulgaria, made promisBulgaria, made promises to Necib Melhame regarding this matter, the es to Necib Melhame regarding this matter, the newspaper was never closed.newspaper was never closed.54 Necib Melhame served as the Ottoman Necib Melhame served as the Ottoman Commissioner to BulgariaCommissioner to Bulgaria between 1898 and 1902. He was one of the between 1898 and 1902. He was one of the most trusted Paşas during the reign of Sultan Abdmost trusted Paşas during the reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II, having lhamid II, having gained the Sultan's trust during his service in the intelligence organiza-gained the Sultan's trust during his service in the intelligence organiza-tion in Egypt.tion in Egypt.55 He also earned the Sultan’s appreciation during his mis-He also earned the Sultan’s appreciation during his mis-si on in Paris, where he persuaded many students to return to Istanbul as on in Paris, where he persuaded many students to return to Istanbul as loyal citizens.loyal citizens.56 After returning to Istanbul, Necib Melhame was ap-After returning to Istanbul, Necib Melhame was ap-pointed as an associate in the Council of State (Şurapointed as an associate in the Council of State (Şura-yı Devlet) through a yı Devlet) through a

52 Muvazene, Muvazene, 7. Sayı, Teşrinievvel . Sayı, Teşrinievvel 1313 (13 Ekim Ekim 1897 ).

53 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation, 109; BOA, HR.SFR.04.., 453/25/4, M, 109; BOA, HR.SFR.04.., 453/25/4, M-14 -01 -1905. “Unless a suitable opportunity arises to completely halt the publication of Muvazene “Unless a suitable opportunity arises to completely halt the publication of Muvazene newspaper, it seems unlikely that any significant outcome can be achieved in this matter. newspaper, it seems unlikely that any significant outcome can be achieved in this matter. Therefore, I cannot think of any other solution than leaving the newsTherefore, I cannot think of any other solution than leaving the newspaper in its current paper in its current state of controversy and widespread public disapproval, without giving it any further im-state of controversy and widespread public disapproval, without giving it any further im-portance or attention it deserves along with similar publicatportance or attention it deserves along with similar publications. [Muvazene gazetesinin ions. [Muvazene gazetesinin neşrini kamilen men eyleyecek bir fırsat zuhur etmedikçe bu babdaki teşebbüsattan bir neşrini kamilen men eyleyecek bir fırsat zuhur etmedikçe bu babdaki teşebbüsattan bir netice çıkamayacağı cihetle gazeteyi şimdiki bulunduğu çerkabnetice çıkamayacağı cihetle gazeteyi şimdiki bulunduğu çerkab-ı denaeti ve âlemin nefretı denaeti ve âlemin nefret-i muhakkakası tahtında bırakmaktan ve buna ve emsalini muhakkakası tahtında bırakmaktan ve buna ve emsaline layık oldukları tarzda katiyyen e layık oldukları tarzda katiyyen atfatf-ı ehemmiyet eylemekden gayrı bir çare düşünememekteyim.]” ı ehemmiyet eylemekden gayrı bir çare düşünememekteyim.]”

54 BOA, HR.SFR.BOA, HR.SFR.04 .., 453/25/4453/25/4, M, M-14 -01 -1905 .

55 Taşkın, “Necib Melhame Paşa’nın Siyasî HayatıTaşkın, “Necib Melhame Paşa’nın Siyasî Hayatı,” ,” 11 .

56 Ibid, Ibid, 21 .

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decree dated August 18, 1898, and shortly th

decree dated August 18, 1898, and shortly thereafter, on September 3, ereafter, on September 3, 1898, he was appointed as the Ottoman Commissioner in Sofia.1898, he was appointed as the Ottoman Commissioner in Sofia.57

When Necib Melhame took office, it was challenging to talk about the

When Necib Melhame took office, it was challenging to talk about the influence of the Ottoman authority in Bulgaria.influence of the Ottoman authority in Bulgaria.58 It was evident that the It was evident that the efforts of the Ottoman goefforts of the Ottoman government to close down vernment to close down MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper newspaper were insufficient, and the intervention of the Bulgarian government was were insufficient, and the intervention of the Bulgarian government was necessary. Therefore, the Ottoman government was trying different strat-necessary. Therefore, the Ottoman government was trying different strat-egies to enhance its authority in the region. One such strategy was silegies to enhance its authority in the region. One such strategy was silenc-enc-ing opposition publications by offering rewards and positions. It seems ing opposition publications by offering rewards and positions. It seems that there was also a gossipthat there was also a gossip-like dimension to whether Ali Fehmi would like dimension to whether Ali Fehmi would be tempted by these offers. Ali Fehmi’s activist and outspoken style al-be tempted by these offers. Ali Fehmi’s activist and outspoken style al-ready drew attention, and his attentionready drew attention, and his attention from the government added fuel from the government added fuel to the fire. For instance, in the 46th issue of to the fire. For instance, in the 46th issue of MuvazeneMuvazene, the , the OtuzifOtuzif news-news-paper openly speculated that “after Mizancı Murad Bey and Rıza Paşa, it paper openly speculated that “after Mizancı Murad Bey and Rıza Paşa, it was now Ali Fehmi's turn, and he was receiving financial support from was now Ali Fehmi's turn, and he was receiving financial support from the capital.” This raised suspicions that Ali Fehmi had abandoned his the capital.” This raised suspicions that Ali Fehmi had abandoned his ideas to reach an agreement with the Otideas to reach an agreement with the Ottoman government. In response, toman government. In response, Ali Fehmi published the articles written about him in Ali Fehmi published the articles written about him in MuvazeneMuvazene and and stated in his reply that he would continue to serve the people gradually stated in his reply that he would continue to serve the people gradually with his own efforts, thus ensuring the longevity of with his own efforts, thus ensuring the longevity of MuvazeneMuvazene.59

The Ottoman governmen

The Ottoman government's policy of silencing opposition was not t's policy of silencing opposition was not limited to colimited to co-opting critical newspapers by offering rewards, ranks, and opting critical newspapers by offering rewards, ranks, and offices. One of the fundamental issues criticized by offices. One of the fundamental issues criticized by MuvazeneMuvazene was the was the widespread intelligence organization in Bulgaria, which regularly pro-widespread intelligence organization in Bulgaria, which regularly pro-vided information to the Sultan, keeping him informed of any opposition ided information to the Sultan, keeping him informed of any opposition movements. In the first year of movements. In the first year of MuvazeneMuvazene's publication, numerous criti-'s publication, numerous criti-cisms of the intelligence organization were published, indicating that the cisms of the intelligence organization were published, indicating that the spies carefully observed Ali Fehmi and spies carefully observed Ali Fehmi and Muvazeneuvazene newspaper. The year newspaper. The year

57 Ibid, Ibid, 25 .

58 Ibid, Ibid, 31 .

59 “Bulgarista“Bulgaristan Havadisi,” n Havadisi,” MuvazeneMuvazene, 46. Sayı, 8 Temmuz 1314 (20 Temmuz 1898), 2. , 46. Sayı, 8 Temmuz 1314 (20 Temmuz 1898), 2. “Muvazene is inclined to live a long life in order to gradually serve on its own merit. [Muva-“Muvazene is inclined to live a long life in order to gradually serve on its own merit. [Muva-zene kendi emeği mukabiliyle yavaş yavaş hidmet edebilmek içün çok yaşamak yaşamak zene kendi emeği mukabiliyle yavaş yavaş hidmet edebilmek içün çok yaşamak yaşamak fikrindedir.fikrindedir.]”

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

1898 witnessed an increasing presence of spies in Filibe. Some spies en-

1898 witnessed an increasing presence of spies in Filibe. Some spies en-gaged in this work to earn ranks or money, while others continued with gaged in this work to earn ranks or money, while others continued with the hope of receiving some reward one day. Ali Fehmi viewed this activity the hope of receiving some reward one day. Ali Fehmi viewed this activity as “dishonesas “dishonesty” and considered the government’s payments to the spies ty” and considered the government’s payments to the spies as “waste” and “squandering” in comparison to the sufferings experi-as “waste” and “squandering” in comparison to the sufferings experi-enced by Muslims. According to Ali Fehmi, the spies’ hostile behavior to-enced by Muslims. According to Ali Fehmi, the spies’ hostile behavior to-wards opponents of the Sultan did not go unnoticed by even wards opponents of the Sultan did not go unnoticed by even the support-the support-ers of the Sultan, and these negative attitudes inclined impartial ers of the Sultan, and these negative attitudes inclined impartial individuals to become opponents of the Sultan, which ultimately bene-individuals to become opponents of the Sultan, which ultimately bene-fited the spies.fited the spies.60 Additionally, Ali Fehmi argued in the 44th issue of Additionally, Ali Fehmi argued in the 44th issue of Muva-Muva-zenezene that spies deceived the state bthat spies deceived the state by portraying nony portraying non-opponents of the opponents of the Sultan as if they were the enemies of the regime, creating the impression Sultan as if they were the enemies of the regime, creating the impression that there was still work for spies to do in Filibe.that there was still work for spies to do in Filibe.61

60 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” MuvazeneMuvazene, 36. Sayı, 29 Nisan 1314 (11 Mayıs 1898), 2. , 36. Sayı, 29 Nisan 1314 (11 Mayıs 1898), 2. “The pro-“The pro-fession of espionage is thriving in fession of espionage is thriving in FilibeFilibe. So far, the spies have not faced any obstacles in . So far, the spies have not faced any obstacles in carrying out their activities, as the government has not taken any mcarrying out their activities, as the government has not taken any measures against them. easures against them. However, while some spies receive salaries, ranks, and honors, others are left with nothing However, while some spies receive salaries, ranks, and honors, others are left with nothing but the hope of engaging in immoral acts. The administration of the country is wasting but the hope of engaging in immoral acts. The administration of the country is wasting money in vain, while the people suffer. As the hatred tmoney in vain, while the people suffer. As the hatred towards this profession grows, it leads owards this profession grows, it leads to various scandals in the name of the Sultan, drawing the attention of the loyal subjects. to various scandals in the name of the Sultan, drawing the attention of the loyal subjects. In fact, some individuals, despite not being against the Sultan, are forced into acting con-In fact, some individuals, despite not being against the Sultan, are forced into acting con-trary to their will due to pressurtrary to their will due to pressure and surveillance, thus benefiting the spies. [Filibe’de e and surveillance, thus benefiting the spies. [Filibe’de hafiyelik meslekhafiyelik meslek-i meşumu gittikçe terakki ediyor. Şimdiye kadar hükümet tarafından i meşumu gittikçe terakki ediyor. Şimdiye kadar hükümet tarafından mümanaat görmediği için hafiyeler istediği gibi oynamakta düçarmümanaat görmediği için hafiyeler istediği gibi oynamakta düçar-ı müşkilat olmuyor. ı müşkilat olmuyor. Mamafih bazıları maaş rütbe niMamafih bazıları maaş rütbe nişan aldığı halde diğerleri bu ümit ile namussuzluğu itikap şan aldığı halde diğerleri bu ümit ile namussuzluğu itikap etmekten başka kar görmüyor. Türkiye idaresi badetmekten başka kar görmüyor. Türkiye idaresi bad-ı hava para zayi ediyor. Millet eziliyor. ı hava para zayi ediyor. Millet eziliyor. Bu meslekin mucibi nefret oldukça padişah namına birtakım rezaletler ihtiyar olunuyor Bu meslekin mucibi nefret oldukça padişah namına birtakım rezaletler ihtiyar olunuyor hafiyelerin hareketihafiyelerin hareketi sadıkların da nazarı dikkatini celb ediyor. Hatta bazıları padişahın sadıkların da nazarı dikkatini celb ediyor. Hatta bazıları padişahın aleyhinde olmadıkları halde tazyik ve takib neticesinde aksi surette mecbur edilerek hafi-aleyhinde olmadıkları halde tazyik ve takib neticesinde aksi surette mecbur edilerek hafi-yelerin ekmeğine yağ sürülüyor.]”yelerin ekmeğine yağ sürülüyor.]”

61 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” MuvazeneMuvazene, 44. Sayı, 24 Haziran 1314, 44. Sayı, 24 Haziran 1314 (6 Temmuz 1898), 2.(6 Temmuz 1898), 2.“(...) “(...) claiming to be protected and sponsored by the Sultan, they try to deceive people with their claiming to be protected and sponsored by the Sultan, they try to deceive people with their false pretenses, while proclaiming that they are not against the noble person (Sultan). false pretenses, while proclaiming that they are not against the noble person (Sultan). Their intention is to turn people away from theirTheir intention is to turn people away from their declared professions and deceive the state declared professions and deceive the state and the nation by creating a trap, as if there were important matters to attend to in and the nation by creating a trap, as if there were important matters to attend to in FilibeFilibe, in order to embezzle the funds of the state and the people. However, it is clear from their in order to embezzle the funds of the state and the people. However, it is clear from their

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One day, a person named İskender, who was a representative from Is-

One day, a person named İskender, who was a representative from Is-tanbul Court, sent a letter tanbul Court, sent a letter to Ali Fehmi expressing his desire to have a 30to Ali Fehmi expressing his desire to have a 30-minute interview with him. İskender mentioned that depending on the minute interview with him. İskender mentioned that depending on the situation, he could either visit Ali Fehmi or host him at the Bulgarian ho-situation, he could either visit Ali Fehmi or host him at the Bulgarian ho-tel where he was staying. Although Ali Fehmi did not know who İsketel where he was staying. Although Ali Fehmi did not know who İskender nder was, he decided to go to the Bulgarian hotel for the interview. There, he was, he decided to go to the Bulgarian hotel for the interview. There, he noticed that the person who sent the card was busy writing and receiving noticed that the person who sent the card was busy writing and receiving telegrams one after another. Despite İskender’s attempts to assure Ali telegrams one after another. Despite İskender’s attempts to assure Ali Fehmi that he received numerous tFehmi that he received numerous telegrams from his family and that he elegrams from his family and that he was not a spy for the government, Ali Fehmi’s suspicions were printed in was not a spy for the government, Ali Fehmi’s suspicions were printed in MuvazeneMuvazene, and he concluded that İskender was trying to collect infor-, and he concluded that İskender was trying to collect infor-mation just like the other spies of Sultan in Bulgaria, who were resulting mation just like the other spies of Sultan in Bulgaria, who were resulting in discontent among Bulgarian Muslims.discontent among Bulgarian Muslims.62

The spies in Filibe had made a considerable amount of money by pay-

The spies in Filibe had made a considerable amount of money by pay-ing local and foreign suppliers to confiscate the printed materials. Ac-ing local and foreign suppliers to confiscate the printed materials. Ac-cording to Ali Fehmi’s claim, an amount of 1050 lira was paid for this pur-cording to Ali Fehmi’s claim, an amount of 1050 lira was paid for this pur-pose, whpose, which could have been used to buy clothes for 1000 soldiers.ich could have been used to buy clothes for 1000 soldiers.63 In a In a reproachful manner towards the officials who attempted to deceive the reproachful manner towards the officials who attempted to deceive the printers with a promise of 500 francs, Ali Fehmi did not hesitate to ask, printers with a promise of 500 francs, Ali Fehmi did not hesitate to ask, “Have we written anything against the Sultan? A“Have we written anything against the Sultan? Are we writing such re we writing such things? Then what do the spies want from us?” He also added that in a things? Then what do the spies want from us?” He also added that in a region where the rule of law is implemented, such inappropriate actions region where the rule of law is implemented, such inappropriate actions would bring more harm than benefit.would bring more harm than benefit.64

actions that they are of n

actions that they are of no significance or importance. [(…) hafiye ve yataklarının padişah o significance or importance. [(…) hafiye ve yataklarının padişah tarafından himaye ve iltizam olunduğunu iddia ederek bir taraftan göz boyacılığı diğer tarafından himaye ve iltizam olunduğunu iddia ederek bir taraftan göz boyacılığı diğer cihetten muaccizlikleriyle ‘zatcihetten muaccizlikleriyle ‘zat-ı şahane aleyhinde değiliz’ diyenleri de ilan ettikleri mes-ı şahane aleyhinde değiliz’ diyenleri de ilan ettikleri mes-leklerinden leklerinden döndürmek ve bu suretle güya filibe de iş var imiş gibi devlet ve milletin para-döndürmek ve bu suretle güya filibe de iş var imiş gibi devlet ve milletin para-larını dolandırmak için bir tuzak tertibine çalışmak denaetinden haber ibaret ise de ha-larını dolandırmak için bir tuzak tertibine çalışmak denaetinden haber ibaret ise de ha-reketlerinin hiçbir ehemmiyeti olmadığı beyandan müstağnidir.]”reketlerinin hiçbir ehemmiyeti olmadığı beyandan müstağnidir.]”

62 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,“Bulgaristan Havadisi,” 36. Sayı, ” 36. Sayı, Muvazene,Muvazene, 29 Nisan Nisan 13141314 (11 Mayıs Mayıs 18981898), ), 2.

63 Ibid.Ibid.

64 Ibid, 3. Ibid, 3. Have we written anything against the Sultan? Are we criticizing him? If not, then Have we written anything against the Sultan? Are we criticizing him? If not, then what do the spies want from us? (...) Those who deceive the Sultan and plunder the nation, what do the spies want from us? (...) Those who deceive the Sultan and plunder the nation, causcausing oppression and abuse in his name, even the helpless Muslim villagers in Macedonia ing oppression and abuse in his name, even the helpless Muslim villagers in Macedonia

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

In one example, the Ottoman government reached an agreemen

In one example, the Ottoman government reached an agreement with t with M. Agop Dzeronian, an Armenian manufacturer of moveable type from M.Agop Dzeronian, an Armenian manufacturer of moveable type fromwhom Ali Fehmi purchased his own set, around the end of September whom Ali Fehmi purchased his own set, around the end of September 1897. As a result, Ali Fehmi's access to moveable type was hindered. This 1897. As a result, Ali Fehmi's access to moveable type was hindered. This strategy was a new step taken by the governstrategy was a new step taken by the government since Ali Fehmi did not ment since Ali Fehmi did not compromise with any government officials. In the “open letters” section compromise with any government officials. In the “open letters” section of of MuvazeneMuvazene’s 8th issue dated October 14, 1897, Ali Fehmi directly ad-’s 8th issue dated October 14, 1897, Ali Fehmi directly ad-dressed Dzeronian:dressed Dzeronian:

You wrote that you could not provide moveable types for us for les

You wrote that you could not provide moveable types for us for less than 2.50 francs because you witnessed our kindness. Despite agree-than 2.50 francs because you witnessed our kindness. Despite agree-ing to this price, in another letter, you mentioned that you would not ing to this price, in another letter, you mentioned that you would not be able to deliver them for who knows how many months due to vari-be able to deliver them for who knows how many months due to vari-ous conditions. Your letters are preserved. They sayous conditions. Your letters are preserved. They say that you have se-that you have se-cured the profit you would gain from those who order Turkish articles cured the profit you would gain from those who order Turkish articles through a foolish man who claims that he grew from begging on the through a foolish man who claims that he grew from begging on the docks, and who does not have any idea about our old letters. And we docks, and who does not have any idea about our old letters. And we are not surprised about not fulfillare not surprised about not fulfilling the orders we gave you for Enter-ing the orders we gave you for Enter-lin Bey, either. We procured them from Vienna. It is recommended that lin Bey, either. We procured them from Vienna. It is recommended that you make an exception for the Turkish articles you wrote in you make an exception for the Turkish articles you wrote in OtuzifOtuzif newspaper. Monsieur!newspaper. Monsieur!65

and Bulgaria suffer in silence, crying out in inner anguish. [Biz padişah aleyhinde bir şey

and Bulgaria suffer in silence, crying out in inner anguish. [Biz padişah aleyhinde bir şey yazdık mı? yazıyor muyuz? Öyle ise hafiyeler bizden ne istiyor. (…) Padişahı ayazdık mı? yazıyor muyuz? Öyle ise hafiyeler bizden ne istiyor. (…) Padişahı aldatmakla ldatmakla milleti soymakla teminmilleti soymakla temin-i taayyüş edenlerden padişah namına edilen zulüm ve i taayyüş edenlerden padişah namına edilen zulüm ve tecavüzlerden Makedonya Bulgarları değil seslerini işittiremeyen biçare köy Müslüman-tecavüzlerden Makedonya Bulgarları değil seslerini işittiremeyen biçare köy Müslüman-ları bile feryadları bile feryad-ı deruni ile tazallümı deruni ile tazallüm-ü hal ediyor.]”ü hal ediyor.]”

65 “Açık Mektuplar,” “Açık Mektuplar,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 7. Sayı, 1 Teşrinievvel 1313 (13 Ekim 1897), 4. 7. Sayı, 1 Teşrinievvel 1313 (13 Ekim 1897), 4. “Çok iyiliğini “Çok iyiliğini gördüğünüz için hurufatı bizim için 2,50 franktan aşağı yapamayacağınızı yazmış idiniz. gördüğünüz için hurufatı bizim için 2,50 franktan aşağı yapamayacağınızı yazmış idiniz. Bu fiyata razı olduğunuz hâlde diğer bir mektubunuzla bilmem kaç aydan evvel yapama-Bu fiyata razı olduğunuz hâlde diğer bir mektubunuzla bilmem kaç aydan evvel yapama-yacağınızı, daha bilmeyacağınızı, daha bilmem ne kadar şartlarla işar etmiş idiniz. Mektuplarınız mahfuzdur. m ne kadar şartlarla işar etmiş idiniz. Mektuplarınız mahfuzdur. Bizim eski harflerimizden gafil, rıhtımlar üzerinde dilencilikten başlayarak büyüdüğünü Bizim eski harflerimizden gafil, rıhtımlar üzerinde dilencilikten başlayarak büyüdüğünü söyleyen bir cahil herifin dostu ile Türkçe yazı sipariş edenlerden kazanacağınız kârı size söyleyen bir cahil herifin dostu ile Türkçe yazı sipariş edenlerden kazanacağınız kârı size temin etmiştemin etmişler diyorlar. Şimdi de Enterlin Bey için 5 yerden verdiğimiz siparişleri yap-ler diyorlar. Şimdi de Enterlin Bey için 5 yerden verdiğimiz siparişleri yap-

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In another instance, a person named Acem Ali Bey, whose guid

In another instance, a person named Acem Ali Bey, whose guidance ance came from Istanbul authorities, although unknown to Ali Fehmi, tried came from Istanbul authorities, although unknown to Ali Fehmi, tried several times to damage the molds and moveable types of several times to damage the molds and moveable types of MuvazeneMuvazene in in an attempt to gain control over its compositor, Mehmed. However, since an attempt to gain control over its compositor, Mehmed. However, since Acem Ali Bey could not offer Mehmed an entiAcem Ali Bey could not offer Mehmed an enticing proposition, this at-cing proposition, this at-tempt remained fruitless.tempt remained fruitless.66 Similarly, a person named Artın Efendi, who Similarly, a person named Artın Efendi, who wandered around Filibe disguised as a journalist, managed to collect all wandered around Filibe disguised as a journalist, managed to collect all the available moveable types in the city and deceived the compositors. the available moveable types in the city and deceived the compositors. The news that the compositor of The news that the compositor of MuvazeneMuvazene had been deceived was delihad been deceived was delib-b-erately spread, creating the perception that the newspaper would no erately spread, creating the perception that the newspaper would no longer be published.longer be published.67 Ali Fehmi had to deal with the recurring issue of Ali Fehmi had to deal with the recurring issue of the compositors and, as a precaution, started training an Armenian child the compositors and, as a precaution, started training an Armenian child to become a compositor. In the 11th issue to become a compositor. In the 11th issue of of MuvazeneMuvazene, Ali Fehmi proudly , Ali Fehmi proudly shared with the readers the accomplishment of publishing the newspa-shared with the readers the accomplishment of publishing the newspa-per on time, even in the face of numerous challenges, by handwriting the per on time, even in the face of numerous challenges, by handwriting the copies.copies.

In the 36th issue, he interpreted the obstruction of the export of type-

In the 36th issue, he interpreted the obstruction of the export of type-face mface machines by the Sublime Porte as “greasing the palms of the experts achines by the Sublime Porte as “greasing the palms of the experts in moveable types and the industry in Vienna and Bulgaria.”in moveable types and the industry in Vienna and Bulgaria.”68 It seems It seems that before the 44th issue was published, the spies made another attempt that before the 44th issue was published, the spies made another attempt to deceive the typesetter and printers, but Alto deceive the typesetter and printers, but Ali Fehmi emerged victorious i Fehmi emerged victorious from this endeavor as well.from this endeavor as well.69

madığınıza taaccüp etmedik. Viyana'dan tedarik ettik. Otuzif gazetesine yazdığınız Tü-

madığınıza taaccüp etmedik. Viyana'dan tedarik ettik. Otuzif gazetesine yazdığınız Tü-rkçe Frenkçe bilmem nece ilanından Türkçe yazı döktüğünüzü istisna etmeniz tavsiye olu-rkçe Frenkçe bilmem nece ilanından Türkçe yazı döktüğünüzü istisna etmeniz tavsiye olu-nur. Mösynur. Mösyo!”o!”

66 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 3636. Sayı, . Sayı, 2929 Nisan Nisan 13141314 ((1111 Mayıs Mayıs 18981898), ), 22..

67 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” MuvazeneMuvazene, 12. Sayı, 12 Teşrinisani 1313 (24 Kasım 1897), 2., 12. Sayı, 12 Teşrinisani 1313 (24 Kasım 1897), 2.

68 Ibid.Ibid.

69 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” MuvazeneMuvazene , 44. Sayı, 24 Haziran 1314 (6 Tem, 44. Sayı, 24 Haziran 1314 (6 Temmuz muz 18981898), ), 22..

“The spies and their accomplices in “The spies and their accomplices in FilibeFilibe have taken their indecency to the extreme. They have taken their indecency to the extreme. They have made every effort to deceive the publisher and disrupt ‘Muvazene’ by manipulating have made every effort to deceive the publisher and disrupt ‘Muvazene’ by manipulating the printers. However, their futile attempts were completely uthe printers. However, their futile attempts were completely understood last Tuesday, and nderstood last Tuesday, and they realized that they cannot achieve anything. [Filibe’de bulunan hafiye ve yatakları they realized that they cannot achieve anything. [Filibe’de bulunan hafiye ve yatakları

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

3.2.2 Ali Fehmi’s Demands for AmnestyAli Fehmi’s Demands for Amnesty

Despite his public posture criticizing the attempts by the center to co

Despite his public posture criticizing the attempts by the center to co-opt opt his critical publications, Ali Fehmi, due to financial problems and health his critical publications, Ali Fehmi, due to financial problems and health issues, ended up issues, ended up submitting two letters of regret to the Ottoman govern-submitting two letters of regret to the Ottoman govern-ment, and these letters were somewhat positively received. Being unable ment, and these letters were somewhat positively received. Being unable to travel to the empire without the threat of arrest under the surveillance to travel to the empire without the threat of arrest under the surveillance of the Ottoman authorities and the supervision of Bulgof the Ottoman authorities and the supervision of Bulgarian officials, he arian officials, he had to seek amnesty from the Ottoman officials.had to seek amnesty from the Ottoman officials.70 In his first petition In his first petition dated October 22, 1900, addressed to the Ottoman Commissionerate to dated October 22, 1900, addressed to the Ottoman Commissionerate to Bulgaria, Ali Fehmi expressed regret for what he had published in previ-Bulgaria, Ali Fehmi expressed regret for what he had published in previ-ous issues of ous issues of MuvazeneMuvazene and stated that his main objective was to contrib-stated that his main objective was to contrib-ute to the progress and education of the Muslim population in Rumelia. ute to the progress and education of the Muslim population in Rumelia. He added that even though he published his personal opinions, his inten-He added that even though he published his personal opinions, his inten-tion was never to oppose the Sultan, and emphasized that he was not tion was never to oppose the Sultan, and emphasized that he was not one one of the fugitives who fled to Europe.of the fugitives who fled to Europe.

In fact, Ali Fehmi’s request for amnesty, which aimed for the permis-

In fact, Ali Fehmi’s request for amnesty, which aimed for the permis-sion to sell sion to sell MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper throughout the Ottoman Empire, be-newspaper throughout the Ottoman Empire, be-came an opportunity for Ottoman officials. After all, imperial authorities came an opportunity for Ottoman officials. After all, imperial authorities had lonhad long sought to prevent the publication of g sought to prevent the publication of MuvazeneMuvazene, and the regret , and the regret expressed by the newspaper's owner was a means to easily put an end to expressed by the newspaper's owner was a means to easily put an end to such activities. By eliminating all the previous attributes of such activities. By eliminating all the previous attributes of MuvazeneMuvazene, changing its name, and removing “Fehmi” from Alichanging its name, and removing “Fehmi” from Ali Fehmi’s signature, the Fehmi’s signature, the authorities reasoned, the last obstacle to this “cleansing” would be the authorities reasoned, the last obstacle to this “cleansing” would be the disappearance of disappearance of MuvazeneMuvazene, which would be a great success for Ottoman , which would be a great success for Ottoman authorities in Bulgaria.authorities in Bulgaria.71

His second plea for imperial pardon was dated June 17, 1901, a

His second plea for imperial pardon was dated June 17, 1901, a peti-peti-tion delivered to the Ottoman Commissionerate by Mehmed Sabri, Ali tion delivered to the Ottoman Commissionerate by Mehmed Sabri, Ali Fehmi’s brother. Mehmed Sabri stated that he wrote the petition not only Fehmi’s brother. Mehmed Sabri stated that he wrote the petition not only

edepsizliklerini son dereceye çıkarmışlardır. Mürettibi, matbacıları kandırmakla ‘muva-

edepsizliklerini son dereceye çıkarmışlardır. Mürettibi, matbacıları kandırmakla ‘muva-zene’yi sekteye haber uğratmak gayretkeşliğinde cemil zene’yi sekteye haber uğratmak gayretkeşliğinde cemil merbuları bir halt edemeyecekle-merbuları bir halt edemeyecekle-rini dünki salı günü katiyen anlamışlardır.]”rini dünki salı günü katiyen anlamışlardır.]”

70 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation, 109109.

71 BOA, Y..PRK.MYD., BOA, Y..PRK.MYD., 23/4523/45, H, H-27 -06 -1318 .

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on behalf of Ali Fehmi but with the approval and encouragement of their

on behalf of Ali Fehmi but with the approval and encouragement of their entire family, and he attributed the misentire family, and he attributed the mistaken path followed by taken path followed by MuvazeneMuvazene, which had been published for four years, to Ali Fehmi’s illness. Mehmed which had been published for four years, to Ali Fehmi’s illness. Mehmed Sabri mentioned that Ali Fehmi would rest, and since he himself had no Sabri mentioned that Ali Fehmi would rest, and since he himself had no income, he was in need of 40income, he was in need of 40-50 liras. Therefore, he requested permis-50 liras. Therefore, he requested permis-sion to pubsion to publish a new newspaper with a different name and signature. lish a new newspaper with a different name and signature. Mehmed Sabri, who requested permission for a newspaper named Mehmed Sabri, who requested permission for a newspaper named KıymetKıymet on behalf of his family, also emphasized that if they were to engage on behalf of his family, also emphasized that if they were to engage in any daring actions after obtaining permission, they would in any daring actions after obtaining permission, they would accept any accept any punishment in advance. The petition also highlighted that among the punishment in advance. The petition also highlighted that among the TurkishTurkish-language newspapers that engaged in harmful publications language newspapers that engaged in harmful publications MuvazeneMuvazene was the only one remaining in the region.was the only one remaining in the region.72

Following Mehmed Sabri's petition, a letter dated June 17,

Following Mehmed Sabri's petition, a letter dated June 17, 1901, was 1901, was sent from the office of the Ottoman Commissionerate regarding Ali sent from the office of the Ottoman Commissionerate regarding Ali Fehmi’s plea. The commissioner Necib Melhame reported that an agree-Fehmi’s plea. The commissioner Necib Melhame reported that an agree-ment had been reached between the owner of ment had been reached between the owner of MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper, Ali newspaper, Ali Fehmi, who had engaged in “harmful” publicatioFehmi, who had engaged in “harmful” publications, and the Ottoman of-ns, and the Ottoman of-ficials. Necib Melhame emphasized that the ficials. Necib Melhame emphasized that the MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper which newspaper which had been engaged in opposition publications in Eastern Rumelia and Bul-had been engaged in opposition publications in Eastern Rumelia and Bul-garia for a while had now been shut down, and thus, there was no Turk-garia for a while had now been shut down, and thus, there was no Turk-ish -language harmful publiclanguage harmful publication left in the region. Following these state-ation left in the region. Following these state-ments, Necib Melhame requested permission for the publication of a ments, Necib Melhame requested permission for the publication of a newspaper called newspaper called KıymetKıymet, which would replace , which would replace MuvazeneMuvazene and be pub-and be pub-lished on behalf of Ali Fehmi. Additionally, drawing on the example of the lished on behalf of Ali Fehmi. Additionally, drawing on the example of the GayretGayret newspaper, which received funding for its pronewspaper, which received funding for its pro-regime publica-regime publica-tions, Necib Melhame requested a monthly payment of 1500 kuruş to btions, Necib Melhame requested a monthly payment of 1500 kuruş to be provided to the provided to the KıymetKıymet newspaper to encourage it to publish in the same newspaper to encourage it to publish in the same direction. According to this agreement, Filibeli Ali Fehmi would improve direction. According to this agreement, Filibeli Ali Fehmi would improve his style in his publications, permission would be granted for the circula-his style in his publications, permission would be granted for the circula-tion of the newspaper in Istanbul, tion of the newspaper in Istanbul, the new name of the newspaper would the new name of the newspaper would

72 BOA, Y..MTV., 217/9, HBOA, Y..MTV., 217/9, H-01 -03 -1319.

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

be KıymetKıymet, and Ali Fehmi's name would be removed from the signature , and Ali Fehmi's name would be removed from the signature section.section.73

Although Ali Fehmi wrote two letters of regret to the government,

Although Ali Fehmi wrote two letters of regret to the government, most likely due to financial difficulties, he did not shut down his newspa-most likely due to financial difficulties, he did not shut down his newspa-pe r despite the economic opportunities offered by the government. Ali r despite the economic opportunities offered by the government. Ali Fehmi, who did not give up his ideological stance in publishing, was con-Fehmi, who did not give up his ideological stance in publishing, was con-sidered by the Ottoman officials to be “unappreciative.”sidered by the Ottoman officials to be “unappreciative.”74 The Ottoman The Ottoman officials believed that the reason Ali Fehmi dofficials believed that the reason Ali Fehmi did not take advantage of the id not take advantage of the opportunities offered by the government was his pride. They believed opportunities offered by the government was his pride. They believed that Ali Fehmi’s pride was influenced by the fact that that Ali Fehmi’s pride was influenced by the fact that MuvazeneMuvazene began to began to be read even among Muslims in Russia at one point, and they did not be-be read even among Muslims in Russia at one point, and they did not be-lieve his excuslieve his excuse of illness.e of illness.75

73 BOA, Y..MTV., 217/9, HBOA, Y..MTV., 217/9, H-01 -03 -1319. “Ali Fehmi“Ali Fehmi Bey expressed his regret and apologized Bey expressed his regret and apologized to him in a Second Commissionerate, promising to correct his language. As a favor, per-to him in a Second Commissionerate, promising to correct his language. As a favor, per-mission was granted for the newspaper to enter Istanbul. [Ali Fehmi Bey’e ikinci kitabete mission was granted for the newspaper to enter Istanbul. [Ali Fehmi Bey’e ikinci kitabete müracaatla izharmüracaatla izhar-ı nedamet etmiş ve tadı nedamet etmiş ve tadil -i lisan edeceğini bilbeyan gazetesinin der-i lisan edeceğini bilbeyan gazetesinin der-saadete duhulüne müsaade olunması iltimas edilmişdir.]”saadete duhulüne müsaade olunması iltimas edilmişdir.]”

74 BOA, HR.SFR.04.., 453/25, 5, MBOA, HR.SFR.04.., 453/25, 5, M-14 -01 -1905. “Due to the Muvazene newspaper's failure “Due to the Muvazene newspaper's failure to achieve the desired impact and its dissemination of delusions, wto achieve the desired impact and its dissemination of delusions, which resulted in a low hich resulted in a low reputation among the Muslim community, it has twice expressed regret and sought refuge reputation among the Muslim community, it has twice expressed regret and sought refuge and forgiveness from its predecessors and readers, first in the years 313 and later in 316 and forgiveness from its predecessors and readers, first in the years 313 and later in 316 and 317. Although it managed to secure some degree of fand 317. Although it managed to secure some degree of forgiveness and the grace of His orgiveness and the grace of His Majesty the Sultan, either by making certain proposals that lacked sincerity or by attempt-Majesty the Sultan, either by making certain proposals that lacked sincerity or by attempt-ing to benefit personally from a larger platform, it ultimately failed to benefit from the ing to benefit personally from a larger platform, it ultimately failed to benefit from the audience's presence and remained in a stateaudience's presence and remained in a state of insignificance and obscurity.[Muvazene of insignificance and obscurity.[Muvazene gazetesi ümid ettiği tesiratı hasıl edememesi ve neşrettiği hezeyanları müntesibingazetesi ümid ettiği tesiratı hasıl edememesi ve neşrettiği hezeyanları müntesibin-i İslam i İslam nazarında bilakis zelil ve hakir olması hasebiyle birinci defası 313 ve diğeri 316 ve 317 nazarında bilakis zelil ve hakir olması hasebiyle birinci defası 313 ve diğeri 316 ve 317 senelerinde olmak üzere iki defasenelerinde olmak üzere iki defa izharizhar-ı nedamet ile selefı nedamet ile selef-i çakeraneme ve kemterlerine i çakeraneme ve kemterlerine müracaat ve iltica eylemiş ve mazharmüracaat ve iltica eylemiş ve mazhar-ı afv ve ıtlakı afv ve ıtlak-ı hazretı hazret-i padişahi padişah-ı azami olması bir ı azami olması bir dereceye kadar temin dahi edilmişken ya birtakım teklifdereceye kadar temin dahi edilmişken ya birtakım teklif-i malayutakta bulunarak veyahut i malayutakta bulunarak veyahut istifadeistifade-i şahsiyesinii şahsiyesini büyük makasıda temine çalışarak arzbüyük makasıda temine çalışarak arz-ı didarandan ve sairden isti-ı didarandan ve sairden isti-fadeye şitaban olmaması ve denaetinde kemakânfadeye şitaban olmaması ve denaetinde kemakân-puyan olmaya mahkum kalmışdır.]”puyan olmaya mahkum kalmışdır.]”

75 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation, 110110.

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3.2.3 The “Young Turkism” of Ali FehmiThe “Young Turkism” of Ali Fehmi

In the mid

In the mid-1890s, in addition to the main centers of the Young Turk 1890s, in addition to the main centers of the Young Turk movement such as Paris, Geneva, and Cairo, there were also active Young movement such as Paris, Geneva, and Cairo, there were also active Young Turk activities in the Balkans, with the most prominent ones locateTurk activities in the Balkans, with the most prominent ones located in d in Bulgaria. The reasons for the easy spread of the Young Turk movement in Bulgaria. The reasons for the easy spread of the Young Turk movement in the Balkans included practical factors such as the lack of control of Otto-the Balkans included practical factors such as the lack of control of Otto-man officials over the Young Turks as well as the appeal of the Young Turk man officials over the Young Turks as well as the appeal of the Young Turk publications in addressing thepublications in addressing the problems faced by the Muslim population problems faced by the Muslim population in the region.in the region.76 The popularity of the movement in Bulgaria was based on The popularity of the movement in Bulgaria was based on the rhetoric of educating and advancing the Muslim population.the rhetoric of educating and advancing the Muslim population.77 Con-Con-cerns about society were blended with Young Turk ideology, thus creat-cerns about society were blended with Young Turk ideology, thus creat-ing an ing an association between Muslim readers and Young Turk publications. association between Muslim readers and Young Turk publications. Indeed, Young Turk publications fearlessly published social, current, and Indeed, Young Turk publications fearlessly published social, current, and vibrant discussions, keeping the masses informed not only about re-vibrant discussions, keeping the masses informed not only about re-gional developments, but also global events. This wagional developments, but also global events. This was a characteristic of s a characteristic of the Young Turk activities, and in this context, Ali Fehmi, like Tahir Lütfü the Young Turk activities, and in this context, Ali Fehmi, like Tahir Lütfü and Mehmed Masum, contributed to the adaptation of the Young Turk and Mehmed Masum, contributed to the adaptation of the Young Turk ideology to the regional context.ideology to the regional context.78

In this context, Ali Fehmi’s claim of neutrality is not s

In this context, Ali Fehmi’s claim of neutrality is not surprising. He urprising. He narrated the experiences of the local population and opened discussions narrated the experiences of the local population and opened discussions on various issues. The problems faced by the Muslim population in Bul-on various issues. The problems faced by the Muslim population in Bul-garia were projected onto the persecution experienced by Muslims in garia were projected onto the persecution experienced by Muslims in other parts of the world, which iother parts of the world, which increased Ali Fehmi’s enthusiasm for the ncreased Ali Fehmi’s enthusiasm for the struggle. Initially, struggle. Initially, MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper expressed carefully its criticisms newspaper expressed carefully its criticisms of the Bulgarian efforts at nationof the Bulgarian efforts at nation-building, a critical stance that did not building, a critical stance that did not seem to bother Bulgarian authorities. Over the course of time, hoseem to bother Bulgarian authorities. Over the course of time, however, wever, tensions escalated because Ali Fehmi increased his criticisms of the treat-tensions escalated because Ali Fehmi increased his criticisms of the treat-

76 IbidIbid, 126 .

77 IbidIbid.

78 IbidIbid.

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

ment of Muslims in the region and the ambitions of Bulgarians in Otto-

ment of Muslims in the region and the ambitions of Bulgarians in Otto-man Macedonia.man Macedonia.79 The opinions of the Muslim population in Filibe re-The opinions of the Muslim population in Filibe re-garding garding MuvazeneMuvazene were diverse, with bothwere diverse, with both supporters and opponents. supporters and opponents. Antipathy towards Antipathy towards MuvazeneMuvazene increased, especially due to its destructive increased, especially due to its destructive criticism of the regime in later issues.criticism of the regime in later issues.80 Ali Fehmi was an important Ali Fehmi was an important Young Turk figure in Bulgaria, and as Methodieva also suggests, there is Young Turk figure in Bulgaria, and as Methodieva also suggests, there is little doubt ablittle doubt about the content of his newspaper and his sympathies. How-out the content of his newspaper and his sympathies. How-ever, Ali Fehmi denied this and did not define ever, Ali Fehmi denied this and did not define MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper as a newspaper as a Young Turk publication, always emphasizing its neutrality.Young Turk publication, always emphasizing its neutrality.81

In January 1901, Ali Fehmi

In January 1901, Ali Fehmi attempted to runattempted to run as a candidate in the Buas a candidate in the Bul- garian parliamentary elections and published a brochure titled “Bulgar-garian parliamentary elections and published a brochure titled “Bulgar-ian Muslims,” which illustrated his continued interest in the local condi-ian Muslims,” which illustrated his continued interest in the local condi-tions of Muslims in the country. Although he was not elected to the tions of Muslims in the country. Although he was not elected to the parliament, the brochure he published was noparliament, the brochure he published was not only a political propa-t only a political propa-ganda but also a comprehensive reform for the Muslim community.ganda but also a comprehensive reform for the Muslim community.82 Eventually, Ali Fehmi returned to journalism. In 1901, he moved Eventually, Ali Fehmi returned to journalism. In 1901, he moved Muva-Muva-zenezene to Varna, where to Varna, where MuvazeneMuvazene continued to be published until 1903.continued to be published until 1903.83 Since there is no evidence aboSince there is no evidence about the reason of his move from Filibe, it can ut the reason of his move from Filibe, it can be argued that he probably moved be argued that he probably moved MuvazeneMuvazene to Varna due to economic to Varna due to economic reasons.reasons.

In the early days of publishing his newspaper, it is clear that Ali Fehmi

In the early days of publishing his newspaper, it is clear that Ali Fehmi pragmatically emphasized neutrality in the contentious politpragmatically emphasized neutrality in the contentious political atmos-ical atmos-phere of the time. Nevertheless, he was indeed a Young Turk. First and phere of the time. Nevertheless, he was indeed a Young Turk. First and foremost, during the period when foremost, during the period when MuvazeneMuvazene was published in Varna, in was published in Varna, in 1902, he was invited to Paris to participate in the Young Turk Congress 1902, he was invited to Paris to participate in the Young Turk Congress as the representative of Muslims. as the representative of Muslims. He maintained his neutrality amidst He maintained his neutrality amidst factional divisions within the society.factional divisions within the society.84 At that time, the power struggles At that time, the power struggles

79 IbidIbid, 109 .

80 IbidIbid.

81 IbidIbid.

82 IbidIbid, 110 .

83 Hanioğlu, Hanioğlu, Preparation for a RevolutionPreparation for a Revolution, 74 .

84 BOA, Y..MTV., BOA, Y..MTV., 225/95225/95, H, H-17 -10 -1319 .

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between different groups in Paris, Geneva, and Cairo did not extend to

between different groups in Paris, Geneva, and Cairo did not extend to the Balkans, so Ali Fehmi’s neutral stance was seen as a pragmatic ap-the Balkans, so Ali Fehmi’s neutral stance was seen as a pragmatic ap-proacproach to gaining support from all groups.h to gaining support from all groups.85 During his journey to the During his journey to the 1902 congress, he also traveled to Switzerland, Austria1902 congress, he also traveled to Switzerland, Austria--Hungary, and Ro-Hungary, and Ro-mania, and shared his experiences in mania, and shared his experiences in MuvazeneMuvazene issues.issues.86 Additionally, he Additionally, he mentioned the discussions and decisions made at mentioned the discussions and decisions made at the Paris meeting in his the Paris meeting in his newspaper, as seen in the document sent from Varna to the Sofia Com-newspaper, as seen in the document sent from Varna to the Sofia Com-mission.mission.87

3.2.4

3.2.4 Dealing With MuvazeneDealing With Muvazene

After returning to Filibe from Varna in January 1903, Filibeli Ali Fehmi

After returning to Filibe from Varna in January 1903, Filibeli Ali Fehmi was appointed as a court clerk in Filibe. However, accordinwas appointed as a court clerk in Filibe. However, according to the rec-g to the rec-ords, his family did not provide much support for his activities, and his ords, his family did not provide much support for his activities, and his brother Mehmed Sabri even refused to sit at the same table. It is alleged brother Mehmed Sabri even refused to sit at the same table. It is alleged that Ali Fehmi mthat Ali Fehmi managed to improve his situation by receiving money from anaged to improve his situation by receiving money from Damad Mahmud Paşa in Varna, which helped him save his seized printing Damad Mahmud Paşa in Varna, which helped him save his seized printing press and made him to decide to publish his newspaper in Filibe.press and made him to decide to publish his newspaper in Filibe.88

85 Hanioğlu, Hanioğlu, Preparation for a RevolutionPreparation for a Revolution, , 7373..

86 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation, , 109109. .

87 BOA, HR.SFR.04.., 220/72/7, MBOA, HR.SFR.04.., 220/72/7, M--1414--0101--1905. 1905. “Acc“According to the information and regula-ording to the information and regula-tions that were circulating in the mentioned society, Ali Fehmi Efendi's newspaper, which tions that were circulating in the mentioned society, Ali Fehmi Efendi's newspaper, which was published yesterday, addressed various facts, knowledge, and decisions (...) [Mu-was published yesterday, addressed various facts, knowledge, and decisions (...) [Mu-maileyh Ali Fehmi Efendi’nin dünki gün neşretmmaileyh Ali Fehmi Efendi’nin dünki gün neşretmiş olduğu gazetesi cemiyetiş olduğu gazetesi cemiyet--i mezkurede i mezkurede cereyan etmiş olan malumat ve hükalemat ve mukarrerattan bahis bulunmuş olduğuna cereyan etmiş olan malumat ve hükalemat ve mukarrerattan bahis bulunmuş olduğuna mebni (...)]mebni (...)]

88 BOA, HR.SFR.04.. 220/72/3, MBOA, HR.SFR.04.. 220/72/3, M--2828--0101--1903 1903 “Having arranged his appearance and cloth-“Having arranged his appearance and cloth-ing in Varna, it is evident that he suing in Varna, it is evident that he sustained himself with the money he obtained from stained himself with the money he obtained from Damad Mahmud Paşa and managed to save his press materials when he arrived in Filibe. Damad Mahmud Paşa and managed to save his press materials when he arrived in Filibe. As a result, he decided to publish his newspaper in Filibe and began its publication in the As a result, he decided to publish his newspaper in Filibe and began its publication in the current year. [Varna’da kılık vcurrent year. [Varna’da kılık ve kıyafeti düzmüş ve revişe kıyafeti düzmüş ve reviş--i halden anlaşıldığına göre i halden anlaşıldığına göre Damad Mahmud Paşa’dan çektiği paralarıyla karnını doyurmuş olduğundan Filibe’ye Damad Mahmud Paşa’dan çektiği paralarıyla karnını doyurmuş olduğundan Filibe’ye vüruduyla beraber tahtvüruduyla beraber taht--ı hacizde bulunan hurufatını kurtararak seneı hacizde bulunan hurufatını kurtararak sene--yi hazıra zarfında yi hazıra zarfında gazetesini Filibe’de neşre karar vgazetesini Filibe’de neşre karar vermiş ve neşretmeye başlamıştır.]”ermiş ve neşretmeye başlamıştır.]”

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

Ottoman representatives filed a lawsuit against Ali Fehmi in Va

Ottoman representatives filed a lawsuit against Ali Fehmi in Varna, rna, accusing him of using antiaccusing him of using anti-sultan language in his newspaper in an at-sultan language in his newspaper in an at-tempt to shut it down.tempt to shut it down.89 A war between the Ottoman Empire and A war between the Ottoman Empire and Muva-Muva-zenezene began due to the bold publications of began due to the bold publications of MuvazeneMuvazene, which were deemed , which were deemed “indecent and malicious” by the Ottoman authori“indecent and malicious” by the Ottoman authorities in Filibe. There was ties in Filibe. There was concern that if the newspaper continued to be published, the inappropri-concern that if the newspaper continued to be published, the inappropri-ate and unworthy demands of ate and unworthy demands of MuvazeneMuvazene sympathizers would increase. sympathizers would increase. With tensions already high in Filibe, it was essential to close With tensions already high in Filibe, it was essential to close MuvazeneMuvazene to to prevent the emergprevent the emergence of new conflicts.ence of new conflicts.90 When Ali Fehmi published the When Ali Fehmi published the 263rd issue of his newspaper on January 21, 1903, he was in Filibe, 263rd issue of his newspaper on January 21, 1903, he was in Filibe, where he had moved the newspaper due to his appointment as a court where he had moved the newspaper due to his appointment as a court clerk. From this point on, Ali Fehmi began to attract the backlash oclerk. From this point on, Ali Fehmi began to attract the backlash of Bul-f Bul-garians and nationalists in Ottoman Macedonia.garians and nationalists in Ottoman Macedonia.91

The coverage of

The coverage of MuvazeneMuvazene of world politics also had the potential to of world politics also had the potential to put the local government in a difficult situation. Ali Fehmi’s aggressive put the local government in a difficult situation. Ali Fehmi’s aggressive language towards the Russians regarding the Russolanguage towards the Russians regarding the Russo-Japanese Japanese War, his War, his criticism of the Bulgarian government, and his writings about Bulgarian criticism of the Bulgarian government, and his writings about Bulgarian revolutionaries could have disturbed the Bulgarian government, which revolutionaries could have disturbed the Bulgarian government, which could have had negative consequences for Muslims in Rumelia. The clo-could have had negative consequences for Muslims in Rumelia. The clo-sure of the newspaper seemed imminent,sure of the newspaper seemed imminent, not because of its criticisms of not because of its criticisms of the Sultan’s rule, but due to the newspaper’s growing potential to meddle the Sultan’s rule, but due to the newspaper’s growing potential to meddle into the politics of the Muslim minorities in Bulgaria. However, despite into the politics of the Muslim minorities in Bulgaria. However, despite the demands of the Bulgarian press in Filibe, the Bulgarian government the demands of the Bulgarian press in Filibe, the Bulgarian government did did not take any measures, and since there was “freedom of the press” in not take any measures, and since there was “freedom of the press” in the region, attempts to completely close the region, attempts to completely close MuvazeneMuvazene remained unsuccess-remained unsuccess-ful until 1905.ful until 1905.92 In this context, the Russian consul was informed about In this context, the Russian consul was informed about

89 Hanioğlu, Hanioğlu, Preparation for a RevolutionPreparation for a Revolution, 74 .

90 BOA, HR.SFR.BOA, HR.SFR.04 .., 453/25/4453/25/4, M, M-14 -01 -1905 .

91 Hanioğlu, Hanioğlu, Preparation for a RevolutionPreparation for a Revolution, 74 .

92 BOA, HR.SFR.04.., 453/25/4, MBOA, HR.SFR.04.., 453/25/4, M-14 -01 -1905. “Considering the demand and publi“Considering the demand and publication of cation of the Bulgarian press in the Bulgarian press in FilibeFilibe, it is apparent that no measures have been taken by the Bul-, it is apparent that no measures have been taken by the Bul-garian government regarding Muvazene. In light of this observation, it is strongly evident garian government regarding Muvazene. In light of this observation, it is strongly evident that the Bulgarian government, by engaging in such an endeavor, wothat the Bulgarian government, by engaging in such an endeavor, would attempt to exploit uld attempt to exploit certain interests and sell an inexpensive service at an exorbitant price. [Filibe’deki Bulgar certain interests and sell an inexpensive service at an exorbitant price. [Filibe’deki Bulgar

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Muvazene

Muvazene’s anti’s anti-Russian sentiments and its instRussian sentiments and its instigation of the “Islamic igation of the “Islamic world against the Russians.”world against the Russians.”93

Filibeli Ali Fehmi raised a question in his newspaper that would likely

Filibeli Ali Fehmi raised a question in his newspaper that would likely intrigue everyone’s mind, “What would happen if a war broke out be-intrigue everyone’s mind, “What would happen if a war broke out be-tween Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire?” At a time when Bulgariatween Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire?” At a time when Bulgarian rev-n rev-olutionaries were rampant, and the atmosphere was filled with rumors olutionaries were rampant, and the atmosphere was filled with rumors of rebellion and revenge, such a war was possible, and the Bulgarians had of rebellion and revenge, such a war was possible, and the Bulgarians had become bolder thanks to their trust in Russia. Indeed, during the period become bolder thanks to their trust in Russia. Indeed, during the period when Russia was at war with Japan, when Russia was at war with Japan, Bulgarians had great confidence in Bulgarians had great confidence in Russia. Therefore, Ali Fehmi questioned what Muslims would do in such Russia. Therefore, Ali Fehmi questioned what Muslims would do in such a scenario, what steps they would take to protect their properties and a scenario, what steps they would take to protect their properties and honor, which major powers could help them, and whom they could seek honor, which major powers could help them, and whom they could seek assistance fassistance from in case of looting and attacks. According to Ali Fehmi, mi-rom in case of looting and attacks. According to Ali Fehmi, mi-gration would be the most reasonable choice in such a scenario.gration would be the most reasonable choice in such a scenario.94

First,

First, MuvazeneMuvazene was banned from entering Russia. In March 1905, In was banned from entering Russia. In March 1905, In March 1905, the March 1905, the MuvazeneMuvazene printing press was set on fire by thprinting press was set on fire by the

matbuatının talep ve neşriyatına rağmen Bulgar hükümet

matbuatının talep ve neşriyatına rağmen Bulgar hükümet-i hazırasınca Muvazene i hazırasınca Muvazene hakkında hiçbir gûne tedbir alınmamış olduğunu nazarhakkında hiçbir gûne tedbir alınmamış olduğunu nazar-ı dikkatı dikkate alındığı takdirde böyle e alındığı takdirde böyle bir teşebbüsle Bulgar hükümetinin birtakım menafibir teşebbüsle Bulgar hükümetinin birtakım menafi-i temine kıyam ile burada ucuz bir i temine kıyam ile burada ucuz bir hizmeti pahalıya satmaya çalışacağı kaviyyen melfuzdur.]”hizmeti pahalıya satmaya çalışacağı kaviyyen melfuzdur.]”

93 BOA, HR.SFR.04.., 453/25/4, MBOA, HR.SFR.04.., 453/25/4, M-14 -01 -1905. “It is necessary for the aforementioned “It is necessary for the aforementioned ne wspaper to be aware that its content may not have a positive impact. Therefore, it was wspaper to be aware that its content may not have a positive impact. Therefore, it was deemed necessary to meet with the Russian consul in deemed necessary to meet with the Russian consul in FilibeFilibe and convince him to have these and convince him to have these facts written by Monsieur Bahmetika, the Sofia correspondent. If necessary, whefacts written by Monsieur Bahmetika, the Sofia correspondent. If necessary, when we meet n we meet with Monsieur Bahmetif regarding this matter, it will be stated that you are authorized to with Monsieur Bahmetif regarding this matter, it will be stated that you are authorized to convey the message to the consul. The necessary arrangements have been made convey the message to the consul. The necessary arrangements have been made for the for the preparation of the written materials. [Mezkur gazete münderecatının her halde hüsnpreparation of the written materials. [Mezkur gazete münderecatının her halde hüsn-i tesiri olmayacağını bilmesi lazım gelen Filibe Rus konsolosu ile görüşerek işbu hakayıkı tesiri olmayacağını bilmesi lazım gelen Filibe Rus konsolosu ile görüşerek işbu hakayıkı Sofya Cenerali Mösyö Bahmetika yazılmağa ikna edilmesini ve icab eder ise Sofya Cenerali Mösyö Bahmetika yazılmağa ikna edilmesini ve icab eder ise Mösyö Mösyö Bahmetif ile bu babda görüşmüş olduğumuzda mumaileyh konsolosa söylemeye mezun Bahmetif ile bu babda görüşmüş olduğumuzda mumaileyh konsolosa söylemeye mezun olduğunuzu beyan zımnında tahrirat terkim kılındı.]olduğunuzu beyan zımnında tahrirat terkim kılındı.]

94 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation, 214214.

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

Vu’rkhovist Committee as a sign of these troubled relations.

Vu’rkhovist Committee as a sign of these troubled relations.95 After this After this incident, Ali Fehmi was deported from Bulgaria in same year and went to incident, Ali Fehmi was deported from Bulgaria in same year and went to Paris. During this period, he faced the dangers of arrest and deportation Paris. During this period, he faced the dangers of arrest and deportation in Europe. Eventually, he chose to in Europe. Eventually, he chose to settle in Geneva. Mehmed Sabri’s opin-settle in Geneva. Mehmed Sabri’s opin-ion about the article that caused indignation was that this article had dis-ion about the article that caused indignation was that this article had dis-turbed Bulgarians more than Muslims.turbed Bulgarians more than Muslims. 96 Instead of debating the accuracy Instead of debating the accuracy of Mehmed Sabri’s proposition, it would be more accurate to say that of Mehmed Sabri’s proposition, it would be more accurate to say that MuvMuvazeneazene was not closed due to a single question; rather, that question was not closed due to a single question; rather, that question served as the spark that ignited the fuse. According to Ali Fehmi’s own served as the spark that ignited the fuse. According to Ali Fehmi’s own words in which he addresses his past troubles, Ali Fehmi stated that the words in which he addresses his past troubles, Ali Fehmi stated that the Bulgarian government decided to hand over Bulgarian government decided to hand over Ali Fehmi to AbdAli Fehmi to Abdülhamid in lhamid in exchange for a desired trade agreement with the Ottoman government.exchange for a desired trade agreement with the Ottoman government. 97

3.2.5 Ali Fehmi in GenevaAli Fehmi in Geneva

Ali Fehmi chose to settle in Geneva and published a few more issues of

Ali Fehmi chose to settle in Geneva and published a few more issues of MuvazeneMuvazene there. Adem Ruhi Karagöz indicates that the first issue wasthere. Adem Ruhi Karagöz indicates that the first issue was published on June 21, 1905.published on June 21, 1905.98 While in Geneva, he decided to join the While in Geneva, he decided to join the Young Turks in November 1906. Ottoman officials believed that during Young Turks in November 1906. Ottoman officials believed that during this time, Ali Fehmi sought assistance from the Young Turks in Geneva, this time, Ali Fehmi sought assistance from the Young Turks in Geneva, which they referred to as “agents of corruptiowhich they referred to as “agents of corruption,” noting that that the com-n,” noting that that the com-mittee members supported him because they shared the same ideology. mittee members supported him because they shared the same ideology.

95 Vŭrkhoven Vŭrkhoven (Върховен) (Върховен) means supreme in Bulgarian, which means these means supreme in Bulgarian, which means these were mem-were mem-bers or supporters of Supreme Macedonian Committee. “By the end of 1895 the Mace-bers or supporters of Supreme Macedonian Committee. “By the end of 1895 the Mace-donian movement in Bulgaria had strengthened considerably and in its second congress donian movement in Bulgaria had strengthened considerably and in its second congress the central committee renamed itself the Supreme Macedonian Committee; this was a the central committee renamed itself the Supreme Macedonian Committee; this was a reaction to the foundation in 1893 of what was later to become the Internal Macedo-eaction to the foundation in 1893 of what was later to become the Internal Macedo-niannian-Adrianople Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) which aimed for Macedonian au-Adrianople Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) which aimed for Macedonian au-tonomy rather than union with Bulgaria and which was soon to be in bitter rivalry with tonomy rather than union with Bulgaria and which was soon to be in bitter rivalry with the Bulgathe Bulgarian ‘supremacists’.” rian ‘supremacists’.” Robert J. Robert J. Crampton, Crampton, A Concise HistoryA Concise History Bulgaria, Bulgaria, (New York: (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007)Oxford University Press, 2007), 151.

96 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation, 111111.

97 “Arz“Arz-ı Meram,” ı Meram,” MuvazeneMuvazene, 376376. Sayı, . Sayı, 5 Teşrinievvel Teşrinievvel 13271327 (18 Ekim Ekim 19111911), ), 1.

98 Karagöz, Karagöz, Bulgaristan Türk BasınıBulgaristan Türk Basını, 120 .

F I L I B E L I A L I F EHMI ( 1871 - 1 9 2 2 ) A ND MUVA Z E NE NEWS PA P E R

Although

Although MuvazeneMuvazene did not receive much attention in Geneva, it contin-did not receive much attention in Geneva, it contin-ued to be published due to the financial support of committee members ued to be published due to the financial support of committee members until 1907.until 1907.99 BulgariaBulgarians framed Ali Fehmi as “an Asian who was the en-ns framed Ali Fehmi as “an Asian who was the en-emy of civilization” (emy of civilization” (medemedeniyet düşmanı Asyalı Ali Fehminiyet düşmanı Asyalı Ali Fehmi), hoping that he ), hoping that he would abandon his activities in exchange for bribes from Istanbul. How-would abandon his activities in exchange for bribes from Istanbul. How-ever, instead of returning to Istanbul, he had already decided to go to Af-ever, instead of returning to Istanbul, he had already decided to go to Af-ghanistan.ghanistan.100

3.2.6 The Successor of Muvazene: AhaliThe Successor of Muvazene: Ahali

After Ali Fehmi mov

After Ali Fehmi moved to Geneva, his brother Mehmed Sabri became the ed to Geneva, his brother Mehmed Sabri became the publisher of the newspaper in Filibe. Mehmed Sabri, with the intention publisher of the newspaper in Filibe. Mehmed Sabri, with the intention of continuing of continuing MuvazeneMuvazene, published two newspapers under the name , published two newspapers under the name AhaliAhali on April 6 and 7, 1905.on April 6 and 7, 1905.101 Yunus Reşid and Talha Kemali assisted Yunus Reşid and Talha Kemali assisted Me hmed Sabri, and Ali Fehmi also sent letters to Mehmed Sabri from Ge-hmed Sabri, and Ali Fehmi also sent letters to Mehmed Sabri from Ge-neva. However, the Bulgarian government refused to accept the publica-neva. However, the Bulgarian government refused to accept the publica-tion of tion of MuvazeneMuvazene, even under a different title., even under a different title.102 Ottoman authorities Ottoman authorities raised concerns about the possibility and danger ofraised concerns about the possibility and danger of Mehmed Sabri being Mehmed Sabri being assaulted one day and the newspaper building being raided.assaulted one day and the newspaper building being raided.103 Indeed, Indeed,

99 BOA, HR.SFR.04.., 453/25/4, MBOA, HR.SFR.04.., 453/25/4, M-14 -01 -1905. “Due to the strong publications against the “Due to the strong publications against the Russians, entry into Russia has been prohibitedRussians, entry into Russia has been prohibited (...) the newspaper itself has made the de-(...) the newspaper itself has made the de-cision to travel from cision to travel from FilibeFilibe to Geneva in order to salvage a share for itself from the trou-to Geneva in order to salvage a share for itself from the trou-blemakers in that area. The fact that the newspaper is not being read or popularized in blemakers in that area. The fact that the newspaper is not being read or popularized in these regions reinforces the beliethese regions reinforces the belief that it is being f that it is being supported by the troublemakers in Eu-supported by the troublemakers in Eu-rope. [(...) Ruslar hakkındaki neşriyatrope. [(...) Ruslar hakkındaki neşriyat-ı şedidesi üzerine Rusya’ya duhulü men edilmesi ı şedidesi üzerine Rusya’ya duhulü men edilmesi üzerine (...) bizzat Filibe’den Cenevre’ye azimetle oradaki erbabüzerine (...) bizzat Filibe’den Cenevre’ye azimetle oradaki erbab-ı fesadın hisseı fesadın hisse-i temed-i temed-duundan Muvazene’ye bir pay kurtarabilmek hduundan Muvazene’ye bir pay kurtarabilmek hevesine düşmüştür. Gazetenin buralarda evesine düşmüştür. Gazetenin buralarda okunmaması ve revaç bulmaması ile beraber neşrinin devamı buna Avrupa’daki müfsitler okunmaması ve revaç bulmaması ile beraber neşrinin devamı buna Avrupa’daki müfsitler tarafından muavenet olduğu fikrini takviye etmektedir.]tarafından muavenet olduğu fikrini takviye etmektedir.]

100 “Arz“Arz-ı Meram,” ı Meram,” MuvazeneMuvazene, 376. Sayı, 5 Teşrinievvel 1327 (18 Ekim 1911), , 376. Sayı, 5 Teşrinievvel 1327 (18 Ekim 1911), 1.

101 Karagöz, Karagöz, Bulgaristan Türk BasınıBulgaristan Türk Basını, 29 .

102 Hanioğlu, Hanioğlu, Preparation for a RevolutionPreparation for a Revolution, 74 .

103 BOA, HR.SFR.04.., 453/25/4, MBOA, HR.SFR.04.., 453/25/4, M-14 -01 -1905. “Ali Fehmi, primarily out of fear of residing “Ali Fehmi, primarily out of fear of residing in in FilibeFilibe, had moved to Geneva, where he continued to write and publish, had moved to Geneva, where he continued to write and publish articles that in-articles that in-tensified the animosity and grudges of the Bulgarians. It was a known fact that his brother tensified the animosity and grudges of the Bulgarians. It was a known fact that his brother

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

Yunus Reşid was seriously assaulted by Vu’rkhovists, and Talha Kemali

Yunus Reşid was seriously assaulted by Vu’rkhovists, and Talha Kemali left the city and began working as an elementary school teacher in Pa-left the city and began working as an elementary school teacher in Pa-zarcık.zarcık.104 Mehmed Sabri received a sentence for “inciting the subjects Mehmed Sabri received a sentence for “inciting the subjects against the Principality of Bulgaria” aagainst the Principality of Bulgaria” and “inviting Ottoman intervention nd “inviting Ottoman intervention against the Principality of Bulgaria.”against the Principality of Bulgaria.”105 The Bulgarian government ini-The Bulgarian government ini-tially sentenced him to death but later commuted the sentence to 3.5 tially sentenced him to death but later commuted the sentence to 3.5 years in prison and a fine of 2,000 leva.years in prison and a fine of 2,000 leva.106

After seven months and twenty

After seven months and twenty-four days, Mfour days, Mehmed Sabri was re-ehmed Sabri was re-leased from prison, Reşit Efendi recovered, and Talha Kemali Efendi re-leased from prison, Reşit Efendi recovered, and Talha Kemali Efendi re-signed from his position and returned to Filibe. Thus, they managed to signed from his position and returned to Filibe. Thus, they managed to resume the publication of resume the publication of AhaliAhali in late 1906. The newspaper, which in late 1906. The newspaper, which started its publication again started its publication again in November 1906, continued until August in November 1906, continued until August 1, 1908. Like 1, 1908. Like MuvazeneMuvazene, it was printed at the Tırgovska Peçatnitsa print-, it was printed at the Tırgovska Peçatnitsa print-ing press in Filibe.ing press in Filibe.107 AhaliAhali promised to publish letters from the local pop-promised to publish letters from the local pop-ulations, which aligned with ulations, which aligned with MuvazeneMuvazene's editorial line, discuss issue's editorial line, discuss issues rel-s rel-evant to Muslims, present articles from Tatars, Circassians, Georgians, evant to Muslims, present articles from Tatars, Circassians, Georgians, and Turkmen people, provide information about Turks living in regions and Turkmen people, provide information about Turks living in regions under Russian hegemony, and compare the implementation of the Otto-under Russian hegemony, and compare the implementation of the Otto-man ConstitutionConstitution (Kanun(Kanun-i Esasii Esasi) in) in differedifferent parts of the world.nt parts of the world.108 The The

Sabri would eventually be subjected to assault and his office would be raided and devas-

Sabri would eventually be subjected to assault and his office would be raided and devas-tated. The authorities in tated. The authorities in FilibeFilibe were eagerly awaiting such were eagerly awaiting such an incident, anticipating the an incident, anticipating the downfall of the government. [Esasen Ali Fehmi’nin Filibe’de ikametten korkarak downfall of the government. [Esasen Ali Fehmi’nin Filibe’de ikametten korkarak Cenevre’ye çekilmiş olması ve oradan yazıp burada biraderi tarafından tab edilen neşri-Cenevre’ye çekilmiş olması ve oradan yazıp burada biraderi tarafından tab edilen neşri-yatı Bulgarların kin ve garazlerini tezyid etmekte bulunması yatı Bulgarların kin ve garazlerini tezyid etmekte bulunması cihetiyle günün birinde bira-cihetiyle günün birinde bira-deri Sabri’nin bir yerde darp ve idarehanesinin basılıp perişan edileceği, Filibe’deki istigaderi Sabri’nin bir yerde darp ve idarehanesinin basılıp perişan edileceği, Filibe’deki istiga-yı hükümetyı hükümet-i seniyye’nin intizar eyledikleri bir hakikatti.]i seniyye’nin intizar eyledikleri bir hakikatti.]

104 Hanioğlu, Hanioğlu, Preparation for a Revolution,Preparation for a Revolution, 74 .

105 IbidIbid.

106 Ibid.Ibid.

107 Ahalihali, 22 Teşrinievvel Teşrinievvel 13221322, 4.

108 “Mütalaat“Mütalaat-ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” AhaliAhali, 29 Teşrinisani 1322, 1., 29 Teşrinisani 1322, 1.

F I L I B E L I A L I F EHMI ( 1871 - 1 9 2 2 ) A ND MUVA Z E NE NEWS PA P E R

newspaper declared that it would serve the ideas of freedom and consti-

newspaper declared that it would serve the ideas of freedom and consti-tutionalism and criticize Sultan Abdtutionalism and criticize Sultan Abdüülhamid, just like lhamid, just like MuvazeneMuvazene, while re-, while re-maining neutral.maining neutral.109

During this time, Ali Fehmi decided to join the Young Turks in Gen

During this time, Ali Fehmi decided to join the Young Turks in Geneva eva in November 1906, but he could not continue publishing the newspaper in November 1906, but he could not continue publishing the newspaper in Switzerland.in Switzerland.110 He left Geneva sometime between 1906 and 1907. His He left Geneva sometime between 1906 and 1907. His father, who resided in Filibe, informed the Ottoman officials that he had father, who resided in Filibe, informed the Ottoman officials that he had been invited to Egypt and, along with hisbeen invited to Egypt and, along with his friends, had boarded a ship from friends, had boarded a ship from Suez heading towards Indian waters.Suez heading towards Indian waters.111 Upon receiving this information, Upon receiving this information, the Bulgarian Commissioner issued a warning, and Ali Fehmi was closely the Bulgarian Commissioner issued a warning, and Ali Fehmi was closely monitored to ensure he did not engage in any antimonitored to ensure he did not engage in any anti--government activities; government activities; and variand various precautionary plans were made to prevent him from making ous precautionary plans were made to prevent him from making any antiany anti--government attempts.government attempts.112 Ottoman officials discovered that Ali Ottoman officials discovered that Ali Fehmi had actually gone to Egypt upon the invitation of a member of the Fehmi had actually gone to Egypt upon the invitation of a member of the Khedive's family, but he did not meet anyone in Tur SiKhedive's family, but he did not meet anyone in Tur Sinai and he had mis-nai and he had mis-led those around him by claiming to travel with a group of seven. His real led those around him by claiming to travel with a group of seven. His real intention, it was alleged, was to go to Afghanistan, and he had to go intention, it was alleged, was to go to Afghanistan, and he had to go through Egypt because he could not cross the Russian borders.through Egypt because he could not cross the Russian borders.113 Ali Ali Fehmi chose to take the roFehmi chose to take the route through Turute through Tur--i Sina (Sinai) because his ac-i Sina (Sinai) because his ac-quaintances, who were fugitives like him, had safely traveled to Afghani-quaintances, who were fugitives like him, had safely traveled to Afghani-stan in the same manner from Yemen. These acquaintances included fu-stan in the same manner from Yemen. These acquaintances included fu-gitive Major Hüsnü, fugitive Doctor Münir from Dersaadet (Istanbul), Aligitive Major Hüsnü, fugitive Doctor Münir from Dersaadet (Istanbul), Ali Rıza, who was a Rıza, who was a mülazımmülazım (sublieutenant) in Çarhçı, and Fazıl and Reşid, (sublieutenant) in Çarhçı, and Fazıl and Reşid, who were students at Mektebwho were students at Mekteb--i Tıbbiye (Medical School). They had taken i Tıbbiye (Medical School). They had taken this route to ensure a safe journey, and Ali Fehmi followed suit. These de-this route to ensure a safe journey, and Ali Fehmi followed suit. These de-tails about Ali Fehmi were reported totails about Ali Fehmi were reported to the government through spies, and the government through spies, and he was unaware that he had provided all the information about himself he was unaware that he had provided all the information about himself

109 Karagöz, Karagöz, Bulgaristan Türk BasınıBulgaristan Türk Basını, , 2929..

110 Hanioğlu, Hanioğlu, Preparation for a RevolutionPreparation for a Revolution, , 7474..

111 BOA, A.}MTZ.(05), 19/133/1, HBOA, A.}MTZ.(05), 19/133/1, H--44--1111--1325.1325.

112 BOA, İ..HUS., 161/70, HBOA, İ..HUS., 161/70, H--2727--1111--13251325..

113 BOA, A.}MTZ.(BOA, A.}MTZ.(0505), ), 19/133/219/133/2, H, H--44--1111--13251325..

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

to one of the spies

to one of the spies—the workings of Ottoman surveillance that he con-the workings of Ottoman surveillance that he con-stantly criticized in his newspaper.stantly criticized in his newspaper.114

It is known that Ali Fehmi engaged in Pan

It is known that Ali Fehmi engaged in Pan-TurTurkist activities in Afghan-kist activities in Afghan-istan, served as an advisor to the Ministry of Finance, maintained regular istan, served as an advisor to the Ministry of Finance, maintained regular communication with the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), and communication with the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), and informed the organization about his activities.informed the organization about his activities.115 In late 1906, Ali Fehmi In late 1906, Ali Fehmi was invited by thwas invited by the Emir of Afghanistan, Habib Allah, to Kabule Emir of Afghanistan, Habib Allah, to Kabul, and his ar-and his ar-rival to Kabul coincided with the Young Revolution of July 1908rival to Kabul coincided with the Young Revolution of July 1908.116 He He served as the Minister of Finance with the title of “Müşirserved as the Minister of Finance with the title of “Müşir-i Sultan” until i Sultan” until he left Kabul.he left Kabul.117 In fact, most of the Ottoman subjects weIn fact, most of the Ottoman subjects went to Afghanistan nt to Afghanistan were Ottoman exiles and were active members of the Young Turk revolu-were Ottoman exiles and were active members of the Young Turk revolu-tionary ideology. Nevertheless, it would be inaccurate to assert that all tionary ideology. Nevertheless, it would be inaccurate to assert that all Ottoman subjects who journeyed to Afghanistan were members of the Ottoman subjects who journeyed to Afghanistan were members of the Young Turk movement.Young Turk movement.118

Ali Fehm

Ali Fehmi’s oratory skills, his ability to recruit Turks to Afghanistan, i’s oratory skills, his ability to recruit Turks to Afghanistan, his efforts to reorganize the revenue system, and the schemes he pro-his efforts to reorganize the revenue system, and the schemes he pro-posed for irrigation development made him a character closely moni-posed for irrigation development made him a character closely moni-tored not only by the Ottoman government but also by Brittored not only by the Ottoman government but also by British intelli-ish intelli-gence agents while he was in Afghanistan.gence agents while he was in Afghanistan.119 After the Young Turk After the Young Turk Revolution,Revolution, Ali Fehmi came to Istanbul with an Ali Fehmi came to Istanbul with an IradeIrade-i Seniyei Seniye (imperial (imperial edict) and continued edict) and continued to to publish publish MuvazeneMuvazene in Istanbul for a few more in Istanbul for a few more months.months.120 Following the modernization campFollowing the modernization campaign initiated during the aign initiated during the HabibHabib-Allah period in Afghanistan, even after Ali Fehmi’s return to Istan-Allah period in Afghanistan, even after Ali Fehmi’s return to Istan-bul, numerous Ottoman technicians, teachers, politicians, military offic-bul, numerous Ottoman technicians, teachers, politicians, military offic-ers, and physicians continued to journey to Afghanistan to serve under ers, and physicians continued to journey to Afghanistan to serve under the Emir’s admthe Emir’s administration.inistration.121

114 BOA, A.}MTZ.(BOA, A.}MTZ.(05 ), ), 18/13718/137, H, H-18 -11 -1325 .

115 Hanioğlu, Hanioğlu, Preparation for a RevolutionPreparation for a Revolution, 74 .

116 Faiz Ahmed, Faiz Ahmed, Afghanistan Rising: Islamic Law and Statecraft between the Ottoman and Afghanistan Rising: Islamic Law and Statecraft between the Ottoman and British EmpiresBritish Empires (Cambridg(Cambridge, Massachutests: Harvard University Press, 2017)e, Massachutests: Harvard University Press, 2017), 86 -87.

117 Karagöz, Karagöz, Bulgaristan Türk BasınıBulgaristan Türk Basını, 120. , 120.

118 Ahmed, Ahmed, Afghanistan RisingAfghanistan Rising, 93 -94.

119 IbidIbid, 87 .

120 Ibid, 120.

121 IbidIbid, 88 .

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3.2.7 Enemy of Civilization: Ali Fehmi, the Asian (Medeniyet Enemy of Civilization: Ali Fehmi, the Asian (Medeniyet Düşmanı Asyalı Ali Fehmi)Düşmanı Asyalı Ali Fehmi)

The last issue of

The last issue of MuvazeneMuvazene, in which Ali Fehmi summarized his life story, , in which Ali Fehmi summarized his life story, was published on October 20, 1911, in Istanbul. According to this issue, was published on October 20, 1911, in Istanbul. According to this issue, Ali Fehmi wasAli Fehmi was residing at number 32 on Ayasofya Tramway Street in residing at number 32 on Ayasofya Tramway Street in 1911. He emphasized in his newspaper that he did not endure hardships 1911. He emphasized in his newspaper that he did not endure hardships for personal gain but rather worked for the welfare of his nation. Despite for personal gain but rather worked for the welfare of his nation. Despite being belittled by some for his relations with Afghanistanbeing belittled by some for his relations with Afghanistan, he stated that , he stated that “Ali Fehmi, the Asian (Asyalı Ali Fehmi)” has finally reunited with his be-“Ali Fehmi, the Asian (Asyalı Ali Fehmi)” has finally reunited with his be-loved nation and homeland, and his family and brother had also escaped loved nation and homeland, and his family and brother had also escaped all dangers by now.all dangers by now.122

According to the records in the Minutes of the Assembly of Deputies

According to the records in the Minutes of the Assembly of Deputies (Mecl(Meclis -i Mebusan Zabıt Ceridesi), Ali Fehmi had sent a telegram to the i Mebusan Zabıt Ceridesi), Ali Fehmi had sent a telegram to the assembly on November 11, 1908 and the telegram was read during the assembly on November 11, 1908 and the telegram was read during the first session on first session on December December 23 , 1908. From the telegram, it can be under-1908. From the telegram, it can be under-stood that Ali Fehmi was assigned to reform the Ministood that Ali Fehmi was assigned to reform the Ministry of Finance in stry of Finance in Capital of Afghanistan (DarüssaltanaCapital of Afghanistan (Darüssaltana-ı Kabil). In the telegram, he first de-ı Kabil). In the telegram, he first de-scribed the years he spent struggling in prisons, hiding in forests under scribed the years he spent struggling in prisons, hiding in forests under harsh conditions, attempting to cross national borders, and facing pres-harsh conditions, attempting to cross national borders, and facing pres-sure not only frosure not only from foreign officials, but also from imperial officials. He m foreign officials, but also from imperial officials. He emphasized that this experience had been common to anyone seeking emphasized that this experience had been common to anyone seeking freedom. After congratulating Enver and Niyazi Bey on the declaration of freedom. After congratulating Enver and Niyazi Bey on the declaration of the constitutional monarchy, Ali Fehmi, with his didactic sthe constitutional monarchy, Ali Fehmi, with his didactic style inherited tyle inherited from his profession as an educator, began to give advice to the assembly, from his profession as an educator, began to give advice to the assembly, demonstrating his impressive oratory skills.demonstrating his impressive oratory skills.123

122 “Arz“Arz-ı Meram,” ı Meram,” MuvazeneMuvazene, 376376. Sayı, . Sayı, 5 Teşrinievvel Teşrinievvel 13271327 (18 Ekim Ekim 19111911), ), 1.

123 TBMM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima: 4, Cilt: 1, 30TBMM Zabıt Ceridesi, Devre: 1, İçtima: 4, Cilt: 1, 30-31. 31. “Representatives who possess the “Representatives who possess the mandate of representing the country internally and externally! True and esteemed repre-mandate of representing the country internally and externally! True and esteemed repre-sentatives who are the sentatives who are the true source of hope for the nation and state's future! (...) You have true source of hope for the nation and state's future! (...) You have resolved to act righteously. To be able to carry out righteous actions, first seek the truth. resolved to act righteously. To be able to carry out righteous actions, first seek the truth. (...) Sacrifice for the sake of those who have sacrificed their youth, families, and lives f(...) Sacrifice for the sake of those who have sacrificed their youth, families, and lives for their homeland, and show respect to their honorable spirits. (...) Despite the current chal-their homeland, and show respect to their honorable spirits. (...) Despite the current chal-lenges and future dangers, strive to ensure the stability of the administration. Therefore, lenges and future dangers, strive to ensure the stability of the administration. Therefore,

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

Afterwards, he invited the assembly to consider all Turks as one na-

Afterwards, he invited the assembly to consider all Turks as one na-tion, one race, and one language, and to unite all Turtion, one race, and one language, and to unite all Turks worldwide under ks worldwide under one roof. He encouraged the establishment of a centralized and spiritual one roof. He encouraged the establishment of a centralized and spiritual policy for Turks living in Russian, Chinese, and Afghan territories. He re-policy for Turks living in Russian, Chinese, and Afghan territories. He re-quested the dispatch of selfless officials, rather than those seeking per-quested the dispatch of selfless officials, rather than those seeking per-sonal gain, to thsonal gain, to these regions, and if that was not possible, he suggested ese regions, and if that was not possible, he suggested entrusting this task to the officials who had come this far.entrusting this task to the officials who had come this far.124

Ali Fehmi stated that he was motivated by a desire to serve his own

Ali Fehmi stated that he was motivated by a desire to serve his own state and nation during his onestate and nation during his one-year service in Afghanistan and soughtyear service in Afghanistan and sought to to maintain the existing allegiance between the two states. Upon his arrival maintain the existing allegiance between the two states. Upon his arrival in Afghanistan, he had met with the Emir and his brother, and Serdar in Afghanistan, he had met with the Emir and his brother, and Serdar Nasrullah informed Ali Fehmi that the religious and political interests of Nasrullah informed Ali Fehmi that the religious and political interests of the Ottoman Empire and Afghanistanthe Ottoman Empire and Afghanistan were intertwined. The Emir of Af-were intertwined. The Emir of Af-ghanistan even stated that his country was a branch of the Ottoman Em-ghanistan even stated that his country was a branch of the Ottoman Em-pire and that if anything happened to the branch, the whole body would pire and that if anything happened to the branch, the whole body would be affected, and if anything happened to the body, Afghanistan would not be affected, and if anything happened to the body, Afghanistan would not be able tobe able to survive. Ali Fehmi was received with respect and reverence as survive. Ali Fehmi was received with respect and reverence as a representative of the Ottoman Empire in Afghanistan, witnessing the a representative of the Ottoman Empire in Afghanistan, witnessing the growing expectations of Afghanistan from Istanbul. He tried to reflect growing expectations of Afghanistan from Istanbul. He tried to reflect this in his telegrams to the assembly, emphasizing tthis in his telegrams to the assembly, emphasizing that this responsibility hat this responsibility belonged to the deputies in Istanbul. Ultimately, as a formality, he re-belonged to the deputies in Istanbul. Ultimately, as a formality, he re-quested that a letter be written from the assembly to the Emir of Afghan-quested that a letter be written from the assembly to the Emir of Afghan-istan.istan.125 Ali Fehmi, who was “thousands of hours away from his home-Ali Fehmi, who was “thousands of hours away from his home-land,” expressed his loyland,” expressed his loyalty to his country and nation and paid his alty to his country and nation and paid his

be true and genuine advocates of freedom. [Ey vatanın dahilen ve haric

be true and genuine advocates of freedom. [Ey vatanın dahilen ve haricen vekâleti sıfatını en vekâleti sıfatını haiz olan mebusanı, ey vatanperverânın mercii âli ve hakikisi olan mebusları, ey istikbali haiz olan mebusanı, ey vatanperverânın mercii âli ve hakikisi olan mebusları, ey istikbali millet ve devletin ümidmillet ve devletin ümid-i yegânesi (…) İlk evvel doğru işlemeye azmediniz. Doğru iş göre-i yegânesi (…) İlk evvel doğru işlemeye azmediniz. Doğru iş göre-bilmek için evvelâ doğruları arayınız. (…) Vatanları uğrbilmek için evvelâ doğruları arayınız. (…) Vatanları uğrunda gençliklerini, ailelerini, can-unda gençliklerini, ailelerini, can-larını feda etmiş olan namlarını feda etmiş olan nam-ı bâı bâ-ihtiramlarına, mukaddes ruhlarına hürmeten fedakârlık ihtiramlarına, mukaddes ruhlarına hürmeten fedakârlık ediniz. (…) Halin fenalığına, istikbalin tehlikelerine rağmen idarenin teminine çalışınız, ediniz. (…) Halin fenalığına, istikbalin tehlikelerine rağmen idarenin teminine çalışınız, işte bunun için salim ve hakiki hürriyetpervişte bunun için salim ve hakiki hürriyetperver olunuz.]” er olunuz.]”

124 Ibid.Ibid.

125 Ibid.Ibid.

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respects to the assembly. He congratulated the Constitutional Law and

respects to the assembly. He congratulated the Constitutional Law and concluded his telegram by sending good wishes to the ministers.concluded his telegram by sending good wishes to the ministers.126

He then went to Damascus in 1912, where he served in the Tahrir

He then went to Damascus in 1912, where he served in the Tahrir-i Musakafat pMusakafat presidency and worked in the commission for resettling Mus-residency and worked in the commission for resettling Mus-lim refugees from the warlim refugees from the war-torn areas. During the First World War in torn areas. During the First World War in 1914, he served o1914, he served on the Greekn the Greek-Armenian deportation commission and Armenian deportation commission and carried out his duties in Akşehir. In 1915, he went to Izmir and then re-carried out his duties in Akşehir. In 1915, he went to Izmir and then re-turned to Istanbul, where he worked as the Director of General of Refugee turned to Istanbul, where he worked as the Director of General of Refugee Affairs (Affairs (Muhacirin MüdiriyetMuhacirin Müdiriyet-i Umumiyesi Sevkiyati Umumiyesi Sevkiyat-ı Hariciyeı Hariciye). In 1919, In 1919, “he was charged by Ottoman tribunals set up under Allied pressure to he was charged by Ottoman tribunals set up under Allied pressure to investigate crimes committed against the Armenians during the war.”investigate crimes committed against the Armenians during the war.”127 Ali Fehmi was assassinated at his home in Kartal in 1922.Ali Fehmi was assassinated at his home in Kartal in 1922.128 Methodieva Methodieva considered the possibility that Ali Feconsidered the possibility that Ali Fehmi was killed by an Armenian due hmi was killed by an Armenian due to an issue related to the deportation order.to an issue related to the deportation order.129

Overall, Ali Fehmi is a character who, along with the ups and downs

Overall, Ali Fehmi is a character who, along with the ups and downs in his life, is challenging to firmly classify or identify within the historical in his life, is challenging to firmly classify or identify within the historical context. However, Ali Fehcontext. However, Ali Fehmi has become a primary source conveying the mi has become a primary source conveying the experiences of Muslims in Bulgaria. While each valuable study in the lit-experiences of Muslims in Bulgaria. While each valuable study in the lit-erature provides accurate and substantial information about the region’s erature provides accurate and substantial information about the region’s history, revisionist approaches focusing on individual narratives history, revisionist approaches focusing on individual narratives better better convey people’s experiences within the historical context. This perspec-convey people’s experiences within the historical context. This perspec-tive contrasts with “concentrating on the concerns of today or the past” tive contrasts with “concentrating on the concerns of today or the past” approach, which broadens historians’ perspective and eliminates the approach, which broadens historians’ perspective and eliminates the possibility of missing out historicalpossibility of missing out historical details. In this regard, the biography details. In this regard, the biography of Ali Fehmi and the of Ali Fehmi and the MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper carry critical importance by newspaper carry critical importance by addressing a missing aspect in the mainstream “history of minorities in addressing a missing aspect in the mainstream “history of minorities in Bulgaria” literature Bulgaria” literature -how the Muslim minority in Bulgaria experienced how the Muslim minority in Bulgaria experienced the nthe new context. As Ali Akyıldız points out, even if documents are legally ew context. As Ali Akyıldız points out, even if documents are legally

126 Ibid.Ibid.

127 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation, 112., 112.

128 BOA, DH.EUM.AYŞ., BOA, DH.EUM.AYŞ., 59/3059/30, H, H-15 -06 -1340 .

129 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NationBetween Empire and Nation, 113113.

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sound, they cannot be properly evaluated without considering the histor-

sound, they cannot be properly evaluated without considering the histor-ical background. Conclusions drawn from sources that are not contextu-ical background. Conclusions drawn from sources that are not contextu-alized within the reality and overall structuralized within the reality and overall structure of the period in historical e of the period in historical research can either be limited or misleading.research can either be limited or misleading.130 To complete the research To complete the research about Ali Fehmi, in addition to his life story, about Ali Fehmi, in addition to his life story, Muvazene and Muvazene and what it tells what it tells historianshistorians, which is the next chapter’s subject, holds great significance. which is the next chapter’s subject, holds great significance.

130 Ali Akyıldız, Ali Akyıldız, Tarihçilik ve Yöntem ÜzerineTarihçilik ve Yöntem Üzerine, (İstanbul: Timaş Akademi, (İstanbul: Timaş Akademi, 2021 ), ), 70 .

4Ali Fehmi’s Muvazene Newspaper (1897Ali Fehmi’s Muvazene Newspaper (1897-1898)

li Fehmi had served as a teacher and school principal within the bor-

li Fehmi had served as a teacher and school principal within the bor-ders of the Ottoman Empire for eight years. However, due to allega-ders of the Ottoman Empire for eight years. However, due to allega-tions of being associated with the Young Turks, he was compelled to re-tions of being associated with the Young Turks, he was compelled to re-si gn from his position. Despite making numerous job applications for gn from his position. Despite making numerous job applications for eight months, he received no response. After this, Ali Fehmi returned to eight months, he received no response. After this, Ali Fehmi returned to his family in Filibe and decided to start a career in journalism. On Sep-his family in Filibe and decided to start a career in journalism. On Sep-tember 1, 1897, he launched the tember 1, 1897, he launched the MuvazeneMuvazene new spaper. Over the course spaper. Over the course of eight years, of eight years, MuvazeneMuvazene became the longestbecame the longest-running and most popular running and most popular TurkishTurkish-language newspaper in Bulgaria. Taking advantage of press free-language newspaper in Bulgaria. Taking advantage of press free-dom in Bulgaria, the newspaper reflected both Ali Fehmi's perspective dom in Bulgaria, the newspaper reflected both Ali Fehmi's perspective and that of his readersand that of his readers on the living standards in Bulgaria. Simultane-on the living standards in Bulgaria. Simultane-ously, ously, MuvazeneMuvazene symbolized the period of acceptance among the Muslim symbolized the period of acceptance among the Muslim population, specifically the 1890s and beyond, that they were now under population, specifically the 1890s and beyond, that they were now under Bulgarian rule. This acceptance was markedly different from the passBulgarian rule. This acceptance was markedly different from the passive ive resistances that had drawn the attention of Bulgarian authorities in the resistances that had drawn the attention of Bulgarian authorities in the 1880s. Under the Bulgarian authority, Muslims were developing a new 1880s. Under the Bulgarian authority, Muslims were developing a new collective consciousness. In line with this context, Ali Fehmi focused on collective consciousness. In line with this context, Ali Fehmi focused on matters such as religious endowmentsmatters such as religious endowments (vakıf), the mufti institution, Mus-(vakıf), the mufti institution, Mus-lim schools, and maladministration of Muslims. In other words, lim schools, and maladministration of Muslims. In other words, Muva-Muva-zenezene became a source shedding light on the social life of Bulgarian Mus-became a source shedding light on the social life of Bulgarian Mus-lims on the eve of the twentieth century.lims on the eve of the twentieth century.

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Muvazene

Muvazene appealed to anyone who identifiappealed to anyone who identified himself as ‘Bulgarian ed himself as ‘Bulgarian Muslim.’ In line with his eightMuslim.’ In line with his eight--year teaching experiences, Ali Fehmi ap-year teaching experiences, Ali Fehmi ap-proached his readers with a didactic rhetoric. He wrote many articles in-proached his readers with a didactic rhetoric. He wrote many articles in-viting people to read and research more, to think critically, and not to be-viting people to read and research more, to think critically, and not to be-lieve everythlieve everything immediately. At the beginning, Ali Fehmi’s critical ing immediately. At the beginning, Ali Fehmi’s critical writings only bothered the Ottoman government and the government la-writings only bothered the Ottoman government and the government la-beled beled MuvazeneMuvazene as a corrupted newspaper due to its Young Turk ideas. as a corrupted newspaper due to its Young Turk ideas. Indeed, for a long time, Indeed, for a long time, MuvazeneMuvazene had been a proponent of Young had been a proponent of Young Turk Turk ideas in Bulgaria’s free environment. However, as the historical context ideas in Bulgaria’s free environment. However, as the historical context grew more tense in the early twentieth century, his provocative articles grew more tense in the early twentieth century, his provocative articles began targeting Russians and Bulgarians as well. When Ali Fehmi’s writ-began targeting Russians and Bulgarians as well. When Ali Fehmi’s writ-ings started criticizing Russia andings started criticizing Russia and Bulgaria, he was deported from Bul-Bulgaria, he was deported from Bul-garia and his printing press was shut down in garia and his printing press was shut down in 19051905..

This chapter discusses the coverage of

This chapter discusses the coverage of Muvazene Muvazene in its first year. The in its first year. The first fiftyfirst fifty--two issues show how Ali Fehmi handled the matters in a politi-two issues show how Ali Fehmi handled the matters in a politi-cally correct manner durically correct manner during this entirely new process for him. In the ng this entirely new process for him. In the newspaper’s first year, there were no expressions that would disturb the newspaper’s first year, there were no expressions that would disturb the Bulgarian government or directly targeted the Ottoman Sultan. However, Bulgarian government or directly targeted the Ottoman Sultan. However, MuvazeneMuvazene vehemently criticized any kind of irresponsibility that revehemently criticized any kind of irresponsibility that resulted sulted in maladministration, particularly targeting Ottoman officials in Bulgaria. in maladministration, particularly targeting Ottoman officials in Bulgaria. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, MuvazeneMuvazene published these criticisms not for a specific ide-published these criticisms not for a specific ide-ology but for the benefit of Bulgaria’s Muslims. And accordingly, it em-ology but for the benefit of Bulgaria’s Muslims. And accordingly, it em-phasized that the most beneficphasized that the most beneficial action was to organize, raise awareness, ial action was to organize, raise awareness, read, learn, and evaluate the opportunities offered by the Bulgarian gov-read, learn, and evaluate the opportunities offered by the Bulgarian gov-ernment. ernment.

In what follows, this chapter first discusses Muvazene’s vision and

In what follows, this chapter first discusses Muvazene’s vision and whether it could achieve its goals or not. Then the discussiowhether it could achieve its goals or not. Then the discussion focuses on n focuses on the headlines of the headlines of MuvazeneMuvazene, giving some examples of for each. In addition, , giving some examples of for each. In addition, excerpts from Ali Fehmi’s articles are presented as well as an analysis of excerpts from Ali Fehmi’s articles are presented as well as an analysis of the letters sent by readers. At the end of the chapter, Ali Fehmi’s questionthe letters sent by readers. At the end of the chapter, Ali Fehmi’s question--andand--answer competanswer competitions are presented, which also provides an example itions are presented, which also provides an example of of MuvazeneMuvazene’s communication tactics. ’s communication tactics.

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§ 4.1 The The MuvazeneMuvazene NewspaperNewspaper

The first issue of

The first issue of MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper was printed on September 1, newspaper was printed on September 1,1897 at the Tırgovska Printing House in Filibe.1897 at the Tırgovska Printing House in Filibe.1 The weekly newspaper The weekly newspaperMuvazeMuvazene completed its first year with the 52nd issue dated August 31, completed its first year with the 52nd issue dated August 31,1898. 1898. MuvazeneMuvazene stated its purpose under its subtitle which defined it as stated its purpose under its subtitle which defined it as“a weekly impartial newspaper based on balancing and comparing ele-“a weekly impartial newspaper based on balancing and comparing ele-mentary and fundamental powers, civil law and personmentary and fundamental powers, civil law and personal judgment and al judgment andprotection.”protection.”2 In the “Address and Others” section of the newspaper’s In the “Address and Others” section of the newspaper’sheadline, the owner and chief editor is mentioned as “Ali Fehmi, graduate headline, the owner and chief editor is mentioned as “Ali Fehmi, graduateof Mektebof Mekteb-i Mülkiye and Ulumi Mülkiye and Ulum-i Siyasiye,” and his names with these titles i Siyasiye,” and his names with these titlesremained the same for aremained the same for a year. In the same section, a paragraph outlining year. In the same section, a paragraph outliningthe purpose of the purpose of MuvazeneMuvazene appears, stating that the newspaper aims to appears, stating that the newspaper aims toprovide scientific, statistical, and pedagogical information. It promised provide scientific, statistical, and pedagogical information. It promisedreaders that any kind of letter would be accepted for publicatioreaders that any kind of letter would be accepted for publication both n bothfrom the territories under Ottoman rule and from other countries, as long from the territories under Ottoman rule and from other countries, as longas they did not contain hate speech or blind partisanship. These letters as they did not contain hate speech or blind partisanship. These letterswould be published impartially within the limits of available space, and would be published impartially within the limits of available space, andunpublished letters would be unpublished letters would be returned. Additionally, it is stated that in-returned. Additionally, it is stated that in-coming letters should be written in both Turkish and Bulgarian lan-coming letters should be written in both Turkish and Bulgarian lan-guages. The letters which were not published would not be sent back to guages. The letters which were not published would not be sent back totheir authors.their authors.3

During its first year in Filibe,

During its first year in Filibe, MuvazeneMuvazene was sold in the was sold in the Şerif Ağa’s to-Şerif Ağa’s to-bacco shop situated opposite the social club. The price of bacco shop situated opposite the social club. The price of MuvazeneMuvazene in in Filibe was 20 centime, while it was 1 kuruş in the Ottoman Empire. The Filibe was 20 centime, while it was 1 kuruş in the Ottoman Empire. The subscription fees subscription fees MuvazeneMuvazene in Bulgaria were 10 franc annually, 5 franc in Bulgaria were 10 franc annually, 5 franc semi -annually, and 3 franc quannually, and 3 franc quarterly; in foreign countries were 16 franc arterly; in foreign countries were 16 franc 1 Karagöz, Karagöz, Bulgaristan Türk BasınıBulgaristan Türk Basını, 119 . 2 Muvazene,Muvazene, 1. Sayı, 20 Ağustos 1313 (1 Eylül 1897), 1.1. Sayı, 20 Ağustos 1313 (1 Eylül 1897), 1. “Kuvve“Kuvve-i iptidaiye ve esasiyeyi i iptidaiye ve esasiyeyi muvazene ve mukayese, hukukmuvazene ve mukayese, hukuk-u medeniye ve şahsiyeyi muhakeme ve muhafaza esasına u medeniye ve şahsiyeyi muhakeme ve muhafaza esasına müstenid haftalık bitaraf gamüstenid haftalık bitaraf gazetedir.”zetedir.” 3 Muvazene, Muvazene, 1. Sayı, 20 Ağustos 1313 (1 Eylül 1897), 1.1. Sayı, 20 Ağustos 1313 (1 Eylül 1897), 1. “Siyasi, ilmi, istatistiki, pedagojik “Siyasi, ilmi, istatistiki, pedagojik muharrerat ve garazdan ari her nev mektublar memnuniyetle derç olunur. Derc olunma-muharrerat ve garazdan ari her nev mektublar memnuniyetle derç olunur. Derc olunma-yan mektublar iade olunmaz.” yan mektublar iade olunmaz.”

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annually, 8 franc semi

annually, 8 franc semi--annually, and 4 quarterly; in the Ottoman Empire, annually, and 4 quarterly; in the Ottoman Empire, subscriptions cost 6 mecidiye annually, 3 mecidiye semisubscriptions cost 6 mecidiye annually, 3 mecidiye semi--annually, and 1 annually, and 1 mecidiye quarterly. The monthly subscription was 1 franc for Bulgarmecidiye quarterly. The monthly subscription was 1 franc for Bulgaria, ia, 1.20 franc for foreign countries, and 10 kuruş for the Ottoman Empire. 1.20 franc for foreign countries, and 10 kuruş for the Ottoman Empire. Subscription fees were collected in advance, and upon payment, newspa-Subscription fees were collected in advance, and upon payment, newspa-pers were sent to readers’ addresses along with promissory notes.pers were sent to readers’ addresses along with promissory notes.4 Let-Let-ters sent from the Ottoman Empire and foreters sent from the Ottoman Empire and foreign countries were required ign countries were required to address “Ali Fehmi, Director and Editorto address “Ali Fehmi, Director and Editor--inin--Chief of the 'Chief of the 'MuvazeneMuvazene' ' newspaper in Filibe.”newspaper in Filibe.”5 Letters sent from Bulgaria needed to be written in Letters sent from Bulgaria needed to be written in both Turkish and Bulgarian languages.both Turkish and Bulgarian languages.6

During the publication of

During the publication of MuvazeneMuvazene in Varna, in Varna, it was printed at the it was printed at the Vzaimnost Printing House. According to the issue dated August 14, 1901, Vzaimnost Printing House. According to the issue dated August 14, 1901, number 198, subscription fees for number 198, subscription fees for MuvazeneMuvazene in Bulgaria were 10 franc in Bulgaria were 10 franc annually, 5 franc semiannually, 5 franc semi--annually, and 3 franc quarterly. For other coun-annually, and 3 franc quarterly. For other coun-tries, the annual fee wtries, the annual fee was 16 franc, semias 16 franc, semi--annual was 8 franc, and quarterly annual was 8 franc, and quarterly was 4 franc. The price for a copy of the newspaper was 20 centime in was 4 franc. The price for a copy of the newspaper was 20 centime in Bulgaria and 1 kuruş abroad.Bulgaria and 1 kuruş abroad.7

In its 376th issue, which came out on October 18, 1911,

In its 376th issue, which came out on October 18, 1911, MuvazeneMuvazene outlined the subscription terms for the outlined the subscription terms for the Ottoman Empire as follows: an-Ottoman Empire as follows: an-nual subscription of 108 kuruş, sixnual subscription of 108 kuruş, six--month subscription of 54 kuruş, month subscription of 54 kuruş, threethree--month subscription of 27 kuruş, and a single copy cost 10 para.month subscription of 27 kuruş, and a single copy cost 10 para.8 For foreign countries, the annual subscription was 40 franc, sixFor foreign countries, the annual subscription was 40 franc, six--month month subscription was subscription was 20 franc, three20 franc, three--month subscription was 10 franc, and a month subscription was 10 franc, and a single copy cost was 10 centime. The same issue mentioned a note re-single copy cost was 10 centime. The same issue mentioned a note re-garding Russia, fixing an annual rate of “17 paper rubles in Russia.” The garding Russia, fixing an annual rate of “17 paper rubles in Russia.” The address in the 376th issue was listed as “32 Ayasofya Streetaddress in the 376th issue was listed as “32 Ayasofya Street in Istanbul, in Istanbul, owner and editorowner and editor--inin--chief of the 'chief of the 'MuvazeneMuvazene' newspaper, Ali Fehmi.”' newspaper, Ali Fehmi.”9 This This

4 “Abone ve Şeraiti,” “Abone ve Şeraiti,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 1. S1. Sayı, ayı, 2020 Ağustos Ağustos 13131313 ((11 Eylül Eylül 18971897), ), 11..

5 Ibid. Ibid. ““Filibe’de ‘Muvazene’ gazetesi müdir ve muharriri Ali Fehmi.”Filibe’de ‘Muvazene’ gazetesi müdir ve muharriri Ali Fehmi.”

6 Ibid. Ibid.

7 “Abone ve Şeraiti,” “Abone ve Şeraiti,” MuvazeneMuvazene, , 198198. Sayı, . Sayı, 11 Ağustos Ağustos 13171317 ((1414 Ağustos Ağustos 19111911), ), 11..

8 “Abone ve Şeraiti,” “Abone ve Şeraiti,” MuvazeneMuvazene, 376. Sayı, 5 Teşr, 376. Sayı, 5 Teşrinievvel inievvel 13271327 ((1818 Ekim Ekim 19111911), ), 11..

9 Ibid.Ibid.

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issue was printed at the Müşterekü’l

issue was printed at the Müşterekü’l-Menfaa Ottoman Printing House on Menfaa Ottoman Printing House on Ebussuud Street. Under the “Address and Others” section, the French ex-Ebussuud Street. Under the “Address and Others” section, the French ex-planation further specified it as “Ebussuud Street No: 27.”planation further specified it as “Ebussuud Street No: 27.”10

The first issue of

The first issue of MuvazeneMuvazene contained an article contained an article titled “Meseletitled “Mesele-i Ma-i Ma-ruzatımız” that introduced the newspaper's mission and summarized its ruzatımız” that introduced the newspaper's mission and summarized its vision.vision.11 Authored by Ali Fehmi, this article outlined the principles that Authored by Ali Fehmi, this article outlined the principles that MuvazeneMuvazene would follow throughout its publication, the language it would would follow throughout its publication, the language it would use, the topics it wouse, the topics it would cover, and the benefits readers would gain. The uld cover, and the benefits readers would gain. The first principle highlighted that while first principle highlighted that while MuvazeneMuvazene was a serious newspaper, was a serious newspaper, it would strive to use clear and simple language whenever possible. Sci-it would strive to use clear and simple language whenever possible. Sci-entific articles might retain complex terminology, but explaentific articles might retain complex terminology, but explanations for nations for foreign terms would be provided where needed to accommodate readers’ foreign terms would be provided where needed to accommodate readers’ understanding. This approach aimed to serve both wellunderstanding. This approach aimed to serve both well-educated read-educated read-ers’ intellectual needs and those new to reading, encouraging them to ers’ intellectual needs and those new to reading, encouraging them to gather information, read more, and gaigather information, read more, and gain awareness of global events.n awareness of global events.12

According to the second principle,

According to the second principle, MuvazeneMuvazene promised to inform promised to inform readers about events that occurred in the past week, whether good or readers about events that occurred in the past week, whether good or bad. Events relevant to the reader base and the general public would be bad. Events relevant to the reader base and the general public would be prioritized. The newprioritized. The newspaper committed to presenting events from news-spaper committed to presenting events from news-papers in Turkish, Bulgarian, and French, providing brief summaries of papers in Turkish, Bulgarian, and French, providing brief summaries of select ones according to readers’ needs.select ones according to readers’ needs.13

In line with the third principle, the interpretation part would be left In line with the third principle, the interpretation part would be left entirely to the readersentirely to the readers. This implied that Ali Fehmi would not impose his . This implied that Ali Fehmi would not impose his own opinions or propagate a particular viewpoint, expecting readers to own opinions or propagate a particular viewpoint, expecting readers to discern right from wrong. discern right from wrong. MuvazeneMuvazene pledged to leave the evaluation of pledged to leave the evaluation of

10 “Adres ve Saire,”“Adres ve Saire,” MuvazeneMuvazene, 376. Sayı, 5 Teşrinievvel 1327 (18 Ekim 1911), 1., 376. Sayı, 5 Teşrinievvel 1327 (18 Ekim 1911), 1..

11 “Mesele“Mesele-i Maruzatımız,” i Maruzatımız,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 1. Sayı, . Sayı, 20 Ağustos Ağustos 13131313 (1 Eylül Eylül 1897 ), ), 1.

12 Ibid.Ibid.

13 Ibid.Ibid.“What we mean is that our new“What we mean is that our newspaper will also serve as the alphabet requirement for spaper will also serve as the alphabet requirement for the formation and progression of the nation's elementary forces, and it will possess the the formation and progression of the nation's elementary forces, and it will possess the duties of communication and consultation for those who have been entrusted with the fun-duties of communication and consultation for those who have been entrusted with the fun-damentals of power. [Demedamentals of power. [Demek istiyoruz ki gazetemiz aynı zamanda milletin kuvvek istiyoruz ki gazetemiz aynı zamanda milletin kuvve-ibtidai-ibtidai-yelerinin teşkil ve tevessü’üne hadim elifba hâcesi, kuvveyelerinin teşkil ve tevessü’üne hadim elifba hâcesi, kuvve-i esasiyelerini teklim etmiş olan-i esasiyelerini teklim etmiş olan-ların daların da muhabere ve müşavere vezaifini haiz olacaktır.]”muhabere ve müşavere vezaifini haiz olacaktır.]”

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news, their correctness and incompleteness to the readers’ discr

news, their correctness and incompleteness to the readers’ discretion. By etion. By doing so, the newspaper indirectly assigned the task of critical thinking doing so, the newspaper indirectly assigned the task of critical thinking to the readers, seeking to foster a sense of dialogue and interaction.to the readers, seeking to foster a sense of dialogue and interaction.14

Emphasizing its commitment to impartiality, another significant

Emphasizing its commitment to impartiality, another significant point was point was MuvazeneMuvazene’s declaration th’s declaration that it would accept all types of letters at it would accept all types of letters without any prejudice. This principle was closely related to the meanings without any prejudice. This principle was closely related to the meanings carried by the chosen name “Muvazene” and the subtitle “impartial.” The carried by the chosen name “Muvazene” and the subtitle “impartial.” The term “Muvazene” means “equilibrium” and Ali Fehmi aimed to establish term “Muvazene” means “equilibrium” and Ali Fehmi aimed to establish his newspaper based on balance and impartiality.is newspaper based on balance and impartiality.

The third principle of the newspaper noted that “Everyone works

The third principle of the newspaper noted that “Everyone works with all kinds of efforts to secure their needs. No one can sustain produc-with all kinds of efforts to secure their needs. No one can sustain produc-tion if their income falls short of expenses.”tion if their income falls short of expenses.”15 In this sentence, Ali In this sentence, Ali Fehmi Fehmi emphasized that the most fundamental drive for getting into this busi-emphasized that the most fundamental drive for getting into this busi-ness was survival and his need to make a living, and he warned his read-ness was survival and his need to make a living, and he warned his read-ers in advance that there would be no tolerance for laxity in payment. He ers in advance that there would be no tolerance for laxity in payment. He then went on to discuss the expensesthen went on to discuss the expenses related to publishing a newspaper related to publishing a newspaper in Filibe, the requirement of having an idadi school degree to publish a in Filibe, the requirement of having an idadi school degree to publish a newspaper in Bulgaria, and the necessity of being a Bulgarian national to newspaper in Bulgaria, and the necessity of being a Bulgarian national to publish a newspaper in the country. Additionally, he mentioned that in publish a newspaper in the country. Additionally, he mentioned that in ordorder to translate news from European newspapers, a translator was er to translate news from European newspapers, a translator was necessary. Ali Fehmi emphasized that he possessed all these qualities necessary. Ali Fehmi emphasized that he possessed all these qualities needed. As many newspapers could not keep up with both translation needed. As many newspapers could not keep up with both translation expenses and the costs of publishing in Turkish in Bulgexpenses and the costs of publishing in Turkish in Bulgaria, they were aria, they were going bankrupt and closing down. Those that continued had to seek, going bankrupt and closing down. Those that continued had to seek,

14 Ibid. Ibid. “Relevant matters will be gathered a“Relevant matters will be gathered and taken into account according to the needs of nd taken into account according to the needs of circumstances and time, in a relatively short period, and their accuracy or fallacy will be circumstances and time, in a relatively short period, and their accuracy or fallacy will be left to examination and assessment through reading newspapers and conducting analysis left to examination and assessment through reading newspapers and conducting analysis and comparisons in line with gand comparisons in line with general views and aspirations. [Münasibleri ihtiyaçeneral views and aspirations. [Münasibleri ihtiyaç-ı hal ve ı hal ve zamana, temaliyat ve temenniyatzamana, temaliyat ve temenniyat-ı umumiyeye göre oldukça kısa bir suretde alınarak ı umumiyeye göre oldukça kısa bir suretde alınarak doğruluğu, eğriliği gazete okunarak muhakemedoğruluğu, eğriliği gazete okunarak muhakeme ve muvazenelerine terk ve havale ve muvazenelerine terk ve havale olunacaktır.]”olunacaktır.]”

15 Ibid. Ibid. “[ Herkes hHerkes her dürlü mesaisiyle teminer dürlü mesaisiyle temin-i ihtiyacatı içün çalışır. Varidatı musarafatına i ihtiyacatı içün çalışır. Varidatı musarafatına tekabüledemeyen imalden hiç kimse devam edemez.]”tekabüledemeyen imalden hiç kimse devam edemez.]”

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though reluctantly, financial support from powerful entities (politely im-

though reluctantly, financial support from powerful entities (politely im-plying the sponsorship of the Ottoman state), which then compromised plying the sponsorship of the Ottoman state), which then compromised their neutrality in the processtheir neutrality in the process..16

However, Ali Fehmi, being capable of managing all aspects of publish-

However, Ali Fehmi, being capable of managing all aspects of publish-ing by himself, acknowledged that, due to the fact that his sole source of ing by himself, acknowledged that, due to the fact that his sole source of income was journalism, he openly expressed his desire for his skills to be income was journalism, he openly expressed his desire for his skills to be financially rewarded. Those wantingfinancially rewarded. Those wanting to subscribe to to subscribe to MuvazeneMuvazene were reg-were reg-istered as subscribers by indicating in advance for how many months istered as subscribers by indicating in advance for how many months they wanted to subscribe and by sending their payment in advance.they wanted to subscribe and by sending their payment in advance.17 On On the last page of the newspaper, in the lower left corner, the “Open Let-the last page of the newspaper, in the lower left corner, the “Open Let-ters”ters”18 sectiosection reported the status of payments and the dispatch of news-n reported the status of payments and the dispatch of news-papers for those who paid each week. It is evident that Ali Fehmi kept his papers for those who paid each week. It is evident that Ali Fehmi kept his distance from borrowing money or seeking other forms of assistance to distance from borrowing money or seeking other forms of assistance to publish his newspaper.publish his newspaper.19

During the period when

During the period when MuvazeMuvazenene newspaper was published, the sit-newspaper was published, the sit-uation did not appear to be very promising. Ali Fehmi was aware of how uation did not appear to be very promising. Ali Fehmi was aware of how schools and educational activities lagged behind across the region when schools and educational activities lagged behind across the region when compared to vibrant Bulgarian institutions. According to general consen-compared to vibrant Bulgarian institutions. According to general consen-sus, thsus, there were concerns that if things continued in the same way, Bul-ere were concerns that if things continued in the same way, Bul-garian Muslims would be reduced to the status of working class in Bul-garian Muslims would be reduced to the status of working class in Bul-garia. Ali Fehmi associated the continuity of his newspaper with the garia. Ali Fehmi associated the continuity of his newspaper with the progress and advancement of the Muslim nation in the coprogress and advancement of the Muslim nation in the country, which untry, which helped him legitimize the publication of his newspaper. In other words, helped him legitimize the publication of his newspaper. In other words, this profession was not merely a means for Ali Fehmi to make a living by this profession was not merely a means for Ali Fehmi to make a living by collecting subscriptions fees from readers. It was also to serve the ad-collecting subscriptions fees from readers. It was also to serve the ad-

16 Ibid. Ibid. “The provision of our necessities is based on a small amount of current funds, but we “The provision of our necessities is based on a small amount of current funds, but we need to secure our future. [Bizim need to secure our future. [Bizim zaruriyemizin temini, gazetemizin devamı hususunda zaruriyemizin temini, gazetemizin devamı hususunda pek cüz’i bir varidata, fakat te’minpek cüz’i bir varidata, fakat te’min--i istikbale ihtiyacımız vardır.]”i istikbale ihtiyacımız vardır.]”

17 Ibid.Ibid.

18 “Açık Mektublar,” Ibid.“Açık Mektublar,” Ibid.

19 “Mesele“Mesele--i Maruzatımız,” Ibid.i Maruzatımız,” Ibid.

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

vancement of Muslims living

vancement of Muslims living in Bulgaria, a mission that even the Bulgar-in Bulgaria, a mission that even the Bulgar-ian government desired.ian government desired.20 If Bulgarian Muslims could attain the capacity If Bulgarian Muslims could attain the capacity to distinguish between good and bad, then human virtues, civilization, to distinguish between good and bad, then human virtues, civilization, and equality could naturally emerge. For the continued publication ofand equality could naturally emerge. For the continued publication of MuvazeneMuvazene, economic stability and regular payment were necessary. In , economic stability and regular payment were necessary. In this context, regular payments requested from readers were considered this context, regular payments requested from readers were considered to be a modest sacrifice, given Ali Fehmi's skills and the social role as-to be a modest sacrifice, given Ali Fehmi's skills and the social role as-sumed by sumed by MuvazeneMuvazene.

Concerned about the prosp

Concerned about the prospects of Muslims losing their social status ects of Muslims losing their social status and their inability to progress, Ali Fehmi, leveraging his eight years of and their inability to progress, Ali Fehmi, leveraging his eight years of teaching experience, declared his commitment to working for improve-teaching experience, declared his commitment to working for improve-ment of education. He mentioned that he would use his educational ex-ment of education. He mentioned that he would use his educational ex-periperience in his commentary on issues related to schools and endow-ence in his commentary on issues related to schools and endow-ments (vakıfs). ments (vakıfs). MuvazeneMuvazene would not only provide information but also would not only provide information but also instill awareness of rights, pursuit of justice, differentiation between instill awareness of rights, pursuit of justice, differentiation between good and bad, especially among the Muslim population good and bad, especially among the Muslim population in Eastern Rume-in Eastern Rume-lia, all the while presenting the truth as it was.lia, all the while presenting the truth as it was.21

In its first issue,

In its first issue, MuvazeneMuvazene justified its existence given the situation of justified its existence given the situation of Muslims in Bulgaria. In promising to fulfill the needs of the Muslim com-Muslims in Bulgaria. In promising to fulfill the needs of the Muslim com-munity in Bulgaria, the newspaper invitemunity in Bulgaria, the newspaper invited its readers to contribute to its d its readers to contribute to its mission, seeking to create a community around the newspaper. The aim mission, seeking to create a community around the newspaper. The aim was for knowledge and progress to be in the service of the entire popula-was for knowledge and progress to be in the service of the entire popula-tion. For civilization, Muslims needed to learn and improve themselves. tion. For civilization, Muslims needed to learn and improve themselves. While While Mu vazenevazene embraced the principle of neutrality and promised to embraced the principle of neutrality and promised to encourage readers to develop their own ideas, Ali Fehmi's didactic rhet-encourage readers to develop their own ideas, Ali Fehmi's didactic rhet-oric, in line with his eightoric, in line with his eight-year teaching career, was evident.year teaching career, was evident.

20 Ibid. Ibid. “In the region under constitutional rule, the progre“In the region under constitutional rule, the progress of Muslims in Bulgaria is also ss of Muslims in Bulgaria is also desired by the government. [desired by the government. [İdareİdare-i şurutiyeye tabi olan Bulgaristan emaretinde islam-i şurutiyeye tabi olan Bulgaristan emaretinde islam-ların terakkisi hükümetçe de matlubdur.]”ların terakkisi hükümetçe de matlubdur.]”

21 Ibid.Ibid.

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According to the fourth clause of its mission statement, Ali

According to the fourth clause of its mission statement, Ali Fehmi Fehmi highlighted a number of preconditions to continue publishing an impar-highlighted a number of preconditions to continue publishing an impar-tial newspaper.tial newspaper.22 Firstly, Filibe made Ali Fehmi’s work easier because the Firstly, Filibe made Ali Fehmi’s work easier because the city was a wellcity was a well-connected one to local, regional and global circuits. The connected one to local, regional and global circuits. The presence of roads, telegraphs, popresence of roads, telegraphs, post offices, telephones, and radios in Fil-st offices, telephones, and radios in Fil-ibe were great opportunities for a journalist to practice the profession in ibe were great opportunities for a journalist to practice the profession in the city. Telegraphs incoming from Europe and Istanbul passed through the city. Telegraphs incoming from Europe and Istanbul passed through Filibe, and agency telegrams were made available for free.Filibe, and agency telegrams were made available for free.23 Secondly,Secondly, he emphasized that the newspaper would be get bogged down with politics emphasized that the newspaper would be get bogged down with politics since he would not allow partisanship in his newspaper. Thirdly, he men-since he would not allow partisanship in his newspaper. Thirdly, he men-tioned the city library with “around fortytioned the city library with “around forty-four thousand volumes” that four thousand volumes” that was open for everyone's use.was open for everyone's use.24 According tAccording to Ali Fehmi, the most famous o Ali Fehmi, the most famous political, scientific, statistical, and pedagogical newspapers from all over political, scientific, statistical, and pedagogical newspapers from all over the world were freely available to journalists via the city library for free.the world were freely available to journalists via the city library for free.25 Given these favorable conditions conducive to journalism, Ali Fehmi's iGiven these favorable conditions conducive to journalism, Ali Fehmi's in- itiative to publish itiative to publish MuvazeneMuvazene was set out for success.was set out for success.26

A year into the publication of the newspaper, Ali Fehmi announced A year into the publication of the newspaper, Ali Fehmi announced that that MuvazeneMuvazene had completed its first year, effectively celebrating its firsthad completed its first year, effectively celebrating its first-year anniversary, which provided an opportunity for a syear anniversary, which provided an opportunity for a self -appraisal.appraisal. 27 After fiftyAfter fifty-two weeks had passed, Ali Fehmi proudly stated that he kept two weeks had passed, Ali Fehmi proudly stated that he kept his promises and fulfilled his commitments from the first issue on. Here his promises and fulfilled his commitments from the first issue on. Here Ali Fehmi not only discussed the qualities a newspaper reader should Ali Fehmi not only discussed the qualities a newspaper reader should

22 Ibid.Ibid.

23 Ibid.Ibid.

24 Ibid.Ibid.

25 Ibid.Ibid.

26 Ibid; Some of the newspapers mentioned haIbid; Some of the newspapers mentioned have been personally examined by Ali Fehmi, ve been personally examined by Ali Fehmi, while the names of others are included in while the names of others are included in MuvazeneMuvazene due to references in the news due to references in the news sources. Among them, there are nearly 60 newspapers, including sources. Among them, there are nearly 60 newspapers, including Tan, Daily News, Peti Tan, Daily News, Peti Jurnal, Papa Gal, Figaro, Treşak, Times, Mir, DaJurnal, Papa Gal, Figaro, Treşak, Times, Mir, Daily Mail, Daily Telgraf, Neue Freie Presse, ily Mail, Daily Telgraf, Neue Freie Presse, Şimalî Almanya, Otizof, İstandar, İttifak, New York Harrelt, Novosti Frankfurt, Hükümet, Şimalî Almanya, Otizof, İstandar, İttifak, New York Harrelt, Novosti Frankfurt, Hükümet, EvladEvlad-ı Vatan, Akropol, Nationaltidende, Gayret, Sadaı Vatan, Akropol, Nationaltidende, Gayret, Sada-yı Millet, Politishe Korrespondenzyı Millet, Politishe Korrespondenz, and and TercümanTercüman.

27 “Arz“Arz-ı Meram,” ı Meram,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 52 . Sayı, . Sayı, 19 Ağustos Ağustos 1314 (31 Ağustos Ağustos 1898 ), ), 1.

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

possess, but also present

possess, but also presented a vision of social order he envisioned. He em-ed a vision of social order he envisioned. He em-phasized the importance of not merely believing events as they were rec-phasized the importance of not merely believing events as they were rec-orded, but also invited to considering other interpretations, noting the orded, but also invited to considering other interpretations, noting the necessity to keep in mind the laws of the country where the newsnecessity to keep in mind the laws of the country where the newspaper paper was published and the particular circumstances under which the articles was published and the particular circumstances under which the articles and news were written.and news were written.28

§ 4.2 Major Topics Covered in Major Topics Covered in MuvazeneMuvazene

4.2.1 “News From Bulgaria“News From Bulgaria”

“News from Bulgaria” is one of the most important headings of

“News from Bulgaria” is one of the most important headings of MuvazeneMuvazenebecause it provides weeklybecause it provides weekly news related to diplomatic, social, economic news related to diplomatic, social, economicmatters happening in the region, and news that concerned all the com-matters happening in the region, and news that concerned all the com-munities living in Bulgaria. Under this heading, news included coverage munities living in Bulgaria. Under this heading, news included coverageof diplomatic relations between the Bulgarian prince and other foreignof diplomatic relations between the Bulgarian prince and other foreignleaders, agriculture in Bulgaria, educational activities, endowment prop-leaders, agriculture in Bulgaria, educational activities, endowment prop-erties belonging to Muslims, petty crimes, and many other topics that af-erties belonging to Muslims, petty crimes, and many other topics that af-fected the lives of the people.fected the lives of the people.

Among the news that can be diplomatically classified under this head-

Among the news that can be diplomatically classified under this head-ing are reling are relations between Bulgaria and Austria, the Bulgarian prince’s ations between Bulgaria and Austria, the Bulgarian prince’s journey to Istanbul, mutual visits between princes of Bulgaria and Mon-journey to Istanbul, mutual visits between princes of Bulgaria and Mon-tenegro,tenegro,29 a procession held in Filibe for the birthday of Bulgarian heir a procession held in Filibe for the birthday of Bulgarian heir Prince Boris,Prince Boris, 30 the appointment of Mustafa Eyüp Efendthe appointment of Mustafa Eyüp Efendi as an envoy to i as an envoy to

28 Ibid.Ibid.

29 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 24 . Sayı, . Sayı, 4 Şubat Şubat 13131313 (16 Şubat Şubat 1898 ), ), 2.

30 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” MuvazeneMuvazene, 37 . Sayı, . Sayı, 6 Mayıs Mayıs 1314 (18 Mayıs Mayıs 1898 ), ), 2.

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the retinue of a Bulgarian merchant deputy sent to Edirne,

the retinue of a Bulgarian merchant deputy sent to Edirne,31 clashes be-clashes be-tween certain tween certain çeteçetes and Ottoman soldiers,s and Ottoman soldiers,32 the alliance between the Bul-the alliance between the Bul-garian Prince and the Ottoman government, which legitimized Prince garian Prince and the Ottoman government, which legitimized Prince Ferdinand as the governor of EaFerdinand as the governor of Eastern Rumelia.stern Rumelia. 33 Other news included the Other news included the establishment of the Bulgarian parliament, the admission of Bulgarian establishment of the Bulgarian parliament, the admission of Bulgarian soldiers who fled to Russia back to Bulgaria, statements by Bulgarian soldiers who fled to Russia back to Bulgaria, statements by Bulgarian commissioner Nasuhi Bey that the Ottoman Empire did not amass troops commissioner Nasuhi Bey that the Ottoman Empire did not amass troops on theon the Macedonia border, among others.Macedonia border, among others.34

This section provided insights into the resolution of unresolved issues

This section provided insights into the resolution of unresolved issues between Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.between Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.35 The news also discussed the The news also discussed the reclaiming of Bulgarian churches that were previously seized by Greeks reclaiming of Bulgarian churches that were previously seized by Greeks under the Ottunder the Ottoman rule.oman rule.36 The other diplomatic news included the evac-The other diplomatic news included the evac-uation of Thessaly,uation of Thessaly,37 and the plans of Macedonian committees for a con-and the plans of Macedonian committees for a con-

31 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,“Bulgaristan Havadisi,” ” MuvazeneMuvazene, 3. Sayı, 3 Eylül 1313 (15 Eylül 1897), 2. , 3. Sayı, 3 Eylül 1313 (15 Eylül 1897), 2. “Edirne's “Edirne's newly established representative of Bulgarian merchants is accompanied by Mustafa Eyüp newly established representative of Bulgarian merchants is accompanied by Mustafa Eyüp Efendi, a graduate of the Filibe high school. Mustafa Eyüp Efendi is known to have gradu-Efendi, a graduate of the Filibe high school. Mustafa Eyüp Efendi is known to have gradu-ated from Filibe ated from Filibe secondary school. He is a wellsecondary school. He is a well--mannered and hardworking young man. mannered and hardworking young man. [Edirne yeni tesis olunan Bulgaristan tüccar vekili maiyetine Filibe bulgar kinezyası [Edirne yeni tesis olunan Bulgaristan tüccar vekili maiyetine Filibe bulgar kinezyası (idadi) mezunlarından olup Filibe mekteb(idadi) mezunlarından olup Filibe mekteb--i rüşdiyesinden mustafa Eyüp efendinin i rüşdiyesinden mustafa Eyüp efendinin taayyün olunduğu işidiltaayyün olunduğu işidilmişdir. Eyüb efendi terbiyeli, çalışkan bir gençdir.]”mişdir. Eyüb efendi terbiyeli, çalışkan bir gençdir.]”

32 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 7. Sayı, 1 Teşrinievvel 1313 (13 Ekim 1897), 2. 7. Sayı, 1 Teşrinievvel 1313 (13 Ekim 1897), 2. “Some “Some Bulgarian newspapers have sarcastically written about the permissions granted between Bulgarian newspapers have sarcastically written about the permissions granted between certain gangs and the acertain gangs and the authorities. [Birtakım çeteler ile asa kiruthorities. [Birtakım çeteler ile asa kir--i redife arasında müsaa-i redife arasında müsaa-demeler Vuku bulduğunu Bulgar gazeteleri istihza suretiyle yazmıştır.]”demeler Vuku bulduğunu Bulgar gazeteleri istihza suretiyle yazmıştır.]”

33 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 77. Sayı, . Sayı, 22 Teşrinievvel Teşrinievvel 13131313 ((1313 Ekim Ekim 18971897), ), 11..

34 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” MuvazMuvazene,ene, 3030. Sayı, . Sayı, 1818 Mart Mart 13141314 ((3030 Mart Mart 18981898), ), 22..

35 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 7. Sayı,7. Sayı, 11 Teşrinievvel Teşrinievvel 13131313 ((1313 Ekim Ekim 18971897), ), 22..

36 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 12. Sayı, 12 Teşrinisani 1313 (24 Kasım 1897), 12. Sayı, 12 Teşrinisani 1313 (24 Kasım 1897), 2.2.“During its time, Turkey used to por“During its time, Turkey used to portray Bulgarians as Greeks, and they engaged in in-tray Bulgarians as Greeks, and they engaged in in-trigues. In fact, Bulgarian churches were completely seized by Greeks. In the current situ-trigues. In fact, Bulgarian churches were completely seized by Greeks. In the current situ-ation, Bulgarians are gradually reclaiming their churches. [Türkiye zamanında Rumlar ation, Bulgarians are gradually reclaiming their churches. [Türkiye zamanında Rumlar bulgarları da Rum göstermekle Enbulgarları da Rum göstermekle Entrika yaparlar idi Hatta Bulgarların kiliseleri büsbütün trika yaparlar idi Hatta Bulgarların kiliseleri büsbütün Rumlar tarafından zaptolunmuş idi şimdiki halde Bulgarlar birer birer kiliselerini geri Rumlar tarafından zaptolunmuş idi şimdiki halde Bulgarlar birer birer kiliselerini geri almaktadır.]”almaktadır.]”

37 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 4141. Sayı, . Sayı, 33 Haziran Haziran 13141314 ((1515 Haziran Haziran 18981898), ), 22..

E L I F SA BA H T Ü F E K Ç İ

gress in Sofia to be held on August 7

gress in Sofia to be held on August 7th , where they would present a mem-, where they would present a mem-orandum to the Great Powers.orandum to the Great Powers.38 “News from Bulgaria” offered de“News from Bulgaria” offered details tails about socialists that attracted Bulgarian government’s attention,about socialists that attracted Bulgarian government’s attention,39 cele- brations of Vasilevski’s 25brations of Vasilevski’s 25th anniversary,anniversary,40 the government’s decision to the government’s decision to return Ayia Trias Church to the Greeks.return Ayia Trias Church to the Greeks. 41 It also mentioned that the Mus-It also mentioned that the Mus-lim community in Filibe felt discolim community in Filibe felt discomfort when all shops, including those mfort when all shops, including those of Muslims, were closed on the Feast of the Assumption in Bulgaria.of Muslims, were closed on the Feast of the Assumption in Bulgaria.42 The The celebration of the feast of Saints Cyril and Methodius is included under celebration of the feast of Saints Cyril and Methodius is included under “News of Bulgaria” as well.“News of Bulgaria” as well.43 In sum, In sum, MuvazeneMuvazene’s coverage offered various’s coverage offered various diplomatic news that possessed great significance for both the Bulgarian diplomatic news that possessed great significance for both the Bulgarian government and communities living in the country.government and communities living in the country.

“News From Bulgaria” also paid attention to education

“News From Bulgaria” also paid attention to education-related mat-related mat-ters. For instance, information was given about the progress of repters. For instance, information was given about the progress of repairs to airs to Muslim schools in Hasköy, and the sacrifices made by the people of Muslim schools in Hasköy, and the sacrifices made by the people of Hasköy for the education of their children, which were presented with Hasköy for the education of their children, which were presented with praise. Tensions among teachers in Hasköy were also mentioned.praise. Tensions among teachers in Hasköy were also mentioned.44 Other Other

38 “Bulgari“Bulgaristan Havadisi,” stan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 49 . Sayı, . Sayı, 29 Temmuz Temmuz 13141314 (10 Ağustos Ağustos 18981898), ), 2.

39 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 3. Sayı, 3 Eylül 1313 (15 Eylül 1897), 2. 3. Sayı, 3 Eylül 1313 (15 Eylül 1897), 2. “Within Bul-“Within Bul-garia, socialists (...) attract the attention of the government. Their newspapers, brochuresgaria, socialists (...) attract the attention of the government. Their newspapers, brochures, congresses, and speeches are noteworthy. The first socialist publication to reach our print-congresses, and speeches are noteworthy. The first socialist publication to reach our print-ing press was their newspaper. Due to their popularity among the public, they are some-ing press was their newspaper. Due to their popularity among the public, they are some-times treated as being as slippery as a snake and their ideas are considered times treated as being as slippery as a snake and their ideas are considered poison. Social-poison. Social-ists are against the concept of serving humanity and are opposed to the concept of serving ists are against the concept of serving humanity and are opposed to the concept of serving humanity. [Bulgaristan dahilinde sosyalistler (…) hükümetin nazarıdikkatini celb etmek-humanity. [Bulgaristan dahilinde sosyalistler (…) hükümetin nazarıdikkatini celb etmek-dedir. Bunların cerideleri, risaleleri, kongreleri, nutukları şaydedir. Bunların cerideleri, risaleleri, kongreleri, nutukları şayan -ı dikkattir. Matbaamıza ı dikkattir. Matbaamıza ilk evvel gelen sosyalist ceridesidir. Ahali tarafdarı oldukları cihetle bazı mahallerde ilk evvel gelen sosyalist ceridesidir. Ahali tarafdarı oldukları cihetle bazı mahallerde kendileri yılan gibi addolunmakda, fikirleri zehir gibi farz olunmakdadır. Sosyalistler kendileri yılan gibi addolunmakda, fikirleri zehir gibi farz olunmakdadır. Sosyalistler hadimhadim-i beşeriyet fikrinde, hadimi beşeriyet fikrinde, hadim-i insaniyet aleyhii insaniyet aleyhindedirler.]”ndedirler.]”

40 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 26 . Sayı, . Sayı, 18 Şubat Şubat 13131313 (2 Mart Mart 18981898), ), 2.

41 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 15 . Sayı, . Sayı, 3 Kanunuevvel Kanunuevvel 1313 (15 Aralık Aralık 1897 ), ), 2.

42 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 52. Sayı, 19 Ağustos 1314 (31 Ağustos 52. Sayı, 19 Ağustos 1314 (31 Ağustos 18981898), ), 2.

43 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 38 . Sayı, . Sayı, 13 Mayıs Mayıs 13141314, (, (25 Mayıs Mayıs 18981898), ), 2.

44 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 5. Sayı, . Sayı, 17 Eylül Eylül 1313 , (, (29 Eylül Eylül 1897 ), ), 2.

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items included the situation of around se

items included the situation of around seventy destitute Bulgarian teach-venty destitute Bulgarian teach-ers in Köstendil,ers in Köstendil,45 the passing away of a hardworking young female the passing away of a hardworking young female teacher in Filibe due to illnessteacher in Filibe due to illness46 and the death of Hafız Mustafa Efendi, and the death of Hafız Mustafa Efendi, who had been a teacher for twenty years.who had been a teacher for twenty years.47 In this section, efforts to im-In this section, efforts to im-prove Jewish,prove Jewish,48 Armenian, and Bulgarian schools in Filibe were com-Armenian, and Bulgarian schools in Filibe were com-mended, and Muslims were advised to do the same.mended, and Muslims were advised to do the same.49 The fact that The fact that schools in large villages with around 400 households had only one schools in large villages with around 400 households had only one teacher for 100teacher for 100--150 students was a source of criticism by Ali Fehmi, 150 students was a source of criticism by Ali Fehmi, while while the promise of a fund of 2,000 francs from the Filibe municipality the promise of a fund of 2,000 francs from the Filibe municipality to Muslim schools was met with joy.to Muslim schools was met with joy.50

In “News from Bulgaria,” Ali Fehmi also engaged in inter

In “News from Bulgaria,” Ali Fehmi also engaged in inter--newspaper newspaper dialogue. For example, he congratulated the newly established newspa-dialogue. For example, he congratulated the newly established newspa-per per Doğru YolDoğru Yol and later extended congratulations to the newspaper and later extended congratulations to the newspaper Bal-Bal-kankan, which started being published in Rusçuk., which started being published in Rusçuk.51 Two newspapers pub-Two newspapers pub-lished in Filibe in Bulgarian and Greek languages praised lished in Filibe in Bulgarian and Greek languages praised MuvazeneMuvazene, and , and Ali Fehmi thanked them in return. An incident where thAli Fehmi thanked them in return. An incident where the publisher of the e publisher of the HukukHukuk newspaper in Varna was arrested by a spy was also reported to newspaper in Varna was arrested by a spy was also reported to readers.readers.52

In “News from Bulgaria,” two prominent topics related to Bulgarian

In “News from Bulgaria,” two prominent topics related to Bulgarian Muslims also found coverage: the Muslim schools and the future of en-Muslims also found coverage: the Muslim schools and the future of en-dowment properties in Bdowment properties in Bulgaria. These two topics are linked to the issue ulgaria. These two topics are linked to the issue of “misuse of duty.” According to Ali Fehmi, officials who received salaries of “misuse of duty.” According to Ali Fehmi, officials who received salaries from the state but failed to fulfill their duties were misappropriating from the state but failed to fulfill their duties were misappropriating funds that could otherwise be used for Muslim schools. Thfunds that could otherwise be used for Muslim schools. This situation led is situation led to the lack of education for Muslim children and teachers working under to the lack of education for Muslim children and teachers working under difficult conditions, almost voluntarily.difficult conditions, almost voluntarily.

45 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 2. Sayı, 27 Ağustos 1313 (8 Eylül 1897), 2.2. Sayı, 27 Ağustos 1313 (8 Eylül 1897), 2.

46 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 1919. Sayı, . Sayı, 3131 Kanunuevvel Kanunuevvel 13131313 ((1212 Ocak Ocak 18981898), ), 22..

47 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 5252. Sayı, . Sayı, 1919 Ağustos Ağustos 13141314 ((3131 Ağustos Ağustos 18981898), ), 22..

48 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 38. Sayı, 13 Mayıs 1314, (25 Mayıs 1898), 2.38. Sayı, 13 Mayıs 1314, (25 Mayıs 1898), 2.

49 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 2828. Sayı, . Sayı, 44 Mart Mart 13141314 ((1616 Mart Mart 18981898), ), 22..

50 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 3333. Sayı, . Sayı, 88 Nisan Nisan 13141314 ((2020 Nisan Nisan 18981898), ), 22..

51 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 4444. Sayı, . Sayı, 2424 Haziran Haziran 13141314 ((66 Temmuz Temmuz 18981898), ), 22..

52 “Bulgar“Bulgaristan Havadisi,” istan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 2222. Sayı, . Sayı, 2121 Kanunusani Kanunusani 13131313 ((22 Şubat Şubat 18981898), ), 22..

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Muvazene

Muvazene noted that local Muslims had long wished for the reform of noted that local Muslims had long wished for the reform of the the muftimufti institution, which had left a significant questinstitution, which had left a significant question mark in their ion mark in their minds.minds.53 For example, the newspaper provided coverage of instances For example, the newspaper provided coverage of instances where the mufti was not at his office, and the public, not knowing where where the mufti was not at his office, and the public, not knowing where the mufti was, had complained to the mufti was, had complained to MuvazeneMuvazene about it.about it.54 Similarly, someone Similarly, someone responsible for reading Buhresponsible for reading Buhariari-i Şerif was not fulfilling his duty. i Şerif was not fulfilling his duty. Muva-Muva-zenezene emphasized that instead of paying such individuals salaries, the emphasized that instead of paying such individuals salaries, the money should have been directed towards schools and teachers. While money should have been directed towards schools and teachers. While efforts to put underutilized vakıfefforts to put underutilized vakıf-owned mosques into initiatives that owned mosques into initiatives that ge nerate revenue were seen as a necessity, complaints from the Muslim nerate revenue were seen as a necessity, complaints from the Muslim community suggested that such initiatives were indeed lacking.community suggested that such initiatives were indeed lacking.55 In an-In an-other instance, a portion of Alaca Mosque in Filibe, located opposite the other instance, a portion of Alaca Mosque in Filibe, located opposite the club, was annexed to the property of a hotel club, was annexed to the property of a hotel owner. Nevertheless, imams owner. Nevertheless, imams who took advantage of the roles of these nonwho took advantage of the roles of these non-revenuerevenue-generating generating mosques continued to receive salaries.mosques continued to receive salaries.56

It was alleged that despite the insufficient income of some mosques,

It was alleged that despite the insufficient income of some mosques, their revenues were mixed with those of other mosques their revenues were mixed with those of other mosques to conceal this to conceal this fact. 57 There were also claims that in addition to imams, hammams and There were also claims that in addition to imams, hammams and shopkeepers were given the title of muezzin in mosques, which once shopkeepers were given the title of muezzin in mosques, which once

53 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 15 . Sayı, . Sayı, 3 Kanunuevvel Kanunuevvel 1313 (15 Aralık Aralık 1897 ), ), 2.

54 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 6. Sayı, . Sayı, 24 Eylül Eylül 1313 (6 Ekim Ekim 18971897), ), 2.

55 “Bulgarist“Bulgaristan Havadisi,” an Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 8. Sayı, 8 Teşrinievvel 1313 (20 Ekim 1897), 2. 8. Sayı, 8 Teşrinievvel 1313 (20 Ekim 1897), 2. “Why “Why aren't these people being removed from their positions? In other words, why aren't the aren't these people being removed from their positions? In other words, why aren't the funds being allocated to schools and teachers instead? [Bunlar niçin azl olunmuyor yani funds being allocated to schools and teachers instead? [Bunlar niçin azl olunmuyor yani paraparalar niçin mekteplere muallimlere verilmiyor?]”lar niçin mekteplere muallimlere verilmiyor?]”

56 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 8. Sayı, 8 Teşrinievvel 1313 (20 Ekim 1897), 2. 8. Sayı, 8 Teşrinievvel 1313 (20 Ekim 1897), 2. “Some “Some places, although capable of generating income, are left unused, and in addition to that, a places, although capable of generating income, are left unused, and in addition to that, a collapsed mosque's imam iscollapsed mosque's imam is still being paid a salary. We can't make sense of it. We don't still being paid a salary. We can't make sense of it. We don't know whether the public is aware of this or not. (Like Orta Cami) [Bazı yerler muatıl kal-know whether the public is aware of this or not. (Like Orta Cami) [Bazı yerler muatıl kal-mış olduğu halde bunları varidat getirecek bir hale koymak lazım iken yapılmadıktan mış olduğu halde bunları varidat getirecek bir hale koymak lazım iken yapılmadıktan mada yıkılmış bir cmada yıkılmış bir caminin imamına hala maaş vermekten bir mana çıkaramıyoruz. aminin imamına hala maaş vermekten bir mana çıkaramıyoruz. Aha-Aha-linin haberi var mı yok mu bilemeyiz. (Orta Cami gibi)]”linin haberi var mı yok mu bilemeyiz. (Orta Cami gibi)]”

57 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 19 . Sayı, . Sayı, 31 Kanunuevvel Kanunuevvel 1313 (12 Ocak Ocak 18981898), ), 1.

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again misappropriated funds.

again misappropriated funds.58 The Muslim community in Pazarcık sim-The Muslim community in Pazarcık sim-ilarly strived to uncover the truths related to vakıf matters, and these de-ilarly strived to uncover the truths related to vakıf matters, and these de-velopments were rapidly reported to the velopments were rapidly reported to the MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper.newspaper.59 The Ev-The Ev-kaf Administration in Filibe also attempted to placate the public with kaf Administration in Filibe also attempted to placate the public with variouvarious excuses to avoid being held accountable in certain matters, as the s excuses to avoid being held accountable in certain matters, as the newspaper reported.newspaper reported.60 According to Ali Fehmi’s writing, individuals According to Ali Fehmi’s writing, individuals bearing the title of vakıf directors were doing nothing but leaving behind bearing the title of vakıf directors were doing nothing but leaving behind a pile of debts after completing their dutiesa pile of debts after completing their duties.61 The people of Filibe had The people of Filibe had been contemplating the inefficacy of the mufti and vakıf institutions for been contemplating the inefficacy of the mufti and vakıf institutions for two years. Eventually, a new vakıf director was deemed unnecessary in two years. Eventually, a new vakıf director was deemed unnecessary in Filibe, and the budget allocated for that position was distributed among Filibe, and the budget allocated for that position was distributed among teachers.teachers.62

The “News from Bulgaria” section not only discussed problems re-

The “News from Bulgaria” section not only discussed problems re-lated to Muslims but also provided information about events that con-lated to Muslims but also provided information about events that con-cerned Muslims in general. For instance, an article discussed issues re-cerned Muslims in general. For instance, an article discussed issues re-lated to Muslim girls and widows working as maids in nlated to Muslim girls and widows working as maids in non -Muslim Muslim households.households.63 The decoration of the city with lights on the occasion of The decoration of the city with lights on the occasion of Bara’at night was described. So was the celebration of the birthday of the Bara’at night was described. So was the celebration of the birthday of the

58 Ibid.Ibid.

59 Ibid.Ibid.

60 Ibid. Ibid. “It is reported that“It is reported that the Filibe Evkaf administration continues to evade accountability the Filibe Evkaf administration continues to evade accountability by using various excuses as before, attempting to deceive and appease the public in this by using various excuses as before, attempting to deceive and appease the public in this manner. [Filibe Evkaf idaresinin hesap vermekte evvelki gibi birtakım bahanelerle işi sal-manner. [Filibe Evkaf idaresinin hesap vermekte evvelki gibi birtakım bahanelerle işi sal-ladığı ve bladığı ve bu suretle ahaliyi uyutturmaya, avutturmaya çalıştığı haber veriliyor.]”u suretle ahaliyi uyutturmaya, avutturmaya çalıştığı haber veriliyor.]”

61 Ibid. “Ibid. “It is being questioned what several individuals, informally known by the title of 'Ev-It is being questioned what several individuals, informally known by the title of 'Ev-kaf Director,' have produced apart from consuming money and leaving debts behind. [Ev-kaf Director,' have produced apart from consuming money and leaving debts behind. [Ev-kafkaf müdürü namı ile gayriresmi olarak kullanılan birkaç kişinin para yemekten, borç müdürü namı ile gayriresmi olarak kullanılan birkaç kişinin para yemekten, borç bırakmaktan başka ne eser gösterdiği soruluyor.]”bırakmaktan başka ne eser gösterdiği soruluyor.]”

62 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 29 . Sayı, . Sayı, 11 Mart Mart 1314 (23 Mart Mart 18981898), ), 2.

63 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 8. Sayı8. Sayı, 8 Teşrinievvel 1313 (20 Ekim 1897), 2. “, 8 Teşrinievvel 1313 (20 Ekim 1897), 2. “Do Do not forget that our young girls and widowed women, starting with serving as maids in not forget that our young girls and widowed women, starting with serving as maids in foreign houses, have their honor compromised. If further negligence occurs, the nation will foreign houses, have their honor compromised. If further negligence occurs, the nation will be held accountable in this world be held accountable in this world and the hereafter. [Genç kızlarımızın dul kadınlarımızın and the hereafter. [Genç kızlarımızın dul kadınlarımızın ecnebi evlerinde hizmetçilikten başlayarak namusları paymal olduğunu unutmayınız ecnebi evlerinde hizmetçilikten başlayarak namusları paymal olduğunu unutmayınız daha gaflet olunur ise millet dünya ve ahirette mesuldür.]” daha gaflet olunur ise millet dünya ve ahirette mesuldür.]”

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Prophet Muhammad (Mevlid

Prophet Muhammad (Mevlid-i Nebevi) in the city.i Nebevi) in the city.64 The return of Muslim The return of Muslim pilgrims to Filibe in good heapilgrims to Filibe in good health after the Hajj found coverage, which lth after the Hajj found coverage, which noted the deaths of two out of fourteen pilgrims.noted the deaths of two out of fourteen pilgrims.65

In the “News from Bulgaria” section, developments related to Muslim

In the “News from Bulgaria” section, developments related to Muslim progress were also covered. For instance, it is mentioned that a new rail-progress were also covered. For instance, it is mentioned that a new rail-way construction had bway construction had been decided in Bulgaria, but there was still disa-een decided in Bulgaria, but there was still disa-greement between the municipality and the government regarding the greement between the municipality and the government regarding the railway stations.railway stations.66 The establishment of a sugar factory in Sofia,The establishment of a sugar factory in Sofia,67 the re-the re-location of a bridge constructed in Filibe to Stanimaka,location of a bridge constructed in Filibe to Stanimaka,68 and the fand the found-ound-ing of a bank by an anonymous company in Sofiaing of a bank by an anonymous company in Sofia69 were among the news. were among the news. Ali Fehmi also reported on a serious accident that was narrowly avoided Ali Fehmi also reported on a serious accident that was narrowly avoided on the Sofiaon the Sofia-Filibe railway line.Filibe railway line.70

Disturbing events, petty crimes, or disasters occurring across Bul-

Disturbing events, petty crimes, or disasters occurring across Bul-garia weregaria were also reflected in the pages of also reflected in the pages of MuvazeneMuvazene. For instance, the dis-. For instance, the dis-covery of an unidentified body two hours away from Filibe, where people covery of an unidentified body two hours away from Filibe, where people of various nationalities were called to identify, was reported.of various nationalities were called to identify, was reported.71 So was the So was the case of a tobacco manufacturer depositing thrcase of a tobacco manufacturer depositing three bags of tobacco as a de-ee bags of tobacco as a de-posit with Şükrü Efend’s shop, and the soldiers theft of the tobacco.posit with Şükrü Efend’s shop, and the soldiers theft of the tobacco.72 Horse thefts had apparently increased in Şumnu;Horse thefts had apparently increased in Şumnu;73 a thief caught across a thief caught across from Kurşunlu Han was found to be likely suffering from kleptomania;from Kurşunlu Han was found to be likely suffering from kleptomania;74

64 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 48. Sayı, 22 Temmuz48. Sayı, 22 Temmuz 13141314 (3 Ağustos Ağustos 18981898), ), 2.

65 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 45 . Sayı, . Sayı, 1 Temmuz Temmuz 13141314 (13 Temmuz Temmuz 1898 ), ), 2.

66 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 6. Sayı, . Sayı, 24 Eylül Eylül 1313 (6 Ekim Ekim 18971897), ), 2.

67 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 23. Sayı, 28 Kanunusani 1313 23. Sayı, 28 Kanunusani 1313 (9 Şubat Şubat 18981898), ), 2.

68 Ibid.Ibid.

69 “Bulgaristan Havadisi” “Bulgaristan Havadisi” Muvazene,Muvazene, 52 . Sayı, . Sayı, 19 Ağustos Ağustos 13141314 (31 Ağustos Ağustos 18981898), ), 2.

70 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 45 . Sayı, . Sayı, 1 Temmuz Temmuz 13141314 (13 Temmuz Temmuz 1898 ), ), 2.

71 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 2. Sayı, 27 Ağustos 12. Sayı, 27 Ağustos 1313313 (8 Eylül Eylül 1897 ), ), 2.

72 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 10 . Sayı, . Sayı, 22 Teşrinievvel Teşrinievvel 1313 (3 Kasım Kasım 18971897), ), 2.

73 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 2. Sayı, . Sayı, 27 Ağustos Ağustos 13131313 (8 Eylül Eylül 1897 ), ), 2.

74 “Açık Mektublar,” “Açık Mektublar,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 22 Teşrinievvel 1313, 2.22 Teşrinievvel 1313, 2.“Last T“Last Thursday, a polite thief named hursday, a polite thief named 'lazkar' was caught in front of Kurşunlu Han from a shop owned by a glassworker. This 'lazkar' was caught in front of Kurşunlu Han from a shop owned by a glassworker. This young man is engaged to a beautiful girl from a respectable family. Some polite people young man is engaged to a beautiful girl from a respectable family. Some polite people even refer to this illness as 'kleptomania' as it affeven refer to this illness as 'kleptomania' as it afflicts even some welllicts even some well-mannered individuals mannered individuals

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Nişan Domanyan, wh

Nişan Domanyan, who closed his shop and was heading home, had all his o closed his shop and was heading home, had all his money stolen by thieves.money stolen by thieves.75 A fire broke out in the house of Dimitrov, and A fire broke out in the house of Dimitrov, and the firefighters gained Ali Fehmi's admiration and appreciation for their the firefighters gained Ali Fehmi's admiration and appreciation for their efforts.efforts.76 A thirteenA thirteen-yearyear-old Bulgarian girl named Olga told Bulgarian girl named Olga threw herself hrew herself into the Meriç River but was saved by İbrahim Ağa.into the Meriç River but was saved by İbrahim Ağa.77 In the Maraş neigh-In the Maraş neigh-borhood, two young Bulgarian boys hung a watermelon from a well, but borhood, two young Bulgarian boys hung a watermelon from a well, but while trying to retrieve it, both fell into the well and drowned.while trying to retrieve it, both fell into the well and drowned.78 Outlaw Outlaw groups had appeared in some argroups had appeared in some areas of Turyan and began to harass some eas of Turyan and began to harass some villages at the foot of the Balkans.villages at the foot of the Balkans.79

Alongside the terrifying events taking place in Bulgaria, there were

Alongside the terrifying events taking place in Bulgaria, there were also various themes related to farming, agriculture, and social life, as they also various themes related to farming, agriculture, and social life, as they

with the urge to steal. [Geçen perşembe günü Kurşunlu Han karşısında kırancının dük-

with the urge to steal. [Geçen perşembe günü Kurşunlu Han karşısında kırancının dük-kanından lazkar isminde kibar bir hırsız yakalanmıştır bu genç kibar bir familyaya kanından lazkar isminde kibar bir hırsız yakalanmıştır bu genç kibar bir familyaya mensup güzel bir kız ile de nişanlı imiş bazı kimensup güzel bir kız ile de nişanlı imiş bazı kibarlar bile çalmak cinnetine Müptela olduğu barlar bile çalmak cinnetine Müptela olduğu cihetle bu hastalığa kleptomani derler.]”cihetle bu hastalığa kleptomani derler.]”

75 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 6. Sayı, . Sayı, 24 Eylül Eylül 1313 (6 Ekim Ekim 18971897), ), 2.

76 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 30. Sayı, 18 Mart 1314 (30 Mart 1898), 2.30. Sayı, 18 Mart 1314 (30 Mart 1898), 2. “Let it not“Let it not be thought that firefighting is an insignificant duty. Those who sacrifice their lives to pro-be thought that firefighting is an insignificant duty. Those who sacrifice their lives to pro-tect the country from damage and the people from harm are as commendable as heroes. tect the country from damage and the people from harm are as commendable as heroes. In this regard, we consider it a humanitarian duty to say a few words about thIn this regard, we consider it a humanitarian duty to say a few words about the responsi-e responsi-bilities of our municipality. The helmets that protect the heads of our firefighters from fire bilities of our municipality. The helmets that protect the heads of our firefighters from fire are already priced at 8are already priced at 8-10 francs, and the absence of these helmets in some cases, as well 10 francs, and the absence of these helmets in some cases, as well as the lack of lanterns when firefighting at night, especialas the lack of lanterns when firefighting at night, especially when walls and pillars col-ly when walls and pillars col-lapse, are significant shortcomings. Therefore, we draw the municipality's attention to the lapse, are significant shortcomings. Therefore, we draw the municipality's attention to the procurement of the missing helmets and lanterns. [Tulumbacılık ehemmiyetsiz bir vazife procurement of the missing helmets and lanterns. [Tulumbacılık ehemmiyetsiz bir vazife addolunmasın. Memeleketi hasardan ahaliyi zarardaddolunmasın. Memeleketi hasardan ahaliyi zarardan vikaye etmek için fedaan vikaye etmek için feda-yı can eden yı can eden kahramanlar kadar şayanı takdirdri. Bu münasebetle belediyemizin vazifekahramanlar kadar şayanı takdirdri. Bu münasebetle belediyemizin vazife-i asliyesine i asliyesine taalluk eden bir iki söz söylemeyi vazifetaalluk eden bir iki söz söylemeyi vazife-i insaniye muktezatından addederiz. İtfaiyemizin i insaniye muktezatından addederiz. İtfaiyemizin başlarına kemikle başlarını ateşten muhafabaşlarına kemikle başlarını ateşten muhafazaya medar olan kasklar zaten 8zaya medar olan kasklar zaten 8-10 frank 10 frank mukabilinde celp ve ictira olunduğu halde bazılarında bu kaskalrın bulunmaması alelhu-mukabilinde celp ve ictira olunduğu halde bazılarında bu kaskalrın bulunmaması alelhu-sus gece vakti amelyabsus gece vakti amelyab-ı itfaiye esnasında duvarların direklerin yıkıldığını görmek için ı itfaiye esnasında duvarların direklerin yıkıldığını görmek için fakil tesmiye olunan fenerlerin mefkudiyefakil tesmiye olunan fenerlerin mefkudiyeti büyük kusurlardandır. Binaenaleyh kask ve ti büyük kusurlardandır. Binaenaleyh kask ve fakillerin ikmali hususunda belediye heyeti idaresinin nazarı dikkat ve merhametlerini fakillerin ikmali hususunda belediye heyeti idaresinin nazarı dikkat ve merhametlerini celb ederiz.]”celb ederiz.]”

77 “Bugaristan Havadisi,” “Bugaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 39 . Sayı, . Sayı, 21 Mayıs Mayıs 13141314 (2 Haziran Haziran 18981898), ), 2.

78 “Bugaristan Havadisi,” “Bugaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 49 . Sayı, . Sayı, 29 Temmuz Temmuz 13141314 (10 Ağustos Ağustos 18981898), ), 2.

79 “Bugaristan Havadisi,” “Bugaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 46 . Sayı, . Sayı, 8 Temmuz Temmuz 13141314 (20 Temmuz Temmuz 1898 ), ), 2.

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covered by

covered by MuvazeneMuvazene. There were. There were encouraging news about agriculture encouraging news about agriculture and rice harvests in various parts of Bulgariaand rice harvests in various parts of Bulgaria from September 28 to Oc-from September 28 to Oc-tober 6, 1897.tober 6, 1897.80 In August of 1898, it was reported that there had been a In August of 1898, it was reported that there had been a significant amount of rain in Filibe, which was beneficial for vineyards significant amount of rain in Filibe, which was beneficial for vineyards and and rice fields.rice fields.81 There were reports of profitable beet cultivation.There were reports of profitable beet cultivation.82 A train carrying livestock ordered by the Ottoman Empire from Hungary train carrying livestock ordered by the Ottoman Empire from Hungary passed through Filibe with 26 carriages.passed through Filibe with 26 carriages. 83 And those working in rice har-And those working in rice har-vests owned by Turkish landowners maintained goovests owned by Turkish landowners maintained good relations despite d relations despite the presence of Bulgarian and Catholic laborers.the presence of Bulgarian and Catholic laborers.84 MeserrethaneMeserrethane-i Os-i Os-mani Company was also noted to have arrived in Filibe.mani Company was also noted to have arrived in Filibe.85

However, there were certainly negative news among agricultural and

However, there were certainly negative news among agricultural and social news as well. For example, some indivisocial news as well. For example, some individuals were receiving wages duals were receiving wages for working in rice and rice fields, but they were not actually working.for working in rice and rice fields, but they were not actually working.86 Drought and winds were causing concerns among farmers.Drought and winds were causing concerns among farmers.87 Overplant-Overplant-ing of rice by tenant farmers had led to the deterioration of rice fields in ing of rice by tenant farmers had led to the deterioration of rice fields in Filibe and PaFilibe and Pazarcık.zarcık.88 Tatar farmers in the Harmanlı region had refused Tatar farmers in the Harmanlı region had refused to pay taxes, leading to Ottoman military intervention and unrest in the to pay taxes, leading to Ottoman military intervention and unrest in the area.area.89

80 “Bugaristan Havadisi,” “Bugaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, Muvazene,Muvazene, 6. Sayı, . Sayı, 24 Eylül Eylül 1313 (6 Ekim Ekim 1897 ), ), 2.

81 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,uvazene, 50 . Sayı, . Sayı, 5 Ağustos Ağustos 13141314 (17 Ağustos Ağustos 1898 ), ), 2.

82 Ibid.Ibid.

83 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 51 . Sayı, . Sayı, 12 Ağustos Ağustos 13141314 (24 Ağustos Ağustos 18981898), ), 2.

84 Ibid.Ibid.

85 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 32. Sayı, 1 Nisan 1314 (13 Nisan 1898), 2.32. Sayı, 1 Nisan 1314 (13 Nisan 1898), 2.

86 “Bulgaris“Bulgaristan Havadisi,” tan Havadisi,” MuvazeneMuvazene, 8. Sayı, 8 Teşrinievvel 1314 (20 Ekim 1897), 2. , 8. Sayı, 8 Teşrinievvel 1314 (20 Ekim 1897), 2. “Some “Some gentlemen claim that while they are enjoying themselves in rice paddy fields and threshing gentlemen claim that while they are enjoying themselves in rice paddy fields and threshing floors, they still receive their full salaries, and they provide 2000 witnesses for thfloors, they still receive their full salaries, and they provide 2000 witnesses for this. These is. These officials who complain that their work is too much, I wonder if they have too much work officials who complain that their work is too much, I wonder if they have too much work in rice fields or in endowment affairs? [Bazı efendiler çeltik pirinç tarlası harmanlarında in rice fields or in endowment affairs? [Bazı efendiler çeltik pirinç tarlası harmanlarında kendi işinde eğlencesinde gezdiği halde maaşını tamamen almaktaymıkendi işinde eğlencesinde gezdiği halde maaşını tamamen almaktaymış, buna 2000 şahit ş, buna 2000 şahit gösteriyorlar. İşimiz çoktur diye söylenen bu memur efendilerin acaba çeltik işleri mi çok gösteriyorlar. İşimiz çoktur diye söylenen bu memur efendilerin acaba çeltik işleri mi çok yoksa vakıf işleri mi?]”yoksa vakıf işleri mi?]”

87 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 22 . Sayı, . Sayı, 21 Kanunusani Kanunusani 1313 (2 Şubat Şubat 18981898), ), 2.

88 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” MuvazenMuvazene, 45 . Sayı, . Sayı, 1 Temmuz Temmuz 13141314 (13 Temmuz Temmuz 1898 ), ), 2.

89 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 51 . Sayı, . Sayı, 12 Ağustos Ağustos 13141314 (24 Ağustos Ağustos 18981898), ), 2.

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Ali Fehmi, who provided a balanced compilation of local news from

Ali Fehmi, who provided a balanced compilation of local news from Bulgaria every week, once remarked, “Yes! Some ladiBulgaria every week, once remarked, “Yes! Some ladies have a point. Our es have a point. Our newspaper always writes sad and sorrowful lines. It is desired that some newspaper always writes sad and sorrowful lines. It is desired that some entertaining articles be written as well.”entertaining articles be written as well.”90 Although Although MuvazeneMuvazene did not did not promise to provide entertaining news, Ali Fehmi explained that he hap-promise to provide entertaining news, Ali Fehmi explained that he hap-pened to come across anpened to come across an incident that fulfilled this desire of the ladies:incident that fulfilled this desire of the ladies:

On a Wednesday, a tall, stout woman with blue eyes and dressed in

On a Wednesday, a tall, stout woman with blue eyes and dressed in fur began wandering in front of our house. At one point, […] she took fur began wandering in front of our house. At one point, […] she took out a white bottle from under her skirt and broke it on the threshoout a white bottle from under her skirt and broke it on the threshold ld of our street door. The contents of the bottle were seen to be water, of our street door. The contents of the bottle were seen to be water, olive oil, and other substances. Fortunately, since no one in our house olive oil, and other substances. Fortunately, since no one in our house believed in these things, there was no need to panic against those believed in these things, there was no need to panic against those who saw and reported it from outside. […] Thwho saw and reported it from outside. […] The magic was apparently e magic was apparently intended to secure our departure from Filibe.intended to secure our departure from Filibe.91

Upon learning where the woman lived and who she was, Ali Fehmi,

Upon learning where the woman lived and who she was, Ali Fehmi, after narrating this incident, expressed his pity for those who believed in after narrating this incident, expressed his pity for those who believed in these things. He particularly criticized the these things. He particularly criticized the fact that while other nations fact that while other nations were thinking and working to advance their trade and arts, Muslims were were thinking and working to advance their trade and arts, Muslims were wasting time on frivolous matters, highlighting the general ignorance wasting time on frivolous matters, highlighting the general ignorance among the population.among the population.92

90 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 19 . Sayı, . Sayı, 31 Kanunuevvel Kanunuevvel 1313 (12 Ocak Ocak 18981898), ), 2.

91 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” MuvazenMuvazene, 19. Sayı, 31 Kanunuevvel 1313 (12 Ocak 1898), 19. Sayı, 31 Kanunuevvel 1313 (12 Ocak 1898), 2. “Geçen çarşamba günü irice uzun boylu, mavi gözlü, kürk giydiği için şişmanca bir kadın Geçen çarşamba günü irice uzun boylu, mavi gözlü, kürk giydiği için şişmanca bir kadın bizim evin kapısı önünde dolaşmaya başlar. Bir aralık gelince […] eteğinin altından bir bizim evin kapısı önünde dolaşmaya başlar. Bir aralık gelince […] eteğinin altından bir beyaz şişe çıkararak bizim sobeyaz şişe çıkararak bizim sokak kapısının eşiğinde kırar. Şişenin içinde su, zeytinyağı ve kak kapısının eşiğinde kırar. Şişenin içinde su, zeytinyağı ve mevaddmevadd-ı saire olduğu görülüyor. Bereket versin ki evde bunlara inanan kimse olmadığın-ı saire olduğu görülüyor. Bereket versin ki evde bunlara inanan kimse olmadığın-dan dışarıdan görüp haber verenlere karşı telaş gösterilmemiştir. […] Yapılan büyücülük dan dışarıdan görüp haber verenlere karşı telaş gösterilmemiştir. […] Yapılan büyücülük bizim Filibe’den çıbizim Filibe’den çıkıp gitmekliğimiz içinmiş.”kıp gitmekliğimiz içinmiş.”

92 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 18 . Sayı, . Sayı, 24 Kanunuevvel Kanunuevvel 1313 (5 Ocak Ocak 1898 ), ), 3.

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4.2.2 “Political Affairs”“Political Affairs”

Political affairs were issues that were

Political affairs were issues that were as equally central to Ali Fehmi’s as equally central to Ali Fehmi’s coverage of events in his newspaper. He contextualized his publication coverage of events in his newspaper. He contextualized his publication efforts coming at a time when “the issues of Armenia, Kurdistan, Thessaly, efforts coming at a time when “the issues of Armenia, Kurdistan, Thessaly, Macedonia, India, and Eastern Rumelia are under the attention and in-Macedonia, India, and Eastern Rumelia are under the attention and in-vestigavestigation of the whole world.”tion of the whole world.”93 Closely following these developments, Closely following these developments, MuvazeneMuvazene struck a pessimistic tone, reminding readers that the general struck a pessimistic tone, reminding readers that the general state of the world could potentially result in a global conflict.state of the world could potentially result in a global conflict. 94 He saw He saw all states as essentially rivals to one anotall states as essentially rivals to one another who maintained their allies her who maintained their allies only as much as the context required it. He thought that peaceonly as much as the context required it. He thought that peace-promoting promoting countries were secretly preparing for a great war and relocating their countries were secretly preparing for a great war and relocating their people to relatively empty areas, planning to claim these lands as their people to relatively empty areas, planning to claim these lands as their naturalnatural inheritance in the future. According to Ali Fehmi, the key factor inheritance in the future. According to Ali Fehmi, the key factor for warfare was money, as Napoleon once famously stated.for warfare was money, as Napoleon once famously stated.95

Ali Fehmi discussed Russia as an old country, noted its opposition to

Ali Fehmi discussed Russia as an old country, noted its opposition to England, and its relations with France, and the Ottoman goverEngland, and its relations with France, and the Ottoman government, nment, among other things.among other things.96 Ali Fehmi’s writings suggested that the world was Ali Fehmi’s writings suggested that the world was on the brink of conflict, and he urged readers to consider the historical on the brink of conflict, and he urged readers to consider the historical context and lessons that could be learned from past events because he context and lessons that could be learned from past events because he foresaw that a world war was impenforesaw that a world war was impending due to the international rival-ding due to the international rival-ries and tensions:ries and tensions:

In the eyes of those skilled in reasoning, Europe’s hell is deemed to

In the eyes of those skilled in reasoning, Europe’s hell is deemed to be in the paradisebe in the paradise-like Balkan Peninsula. (...) The center of the vol-like Balkan Peninsula. (...) The center of the vol-cano is again this peninsula. This volcano is yet to make a socano is again this peninsula. This volcano is yet to make a sound. A und. A terrifying silence, but a dreadful anticipation of what is to come. Not terrifying silence, but a dreadful anticipation of what is to come. Not

93 “Hadisat“Hadisat-ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, Muvazene,Muvazene, 6. Sayı, . Sayı, 24 Eylül Eylül 1313 (6 Ekim Ekim 1897 ), ), 1.

94 “Hadisat“Hadisat-ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” Muvazene, Muvazene, 19. Sayı, 31 Kanunu19. Sayı, 31 Kanunuevvel evvel 1313 (12 Ocak Ocak 1898 ), ), 1.

95 “Hadisat“Hadisat-ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 11 . Sayı, . Sayı, 5 Teşrinisani Teşrinisani 13131313 (17 Kasım Kasım 18971897), ), 1.

96 “Hadisat“Hadisat-ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 2. Sayı, . Sayı, 27 Ağustos Ağustos 1313 (8 Eylül Eylül 1897 ), ), 1.

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only Europe, but also Asia and Africa are exposed to the develop-

only Europe, but also Asia and Africa are exposed to the develop-ments in the Balkans.ments in the Balkans.97

In line with its mission to monitor political developments closely, Ali

In line with its mission to monitor political developments closely, Ali Fehmi covered sigFehmi covered significant global conflicts, such as the growing tensions nificant global conflicts, such as the growing tensions in Crete, the British control of Cyprus, the necessity of implementing re-in Crete, the British control of Cyprus, the necessity of implementing re-forms in Anatolia according to the Berlin Treaty, the Thessaly question, forms in Anatolia according to the Berlin Treaty, the Thessaly question, and Bulgaria's policy of maintaining good relations wiand Bulgaria's policy of maintaining good relations with its neighbors.th its neighbors.

In approaching political affairs, Ali Fehmi occasionally made general-

In approaching political affairs, Ali Fehmi occasionally made general-izations and used the method of deduction by drawing conclusions from izations and used the method of deduction by drawing conclusions from historical events. For instance, he posited a thesis that in world politics, historical events. For instance, he posited a thesis that in world politics, the strong had historithe strong had historically dominated the weak, asserting that only the cally dominated the weak, asserting that only the powerful and victorious ruled. He supported this claim by stating that powerful and victorious ruled. He supported this claim by stating that powerful nations convinced others of the justifications for their actions. powerful nations convinced others of the justifications for their actions. When providing historical examples, he noted that Napoleon eWhen providing historical examples, he noted that Napoleon easily found asily found reasons to invade Egypt.reasons to invade Egypt.98 Ali Fehmi aimed to provide historical lessons Ali Fehmi aimed to provide historical lessons and emphasized that history offers insights into the future for those who and emphasized that history offers insights into the future for those who learn from the past:learn from the past:

Throughout history, Egyptians, Greeks, Macedonians, Romans, and Ar-

Throughout history, Egyptians, Greeks, Macedonians, Romans, and Ar-abs achievabs achieved a level of greatness, but their empires eventually de-ed a level of greatness, but their empires eventually de-clined. They dispersed in different directions. The most determined clined. They dispersed in different directions. The most determined time for a state is when it is powerful and confident to possess India time for a state is when it is powerful and confident to possess India or Egypt, or to achieve its ambitions. (...) The reasons for or Egypt, or to achieve its ambitions. (...) The reasons for Alexander Alexander the Great’s journey to India and capturing Egypt from the Hebrews the Great’s journey to India and capturing Egypt from the Hebrews (Napoleon's invasion of Egypt) were relatively easy to find. In the pre-(Napoleon's invasion of Egypt) were relatively easy to find. In the pre-

97 “Hadisat“Hadisat--ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 2. Sayı, 27 Ağustos 1313 2. Sayı, 27 Ağustos 1313 (8 Eylül 1897), 1. (8 Eylül 1897), 1. “Avrupa’nın “Avrupa’nın cehennemi cennetcehennemi cennet--i asa olan Balkan şiphi asa olan Balkan şiph--i ceziresinde olacağı erbabi ceziresinde olacağı erbab--ı muhakeme indinde ı muhakeme indinde müsellemdir. (…) Volkanın merkezi yine bu şiphmüsellemdir. (…) Volkanın merkezi yine bu şiph--i ceziredir. Bu volkan henüz ses i ceziredir. Bu volkan henüz ses çıkarmıyor. Korkunç bir sükut lakin dehşetli bir intizarçıkarmıyor. Korkunç bir sükut lakin dehşetli bir intizar--ıı ayandır. Zira bu intizar neticesine ayandır. Zira bu intizar neticesine yalnız Avrupa değil, Asya, Afrika da maruzdur.”yalnız Avrupa değil, Asya, Afrika da maruzdur.”

98 “Hadisat“Hadisat--ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 22. Sayı, . Sayı, 2727 Ağustos Ağustos 13131313 ((88 Eylül Eylül 18971897), ), 11..

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sent state, considering that India is under British rule and Egypt is un-

sent state, considering that India is under British rule and Egypt is un-der occupation, it is difficult to imder occupation, it is difficult to imagine anyone other than the British agine anyone other than the British owning India and Egypt, even the smallest states.owning India and Egypt, even the smallest states.99

Ali Fehmi’s historic reasoning was evident when discussing the

Ali Fehmi’s historic reasoning was evident when discussing the GreekGreek-Ottoman Crete issue. He employed historical examples from an-Ottoman Crete issue. He employed historical examples from an-cient times to enhance his rhetoric. Alcient times to enhance his rhetoric. Although the battle in Crete had though the battle in Crete had ended, tensions persisted and the matter was unresolved. Both sides ended, tensions persisted and the matter was unresolved. Both sides were exhausted by the conflict, and ultimately the Ottoman Empire were exhausted by the conflict, and ultimately the Ottoman Empire would cede Thessaly to the Greeks.would cede Thessaly to the Greeks.100 After outlining the general frame-After outlining the general frame-work, Ali Fehmi invitework, Ali Fehmi invited readers to contemplate the Ottoman conquest of d readers to contemplate the Ottoman conquest of Crete during the 1500s. After discussing the roles played by KaptanCrete during the 1500s. After discussing the roles played by Kaptan-ı Derya Yusuf Paşa and Deli Hüseyin Paşa’s conquests, he noted the im-Derya Yusuf Paşa and Deli Hüseyin Paşa’s conquests, he noted the im-portance of Crete to the dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean:portance of Crete to the dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean:101

The

The island of Crete is the center of action. Letting go of this island island of Crete is the center of action. Letting go of this island means forgetting all the territories around the Mediterranean and any means forgetting all the territories around the Mediterranean and any hopes related to them.hopes related to them.102

However, what troubled Ali Fehmi was not solely the evacuation of

However, what troubled Ali Fehmi was not solely the evacuation of Thessaly or the government'Thessaly or the government's military failures, but rather the fact that s military failures, but rather the fact that these events were hidden from the public.these events were hidden from the public.103 The reason for this secrecy The reason for this secrecy was evident, as Ali Fehmi believed. If Crete was to be given to the Greeks, was evident, as Ali Fehmi believed. If Crete was to be given to the Greeks, why had so many Ottoman soldiers died there, and who was responwhy had so many Ottoman soldiers died there, and who was responsible sible for that?for that?104 Ali Fehmi succinctly summarized the disappointment with Ali Fehmi succinctly summarized the disappointment with the statement: “What did those who shed blood in this battle gain? Graves the statement: “What did those who shed blood in this battle gain? Graves

99 “Hadisat“Hadisat-ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 2. Sayı, . Sayı, 27 Ağustos Ağustos 1313 (8 Eylül Eylül 1897 ), ), 1.

100 “Hadisa“Hadisat-ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 5. Sayı, . Sayı, 17 Eylül Eylül 1313 (29 Eylül Eylül 1897 ) 1.

101 “Hadisat“Hadisat-ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” Muvazene, Muvazene, 4. Sayı,4. Sayı, 10 Eylül Eylül 1313 (22 Eylül Eylül 1897 ), ), 1.

102 “Hadisat“Hadisat-ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 8. Sayı, . Sayı, 8 Teşrinievvel Teşrinievvel 13131313 (20 Ekim Ekim 1897 ), ), 1.

103 “Hadisat“Hadisat-ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” 9. Sayı9. Sayı, 15 Teşrinievvel Teşrinievvel 1313 (27 Ekim Ekim 2897 ), ), 1.

104 “Hadisat“Hadisat-ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 35 . Sayı, . Sayı, 22 Nisan Nisan 13141314 (4 Mayıs Mayıs 1898 ), ), 2.

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in Thessaly!”

in Thessaly!”105 The government had delayed this disappointment by The government had delayed this disappointment by withholding the news of the evacuation, instwithholding the news of the evacuation, instilling false hope that the illing false hope that the news would prove to be untrue. However, the belated disappointment news would prove to be untrue. However, the belated disappointment eroded trust in government announcements and instilled anxiety about eroded trust in government announcements and instilled anxiety about the possibility of untimely bad news among the public.the possibility of untimely bad news among the public.106

In another historical lesson, Ali Feh

In another historical lesson, Ali Fehmi delved into the Ottoman con-mi delved into the Ottoman con-quests of Austria. After the Ottomans had taken control of Timisoara and quests of Austria. After the Ottomans had taken control of Timisoara and Transylvania, they besieged Vienna. Damat Paşa, sympathetic to Austria, Transylvania, they besieged Vienna. Damat Paşa, sympathetic to Austria, somehow forgot to bring the siege cannons, and Austria sought help from somehow forgot to bring the siege cannons, and Austria sought help from all over all over Europe. As a result, the siege attempt ended in failure for the Ot-Europe. As a result, the siege attempt ended in failure for the Ot-tomans.tomans.107 Just as Austria had fought against the Ottoman Empire during Just as Austria had fought against the Ottoman Empire during its strongest times, it was now trying to carve up the Ottoman Empire its strongest times, it was now trying to carve up the Ottoman Empire during its weakest moments. Thus, Ali Fehmi inviteduring its weakest moments. Thus, Ali Fehmi invited readers to reflect on d readers to reflect on historical anecdotes regarding both the Crete and Egypt issues, which historical anecdotes regarding both the Crete and Egypt issues, which also shaped his approach to the case of Austria.also shaped his approach to the case of Austria.

Ali Fehmi argued that Austria’s position was weaker than that of Ot-

Ali Fehmi argued that Austria’s position was weaker than that of Ot-toman Empire, influenced by internal uprisingstoman Empire, influenced by internal uprisings. Despite recent relief . Despite recent relief from Ottoman pressure, Austria aimed to monopolize Ottoman foreign from Ottoman pressure, Austria aimed to monopolize Ottoman foreign trade. It also had its eyes on Bosniatrade. It also had its eyes on Bosnia--Herzegovina, Macedonia, and Thes-Herzegovina, Macedonia, and Thes-saloniki, as they were establishing relations. He added that if Jewish, saloniki, as they were establishing relations. He added that if Jewish, Czech, Polish, and SlavCzech, Polish, and Slavic populations in Hungary were to engage in na-ic populations in Hungary were to engage in na-tionalist uprisings, Austria’s disintegration would be swifter than that of tionalist uprisings, Austria’s disintegration would be swifter than that of the Ottomans.the Ottomans.108

105 Ibid. Ibid. “Bu muharebede kan dökenler ne kazandı? Teselya’da mezar.”“Bu muharebede kan dökenler ne kazandı? Teselya’da mezar.”

106 “Hadisat“Hadisat--ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 35. Sayı, 22 Nisan 131435. Sayı, 22 Nisan 1314 (4 Mayıs 1898), 2.(4 Mayıs 1898), 2. “It is time to “It is time to no longer believe in the evacuation of Crete or the return of Thessaly. We want to convey no longer believe in the evacuation of Crete or the return of Thessaly. We want to convey that it is time to know and learn about other matters.[that it is time to know and learn about other matters.[Girit’in tahliyesine teselyanın Girit’in tahliyesine teselyanın iadesine artık inanmamak vakti geçmiştir. Baiadesine artık inanmamak vakti geçmiştir. Başka şeyleri de bilmek öğrenmek zamanı şka şeyleri de bilmek öğrenmek zamanı gelmiş olduğunu söylemek anlatmak istiyoruz.]”gelmiş olduğunu söylemek anlatmak istiyoruz.]”

107 “Hadisat“Hadisat--ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” Muvazene, Muvazene, 2727. Sayı, . Sayı, 2525 Şubat Şubat 13131313 ((99 Mart Mart 18981898), ), 11..

108 Ibid. Ibid.

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When it comes to the Macedonian question, Ali Fehmi both shared his

When it comes to the Macedonian question, Ali Fehmi both shared his personal opinions and provided readers with facts. personal opinions and provided readers with facts. He explained the con-He explained the con-cept of the Eastern Question, framed the Macedonian issue being a subset cept of the Eastern Question, framed the Macedonian issue being a subset of it, and highlighted the importance of this matter to his readers:of it, and highlighted the importance of this matter to his readers:

To possess the Macedonian region would mean to dominate the Med-

To possess the Macedonian region would mean to dominate the Med-iterranean, just as it impliesiterranean, just as it implies accepting the independence and sover-accepting the independence and sover-eignty of small Balkan governments, and thus submitting to the ne-eignty of small Balkan governments, and thus submitting to the ne-cessity of ensuring their autonomy. Therefore, as a result of the cessity of ensuring their autonomy. Therefore, as a result of the ambition they have shown, this situation will certainly relegate the ambition they have shown, this situation will certainly relegate the Balkan governments Balkan governments to the periphery of Europe.to the periphery of Europe.109

After emphasizing the importance of Macedonia, Ali Fehmi, who be-

After emphasizing the importance of Macedonia, Ali Fehmi, who be-lieved that international reforms demanded in the international arena lieved that international reforms demanded in the international arena were necessary for the continuity of Ottoman presence in these lands, were necessary for the continuity of Ottoman presence in these lands, advocated that the refadvocated that the reforms to be carried out in Macedonia were, in fact, orms to be carried out in Macedonia were, in fact, the restoration of confirmed rights through the Gülhane and the Reform the restoration of confirmed rights through the Gülhane and the Reform edicts. Anyone with a sound mind could recognize the need for a general edicts. Anyone with a sound mind could recognize the need for a general reform:reform:110

Claiming that the reforms should only apply to Bulga

Claiming that the reforms should only apply to Bulgarians and de-rians and de-manding this is unjust when justice is required (...) Moreover, the re-manding this is unjust when justice is required (...) Moreover, the re-form should not only be limited to Macedonia, but all over the Ottoman form should not only be limited to Macedonia, but all over the Ottoman territories, everyone should be provided with the means to protect territories, everyone should be provided with the means to protect and defend their rights, property, land defend their rights, property, life, and honor and to ensure their ife, and honor and to ensure their rights through humane and necessary means.rights through humane and necessary means.111

Ali Fehmi also criticized the aspirations of the Greeks' “great design,”

Ali Fehmi also criticized the aspirations of the Greeks' “great design,” lamenting how they directed their focus as far as Istanbul and equated lamenting how they directed their focus as far as Istanbul and equated

109 “Hadisat“Hadisat-ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 12. Sayı, 12 Teşrinisani 1313 (24 Kasım 1897),12. Sayı, 12 Teşrinisani 1313 (24 Kasım 1897), 1.

110 Ibid.Ibid.

111 “Hadisat“Hadisat-ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 17 . Sayı, . Sayı, 17 Kanunuevvel Kanunuevvel 1313 (29 Aralık Aralık 1897 ), ), 1.

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gaining honor with gaining land.

gaining honor with gaining land. He made a new generalization by stat-He made a new generalization by stat-ing, “Once the intention is there, excuses are easily found.”ing, “Once the intention is there, excuses are easily found.”112 Yet, his com-Yet, his com-mentaries on political affairs were not limited to developments in the mentaries on political affairs were not limited to developments in the Eastern Mediterranean. The newspaper paid due attention to the devel-Eastern Mediterranean. The newspaper paid due attention to the devel-opmen ts in the Yemen province, Russia's rapprochement with Spain due ts in the Yemen province, Russia's rapprochement with Spain due to the closeness between England and America, the Americanto the closeness between England and America, the American-Spanish Spanish war in the Philippines, and the protection of Chinese in the Philippines war in the Philippines, and the protection of Chinese in the Philippines by the British.by the British.113

4.2.3 “Foreign AffairsForeign Affairs”

The

The The “ForeiThe “Foreign Affairs” section, in fact, reported what was happening gn Affairs” section, in fact, reported what was happening in the world on a global scale, balancing the newspaper’s focus on local in the world on a global scale, balancing the newspaper’s focus on local events. In so doing, events. In so doing, MuvazeneMuvazene quoted a number of newspapers in its cov-quoted a number of newspapers in its cov-erage of global developments. For instance, in the conferage of global developments. For instance, in the conflict between Kurds lict between Kurds and Armenians, where it was reported that about 300 Armenians crossed and Armenians, where it was reported that about 300 Armenians crossed the Iranian border and killed between 300 to 600 Kurds living in tents, the Iranian border and killed between 300 to 600 Kurds living in tents, the sources were the the sources were the Daily News, Tebris,Daily News, Tebris, and and TanTan newspapers.newspapers.114 In an-In an-other example, the other example, the Papa GalPapa Gal newspaper depicted Russia and England as newspaper depicted Russia and England as about to clash.about to clash.115 The The Petit JurnalPetit Jurnal newspaper stated that 110 million Rus-newspaper stated that 110 million Rus-sians would aid the French against the Germans.sians would aid the French against the Germans.116 The Rovada RovaThe Rovada Rova newspaper depicted that the Turks would not easily withdraw from newspaper depicted that the Turks would not easily withdraw from Thessaly.Thessaly.117

The

The “Foreign Affairs” section also covered developments such as the “Foreign Affairs” section also covered developments such as the clashes between Albanians and Turks in Albania, the allegation that the clashes between Albanians and Turks in Albania, the allegation that the Ottoman Empire encouraged the revolution in India, the British sending Ottoman Empire encouraged the revolution in India, the British sending aid to India, and the rebellion of soldiers in taid to India, and the rebellion of soldiers in the Congo.he Congo.118 The news also The news also

112 “Hadisat“Hadisat-ı Siyasiye,” ı Siyasiye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 7. Sayı,7. Sayı, 1 Teşrinievvel Teşrinievvel 13131313 (13 Ekim Ekim 1897 ), ), 1.

113 “Havadis“Havadis-i Hariciye,” i Hariciye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 17. Sayı, 17 Kanunuevvel 1313 (29 A17. Sayı, 17 Kanunuevvel 1313 (29 Aralık ralık 1897 ), ), 3.

114 “Havadis“Havadis-i Hariciye,” i Hariciye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 2. Sayı, . Sayı, 27 Ağustos Ağustos 1313 (8 Eylül Eylül 1897 ), ), 3.

115 “Havadis“Havadis-i Hariciye,” i Hariciye,” Muvazene, Muvazene, 36 . Sayı, . Sayı, 29 Nisan Nisan 13141314 (11 Mayıs Mayıs 18981898), ), 3.

116 “Havadis“Havadis-i Hariciye,” i Hariciye,” Muvazene, Muvazene, 3. Sayı, . Sayı, 3 Eylül Eylül 1313 (15 Eylül Eylül 1897 ), ), 3.

117 “Havadis“Havadis-i Hariciye,” i Hariciye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 2. Sayı, . Sayı, 27 Ağustos Ağustos 1313 (8 Eylül Eylül 1897 ), ), 3.

118 “Havadis“Havadis-i Hariciye,” i Hariciye,” Muvazene, Muvazene, 4. Sayı,4. Sayı, 10 Eylül Eylül 1313 (22 Eylül Eylül 1897 ), ), 3.

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reported that a peace treaty was signed between Greece and Turkey at

reported that a peace treaty was signed between Greece and Turkey at Tophane Palace,Tophane Palace,119 and that weapons of Muslims on the island of Cyprus and that weapons of Muslims on the island of Cyprus were collected.were collected.120

Additionally, it was reported that Istanbul Armenian Patriarch Or-

Additionally, it was reported that Istanbul Armenian Patriarch Or-manyan Efenmanyan Efendi had stated that he could not continue his duties if neces-di had stated that he could not continue his duties if neces-sary reforms were not implemented by the Sultan.sary reforms were not implemented by the Sultan.121 Consequently, a Consequently, a commission was established in Tophane to address the needs of Arme-commission was established in Tophane to address the needs of Arme-nian schools and churches.nian schools and churches.122 In another instance, one of the YounIn another instance, one of the Young Turks g Turks was invited to Istanbul and pardoned by the Sultan as the was invited to Istanbul and pardoned by the Sultan as the KolonyiKolonyi news-news-paper informed.paper informed. 123 The Young Turks had made appeals to the monaster-The Young Turks had made appeals to the monaster-ies of major foreign powers for reforms across the Ottoman Empire, and ies of major foreign powers for reforms across the Ottoman Empire, and their statements were also sent to newspatheir statements were also sent to newspapers.pers.124 It was possible to learn It was possible to learn from a telegram that was sent from Istanbul that there were claims of a from a telegram that was sent from Istanbul that there were claims of a meeting of Young Turks at Istanbul’s Eyüp Sultan Mosque.meeting of Young Turks at Istanbul’s Eyüp Sultan Mosque.125

In its coverage of foreign affairs, it is interesting to see that in quoting

In its coverage of foreign affairs, it is interesting to see that in quoting from various newsfrom various newspapers Ali Fehmi extensively described the relevant papers Ali Fehmi extensively described the relevant images and caricatures, which his newspaper was unable to reproduce images and caricatures, which his newspaper was unable to reproduce otherwise. In one instance, Ali Fehmi noted that:otherwise. In one instance, Ali Fehmi noted that:

Yesterday’s

Yesterday’s Papa GalPapa Gal newspaper has created images in a way that in-newspaper has created images in a way that in-vites the Christianvites the Christian world to unity. It depicted Greece in a weak state.world to unity. It depicted Greece in a weak state.126

119 “Havadis“Havadis-i Hariciye,” i Hariciye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 5. Sayı, . Sayı, 17 Eylül Eylül 1313 (29 Eylül Eylül 1897 ), ), 3.

120 “Havadis“Havadis-i Harici Hariciye,” iye,” MuvazeneMuvazene, 7. Sayı,, 7. Sayı, 1 Teşrinievvel Teşrinievvel 13131313 (13 Ekim Ekim 1897 ), ), 3.

121 “Havadis“Havadis-i Hariciye,” i Hariciye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 18 . Sayı, . Sayı, 24 Kanunuevvel Kanunuevvel 1313 (5 Ocak Ocak 1898 ), ), 3.

122 “Havadis“Havadis-i Hariciye,” i Hariciye,” Muvazene, Muvazene, 21. Sayı,21. Sayı, 14 Kanunusani Kanunusani 1313 (26 Ocak Ocak 1898 ), ), 3.

123 “Havadis“Havadis-i Hariciye,i Hariciye,” Muvazene,, Muvazene,, 4. Sayı,4. Sayı, 10 Eylül Eylül 1313 (22 Eylül Eylül 1897 ), ), 3.

124 “Havadis“Havadis-i Hariciye,” i Hariciye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 23 . Sayı, . Sayı, 28 Kanunusani Kanunusani 1313 (9 Şubat Şubat 1898 ), ), 3.

125 “Havadis“Havadis-i Hariciye” i Hariciye” Muvazene,Muvazene, 30 . Sayı, . Sayı, 18 Mart Mart 1314 (30 Mart Mart 18981898), ), 3.

126 “Havadis“Havadis-i Hariciye,” i Hariciye,” Muvazene, Muvazene, 4. 4. Sayı,Sayı, 10 Eylül 1313 (22 Eylül 1897), 3.10 Eylül 1313 (22 Eylül 1897), 3. “Yesterday's “Yesterday's Papagal newspaper depicted the Christian world being invited to unity, portraying Greece Papagal newspaper depicted the Christian world being invited to unity, portraying Greece in a weakened state. [in a weakened state. [Dün gelen Papagal gazetesi Hristiyan alemini ittihada davet eder Dün gelen Papagal gazetesi Hristiyan alemini ittihada davet eder tarzında resimler yapmışdırtarzında resimler yapmışdır. Yunanistanı baygın bir halde resmetmiştir.]”. Yunanistanı baygın bir halde resmetmiştir.]”

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Muvazene

Muvazene also described at length a caricature published in the also described at length a caricature published in the Papa Papa GalGal newspaper regarding the Eastern Rumelia:newspaper regarding the Eastern Rumelia:

Greece, while sitting on a chair, is being shaved by Germany who held

Greece, while sitting on a chair, is being shaved by Germany who held a large straighta large straight razor. However, it is observed that despite Turkey’s razor. However, it is observed that despite Turkey’s beard being lathered with soap, the great powers of Europe, holding beard being lathered with soap, the great powers of Europe, holding razor, dare not shave it. The control of the Greek beard’s finances is in razor, dare not shave it. The control of the Greek beard’s finances is in Turkey, and Turkey’s beard is in Eastern Rumelia. If the incTurkey, and Turkey’s beard is in Eastern Rumelia. If the incident re-ident re-ported in the ported in the SovobodaSovoboda newspaper, which is attributed to the Turkish newspaper, which is attributed to the Turkish soldiers’ actions on the Bulgariasoldiers’ actions on the Bulgaria-Turkey border, is indeed true, news-Turkey border, is indeed true, news-papers that do not wish for dust to be raised on the relations between papers that do not wish for dust to be raised on the relations between the two governments express their regrethe two governments express their regret. 127

The paragraphs depicting the assassination of the Greek king by

The paragraphs depicting the assassination of the Greek king by French newspapers were as follows:French newspapers were as follows:

French newspapers are publishing pictures of Georgios Karditzi

French newspapers are publishing pictures of Georgios Karditzi shooting his friend Kiriyakos with the intention of assassinating the shooting his friend Kiriyakos with the intention of assassinating the Greek king. The acGreek king. The accompanying images depict their movements in car-companying images depict their movements in car-icature style.icature style.128

Among the political images of the August 10th issue of

Among the political images of the August 10th issue of RovoderevoRovoderevo magazine, there was a picture that portrayed the governor of Crete as magazine, there was a picture that portrayed the governor of Crete as about to hatch from an egg.about to hatch from an egg.129 MuvazeneMuvazene enthusiastically denthusiastically described the escribed the captivating caricatures found in various newspapers, including captivating caricatures found in various newspapers, including Papa GalPapa Gal, providing detailed written descriptions to vividly capture all the details providing detailed written descriptions to vividly capture all the details of the caricatures in readers’ minds:of the caricatures in readers’ minds:

Papa Gal

Papa Gal newspaper satirically depicts the world of politnewspaper satirically depicts the world of politics. The tree ics. The tree you see is labeled “Balkans.” Bulgaria is on top of the tree. Greece, about you see is labeled “Balkans.” Bulgaria is on top of the tree. Greece, about to climb, is represented. From this tree, Russia, represented by the rope to climb, is represented. From this tree, Russia, represented by the rope attached to Istanbul, is moving towards Istanbul. Below the rope are Italy, attached to Istanbul, is moving towards Istanbul. Below the rope are Italy,

127 “Havadis“Havadis-i Hariciye,” i Hariciye,” Muvazene,Muvazene, Muvazene,Muvazene, 6. Sayı, . Sayı, 24 Eylül Eylül 1313 (6 Ekim Ekim 1897 ), ), 1.

128 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 29 . Sayı, . Sayı, 11 Mart Mart 1314 (23 Mart Mart 18981898), ), 3.

129 “Muvazene,” “Muvazene,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 51. Sayı, 12 Ağu51. Sayı, 12 Ağustos stos 13141314 (24 Ağustos Ağustos 1898 ), ), 4.

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Austria, Germany

Austria, Germany, England, and finally, Turkey next to Istanbul. England, , England, and finally, Turkey next to Istanbul. England, with the intention of preventing Russia from reaching Istanbul, holds a with the intention of preventing Russia from reaching Istanbul, holds a bayonetbayonet-equipped rifle under the rope. If Russia achieves its goal, the il-equipped rifle under the rope. If Russia achieves its goal, the il-lustration shows these nations with their extended nlustration shows these nations with their extended noses taking up this oses taking up this posture.posture.130

4.2.4 “MuvazeneMuvazene” is talkingis talking

Muvazene

Muvazene newspapernewspaper has another section named “Muvazene,” and this is has another section named “Muvazene,” and this is not a section where news or ideas were listed. The “Muvazene” section not a section where news or ideas were listed. The “Muvazene” section was instead a space within which the newspaper seemed to interjewas instead a space within which the newspaper seemed to interject and ct and provide a natural reaction between the news, sometimes with just a sen-provide a natural reaction between the news, sometimes with just a sen-tence or two, and other times with longer passages that provided the ed-tence or two, and other times with longer passages that provided the ed-itorial point of view. In the 7th issue, after a news item regarding irregu-itorial point of view. In the 7th issue, after a news item regarding irregu-larities in the charitable foundalarities in the charitable foundations, tions, MuvazeneMuvazene makes the following makes the following suggestion:suggestion:

It has been not for five but for nineteen years that accounts should

It has been not for five but for nineteen years that accounts should be revealed one by one. A commission should be formed from indi-be revealed one by one. A commission should be formed from indi-viduals unrelated to the charitable foundations to expose matters. viduals unrelated to the charitable foundations to expose matters. Those whThose who currently sit in the endowment properties and lease out o currently sit in the endowment properties and lease out their surroundings, as well as those who delegate their duties to oth-their surroundings, as well as those who delegate their duties to oth-ers and pocket the money, should also be revealed.ers and pocket the money, should also be revealed.131

130 “Muvazene,” “Muvazene,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 26. Sayı, 18 Şubat 1313 (2 Mart 1898)26. Sayı, 18 Şubat 1313 (2 Mart 1898), 4. “Papagal gazetesi poli-Papagal gazetesi poli-tika alemini istihzakarane resmetmiştir. Gördüğünüz ağaç üzerinde Balkan yazılmıştır. tika alemini istihzakarane resmetmiştir. Gördüğünüz ağaç üzerinde Balkan yazılmıştır. Ağacın üzerinde olan Bulgaristan’dır. Tırmanmak Ağacın üzerinde olan Bulgaristan’dır. Tırmanmak üzere bulunan yunandır. Bu ağaçtan üzere bulunan yunandır. Bu ağaçtan İstanbul’a bağlı olan ip üzerinde İstanbul’a yürümek üzere hareket eden Rusya’dır. İpin İstanbul’a bağlı olan ip üzerinde İstanbul’a yürümek üzere hareket eden Rusya’dır. İpin altında İtalya Avusturya Almanya İngiltere nihayet İstanbul yanında Türkiye’dir. İngiltere altında İtalya Avusturya Almanya İngiltere nihayet İstanbul yanında Türkiye’dir. İngiltere menafii Rusya’nın İstanbul’a gitmesine manmenafii Rusya’nın İstanbul’a gitmesine mani olmak üzere elindeki süngülü tüfengi ipin i olmak üzere elindeki süngülü tüfengi ipin altında tutmaktadır. Eğer Rusya amaline nail olur ise bu devletlerin uzamış olan burun-altında tutmaktadır. Eğer Rusya amaline nail olur ise bu devletlerin uzamış olan burun-larıyla böyle bir vaziyet alacakları tasvir olunmuştur.”larıyla böyle bir vaziyet alacakları tasvir olunmuştur.”

131 “Muvazene,” “Muvazene,” Muvazene,Muvazene,7. Sayı, 1 Teşrinievvel 1313 (13 Ekim 1897),7. Sayı, 1 Teşrinievvel 1313 (13 Ekim 1897), 2.

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In another example,

In another example, MuvazeneMuvazene had contented itself by saying after had contented itself by saying after diplomaticdiplomatic news: “An even more dire matter than an epidemic is mani-news: “An even more dire matter than an epidemic is mani-festing itself.”festing itself.”132 In the 38th issue, an extensive discussion on the Crete In the 38th issue, an extensive discussion on the Crete issue was carried out in “Muvazene.” Following a letter to the newspaper issue was carried out in “Muvazene.” Following a letter to the newspaper in the 39th issue, another lengthy discussion followin the 39th issue, another lengthy discussion follows. In the 46th issue, in s. In the 46th issue, in line with the topic, “Muvazene” recites the proverb “When you find a line with the topic, “Muvazene” recites the proverb “When you find a horse you cannot find a maidan, when you find a maidan you cannot find horse you cannot find a maidan, when you find a maidan you cannot find a horse” and he recites the poem “those who race gently reach the aimed a horse” and he recites the poem “those who race gently reach the aimed destination, those destination, those who rush trip and fall.”who rush trip and fall.”133

§ 4.34.3 Letters from the ReadersLetters from the Readers

In line with its mission statement,

In line with its mission statement, MuvazeneMuvazene had established a close dia-had established a close dia-logue with its readers. Some were sending letters to congratulate the logue with its readers. Some were sending letters to congratulate the newspaper, others to share the news they had heard, some in thenewspaper, others to share the news they had heard, some in the hope of hope of having their opinions published, and some to add corrections or amend-having their opinions published, and some to add corrections or amend-ments to the news they had read in ments to the news they had read in MuvazeneMuvazene. While Ali Fehmi often . While Ali Fehmi often acknowledged the receipt of these letters, only the ones he deemed es-acknowledged the receipt of these letters, only the ones he deemed es-sential were published. For example, Hacı sential were published. For example, Hacı İsmail Beyzade Hakkı Bey from İsmail Beyzade Hakkı Bey from the Filibe municipal assembly wrote a letter to the Filibe municipal assembly wrote a letter to MuvazeneMuvazene, angrily denying , angrily denying a news item about him in the Ottoman governmenta news item about him in the Ottoman government--supporting supporting GayretGayret newspaper.newspaper.134 Hakkı Bey claimed that the Hakkı Bey claimed that the GayretGayret newspaper had unjustly newspaper had unjustly criticized the adcriticized the administration and thus was entitled to respond. ministration and thus was entitled to respond. MuvazeneMuvazene granted him the right to respond, publishing his letter in its entirety.granted him the right to respond, publishing his letter in its entirety.

From this letter, it can be understood that due to conditions in the Ye-

From this letter, it can be understood that due to conditions in the Ye-niköy region, it was necessary to relocate people from oniköy region, it was necessary to relocate people from one place to an-ne place to an-other. To achieve this goal, the Filibe municipality formed a commission other. To achieve this goal, the Filibe municipality formed a commission and annoand announced its decision on September 18. However, Hakkı Bey ob-unced its decision on September 18. However, Hakkı Bey ob-jected, stating that this protocol did not adhere to the requirements of jected, stating that this protocol did not adhere to the requirements of

132 “Muvazene,” “Muvazene,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 3232. Sayı, . Sayı, 11 Nisan Nisan 13141314 ((1313 Nisan Nisan 18981898), ), 33..

133 “Muvazene,” “Muvazene,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 4646. Sayı, . Sayı, 88 Temmuz Temmuz 13141314 ((2020 Temmuz Temmuz 18981898), ), 22..

134 “Arz“Arz--ı Hakikat,” ı Hakikat,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 1010. Sayı, . Sayı, 2222 Teşrinievvel Teşrinievvel 13131313 ((33 Kasım Kasım 18971897), ), 33..

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Islamic law and, therefore, could not be implemented. Hakkı Bey's objec-

Islamic law and, therefore, could not be implemented. Hakkı Bey's objec-tion was accepted, but this time the tion was accepted, but this time the GayretGayret newspaper pnewspaper published a piece ublished a piece that implied Hakkı Bey was dissatisfied with this rejection decision. This that implied Hakkı Bey was dissatisfied with this rejection decision. This created an impression that Hakkı Bey did not respect Islamic sensitivi-created an impression that Hakkı Bey did not respect Islamic sensitivi-ties.ties.

When Hakkı Bey brought his complaint against the

When Hakkı Bey brought his complaint against the GayretGayret newspaper newspaper to to MuvazeneMuvazene, he essent, he essentially confirmed once again that ially confirmed once again that GayretGayret and and Muva-Muva-zenezene were ideologically rivals. Indeed, were ideologically rivals. Indeed, MuvazeneMuvazene’s response to ’s response to GayretGayret was was quite remarkable in its own right:quite remarkable in its own right:

Dear

Dear GayretGayret supporters! Have you realized which path the truth is supporters! Have you realized which path the truth is on? Dear Muslims! Take a lesson fon? Dear Muslims! Take a lesson from such matters. Choose young rom such matters. Choose young citizens who have not been tainted by the nonsensical ambitions of citizens who have not been tainted by the nonsensical ambitions of certain opportunistic politicians who claim, ‘I will be the chosen one.’ certain opportunistic politicians who claim, ‘I will be the chosen one.’ Choose those who will protect and defend what is right and just.Choose those who will protect and defend what is right and just.135

Another letter cam

Another letter came from a person named Şevket from the town of e from a person named Şevket from the town of Balçık. The town’s muezzin Süleyman Faik Efendi and the people of Balçık. The town’s muezzin Süleyman Faik Efendi and the people of Balçık had established a secondary school after observing the progress Balçık had established a secondary school after observing the progress of nonof non-Muslim communities in education with “envy.” After the ap-Muslim communities in education with “envy.” After the ap-pointed tpointed teachers had provided education for a certain period, Şevket, eachers had provided education for a certain period, Şevket, astonished by the responses of the children, wrote a letter to praise ele-astonished by the responses of the children, wrote a letter to praise ele-mentary school teacher Osman Sırrı Efendi from Pazarcık and his mentary school teacher Osman Sırrı Efendi from Pazarcık and his brother, Hasan Hilmi Efendi, who was the middle school teabrother, Hasan Hilmi Efendi, who was the middle school teacher.cher.136

135 Ibid. “Ibid. “Ey Gayretçiler! HakiEy Gayretçiler! Hakikat hangi yolda bulunduğunu anladınız mı? Ey Müslümanlar kat hangi yolda bulunduğunu anladınız mı? Ey Müslümanlar işte bu gibi şeylerden ibret alarak intihap zamanları ben olacağım diyerek ortaya atılan, işte bu gibi şeylerden ibret alarak intihap zamanları ben olacağım diyerek ortaya atılan, meydana çıkan birtakım şuuruna halel gelmiş ikbalmeydana çıkan birtakım şuuruna halel gelmiş ikbal-perest siyaset matuflarının sayıkla-perest siyaset matuflarının sayıkla-masına kapılmayarak hukumasına kapılmayarak hukuksuzu müdafaa ve muhafaza edecek miktar lisan şinas genç ksuzu müdafaa ve muhafaza edecek miktar lisan şinas genç vatandaşlarımızı intihap ediniz.”vatandaşlarımızı intihap ediniz.”

136 “Filibe’de Muvazene Gazetesi’ne,” “Filibe’de Muvazene Gazetesi’ne,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 29 . Sayı, . Sayı, 11 Mart Mart 1314 (23 Mart Mart 1898 ), ), 2.

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§ 4.4 Articles of Osman Nuri from TArticles of Osman Nuri from Tarnovrnovo: “A Few Words : “A Few WordsAbout Our National Education”About Our National Education”

Ali Fehmi's brother

Ali Fehmi's brother-in -law, Osman Nuri Efendi, wrote three articles titled law, Osman Nuri Efendi, wrote three articles titled “A Few Words about Our National Education” in the first year of “A Few Words about Our National Education” in the first year of Muva-Muva-zenezene's publication, all of's publication, all of which were related to pedagogy. In fact, the ini-which were related to pedagogy. In fact, the ini-tial ideas for the teachers' association that would be established in the tial ideas for the teachers' association that would be established in the future, initially known as “Muslim Teachers’ Association” and later as future, initially known as “Muslim Teachers’ Association” and later as “Turkish Teachers’ Union,” can be found in the three articles “Turkish Teachers’ Union,” can be found in the three articles written by written by Osman Nuri in Osman Nuri in MuvazeneMuvazene’s first year. While sources often mention that Ali ’s first year. While sources often mention that Ali Fehmi was the first to propose the idea of the Turkish Teachers’ Union, it Fehmi was the first to propose the idea of the Turkish Teachers’ Union, it can be said that it was Osman Nuri who articulated this idea in can be said that it was Osman Nuri who articulated this idea in Muvazene Muvazene for the very first timefor the very first time.

Osman Nuri’s article in the 27th issue emphasized that by the stand-

Osman Nuri’s article in the 27th issue emphasized that by the stand-ards of the twentieth century a nation's progress required advancements ards of the twentieth century a nation's progress required advancements not only in military, but also in education. Unfortunately, he observed that not only in military, but also in education. Unfortunately, he observed that the education of Bulgarian Muslims andthe education of Bulgarian Muslims and the general “population” was lag-the general “population” was lag-ging far behind. He noted that there was a lack of pedagogical awareness ging far behind. He noted that there was a lack of pedagogical awareness in elementary schools, with different age groups even being mixed, and in elementary schools, with different age groups even being mixed, and he complained that there was no comprehensive curriculum in second-he complained that there was no comprehensive curriculum in second-ary schools.ary schools.

Osman Nuri presented his ideas on which subjects should be taught

Osman Nuri presented his ideas on which subjects should be taught to which age groups and to what extent. He argued that teaching Arabic to which age groups and to what extent. He argued that teaching Arabic and Persian in all their details to students who could not even form a sen-and Persian in all their details to students who could not even form a sen-tence in their own language was unnecessary. tence in their own language was unnecessary. He acknowledged that Ar-He acknowledged that Ar-abic and Persian were not enemies, as they contributed to Ottoman Turk-abic and Persian were not enemies, as they contributed to Ottoman Turk-ish, but he used the example of Latin in European schools to show that ish, but he used the example of Latin in European schools to show that not all the rules of the languages' origins were taught extensively even in not all the rules of the languages' origins were taught extensively even in Europe.Europe.137

In his

In his second article, published in the 28th issue, Osman Nuri criti-second article, published in the 28th issue, Osman Nuri criti-cized the lack of systematic teaching of science courses in secondary cized the lack of systematic teaching of science courses in secondary

137 “Maarif“Maarif-i Milliyemize Dair Bir İki Söz,” i Milliyemize Dair Bir İki Söz,” Muvazene, Muvazene, 27. Sayı, 25 Şubat 127. Sayı, 25 Şubat 1313 (9 Mart 1898), 313 (9 Mart 1898), 2.

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schools.

schools.138 He condemned rote learning, stating that knowledge forced He condemned rote learning, stating that knowledge forced upon students without sparking their interest would be ofupon students without sparking their interest would be of no use. He no use. He stressed that schools and the education system needed urgent reform stressed that schools and the education system needed urgent reform and that both families and schools had to put in serious effort for the fu-and that both families and schools had to put in serious effort for the fu-ture strength of the new generation. He argued that children should be ture strength of the new generation. He argued that children should be guided based on their tendencieguided based on their tendencies, and all of these efforts were not just for s, and all of these efforts were not just for the sake of children, but for the good of the entire nation.the sake of children, but for the good of the entire nation.139

In his third article, published in the 29th issue, Osman Nuri proposed

In his third article, published in the 29th issue, Osman Nuri proposed the formation of an educational and teachers' association. He believed the formation of an educational and teachers' association. He believed that ithat individual efforts in the teaching profession were futile and that tal-ndividual efforts in the teaching profession were futile and that tal-ents were being wasted. He suggested that if teachers united and formed ents were being wasted. He suggested that if teachers united and formed associations, many difficulties could be overcome.associations, many difficulties could be overcome.140 He was aware that He was aware that some might interpret his ideas negatively andsome might interpret his ideas negatively and misconstrue his intentions misconstrue his intentions as opposition to the government. However, he made it clear that he had as opposition to the government. However, he made it clear that he had no ill intentions and hoped that the government would not misinterpret no ill intentions and hoped that the government would not misinterpret his proposal:his proposal:

Let us not allow the scholar, accustomed to giving negative meanings

Let us not allow the scholar, accustomed to giving negative meanings to everything, to view this idea of ours as harmful to national interests. everything, to view this idea of ours as harmful to national interests. Even the teachers among our Bulgarian citizens, though everything is Even the teachers among our Bulgarian citizens, though everything is perfect, have long seen the need for unity and cooperation to work to-perfect, have long seen the need for unity and cooperation to work to-gether. In our case, we have neither a compregether. In our case, we have neither a comprehensive program nor a hensive program nor a need for consultation and seeking help from each other. At that time, need for consultation and seeking help from each other. At that time, we could ask for many things from the local government, and they we could ask for many things from the local government, and they would be provided without any shortcomings.would be provided without any shortcomings.141

138 “Maarif“Maarif-i Milliyemize Dair Bir İki Söz,” i Milliyemize Dair Bir İki Söz,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 28. Sayı, 4 Mart 1314 (16 Mart 1898), 28. Sayı, 4 Mart 1314 (16 Mart 1898), 2.

139 Ibid.Ibid.

140 “Maarif“Maarif-i Milliyemize Dair Bir İki Söz,” i Milliyemize Dair Bir İki Söz,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 29 . Sayı, . Sayı, 11 Mart Mart 1314 (23 Mart Mart 1898 ), ), 2.

141 “Maarif“Maarif-i Milliyemize Dair i Milliyemize Dair Bir İki Söz,” Bir İki Söz,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 28. Sayı, 4 Mart 1314 (16 Mart 1898), 28. Sayı, 4 Mart 1314 (16 Mart 1898), 2.

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Osman Nuri, hopeful that the municipality would respo

Osman Nuri, hopeful that the municipality would respond to the de-nd to the de-mands of Muslims in the field of education, implied that being an ethnic mands of Muslims in the field of education, implied that being an ethnic Bulgarian is not a requirement to be a Bulgarian citizen.Bulgarian is not a requirement to be a Bulgarian citizen.142 The speech The speech given by a secondary school teacher was an evidence of the assistance given by a secondary school teacher was an evidence of the assistance provided by the Bulgarian adminprovided by the Bulgarian administration.istration.143 He wrote as if he were He wrote as if he were aware that education is was fundamental right of citizenship and hoped aware that education is was fundamental right of citizenship and hoped that his vision would be useful someday in the future.that his vision would be useful someday in the future.

§ 4.54.5 Ali Fehmi’s Articles and His Ideas in Ali Fehmi’s Articles and His Ideas in MuvazeneMuvazene

Ali

Ali Fehmi’s Fehmi’s MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper had become a platnewspaper had become a platform where his in-form where his in-quisitive, combative, and investigative personality intersected with a so-quisitive, combative, and investigative personality intersected with a so-lutionlution--oriented perspective. He repeatedly emphasized the dire situation oriented perspective. He repeatedly emphasized the dire situation of Muslims in Bulgaria. The newspaper's appeal was enhanced by its fo-of Muslims in Bulgaria. The newspaper's appeal was enhanced by its fo-cus on topics such as Mucus on topics such as Muslim schools and endowments, diligent tracking slim schools and endowments, diligent tracking of issues concerning everyone, responsiveness to global events, including of issues concerning everyone, responsiveness to global events, including not only Ali Fehmi's opinions, but also those of various other people.not only Ali Fehmi's opinions, but also those of various other people.

Furthermore, Ali Fehmi expressed his own ideas through articles

Furthermore, Ali Fehmi expressed his own ideas through articles and and opinion pieces. His first article in opinion pieces. His first article in MuvazeneMuvazene, which was aligned with the , which was aligned with the newspaper's purpose, was titled “Our Schools.” Ali Fehmi’s motivation for newspaper's purpose, was titled “Our Schools.” Ali Fehmi’s motivation for writing this article stemmed from the absence of a Turkishwriting this article stemmed from the absence of a Turkish--speaking speaking teacher who could teach Bulgarian inteacher who could teach Bulgarian in the secondary school of Filibe (the secondary school of Filibe (Fil-Fil-ibe Rüşdiyesiibe Rüşdiyesi). Although the Filibe school provided better education com-). Although the Filibe school provided better education com-pared to other secondary schools, the lack of a Bulgarian language pared to other secondary schools, the lack of a Bulgarian language teacher made Ali Fehmi ponder and even lament the situation of other teacher made Ali Fehmi ponder and even lament the situation of other secondary schools. secondary schools.

142 Ibid.Ibid.

143 ““Rüşdiye muallimRüşdiye muallim--i evveli Mehmet Hilmi tarafından okunan nutuk sureti,” i evveli Mehmet Hilmi tarafından okunan nutuk sureti,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 33. 33. Sayı, 8 Nisan 1314 (20 Nisan 1898), 2.Sayı, 8 Nisan 1314 (20 Nisan 1898), 2. “We see that the local government never hesitates “We see that the local government never hesitates toto provide assistance for all the means and resources that will ensure the welfare and hap-provide assistance for all the means and resources that will ensure the welfare and hap-piness of the Islamic community. [Görüyoruz ki hükümetpiness of the Islamic community. [Görüyoruz ki hükümet--i mahalliye milleti mahalliye millet--i islamiyenin i islamiyenin refah ve saadetini temin edecek her türlü esbab ve vesalini istikmali için muaverefah ve saadetini temin edecek her türlü esbab ve vesalini istikmali için muavenetten netten hiçbir vakit geri durmuyor.]”hiçbir vakit geri durmuyor.]”

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In this article, Ali Fehm

In this article, Ali Fehmi provided basic information about Filibe i provided basic information about Filibe schools and criticized the state of Muslim schools in Bulgaria. While he schools and criticized the state of Muslim schools in Bulgaria. While he noted that the children attending the four elementary schools (noted that the children attending the four elementary schools (sıbyan sıbyan mekteplerimektepleri) in Filibe were bright and promising, he regretfully stated in Filibe were bright and promising, he regretfully stated that that the girls’ secondary school in Filibe (the girls’ secondary school in Filibe (Filibe Kız RüşdiyesiFilibe Kız Rüşdiyesi) and boys) and boys’ sec- ondary school (ondary school (erkek rüşdiyesierkek rüşdiyesi) were significantly behind secondary ) were significantly behind secondary schools in Istanbul (schools in Istanbul (İstanbul rüşdiyeleriİstanbul rüşdiyeleri) in terms of the quality of educa-) in terms of the quality of educa-tion. Teachers were not only insuftion. Teachers were not only insufficient, but their numbers were also de-ficient, but their numbers were also de-clining. Ali Fehmi exclaimed in dismay, “We are lagging behind the Greeks, clining. Ali Fehmi exclaimed in dismay, “We are lagging behind the Greeks, Bulgarians, Jews, and Armenians in education (…) It's a shame, a great Bulgarians, Jews, and Armenians in education (…) It's a shame, a great shame.”shame.”144 He complained about the lack of qualified individuals and the He complained about the lack of qualified individuals and the fact that funds were allocated abroad to people who were not qualified:fact that funds were allocated abroad to people who were not qualified:

We will shout and call as much as our voice can reach. Certainly, there

We will shout and call as much as our voice can reach. Certainly, there will be those who will come to our aid.will be those who will come to our aid.145

It is evident that this article has caused an uproar in Filibe, given

It is evident that this article has caused an uproar in Filibe, given that that Ali Fehmi revisited this topic in another article in the 9th issue. Starting Ali Fehmi revisited this topic in another article in the 9th issue. Starting his words with “Nothing can be achieved with the words of inshallah, ma-his words with “Nothing can be achieved with the words of inshallah, ma-shallah (god willing! wonderful!),” Ali Fehmi asserted that teachers shallah (god willing! wonderful!),” Ali Fehmi asserted that teachers should not concern themselves tryshould not concern themselves trying to be knowledgeable or virtuous in ing to be knowledgeable or virtuous in other matters; he emphasized that a teacher should be competent only in other matters; he emphasized that a teacher should be competent only in the subject they taught.the subject they taught.146 In an atmosphere where even efforts to deter-In an atmosphere where even efforts to deter-mine the standards of schools were absent, and where suspicions regard-mine the standards of schools were absent, and where suspicions regard-ing eing endowment funds existed, and it is claimed that the money intended ndowment funds existed, and it is claimed that the money intended for schools had not arrived, adopting this aggressive tone is quite under-for schools had not arrived, adopting this aggressive tone is quite under-standable:standable:

Previously, there were hostels for boarding students, where orphaned

Previously, there were hostels for boarding students, where orphaned and destitute village children wouldand destitute village children would eat, sleep, read, and write. What eat, sleep, read, and write. What

144 “Mekteblerimiz,” “Mekteblerimiz,” Muvazene, Muvazene, 1. Sayı, 20 Ağustos 1313 (1 Eylül 1897), 2. 1. Sayı, 20 Ağustos 1313 (1 Eylül 1897), 2. [“Tahsilde [“Tahsilde rumlardan, Bulgarlardan, Yahudilerden ve Ermenilerden bile geriyiz (…) yazık çok yazık.”]rumlardan, Bulgarlardan, Yahudilerden ve Ermenilerden bile geriyiz (…) yazık çok yazık.”]

145 “Mekteblerimiz,” “Mekteblerimiz,” Muvazene, Muvazene, 4. Sayı,4. Sayı, 10 Eylül Eylül 1313 (22 Eylül Eylül 1897 ), ), 2.

146 “Mekteblerimiz,” “Mekteblerimiz,” MuvazeneMuvazene, 9. Sayı, 9. Sayı, 15 Teşrinievvel Teşrinievvel 13131313 (27 Ekim Ekim 28972897), ), 2.

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happened to these hostels? Furthermore, the government provides

happened to these hostels? Furthermore, the government provides 12,000 francs per year, and it is claimed that the funds obtained from 12,000 francs per year, and it is claimed that the funds obtained from the sold endowments had become a source of excess and mismanage-the sold endowments had become a source of excess and mismanage-ment. Whether the incomment. Whether the income of the schools has increased or it is the e of the schools has increased or it is the earnings of certain wrongdoers is not clear. Is it a sin to ask these ques-earnings of certain wrongdoers is not clear. Is it a sin to ask these ques-tions, or is it a transgression to raise voices to bring these sins to tions, or is it a transgression to raise voices to bring these sins to light?light?147

In the 10th issue, in his article “Community and Education

In the 10th issue, in his article “Community and Education” Ali Fehmi ” Ali Fehmi referred to how 300 years ago, even in the smallest villages of the Otto-referred to how 300 years ago, even in the smallest villages of the Otto-man Empire, Islamic schools (medreses) were widespread, and teachers’ man Empire, Islamic schools (medreses) were widespread, and teachers’ salaries were sufficient.salaries were sufficient.148 He attributed the disappearance of these me-He attributed the disappearance of these me-dreses and the lack of welldreses and the lack of well-educeducated teachers to the prevalence of favor-ated teachers to the prevalence of favor-itism.itism.149 He criticized that although reforms were introduced in line with He criticized that although reforms were introduced in line with European methods, these were only superficial changes. In the end, even European methods, these were only superficial changes. In the end, even if large sums of money were accumulated for future generations, if uned-if large sums of money were accumulated for future generations, if uned-ucated and morally deprived generations misuse these funds, the nation ucated and morally deprived generations misuse these funds, the nation would see no benefit. According to Ali Fehmi, the only solution was to would see no benefit. According to Ali Fehmi, the only solution was to eliminate favoritism.eliminate favoritism.150

Ali Fehmi’s observations regarding the state of Bulgarian Muslims

Ali Fehmi’s observations regarding the state of Bulgarian Muslims also highlighted that thalso highlighted that the general populace was not in a promising condi-e general populace was not in a promising condi-tion. Due to the miserable situation of Muslims in Bulgaria, many were tion. Due to the miserable situation of Muslims in Bulgaria, many were selling their lands for very little returns, and spending almost all their selling their lands for very little returns, and spending almost all their money to migrate to Turkey. However, they often could not settlmoney to migrate to Turkey. However, they often could not settle in the e in the first place they went and ended up moving elsewhere. As a result, these first place they went and ended up moving elsewhere. As a result, these people were not only separated from their families and communities, but people were not only separated from their families and communities, but were also causing Bulgaria to lose a potentially valuable population. Ali were also causing Bulgaria to lose a potentially valuable population. Ali Fehmi suggested that regardleFehmi suggested that regardless of the degree of freedom given to Turk-ss of the degree of freedom given to Turk-ish Muslim minorities in Bulgaria, if investments and reforms were not ish Muslim minorities in Bulgaria, if investments and reforms were not

147 Ibid.Ibid.

148 “Umum ve Maarif,” “Umum ve Maarif,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 22 Teşrinievvel Teşrinievvel 13131313, 1.

149 Ibid.Ibid.

150 Ibid.Ibid.

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made in schools, the Muslim population would continue to live under dire

made in schools, the Muslim population would continue to live under dire circumstances.circumstances.151 He believed that the key was to eliminate favoritism:He believed that the key was to eliminate favoritism:

The Bulgarian government has already attempted to hinder the migra-

The Bulgarian government has already attempted to hinder the migra-tion of Turks. In short, even though military service is generally oblig-tion of Turks. In short, even though military service is generally oblig-atory, it is made easier for Muslims, with the military fee being ac-atory, it is made easier for Muslims, with the military fee being ac-cepted in installments. Despite these efforts, peocepted in installments. Despite these efforts, people still choose to ple still choose to migrate.migrate.152

Ali Fehmi strongly emphasized that regardless of the degree of free-

Ali Fehmi strongly emphasized that regardless of the degree of free-dom given to Turkish and Muslim minorities under Bulgarian rule, unless dom given to Turkish and Muslim minorities under Bulgarian rule, unless investments and reforms were made in schools, the Muslim population investments and reforms were made in schools, the Muslim population would always live would always live under unfavorable conditions. This was Ali Fehmi's under unfavorable conditions. This was Ali Fehmi's fundamental concern. For instance, when the Ottoman government re-fundamental concern. For instance, when the Ottoman government re-duced the allocated budget for schools in Bulgaria, Ali Fehmi questioned duced the allocated budget for schools in Bulgaria, Ali Fehmi questioned why this budget was being cut and criticized the allocation of morewhy this budget was being cut and criticized the allocation of more funds funds to administrative committees. The decrease in teacher salaries left them to administrative committees. The decrease in teacher salaries left them unable to continue in their profession, leading to many leaving their unable to continue in their profession, leading to many leaving their jobs.jobs.153 Ali Fehmi criticized this decision of the Ottoman Parliament Ali Fehmi criticized this decision of the Ottoman Parliament (Meclis(Meclis-i Mebusan) in his article titli Mebusan) in his article titled “Mistake or Virtue.”ed “Mistake or Virtue.”154

However, it was a fact that the endowments issue was also in need of

However, it was a fact that the endowments issue was also in need of reform in Bulgaria, just as much as the schools, and every problem re-reform in Bulgaria, just as much as the schools, and every problem re-lated to administration was closely connected. Recognizing this, Ali lated to administration was closely connected. Recognizing this, Ali Fehmi wrote intense critFehmi wrote intense criticisms about endowments in icisms about endowments in MuvazeneMuvazene. He pro-. He pro-posed that endowments should be managed collectively and openly for posed that endowments should be managed collectively and openly for

151 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 14. Sayı, 26 Teşrini14. Sayı, 26 Teşrinisani sani 1313 (8 Aralık Aralık 1897 ), ), 2.

152 Ibid.Ibid.

153 “Ulum ve Maarif,” “Ulum ve Maarif,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 18. Sayı, 24 Kanunuevvel 1313 (5 Ocak 1898), 1. 18. Sayı, 24 Kanunuevvel 1313 (5 Ocak 1898), 1. “Other “Other nations shamelessly give their servants and gatekeepers a hundred lira instead of the 100 nations shamelessly give their servants and gatekeepers a hundred lira instead of the 100 kuruş we give to our teachers. [Başka kuruş we give to our teachers. [Başka milletler bizim utanmayarak muallimlere ver-illetler bizim utanmayarak muallimlere ver-diğimiz 100 kuruş yerine hizmetçilerine, kapıcılarına yüzlük veriyor.]” diğimiz 100 kuruş yerine hizmetçilerine, kapıcılarına yüzlük veriyor.]”

154 Ibid.Ibid.

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everyone, suggesting that this approach would prevent abuse.

everyone, suggesting that this approach would prevent abuse.155 He be-He be-lieved that by preventing misuse of endowment funds, the remaining lieved that by preventing misuse of endowment funds, the remaining money couldmoney could be utilized to invest in schools:be utilized to invest in schools:

The establishment and management of all types of endowments and

The establishment and management of all types of endowments and rentals should be conducted through an official administrative depart-rentals should be conducted through an official administrative depart-ment, with transparency and public auction methods for all transac-ment, with transparency and public auction methods for all transac-tions, ensuring that tions, ensuring that the collected rents are not postponed. This in-the collected rents are not postponed. This in-volves subjecting the guarantors to joint liability, meaning that unpaid volves subjecting the guarantors to joint liability, meaning that unpaid rents would be collected from those who acted as guarantors or those rents would be collected from those who acted as guarantors or those who provided valid guarantees. We are of the firm belief that this iwho provided valid guarantees. We are of the firm belief that this is in s in accordance with sound reasoning.accordance with sound reasoning.156

In another article regarding the endowments, Ali Fehmi mentioned

In another article regarding the endowments, Ali Fehmi mentioned that many individuals holding official titles received monthly salaries but that many individuals holding official titles received monthly salaries but failed to provide any public service, diminishing the endowment's reve-failed to provide any public service, diminishing the endowment's reve-nue. nue. As the endowment's income was insufficient to cover the salaries, As the endowment's income was insufficient to cover the salaries, properties such as houses, shops, mosques, and tombs, which were en-properties such as houses, shops, mosques, and tombs, which were en-dowment assets, began to be sold. This initiated a cycle, whereby dimin-dowment assets, began to be sold. This initiated a cycle, whereby dimin-ishing assets led to even further decreased revenue.ishing assets led to even further decreased revenue. This situation was This situation was not unique to Bulgaria; Russia and Austria had also started seeking solu-not unique to Bulgaria; Russia and Austria had also started seeking solu-tions, involving endowment inspectors and commissioners in these tions, involving endowment inspectors and commissioners in these

155 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 18. Sayı, 24 Kanunuevvel 1313 (5 Ocak 1898), 2.18. Sayı, 24 Kanunuevvel 1313 (5 Ocak 1898), 2. “In “In order to put an end to all forms of abuseorder to put an end to all forms of abuse and bring an end to any form of wrongdoing, it is and bring an end to any form of wrongdoing, it is absolutely necessary to ensure the centralized administration of all waqfs. If personal in-absolutely necessary to ensure the centralized administration of all waqfs. If personal in-terests or biases are taken into consideration, it is widely acknowledged that detrimental terests or biases are taken into consideration, it is widely acknowledged that detrimental outcomes will result foroutcomes will result for those who have vested interests in this matter. [Her türlü sui isti-those who have vested interests in this matter. [Her türlü sui isti-malata, her şekilde kılmalata, her şekilde kıl-ü kale nihayet vermek üzere umum evkaf'ın ancemaatin idare olun-ü kale nihayet vermek üzere umum evkaf'ın ancemaatin idare olun-masına katiyen karar verilmelidir. Bu babda hatır veyahut taraf gözetilecek olduğu masına katiyen karar verilmelidir. Bu babda hatır veyahut taraf gözetilecek olduğu takdirde bu hususttakdirde bu hususta menfaatler olanlar için fena neticeler intaç edeceğini kimse inkar a menfaatler olanlar için fena neticeler intaç edeceğini kimse inkar etmiyor.]”etmiyor.]”

156 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 18 . Sayı, . Sayı, 24 Kanunuevvel Kanunuevvel 1313 (5 Ocak Ocak 1898 ), ), 2.

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countries. According to Ali Fehmi, if endowment revenues were in-

countries. According to Ali Fehmi, if endowment revenues were in-creased, the surplus funds could becreased, the surplus funds could be allocated to schools and teachers' sal-allocated to schools and teachers' sal-aries, thereby beginning to address educational issues.aries, thereby beginning to address educational issues.

Ali Fehmi argued that there was an excess of personnel in the endow-

Ali Fehmi argued that there was an excess of personnel in the endow-ment management, and these surplus individuals needed to resign.ment management, and these surplus individuals needed to resign.157 Over time, endowment propertOver time, endowment properties were being sold off to individuals like ies were being sold off to individuals like Mehmet Çavuş, Raşit Efendi, Sirac Mustafa, Yakup Ağa, and Ahmet Usta. Mehmet Çavuş, Raşit Efendi, Sirac Mustafa, Yakup Ağa, and Ahmet Usta. These properties were then rented out, often as “boza vendors or carpen-These properties were then rented out, often as “boza vendors or carpen-ters.” These names were openly mentioned in ters.” These names were openly mentioned in MuvazeneMuvazene. In fact, after cr. In fact, after crit-it-icisms of the Silistre endowment, it is mentioned that Hacı Yahya Efendi icisms of the Silistre endowment, it is mentioned that Hacı Yahya Efendi had taken the matter to court, as reported in had taken the matter to court, as reported in MuvazeneMuvazene..158 Ali Fehmi was Ali Fehmi was infuriated by the sluggish attitudes of endowment officials when some infuriated by the sluggish attitudes of endowment officials when some endowment properties were being demolishendowment properties were being demolished due to urban planning.ed due to urban planning.159 He questioned what the endowment officials were up to, while the red He questioned what the endowment officials were up to, while the red lines of urban plans crossed over endowment property. He asked what lines of urban plans crossed over endowment property. He asked what answers they would giveanswers they would give if people who had had left charitable founda-if people who had had left charitable founda-tions behind were to ristions behind were to rise from their graves and demand accountability. e from their graves and demand accountability. He continued:He continued:

Do you know how many thousand liras these salaries were given as

Do you know how many thousand liras these salaries were given as payments per year to commissioners, secretaries, muftis, and deputies payments per year to commissioners, secretaries, muftis, and deputies on behalf of the endowments? Not seeing these while locustson behalf of the endowments? Not seeing these while locusts devour devour the endowments and being unable to find a solution are excuses for the endowments and being unable to find a solution are excuses for labeling the position as a ‘frightening title.’ Woe to the Islamic nation. labeling the position as a ‘frightening title.’ Woe to the Islamic nation.

157 “İcmal“İcmal--i Evkaf,” i Evkaf,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 28. Sayı, 4 Mart 1314 (16 Mart 1898), 1.28. Sayı, 4 Mart 1314 (16 Mart 1898), 1.

158 “Bulgaristan H“Bulgaristan Havadisi,” avadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 3131. Sayı, . Sayı, 2525 Mart Mart 13141314 ((66 Nisan Nisan 18981898), ), 33..

159 “Bugaristan Havadisi,” “Bugaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 52. Sayı, 19 Ağustos 1314 (31 Ağustos 1898), 2.52. Sayı, 19 Ağustos 1314 (31 Ağustos 1898), 2. “Their “Their negligence or laziness has gone beyond limits. If it were only limited to this, it would be negligence or laziness has gone beyond limits. If it were only limited to this, it would be fine. Let'fine. Let's control our tongues and restrain what the pen writes. However, the mosque has s control our tongues and restrain what the pen writes. However, the mosque has been approached from another aspect as well. It will eventually collapse completely, so been approached from another aspect as well. It will eventually collapse completely, so aren't we justified in writing a few lines about it? [Bunların işi yahut uyuşukluğu başlaren't we justified in writing a few lines about it? [Bunların işi yahut uyuşukluğu başların-arın-dan aşmış. Bu kadarla kalsa iyi. Dilimizi tutalım kalemin yazdığını çizelim. Lakin cami dan aşmış. Bu kadarla kalsa iyi. Dilimizi tutalım kalemin yazdığını çizelim. Lakin cami diğer cihetten de plana getirilmiş. Bir zaman büsbütün yıkılacaktır o halde bir kaç satır diğer cihetten de plana getirilmiş. Bir zaman büsbütün yıkılacaktır o halde bir kaç satır yazı yazmakta mazur değil miyiz?]”yazı yazmakta mazur değil miyiz?]”

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Shame on those who feast on endowment funds without doing any

Shame on those who feast on endowment funds without doing any work!work!160

While Ali Fehmi complained about the

While Ali Fehmi complained about these issues, the problem of the se issues, the problem of the BuhariBuhari-i Şerif Mosque had once again emerged. Ali Fehmi claimed that i Şerif Mosque had once again emerged. Ali Fehmi claimed that those appointed to manage the Buharithose appointed to manage the Buhari-i Şerif endowment had always had i Şerif endowment had always had other motives such as embezzling funds from the endowment shops ra-other motives such as embezzling funds from the endowment shops ra-ther than providing ether than providing education at the Buhariducation at the Buhari-i Şerif.i Şerif.161 At another time, At another time, there was news that endowment funds were being stored in a merchant’s there was news that endowment funds were being stored in a merchant’s safe. For Ali Fehmi, the fact that the endowments did not even have their safe. For Ali Fehmi, the fact that the endowments did not even have their own safe was a subject of ridicule. In the end, the endowment own safe was a subject of ridicule. In the end, the endowment was owed was owed 48,000 francs, and to collect this debt, a lawyer had to be hired, with the 48,000 francs, and to collect this debt, a lawyer had to be hired, with the community covering the lawyer's fee of 7,000 francs. In another example, community covering the lawyer's fee of 7,000 francs. In another example, the shops of the Buharithe shops of the Buhari-i Şerif Mosque were prevented from using funds i Şerif Mosque were prevented from using funds of the endowment, but theseof the endowment, but these shops were again at risk. While in the initial shops were again at risk. While in the initial issues of issues of MuvazeneMuvazene Ali Fehmi mentioned that the person responsible for Ali Fehmi mentioned that the person responsible for teaching at the Buhariteaching at the Buhari-i Şerif Mosque did not fulfill his duty, in issue 52, i Şerif Mosque did not fulfill his duty, in issue 52, he noted that someone named Şükrü Hoca had been appointed tohe noted that someone named Şükrü Hoca had been appointed to this this role in response to the lack of responsibility in the mosque.role in response to the lack of responsibility in the mosque.162

The aggressive behavior of endowment officials also caught attention.

The aggressive behavior of endowment officials also caught attention. For instance, the endowment director who invited the painter to paint For instance, the endowment director who invited the painter to paint the Seyyid Mahmud Mosque had slapped him, sayinthe Seyyid Mahmud Mosque had slapped him, saying, “You have spoken g, “You have spoken ill of the state and the nation in someone's coffeehouse.”ill of the state and the nation in someone's coffeehouse.”163 Ali Fehmi re-Ali Fehmi re-ported that efforts were made to prevent the matter from going to court.ported that efforts were made to prevent the matter from going to court.

160 “Bugaristan Havadisi,” “Bugaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 52 . Sayı, 19 Ağustos 1314 (31 Ağustos 1898), 2.. Sayı, 19 Ağustos 1314 (31 Ağustos 1898), 2. “[Ev-“[Ev-kafı çekirgeler çatır çatır yer iken bunları görmemek çaresini bulamamak komiserliğe kafı çekirgeler çatır çatır yer iken bunları görmemek çaresini bulamamak komiserliğe korkuluk namını vermeye vesile gösterir. Milletkorkuluk namını vermeye vesile gösterir. Millet-i İslamiyeye yazık. İş yapmayarak vakıftan i İslamiyeye yazık. İş yapmayarak vakıftan bad -ı heva para yiyenlere ayıbı heva para yiyenlere ayıb!]”!]”

161 Ibid.Ibid.

162 “Bugaristan Havadisi,” “Bugaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 52 . Sayı, . Sayı, 19 Ağustos Ağustos 13141314 (31 Ağustos Ağustos 18981898), ), 2.

163 “Mektep,” “Mektep,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 38. Sayı, 13 Mayıs 1314, (25 Mayıs 1898), 3.38. Sayı, 13 Mayıs 1314, (25 Mayıs 1898), 3.“You have spoken ill of “You have spoken ill of the state and the people in somebody’s coffeehouse. [Sen filanın the state and the people in somebody’s coffeehouse. [Sen filanın kahvesinde devlet millet kahvesinde devlet millet hakkında italehakkında itale-i lisanda bulunmuşsun.]”i lisanda bulunmuşsun.]”

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Ali Fehmi did not refrain from criticizing the Bulgarian Commissioner

Ali Fehmi did not refrain from criticizing the Bulgarian Commissioner for Endowments, accusfor Endowments, accusing him of filling the endowments with his cro-ing him of filling the endowments with his cro-nies. He invited him to work more seriously.nies. He invited him to work more seriously.164 Ali Fehmi found it illogical Ali Fehmi found it illogical for the journalist Abdullah Efendi, who lived in Filibe, to be appointed in for the journalist Abdullah Efendi, who lived in Filibe, to be appointed in the endowment, arguing that if he would not be involved in the endowment, arguing that if he would not be involved in endowment endowment matters, there would be no need for a Bulgarian Commissioner.matters, there would be no need for a Bulgarian Commissioner.165

In the end, the endowments were the sole property left for the Mus-

In the end, the endowments were the sole property left for the Mus-lims of Bulgaria in those lands, and when the possibility of losing them lims of Bulgaria in those lands, and when the possibility of losing them emerged, everyone contributed economically. emerged, everyone contributed economically. Funds were collected for Funds were collected for Muslim schools, and when necessary, teachers' salaries were paid by fam-Muslim schools, and when necessary, teachers' salaries were paid by fam-ilies. In a region where Ottoman rule had disappeared, the only common ilies. In a region where Ottoman rule had disappeared, the only common property of Muslims striving to protect their lives was the schools and property of Muslims striving to protect their lives was the schools and endowment propertendowment properties. These communal assets contributed to the for-ies. These communal assets contributed to the for-mation of the Muslim nation's identity within the borders of Bulgaria. mation of the Muslim nation's identity within the borders of Bulgaria. Therefore, Ali Fehmi's criticisms of endowment mismanagement were Therefore, Ali Fehmi's criticisms of endowment mismanagement were substantial. He advocated for the efficient and effective use of moneysubstantial. He advocated for the efficient and effective use of money and and fiercely criticized those who abused their positions.fiercely criticized those who abused their positions.

The Muslim population remaining in Bulgaria was no longer Ottoman

The Muslim population remaining in Bulgaria was no longer Ottoman subjects but rather Bulgarian subjects. Therefore, they were striving to subjects but rather Bulgarian subjects. Therefore, they were striving to protect their national identities within the framework of protect their national identities within the framework of the rights of-the rights of-fered by Bulgaria’s citizenship. Although intellectuals were actively en-fered by Bulgaria’s citizenship. Although intellectuals were actively en-gaged in this endeavor, when we look at the assistance provided to en-gaged in this endeavor, when we look at the assistance provided to en-dowments and schools, it becomes evident that the public also harbored dowments and schools, it becomes evident that the public also harbored national concerns. As depicted national concerns. As depicted by Ali Fehmi, it was not the Muslim popu-by Ali Fehmi, it was not the Muslim popu-lation but rather the endowment officials and appointees chosen out of lation but rather the endowment officials and appointees chosen out of personal favor who exhibited complacency and endangered the lives of personal favor who exhibited complacency and endangered the lives of the people.the people.

164 “Bugaristan Havadisi,” “Bugaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 39 . Sayı, . Sayı, 21 Mayıs Mayıs 13141314 (2 Haziran Haziran 18981898), ), 2.

165 “Bugaristan Havadisi,” “Bugaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 52 . Sayı, . Sayı, 19 Ağustos Ağustos 13141314 (31 Ağustos Ağustos 18981898), ), 2.

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§ 4.6 Engagement with the ReadersEngagement with the Readers

Open letters frequently appeared on

Open letters frequently appeared on the pages of the pages of MuvazeneMuvazene, enabling the , enabling themost sincere and direct dialogue between readers and the newspaper. In most sincere and direct dialogue between readers and the newspaper. Inone instance, where Nasuhi Bey the Ottoman Commissioner to Bulgaria one instance, where Nasuhi Bey the Ottoman Commissioner to Bulgariahad invited Ali Fehmi to his presence in an attempt to shut down had invited Ali Fehmi to his presence in an attempt to shut down Muva-Muva-zenezene, Ali Fe, Ali Fehmi responded through an open letter:hmi responded through an open letter:

To the respected Nasuhi Bey Efendi

We appreciate the compliments to our states (...) We were not hypo-

We appreciate the compliments to our states (...) We were not hypo-crites. We are not. We will not be. It is not possible to close down crites. We are not. We will not be. It is not possible to close down Muva-Muva-zenezene with our own consent. We are capable owith our own consent. We are capable of defending our rights se-f defending our rights se-cured by the law.cured by the law.166

The “Open Letters” section became a platform for Ali Fehmi to engage

The “Open Letters” section became a platform for Ali Fehmi to engage with the newspapers’ readership in a number of ways. In one instance, with the newspapers’ readership in a number of ways. In one instance, MuvazeneMuvazene reported receiving the article of İsmail Beyzade Hakkı Bey, reported receiving the article of İsmail Beyzade Hakkı Bey, whiwhich refuted a piece of news from the ch refuted a piece of news from the GayretGayret newspaper.newspaper.167 Thanks Thanks were conveyed for the compliments of Raif Ağazade Muhammed Hulusi were conveyed for the compliments of Raif Ağazade Muhammed Hulusi Efendi.Efendi.168 A message was written to Osman Nuri: “To A. N, your third ar-A message was written to Osman Nuri: “To A. N, your third ar-ticle has arrived; when the Russians finally arrive in fronticle has arrived; when the Russians finally arrive in front of Istanbul, it t of Istanbul, it will be published.”will be published.”169 The General Secretary of Islamic Education Coun-The General Secretary of Islamic Education Coun-cils was asked for various information about schools, such as the number cils was asked for various information about schools, such as the number of students, ongoing student count, ages, teacher numbers, salaries, and of students, ongoing student count, ages, teacher numbers, salaries, and

166 “Açık Mektublar,” “Açık Mektublar,” MuvMuvazene, azene, 4. Sayı,4. Sayı, 10 Eylül 1313 (22 Eylül 1897), 4. 10 Eylül 1313 (22 Eylül 1897), 4. “Atufetli Nasuhi “Atufetli Nasuhi Bey Efendi Hazretlerine; İltifatı devletlerimize arzBey Efendi Hazretlerine; İltifatı devletlerimize arz-ı teşekkür ederiz (…) Münafık değil idik. ı teşekkür ederiz (…) Münafık değil idik. Değiliz. Olmayacağız. Muvazene’yi kendi rızamızla kapamak mümkün değildir. Kanunun Değiliz. Olmayacağız. Muvazene’yi kendi rızamızla kapamak mümkün değildir. Kanunun temin ettiğtemin ettiği hukukumuzu müdafaaya muktediriz.”i hukukumuzu müdafaaya muktediriz.”

167 “Açık Mektublar,” “Açık Mektublar,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 10 . Sayı, . Sayı, 22 Teşrinievvel Teşrinievvel 13131313 (3 Kasım Kasım 1897 ), ), 4.

168 “Açık Mektublar,” 9. Sayı“Açık Mektublar,” 9. Sayı, 15 Teşrinievvel Teşrinievvel 13131313 (27 Ekim Ekim 2897 ), ), 4.

169 Ibid.Ibid.

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curriculum, for publicat

curriculum, for publication in the newspaper.ion in the newspaper.170 Thanks were given col-Thanks were given col-lectively to individuals who sent telegrams and letters for the holiday lectively to individuals who sent telegrams and letters for the holiday greetings in issue 26.greetings in issue 26.171 A letter from Berlin was received by A letter from Berlin was received by MuvazeneMuvazene.172

In subsequent issues,

In subsequent issues, MuvazeneMuvazene started to receive notifications; forstarted to receive notifications; for instance, in issue 6, it was reported that 1989 francs were lost from the instance, in issue 6, it was reported that 1989 francs were lost from the endowments. Likewise, in the same issue, it was reported that the 2,500 endowments. Likewise, in the same issue, it was reported that the 2,500 francs given by the government were entirely stolen.francs given by the government were entirely stolen.173 In issue 28, con-In issue 28, con-gratulations were extended to Halis Eşrgratulations were extended to Halis Eşref Bey, a law graduate, for trans-ef Bey, a law graduate, for trans-lating and bringing a copy of the book lating and bringing a copy of the book Bulgarian Penal CodeBulgarian Penal Code to the to the Muva-Muva-zenezene headquarters; everyone was advised to acquire the book.headquarters; everyone was advised to acquire the book.174 Thanks Thanks were given to Raif Boşnakof Ebu’lwere given to Raif Boşnakof Ebu’l-Basri Efendi for his kind words, but it Basri Efendi for his kind words, but it was statewas stated that the compliments could not be published in the newspa-d that the compliments could not be published in the newspa-per since they were directed at Ali Fehmi.per since they were directed at Ali Fehmi.175 A letter was written to some-A letter was written to some-one who wrote about the Şumnu endowments, but since the person did one who wrote about the Şumnu endowments, but since the person did not provide their name, it was stated that the letter woulnot provide their name, it was stated that the letter would not be pub-d not be pub-lished.lished.176 It was mentioned that a letter had arrived regarding a lottery It was mentioned that a letter had arrived regarding a lottery for educational funds and that readers were expected to provide details for educational funds and that readers were expected to provide details and information about the incident.and information about the incident.177 Thanks were also conveyed to Thanks were also conveyed to TercümanTercüman newspaper.newspaper.178

Such examples

Such examples that often appeared in passing on the pages ofthat often appeared in passing on the pages of Muva-Muva-zenezene are indicative of active communication between the newspaper and are indicative of active communication between the newspaper and

170 “Açık Mektublar,” “Açık Mektublar,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 17. Sayı, 17 Kanunuevvel 17. Sayı, 17 Kanunuevvel 1313 (29 Aralık 1897), 4. 1313 (29 Aralık 1897), 4. “Since “Since our newspaper's main foundation is based on education and serving schools, if there is no our newspaper's main foundation is based on education and serving schools, if there is no involvement in educational and pedagogical services, it is necessary to support the princi-involvement in educational and pedagogical services, it is necessary to support the princi-ple of progress. Therefore, we are in need ple of progress. Therefore, we are in need of information and mutual assistance regarding of information and mutual assistance regarding our schools. [Gazetemizin asıl tesisi maarif ve mekatibe hzimet hiç olmaz ise terakkileri our schools. [Gazetemizin asıl tesisi maarif ve mekatibe hzimet hiç olmaz ise terakkileri hususuna tevassut etmek esasına müstenid olduğundan mekteblerimiz hakkında malumat hususuna tevassut etmek esasına müstenid olduğundan mekteblerimiz hakkında malumat ve muavenetve muavenet-i mütekabileye ihtiyacımi mütekabileye ihtiyacımız derkârdır.]”ız derkârdır.]”

171 “Açık Mektublar,” “Açık Mektublar,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 26 . Sayı, . Sayı, 18 Şubat Şubat 1313 (2 Mart Mart 1898 ), ), 4.

172 “Açık Mektublar,” “Açık Mektublar,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 38 . Sayı, . Sayı, 13 Mayıs Mayıs 1314 , (, (25 Mayıs Mayıs 1898 ), ), 4.

173 “Açık Mektublar,” “Açık Mektublar,” Muvazene,Muvazene, Muvazene,Muvazene, 6. Sayı, . Sayı, 24 Eylül Eylül 1313 (6 Ekim Ekim 1897 ), ), 4.

174 “A çık Mektublar,” çık Mektublar,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 28 . Sayı, . Sayı, 4 Mart Mart 1314 (16 Mart Mart 18981898), ), 4.

175 “Açık Mektublar,” “Açık Mektublar,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 37 . Sayı, . Sayı, 6 Mayıs Mayıs 1314 (18 Mayıs Mayıs 1897 ), ), 4.

176 Ibid.Ibid.

177 “Açık Mektuplar,” “Açık Mektuplar,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 39 . Sayı, . Sayı, 21 Mayıs Mayıs 1314 (2 Haziran Haziran 1898 ), ), 4.

178 “Açık Mektublar,” “Açık Mektublar,” MuvazMuvazene,ene, 28 . Sayı, . Sayı, 4 Mart Mart 1314 (16 Mart Mart 18981898), ), 4.

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its readership. The newspaper became not only a product presented for

its readership. The newspaper became not only a product presented for public consumption, but also a platform of social interaction thpublic consumption, but also a platform of social interaction that was ac-at was ac-tively used and developed. Notifications from readers were evaluated, tively used and developed. Notifications from readers were evaluated, and when new comments or reactions came in, they were considered for and when new comments or reactions came in, they were considered for publication. publication. MuvazeneMuvazene, being dedicated entirely to the service of Bulgar-, being dedicated entirely to the service of Bulgar-ian Muslims, only excluded the news ian Muslims, only excluded the news that did not serve the public's inter-that did not serve the public's inter-est. Apart from that, it is evident that Ali Fehmi evaluated any kind of est. Apart from that, it is evident that Ali Fehmi evaluated any kind of news that would contribute to progress.news that would contribute to progress.

The list of subscribers to

The list of subscribers to MuvazeneMuvazene reflected the newspapers success reflected the newspapers success in engaging the Muslim community in Bin engaging the Muslim community in Bulgaria. The newspaper enjoyed ulgaria. The newspaper enjoyed a wide readership. Among the subscribers were the management com-a wide readership. Among the subscribers were the management com-mittee of the Turkish National Coffeehmittee of the Turkish National Coffeehouse (Milli Türk Kıraathanesi), the ouse (Milli Türk Kıraathanesi), the management committee of management committee of Hablü’lHablü’l--MetinMetin newspaper, Reşadiye Coffee-newspaper, Reşadiye Coffee-house, Coffeehouse Owner Yusuf Hacı Süleyman Efendi, Coffeehouse house, Coffeehouse Owner Yusuf Hacı Süleyman Efendi, Coffeehouse Owner Salim Efendi, Barber Ahmet Kalfa at Tabakhane Bazaar, Clock-Owner Salim Efendi, Barber Ahmet Kalfa at Tabakhane Bazaar, Clock-maker Hacı Sabri Efendizadmaker Hacı Sabri Efendizade Hüseyin Efendi, Engineer Talat Bey and e Hüseyin Efendi, Engineer Talat Bey and Soapmaker Mahmud Ağazade Mehmet Efendi. Soapmaker Mahmud Ağazade Mehmet Efendi.

Ali Fehmi’s attempts to create a vibrant community of readers around

Ali Fehmi’s attempts to create a vibrant community of readers around the newspaper also included the organization of competitions for stu-the newspaper also included the organization of competitions for stu-dents. In three separate occasions, hdents. In three separate occasions, he organized three questione organized three question--andand--an-an-swer competition for students to test the success of certain schools in swer competition for students to test the success of certain schools in teaching, while acknowledging students that excelled. The winner would teaching, while acknowledging students that excelled. The winner would receive a sixreceive a six--month subscription, the runnermonth subscription, the runner--up a threeup a three--month subscrip-month subscrip-tion, and tion, and the thirdthe third--place student would receive a oneplace student would receive a one--month free sub-month free sub-scription.scription.179 The question posed to the students was, “What method The question posed to the students was, “What method should one adopt to learn the lessons taught at school?”should one adopt to learn the lessons taught at school?”180 Some students Some students provided lengthy answers to this question. Although Ali Fehmiprovided lengthy answers to this question. Although Ali Fehmi expected expected to receive good answers from the schools in Filibe, he believed that the to receive good answers from the schools in Filibe, he believed that the relationship between spies and teachers prevented such an engagement relationship between spies and teachers prevented such an engagement with the newspaper. Ali Fehmi had high expectations from the schools in with the newspaper. Ali Fehmi had high expectations from the schools in Pazarcık as well, but he noted tPazarcık as well, but he noted that suitable answers had come neither hat suitable answers had come neither

179 “Sual,” “Sual,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 1111. Sayı, . Sayı, 55 Teşrinisani Teşrinisani 13131313 ((1717 Kasım Kasım 18971897), ), 44..

180 “Sual,” “Sual,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 1212. Sayı, . Sayı, 1212 Teşrinisani Teşrinisani 13131313 ((2424 Kasım Kasım 18971897), ), 22..

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from Filibe, nor Pazarcık. The school that responded on time was the

from Filibe, nor Pazarcık. The school that responded on time was the Şumnu secondary school. Salim Ağazade İsmail Hafîz Efendi, a fourthŞumnu secondary school. Salim Ağazade İsmail Hafîz Efendi, a fourth-grade student at secondary school in Şumnu, came in first place. The sec-grade student at secondary school in Şumnu, came in first place. The sec-ond -placeplace student was again Osman Nuri Efendi, a fourthstudent was again Osman Nuri Efendi, a fourth-grade student grade student from the same school.from the same school.181 Even though the response of Osman Nuri Efendi Even though the response of Osman Nuri Efendi noted how the student actively asked his teacher about parts of the les-noted how the student actively asked his teacher about parts of the les-son he did not understand, Ali Fehmi publicly criticizeson he did not understand, Ali Fehmi publicly criticized parts of Osman d parts of Osman Nuri’s answer, making it clear that Ali Fehmi was sharply against rote Nuri’s answer, making it clear that Ali Fehmi was sharply against rote learning.learning.182 Ali Fehmi, through this questionAli Fehmi, through this question-answer competition, was answer competition, was striving to emphasize the importance of a new approach to education.striving to emphasize the importance of a new approach to education.

In issue 25, the question posed

In issue 25, the question posed to the students was: “What is history? to the students was: “What is history? What is its benefit? How many parts and periods is it divided into? Is the What is its benefit? How many parts and periods is it divided into? Is the main reason for the rise of the new era the conquest of Istanbul?”main reason for the rise of the new era the conquest of Istanbul?”183 The The most successful answers were provided by İsmail Hafız Efendi and Os-most successful answers were provided by İsmail Hafız Efendi and Os-ma n Nuri Efendi, both fourthn Nuri Efendi, both fourth-grade students from the secondary school grade students from the secondary school in Şumnu; Mustafa Ağazade Hafız İsmail Efendi, a fourthin Şumnu; Mustafa Ağazade Hafız İsmail Efendi, a fourth-grade student grade student from the secondary school in Yenicuma; and Ahmed Zeki Efendi, a sec-from the secondary school in Yenicuma; and Ahmed Zeki Efendi, a sec-ond -grade student from the secondary school in Plevgrade student from the secondary school in Pleven.en.184 Individuals Individuals such as Hüsnü Efendi, Murat Efendi, Recep Efendi, Nureddin Efendi, Ali such as Hüsnü Efendi, Murat Efendi, Recep Efendi, Nureddin Efendi, Ali Efendi, and Mehmet Efendi provided explanations other than answers to Efendi, and Mehmet Efendi provided explanations other than answers to the question. These individuals had become targets of Ali Fehmi's criti-the question. These individuals had become targets of Ali Fehmi's criti-cism for not expressing thecism for not expressing their own opinions but rather memorizing from ir own opinions but rather memorizing from the bookthe book—another opportunity for Ali Fehmi to criticize rote learning.another opportunity for Ali Fehmi to criticize rote learning.185

As the secondary school exams were approaching, As the secondary school exams were approaching, MuvazeneMuvazene news-news-paper posed another question in the 43rd issue, assuming that students paper posed another question in the 43rd issue, assuming that students

181 “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” “Bulgaristan Havadisi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, Muvazene,Muvazene, 6. Sayı, 24 Eylül 16. Sayı, 24 Eylül 1313 (6 Ekim Ekim 1897 ), ), 2.

182 Ibid.Ibid.

183 “Sual,” “Sual,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 25. Sayı, 11 Şubat 1313 (23 Şubat 1898) 2. “25. Sayı, 11 Şubat 1313 (23 Şubat 1898) 2. “[Tarih neye derler, faidesi Tarih neye derler, faidesi nedir, kaç kısma, kaç kuruna münkasımdır, kurunnedir, kaç kısma, kaç kuruna münkasımdır, kurun-u cedideyi küşad eden asıl sebeb istan-u cedideyi küşad eden asıl sebeb istan-bul’un fethi midir?]”bul’un fethi midir?]”

184 “Bulgaristan Havad“Bulgaristan Havadisi,” isi,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 30 . Sayı, . Sayı, 18 Mart Mart 1314 (30 Mart Mart 18981898), ), 2.

185 Ibid.Ibid.

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were alr

were already prepared. The question was: “What are the types of govern-eady prepared. The question was: “What are the types of govern-ment forms, what distinguishes them from each other, what forms of gov-ment forms, what distinguishes them from each other, what forms of gov-ernment do Turkey and Bulgaria have, is there a difference between Tur-ernment do Turkey and Bulgaria have, is there a difference between Tur-key's current administration and the administration atkey's current administration and the administration at the time of its the time of its foundation, and which is the best form of government?”foundation, and which is the best form of government?”186 The extensive The extensive answer written by Bıyıklıoğlu Ali Ağazade Hafız Ahmed to this question answer written by Bıyıklıoğlu Ali Ağazade Hafız Ahmed to this question was published verbatim in the 46th issue.was published verbatim in the 46th issue.187 Hafız Ahmed categorized Hafız Ahmed categorized the forms of government as republic, constitutional monarchy, and abso-the forms of government as republic, constitutional monarchy, and abso-lute monarchy. He provided exampllute monarchy. He provided examples of France and Switzerland for re-es of France and Switzerland for re-publican governance and Russia and the Ottoman Empire as examples of publican governance and Russia and the Ottoman Empire as examples of absolute monarchy. He emphasized that in absolute monarchy, the ruler absolute monarchy. He emphasized that in absolute monarchy, the ruler could do whatever they wanted without being bound by laws. He at-could do whatever they wanted without being bound by laws. He at-tributed the rulertributed the ruler's decision to consult the parliament before making a 's decision to consult the parliament before making a decision to humanity and intelligence. Hafız Ahmed stated that he con-decision to humanity and intelligence. Hafız Ahmed stated that he con-sulted his teachers and conducted thorough research before concluding sulted his teachers and conducted thorough research before concluding that constitutional monarchy was the most reasonable form of gothat constitutional monarchy was the most reasonable form of govern-vern-ment, arguing that a government with “justice, equality, and freedom” ment, arguing that a government with “justice, equality, and freedom” would always progress:would always progress:

According to my humble opinion and the inferences I have drawn from

According to my humble opinion and the inferences I have drawn from the questions and answers of the instructors, I find the constitutional the questions and answers of the instructors, I find the constitutional monarchy to be themonarchy to be the best among them. Because if the absolute ruler of best among them. Because if the absolute ruler of an absolute monarchy does not possess good morals and does not an absolute monarchy does not possess good morals and does not have information about the state's affairs, that government would be have information about the state's affairs, that government would be prone to disaster. Since to some extent, the constitutional monarchy prone to disaster. Since to some extent, the constitutional monarchy govegovernment would also have a connection to this principle, in my view, rnment would also have a connection to this principle, in my view, the best government is the constitutional monarchy. Because the peo-the best government is the constitutional monarchy. Because the peo-ple can even elect their governing body.ple can even elect their governing body.188

186 “Sual” “Sual” Muvazene,Muvazene, 43. Sayı, 17 Haziran 1314 (29 Haziran 1898), 2.43. Sayı, 17 Haziran 1314 (29 Haziran 1898), 2.

187 “Coğrafya Sualine Cevab,” “Coğrafya Sualine Cevab,” Muvazene,Muvazene, 46 . Sayı, . Sayı, 8 Temmuz Temmuz 1314 (20 Temmuz Temmuz 1898 ), ), 2.

188 Ibid. Ibid. “Fikr“Fikr-i acizanemce ve mui acizanemce ve mualliminallimin-i sual ve cevablarından hasıl etdiğim muhakeme i sual ve cevablarından hasıl etdiğim muhakeme neticesi olarak hükümetneticesi olarak hükümet-i meşrutayı hepsinden güzel buluyorum. Çünkü hükümeti meşrutayı hepsinden güzel buluyorum. Çünkü hükümet-i mut-i mut-lakada hükümdar olan zat ahlaklakada hükümdar olan zat ahlak-ı hasene sahibi olmayub da umurı hasene sahibi olmayub da umur-u devlete agah u devlete agah

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According to Hafız Ahmed, due to its successes in governance since

According to Hafız Ahmed, due to its successes in governance since its establisits establishment, the Ottoman State had grown to the point where it hment, the Ottoman State had grown to the point where it could be characterized as “Great State.” Hafız Ahmed, who believed that could be characterized as “Great State.” Hafız Ahmed, who believed that the laws were good in the current state, expressed his astonishment that the laws were good in the current state, expressed his astonishment that the state did not adhere to the laws and engaged in arthe state did not adhere to the laws and engaged in arbitrary actions.bitrary actions.189

Overall, Ali Fehmi remained loyal to the promises he made to the

Overall, Ali Fehmi remained loyal to the promises he made to the readers throughout its first year examined in this chapter. It was sensitive readers throughout its first year examined in this chapter. It was sensitive to almost every issue related to Bulgaria’s Muslims and provided assess-to almost every issue related to Bulgaria’s Muslims and provided assess-ments on these matters wments on these matters while sometimes leaving them to the readers’ ap-hile sometimes leaving them to the readers’ ap-preciation. It responded to letters sent by readers, creating a sense of sin-preciation. It responded to letters sent by readers, creating a sense of sin-cere communication with them. The questioncere communication with them. The question-and -answer competitions answer competitions organized for students, the publication of reports coming from Muslorganized for students, the publication of reports coming from Muslims, ims, and the occasional humorous anecdote shared in response to the request and the occasional humorous anecdote shared in response to the request were all examples of this genuine communication.were all examples of this genuine communication.

While taking advantage of the opportunities in Filibe, Ali Fehmi col-

While taking advantage of the opportunities in Filibe, Ali Fehmi col-lected, evaluated, analyzed, and presented sufficient data to hlected, evaluated, analyzed, and presented sufficient data to his readers. is readers. Throughout the year, he used more than 60 newspapers as sources while Throughout the year, he used more than 60 newspapers as sources while also investigating the accuracy of public reports and sharing verified in-also investigating the accuracy of public reports and sharing verified in-formation with his readers. Through formation with his readers. Through MuvazeneMuvazene, he not only informed , he not only informed Muslims of Bulgaria about events tMuslims of Bulgaria about events taking place in the country, the empire, aking place in the country, the empire, and the world but also published various opinion articles, aiming to en-and the world but also published various opinion articles, aiming to en-rich Muslims’ knowledge. He encouraged his readers to think and re-rich Muslims’ knowledge. He encouraged his readers to think and re-search believing that progress could only be achieved through hard work, search believing that progress could only be achieved through hard work, seekinseeking for information and critical thinking. It is evident that Ali Fehmi g for information and critical thinking. It is evident that Ali Fehmi maintained this approach throughout the course of its first year of jour-maintained this approach throughout the course of its first year of jour-nalism.nalism.

Although

Although MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper did not overtly engage in Young Turk newspaper did not overtly engage in Young Turk propaganda during its first year, it playpropaganda during its first year, it played a significant role in the local ed a significant role in the local adoption of some Young Turk ideas. This becomes evident not only from adoption of some Young Turk ideas. This becomes evident not only from

olmazsa o zaman bulunduğu hükümet felaket

olmazsa o zaman bulunduğu hükümet felakete giriftar olur. Bu esasın bir dereceye kadar e giriftar olur. Bu esasın bir dereceye kadar hükümethükümet-i meşrutiyeye de teması olacağından bendenizce en güzel beğendiğim hükümet i meşrutiyeye de teması olacağından bendenizce en güzel beğendiğim hükümet hükümethükümet-i meşrutadır. Çünkü ahali heyeti meşrutadır. Çünkü ahali heyet-i idareyi bile bile intihab edebilir.”i idareyi bile bile intihab edebilir.”

189 Ibid. Ibid.

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Ali Fehmi’s detailed biography but also from the content of

Ali Fehmi’s detailed biography but also from the content of MuvazeneMuvazene. While not explicitly stated, While not explicitly stated, MuvazeneMuvazene subtly conveyed the notion that the subtly conveyed the notion that the constitconstitutional monarchy was a reasonable system. In addition, the news-utional monarchy was a reasonable system. In addition, the news-paper criticized spy network harshly. Moreover, Ali Fehmi himself was paper criticized spy network harshly. Moreover, Ali Fehmi himself was being chased by spies. Additionally, Ali Fehmi being chased by spies. Additionally, Ali Fehmi held contemptheld contempt towards in-towards in-dividuals who gained rank or money from the governmedividuals who gained rank or money from the government as a result of nt as a result of their complicitytheir complicity with with censorship rules.censorship rules.190 In the subsequent years, Ali In the subsequent years, Ali Fehmi would make even stronger criticisms and target the Ottoman re-Fehmi would make even stronger criticisms and target the Ottoman re-gimegime more openlymore openly.191

190 Methodieva, Methodieva, Between Empire and NaBetween Empire and Nationtion, 106 .

191 Ibid, Ibid, 109 .

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5ConclusionConclusion

his study has reconstructed the biography of Ali Feh

his study has reconstructed the biography of Ali Fehmi, a Young mi, a Young Turk from Bulgaria, and discussed his intellectual activities by fo-Turk from Bulgaria, and discussed his intellectual activities by fo-cusing on cusing on MuvazeneMuvazene, the newspaper he published from 1898 to 1905. The , the newspaper he published from 1898 to 1905. The establishment of the Principality of Bulgaria after the 1877establishment of the Principality of Bulgaria after the 1877-1878 Russo1878 Russo-Ottoman War brought about a new ordOttoman War brought about a new order to which the Muslims in Bul-er to which the Muslims in Bul-garia had to adapt. The Balkan peoples who were former subjects of the garia had to adapt. The Balkan peoples who were former subjects of the Ottoman Empire had become citizens of the newly emerged Principality Ottoman Empire had become citizens of the newly emerged Principality of Bulgaria. In this historical context, the Balkan Muslims sought to rede-of Bulgaria. In this historical context, the Balkan Muslims sought to rede-fine the futfine the future of their community, and the Muslim intellectuals in partic-ure of their community, and the Muslim intellectuals in partic-ular believed that they could achieve a rejuvenation through culture and ular believed that they could achieve a rejuvenation through culture and politics. Ali Fehmi was not only one of the first witnesses of this process, politics. Ali Fehmi was not only one of the first witnesses of this process, but also an active participant who contributbut also an active participant who contributed to achieving these goals.ed to achieving these goals.

Studying Ali Fehmi's biography shed light on the ways in which Bul-

Studying Ali Fehmi's biography shed light on the ways in which Bul-garian Muslims adapted themselves to the new political realities. His bi-garian Muslims adapted themselves to the new political realities. His bi-ography has also made it evident that, despite his denial, Ali Fehmi was ography has also made it evident that, despite his denial, Ali Fehmi was actually a Youngactually a Young Turk, and the Turk, and the MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper, despite his claims, newspaper, despite his claims, was aligned with the Young Turk activities. However, situating Ali Fehmi was aligned with the Young Turk activities. However, situating Ali Fehmi within the context of the Young Turk ideology requires a careful consid-within the context of the Young Turk ideology requires a careful consid-eration. Despite freely expressing criticisms and thoughteration. Despite freely expressing criticisms and thoughts which created s which created unease among Ottoman authorities, Ali Fehmi's goal in journalism during unease among Ottoman authorities, Ali Fehmi's goal in journalism during

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this period of freedom was not to impose the Young Turk ideology.

this period of freedom was not to impose the Young Turk ideology. Given Given the difficulties in attributing strict definitions and identities to Young the difficulties in attributing strict definitions and identities to Young Turks in the late ninTurks in the late nineteenth century, it is necessary to carefully examine eteenth century, it is necessary to carefully examine Ali Fehmi and refrain from trying to categorize him. It is noteworthy that Ali Fehmi and refrain from trying to categorize him. It is noteworthy that many figures like him were not initially seen as a member of the Young many figures like him were not initially seen as a member of the Young Turks. Especially in Bulgaria and generally in the BalkaTurks. Especially in Bulgaria and generally in the Balkans, the sensitivity ns, the sensitivity of intellectuals like Ali Fehmi to the common problems and corruption of intellectuals like Ali Fehmi to the common problems and corruption that the local Muslims had to deal with neither provides sufficient evi-that the local Muslims had to deal with neither provides sufficient evi-dence to attribute any single identity to them, nor enables researchers to dence to attribute any single identity to them, nor enables researchers to determine when or whdetermine when or where such intellectuals exactly embraced the Young ere such intellectuals exactly embraced the Young Turk ideology.Turk ideology.

In 1897, Ali Fehmi

In 1897, Ali Fehmi promised to publish whatever was beneficial to the promised to publish whatever was beneficial to the public. He was aware of the necessity of cultural development for the public. He was aware of the necessity of cultural development for the wellwell--being of Muslim community in Bulgaria and he sbeing of Muslim community in Bulgaria and he sought to politically ought to politically empower them. In fact, he ventured into journalism out of concern for empower them. In fact, he ventured into journalism out of concern for the education and progress of Muslims in Bulgaria. While freely express-the education and progress of Muslims in Bulgaria. While freely express-ing criticisms of the Ottoman Empire, he directed the same critical eye ing criticisms of the Ottoman Empire, he directed the same critical eye towards factors that htowards factors that hindered Muslim education and advancement. He indered Muslim education and advancement. He criticized officials abusing their duties, which prevented Muslim pro-criticized officials abusing their duties, which prevented Muslim pro-gress. Ali Fehmi accordingly aimed to create a proactive community gress. Ali Fehmi accordingly aimed to create a proactive community around around MuvazeneMuvazene. He encouraged his audience to read more, make better . He encouraged his audience to read more, make better decisdecisions, progress further, and not surrender their lives into the hands ions, progress further, and not surrender their lives into the hands of others.of others.

MuvazeneMuvazene, which started its publication by taking advantage of free-, which started its publication by taking advantage of free-dom of press in Bulgaria, became one of the longestdom of press in Bulgaria, became one of the longest--running newspapers running newspapers in the country, much to the ire of Otin the country, much to the ire of Ottoman authorities who were unhappy toman authorities who were unhappy with Ali Fehmi’s editorial policies and the newspaper’s critical content. with Ali Fehmi’s editorial policies and the newspaper’s critical content. The repeated attempts by Ottoman officials to shut down The repeated attempts by Ottoman officials to shut down MuvazeneMuvazene re-re-sulted in a prolonged stalemate which lasted until 1905, ultimately turn-sulted in a prolonged stalemate which lasted until 1905, ultimately turn-ing Ali ing Ali Fehmi and the Fehmi and the MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper into a diplomatic issue be-newspaper into a diplomatic issue be-tween the Ottoman and Bulgarian governments in later years. tween the Ottoman and Bulgarian governments in later years.

Every week, Ali Fehmi selected and published the most essential con-

Every week, Ali Fehmi selected and published the most essential con-tent by examining numerous telegrams and newspapers for his readers. tent by examining numerous telegrams and newspapers for his readers.

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He frequently benefited from Filibe’s communication network and acces-

He frequently benefited from Filibe’s communication network and acces-sible city library. He learned about the conditions of schools and endow-sible city library. He learned about the conditions of schools and endow-ments in various regions through letters sent by readers and shared this ments in various regions through letters sent by readers and shared this information with his readers. If there werinformation with his readers. If there were any abuses by bureaucrats, he e any abuses by bureaucrats, he honestly reported them on the pages of his newspaper. He particularly honestly reported them on the pages of his newspaper. He particularly focused on three key issues that, in his view, had been causing a great focused on three key issues that, in his view, had been causing a great suffering among the Muslim community in Bulgaria: the condition of suffering among the Muslim community in Bulgaria: the condition of Muslim schools,Muslim schools, the office of the mufti, and the loss of endowment prop-the office of the mufti, and the loss of endowment prop-erties. erties.

His subscribers consisted of teachers, merchants, artisans, adminis-

His subscribers consisted of teachers, merchants, artisans, adminis-trators, and scholars, which illustrated the wide range of individual that trators, and scholars, which illustrated the wide range of individual that MuvazeneMuvazene came to appeal. came to appeal. MuvazeneMuvazene's popularity a's popularity also illustrated in a lso illustrated in a sense that people from different backgrounds had eagerly been waiting sense that people from different backgrounds had eagerly been waiting for a long time to discuss and debate the issues that were central to the for a long time to discuss and debate the issues that were central to the wellbeing of Bulgarian Muslims. In addition to addressing this niche wellbeing of Bulgarian Muslims. In addition to addressing this niche need, need, MuvazeneMuvazene also coalso covered diplomatic, social, and economic topics, vered diplomatic, social, and economic topics, while providing a forum for intellectual debates, diplomatic discussions, while providing a forum for intellectual debates, diplomatic discussions, and giving a platform to the underrepresented, especially Muslim peo-and giving a platform to the underrepresented, especially Muslim peo-ples, around the world. ples, around the world.

Although Ali Fehmi emphasized neutrality i

Although Ali Fehmi emphasized neutrality in the early days of n the early days of Muva-Muva-zenezene, , his biography and the data that his Muvazene newspaper provides indi-cate that Ali Fehmi played an active role in shaping what is often regarded as the Young Turk ideology. He was invited as a representative of. He was invited as a representative of thethe Bulgar-Bulgar-ian Muian Muslims to the 1902 Congress and wrote about the discussions and slims to the 1902 Congress and wrote about the discussions and decisions made during the Paris meeting in his newspaper. He consist-decisions made during the Paris meeting in his newspaper. He consist-ently supported constitutional monarchy. As the years went by, his criti-ently supported constitutional monarchy. As the years went by, his criti-cisms towards the Ottoman regime had only intensifiedcisms towards the Ottoman regime had only intensified. However, it . However, it would not be entirely accurate to say that his ideals were solely shaped would not be entirely accurate to say that his ideals were solely shaped around his Young Turk identity. After all, Ali Fehmi was a character de-around his Young Turk identity. After all, Ali Fehmi was a character de-voted to the concerns of Bulgarian Muslims, a regional agenda that voted to the concerns of Bulgarian Muslims, a regional agenda that greatly defined him. In pursuitgreatly defined him. In pursuit of empowering the Muslims in the coun-of empowering the Muslims in the coun-try, he attempted to run for the Bulgarian parliament in 1901. In the same try, he attempted to run for the Bulgarian parliament in 1901. In the same

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year, he also published a brochure titled

year, he also published a brochure titled ““Bulgarian Muslims,Bulgarian Muslims,”” which il-which il-lustrated his continued interest in the local conditions of Muslims in tlustrated his continued interest in the local conditions of Muslims in the he country.country.

After his unsuccessful attempt to enter the parliament, Ali Fehmi re-

After his unsuccessful attempt to enter the parliament, Ali Fehmi re-turned back to his journalism career and moved turned back to his journalism career and moved MuvazeneMuvazene to Varna in to Varna in 1901, where it was based until 1903. In 1903, due to his role as a court 1901, where it was based until 1903. In 1903, due to his role as a court member in Filibe, he relocated his member in Filibe, he relocated his newspaper back to Filibe. It was newspaper back to Filibe. It was around this time that Ali Fehmi's publications began to draw the ire of around this time that Ali Fehmi's publications began to draw the ire of Bulgarian authorities. His aggressive language, antiBulgarian authorities. His aggressive language, anti--Russian writings, Russian writings, and criticism of the Bulgarian government were among the reasons for and criticism of the Bulgarian government were among the reasons for this. In fathis. In fact, the Russian consul had informed the Ottoman government ct, the Russian consul had informed the Ottoman government about about MuvazeneMuvazene's efforts to incite the Islamic world against the Russians. 's efforts to incite the Islamic world against the Russians. In March 1905, an attack occurred targeting In March 1905, an attack occurred targeting MuvazeneMuvazene's office and the 's office and the newspaper’s entry into Russia was prohibited. Subseqnewspaper’s entry into Russia was prohibited. Subsequently, Ali Fehmi uently, Ali Fehmi was deported from Bulgaria. According to Ali Fehmi’s narrative, the Bul-was deported from Bulgaria. According to Ali Fehmi’s narrative, the Bul-garian government had decided to hand him over to Abdgarian government had decided to hand him over to Abdüülhamid in ex-lhamid in ex-change for a desired trade agreement with the Ottoman Empire. change for a desired trade agreement with the Ottoman Empire.

Ali Fehmi, expelled from Bulgaria, wen

Ali Fehmi, expelled from Bulgaria, went to Paris. During this period, he t to Paris. During this period, he faced the danger of arrest and deportation from Europe. Eventually, he faced the danger of arrest and deportation from Europe. Eventually, he chose to settle in Geneva and published a few more issues of chose to settle in Geneva and published a few more issues of MuvazeneMuvazene there. While in Geneva, he decided to join the Young Turks in November there. While in Geneva, he decided to join the Young Turks in November 1906. How1906. However, he could not continue to publish the newspaper in Swit-ever, he could not continue to publish the newspaper in Swit-zerland. Towards the end of 190zerland. Towards the end of 19066, he received an invitation from the Af-, he received an invitation from the Af-ghan Emir to come to Afghanistan. Consequently, he left Geneva, but un-ghan Emir to come to Afghanistan. Consequently, he left Geneva, but un-able to cross Russian borders due to his previous provoable to cross Russian borders due to his previous provocative cative publications, he traveled to Afghanistan via Egypt. In Afghanistan, he en-publications, he traveled to Afghanistan via Egypt. In Afghanistan, he en-gaged in Pangaged in Pan--Turkist activities, served as a consultant to the Afghan Min-Turkist activities, served as a consultant to the Afghan Min-istry of Finance, maintained regular communication with the Committee istry of Finance, maintained regular communication with the Committee of Union and Progress, and reportof Union and Progress, and reported all his activities to the organization. ed all his activities to the organization. He also launched a newspaper called He also launched a newspaper called Afganistan’dan Bir SadaAfganistan’dan Bir Sada (An Echo (An Echo from Afghanistan)from Afghanistan) to represent Ottomanto represent Ottoman--Afghanistan relationsAfghanistan relations——an epi-an epi-sode that was not addressed in this study.sode that was not addressed in this study.

In Afghanistan, Ali Fehmi was trea

In Afghanistan, Ali Fehmi was treated with respect as the representa-ted with respect as the representa-tive of the Ottoman Empire. He observed the increasing expectations of tive of the Ottoman Empire. He observed the increasing expectations of

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Afghanistan from Istanbul. On November 11, 1908, he sent a telegram to

Afghanistan from Istanbul. On November 11, 1908, he sent a telegram to the parliamentary assembly, conveying these observations. In the tele-the parliamentary assembly, conveying these observations. In the tele-gram read dgram read during the first session on December 23, 1908, Ali Fehmi con-uring the first session on December 23, 1908, Ali Fehmi con-gratulated Enver and Niyazi Bey, and invited the assembly to view all gratulated Enver and Niyazi Bey, and invited the assembly to view all Turks as a single nation, race, and language, urging the assembly to unite Turks as a single nation, race, and language, urging the assembly to unite all Turks worldwide under single roof. He emphasizedall Turks worldwide under single roof. He emphasized the need for a cen-the need for a cen-tralized and sentimental policy for Turks living in regions such as Russia, tralized and sentimental policy for Turks living in regions such as Russia, China, and Afghanistan. He expressed his efforts to maintain the existing China, and Afghanistan. He expressed his efforts to maintain the existing allegiance and agreement with the Afghan Emir and his brother on this allegiance and agreement with the Afghan Emir and his brother on this matter. Consequenmatter. Consequently, even as a formality, he requested that a letter be tly, even as a formality, he requested that a letter be written from the assembly to the Afghan Emir.written from the assembly to the Afghan Emir.

After the declaration of constitutional monarchy in 1908, Ali Fehmi re-

After the declaration of constitutional monarchy in 1908, Ali Fehmi re-turned to Istanbul with an imperial edict and continued publishing turned to Istanbul with an imperial edict and continued publishing Muva-Muva-zenezene in Istanin Istanbul for a few more months. Ali Fehmi often emphasized that bul for a few more months. Ali Fehmi often emphasized that he endured all hardships for the welfare of his people. Despite being con-he endured all hardships for the welfare of his people. Despite being con-stantly belittled, he finally reunited with his beloved nation and home-stantly belittled, he finally reunited with his beloved nation and home-land with the declaration of the constitutional monarland with the declaration of the constitutional monarchy. However, his chy. However, his stay in Istanbul was shortstay in Istanbul was short--lived. In 1912, he went to Damascus, where he lived. In 1912, he went to Damascus, where he served as the head of Tahrirserved as the head of Tahrir--i Musakafat and worked in the committee i Musakafat and worked in the committee for resettling Muslim refugees from warfor resettling Muslim refugees from war--torn areas. During the First torn areas. During the First World War in 1914, he serveWorld War in 1914, he served on the Greekd on the Greek--Armenian deportation com-Armenian deportation com-mission and carried out his duties in Akşehir. In 1915, he went to Izmir mission and carried out his duties in Akşehir. In 1915, he went to Izmir and then returned to Istanbul, where he worked as the Director of Gen-and then returned to Istanbul, where he worked as the Director of Gen-eral of Refugee Affairs. In 1919, he served on another commission inves-eral of Refugee Affairs. In 1919, he served on another commission inves-tigatigating crimes committed against Ottoman Armenians. Ali Fehmi was as-ting crimes committed against Ottoman Armenians. Ali Fehmi was as-sassinated in his home in Kartal in 1922.sassinated in his home in Kartal in 1922.

Overall, although his biography is filled with intriguing details, they

Overall, although his biography is filled with intriguing details, they provide a complexity that presents a challenge to researchers to fit Ali provide a complexity that presents a challenge to researchers to fit Ali FehmFehmi into a single category. Just like the Muslim community in Bulgaria, i into a single category. Just like the Muslim community in Bulgaria, Ali Fehmi’s identity was also defined by uncertainties and ambivalence. Ali Fehmi’s identity was also defined by uncertainties and ambivalence. He was seen by Bulgaria as a foreign, dangerous, and provocative Muslim; He was seen by Bulgaria as a foreign, dangerous, and provocative Muslim; by the Ottoman government as an enemy disby the Ottoman government as an enemy dissident; and among the Young sident; and among the Young Turks, he was identified as a neutral representative of Muslims. Amid Turks, he was identified as a neutral representative of Muslims. Amid these relative definitions, Ali Fehmi's most tangible and clearest activities these relative definitions, Ali Fehmi's most tangible and clearest activities

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include contributing to the establishment of Young Turk ideology in the

include contributing to the establishment of Young Turk ideology in the Balkans,Balkans, making making MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper one of the most significant tools newspaper one of the most significant tools for Young Turk propaganda over time, advocating for constitutional rule, for Young Turk propaganda over time, advocating for constitutional rule, rallying Bulgarian Muslims, and engaging in diplomatic activities in Af-rallying Bulgarian Muslims, and engaging in diplomatic activities in Af-ghanistan. By using ghanistan. By using MuvazeneMuvazene, Ali Fehmi embarked on, Ali Fehmi embarked on this adventurous this adventurous journey, dedicating himself to the advancement and progress of Muslims, journey, dedicating himself to the advancement and progress of Muslims, first locally and then globally. His life story and all editions of first locally and then globally. His life story and all editions of MuvazeneMuvazene newspaper stand as a rich field open to a much more detailed analysis, newspaper stand as a rich field open to a much more detailed analysis, with a clear potenwith a clear potential to contribute to the existing literature on the Mus-tial to contribute to the existing literature on the Mus-lims in Bulgaria in general and the Young Turks in particular.lims in Bulgaria in general and the Young Turks in particular.

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