535

 ACCORDING TO THE ZAMAN NEWSPAPER
UPRISINGS, WARS, BANDITRY AND REFUGEES
IN THE SELANİK PROVINCE AND ENVIRONS
(1876 - 1880)

A
This thesis examines the uprisings, wars, banditry, and the increasing number of
refugees due to these problems, based on the news of Zaman newspaper published in
Selanik between 1876 and 1880. In this period, the power of the Ottoman State in the
Balkans was damaged and at the same time the influence of European states in the
region increased. Russia is the most influential state in the uprisings in the Balkans.
Especially with the 1877 – 78 Ottoman-Russian War, banditry news began to appear
frequently in the newspaper. The Bulgarians persecuted the people living in that
region. The Russians also supported these movements of the Bulgarians. The Muslim
people had to migrate to the other regions in the Ottoman State. Selanik province is
also among the places where refugees come. In this turmoil refugees faced many
problems and struggled to survive.
Keywords: Zaman Newspaper, Selanik Province, Pan-Slavism, Banditry, Refugees
v

Bu tez Selanik’te 1876 – 1880 yılları arasında yayımlanan Zaman gazetesi haberlerine
dayanarak, o tarihlerde meydana gelen isyanları, savaşları, eşkıyalığı ve bu
problemlere bağlı olarak sayıları gittikçe artan göçmenleri incelemektedir. Bu
dönemde Osmanlı Devleti’nin Balkanlardaki gücü gittikçe azalmıştır ve bölge
Avrupalı güçlerin mücadele alanı haline gelmiştir. Rusya meydana gelen olaylarda
etkisini en çok hissettiren devlettir. Özellikle 1877 – 78 Osmanlı – Rus Savaşı ile
eşkıya haberleri gazetede yer almaya başlamıştır. Bulgarlar bu durumu kullanarak o
bölgede yaşayan halka zulmetmişlerdir. Ruslar da Bulgarların bu hareketlerine destek
vermiştir. Müslüman halk daha güvenli olarak gördüğü bölgelere göç etmek zorunda
kalmıştır. Selanik vilayeti de göçmenlere ev sahipliği yapan yerler arasındadır.
Göçmenler birçok zorluk yaşamış ve hayatta kalma mücadelesi vermişlerdir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Zaman Gazetesi, Selanik Vilayeti, Panslavizm, Eşkıyalık,
Göçmenler

First of all, I am extremely grateful to my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Ömer TURAN for his
invaluable advice and continuous support during my study. His immense knowledge
and plentiful experience have encouraged me in all the time of my academic research
and daily life. I have always felt the support of my teacher from the beginning to the
end of my graduate education. This thesis emerged thanks to his patience and
confidence. I don't know how long academic journey will continue but knowing that
my teacher's support is always behind me is one of the factors that gives me the greatest
strength.
I would also like to deliver special thanks to Assist. Prof. Dr. Ş. Akile ZORLU
DURUKAN. I am very happy to feel her experience with me both in the courses that
I took and in this thesis. Her lectures and talks contributed not only to my intellectual
improvement, but also broadened my horizons in many respects. Also, I would like to
express deep gratitude to Prof. Dr. Selda KAYA KILIÇ who has accepted to become
a member of the thesis committee. Their criticism and suggestions very valuable for
me and so important for my other studies.
I would like to express my gratitude to Taner ZORBAY. He has continuously
encouraged me since the beginning of my school. He was always helpful with his
experience, and I always feel his support.
I would also like to thank my friends who have always been with me during this
process. Selin UÇAR ÖZSOY was always by my side with her confidence and support.
She always believed in me during this process. Although their cat Zilli never wanted
me at home, together with Mahmut Riad ÖZSOY they faced difficulties and hosted
me in their house during the thesis process.
vi ii
We experienced all the difficulties of this process together with Merve SEZGİNTÜRK
PEHLİVAN. I can't thank her enough for reminding me to turn on the light in the most
difficult times. Without her moral support, it would have been impossible for me to
find energy to write this thesis. Together with Rıdvan PEHLİVAN, they always
supported me during this process. I can say that I have come to this point with their
understanding and patience.
I would also like to thank Meryem GÜLHAN, who made my thesis defense quite
enjoyable with the view of her house. She always supported me throughout my studies.
I am sure that I will feel her constant support in basketball too as she is now an Anadolu
Efes fan.
I am grateful to my friends, Fatma Betül ABUT, İbrahim EKİNCİ, Buse KAMA,
Beyza BİÇER and Ceylan NALÇA, for being with me during this process. They
always helped and motivated me. My friend from the history department, Esra KIZIL,
offer endless support and encouragement all the time. Also, Onur SEVİM, Gözde
DEMİREL, Gülfer OĞUR DENİZ have always helped me with their valuable
experience during this process.
Finally, I would like to express my indebtedness to my family. My brother Mustafa
YILDIZ financially and morally always helped me. Also, I have felt to support of my
cousins Şevval ANTEP and Elif Eylül ÖZEL all the time. Without their endless
support and faith, it would have been impossible for me to write this thesis. If there is
still passion in me, it is thanks to them.
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PLAGIARISM ............................................................................................................ iii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ iv
ÖZ ................................................................................................................................ v
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................ vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................ ix
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... xii
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................... xiv
CHAPTERS
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1
2. GENERAL SITUATION IN THE BALKANS IN THE 18TH AND 19TH
CENTURIES AND PRINTING ACTIVITIES IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE ......... 7
2.1 General Situation in the Balkans in the 18th and 19th Centuries .................. 7
2.1.1 Social and Economic Conditions ......................................................... 8
2.2 The Relations of the Ottoman Empire with the European Powers
on the Balkans in the 18th and 19th Centuries ......................................................... 10
2.2.1 Relations with Austria ........................................................................ 11
2.2.2 Relations with Russia ......................................................................... 12
2.2.3 Relations with Britain ........................................................................ 14
2.3 Printing Activities in the Ottoman Empire ................................................. 16
2.3.1 The First Ottoman Newspapers .......................................................... 18
2.3.2 1864 Vilayet Law and Provincial Newspapers .................................. 20
2.3.3. Features of the Zaman Newspaper ..................................................... 21
3. CRISES IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE BETWEEN 1875-78 AND
RELATED NEWS IN THE ZAMAN NEWSPAPER ............................................... 27
3.1 Causes of the Crisis .................................................................................... 27
3.1.1 The Macedonian Question ................................................................. 30
3.1.1.1 Serbian Nationalism ....................................................................... 31
3.1.1.2 Greek Nationalism ......................................................................... 33
3.1.1.3 Bulgarian Nationalism ................................................................... 35
3.2 Herzegovina Uprising in 1875 ................................................................... 37
x
3.3 The Andrassy Note ..................................................................................... 40
3.4 Bulgarian Uprising ..................................................................................... 43
3.4.1 The Beginning of the Bulgarian Legion and Uprisings ..................... 43
3.4.2 The Role of Russia in the Uprisings ................................................... 45
3.4.3 April Uprising of 1876 ....................................................................... 46
3.5 Wars with Serbia and Montenegro ............................................................. 48
3.6 Year of the Three Sultans ........................................................................... 51
3.7 1877-78 Ottoman – Russian War ............................................................... 53
3.7.1 General Situation of the Ottoman Army 1877-78 .............................. 55
3.7.2 Siege of Plevne ................................................................................... 57
3.7.3 The Treaty of San Stefano and Berlin Conference ............................ 58
4. ACCORDING TO THE ZAMAN NEWSPAPER
BANDITRY AND REFUGEES IN THE SELANİK PROVINCE
AND ENVIRONS (1876-1880) ................................................................................. 61
4.1 Importance of Selanik in the 19th Century ................................................. 61
4.2 General Description of Bandits .................................................................. 64
4.3 Characteristics of Bandits in the Balkans Between 1876-1880 ................. 65
4.3.1 Characteristics of Greek Bandits ........................................................ 65
4.3.2 Characteristics of Bulgarian Bandits and Bulgarian Atrocities ......... 67
4.3.3 The Role of the Cossacks ................................................................... 69
4.3.4 Reactions Among Bulgarian People .................................................. 70
4.4 Russian Influence in Bandits’ Attacks ....................................................... 71
4.4.1 Measures Taken for Bandits and Reactions of People ....................... 78
4.5 General Situation of Refugees in the Balkans in the 1970s ....................... 80
4.5.1 Definition of Word of “Refugee” ....................................................... 80
4.5.2 Population of Refugees ...................................................................... 81
4.5.3 Routes of Refugees on Balkans .......................................................... 84
4.5.4 Circassian Refugees ........................................................................... 87
4.5.5 Diseases Among Refugees ................................................................. 88
4.5.6 Refugees in Selanik Province ............................................................. 90
4.5.7 Evaluation of the Superficial Official Records in the Zaman
Newspaper .......................................................................................................... 94
5. CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 98
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 103
x i
APPENDICES
A. ETHNIC DISTRIBUTION OF THE OTTOMAN POPULATION
IN THE BALKANS 1876-1878 ........................................................................... 115
B. MUSLIMS IN EUROPEAN PROVINCES, 1860-1878 ............................. 117
C. POPULATION OF EASTERN RUMELIA BEFORE AND AFTER
THE WAR OF 1877-1878 ................................................................................... 118
D. TURKISH SUMMARY / TÜRKÇE ÖZET ................................................ 119
E. THESIS PERMISSION FORM / TEZ İZİN FORMU ................................ 130
x ii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Turkish Refugees as Estimated in Various Sources (1877-80) .................... 82
Table 2 Surviving Turkish Refugees From Bulgaria in 1879 ................................... 83
Table 3 Villages and Neighbourhoods Created by Refugees in Selanik Province .... 92
Table 4 Province of Selanik Population, 1877 - 1878 ............................................... 93
Table 5 Number of Incidents by the Bandits in the Province of Selanik .................. 95
xi ii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Title of the Zaman Newspaper ................................................................. 23
Figure 2. Places That Letters Sent to the Zaman Newspaper ................................... 24
Figure 3. Alexander Gorchakov’s Plan for Herzegovina ......................................... 42
Figure 4. Map of the Selanik Province ..................................................................... 62
Figure 5. Wounded Refugee Women Displaying Leg Wound and Wound in Back 73
Figure 6. The Bulgarian Martyresses ....................................................................... 76
Figure 7. Turkish Refugees Fleeing Toward Şumnu 1877 ....................................... 84
Figure 8. Arrival Train of Refugees ......................................................................... 86
Figure 9. Flying Before the Enemy .......................................................................... 87
Figure 10. Refugees in a Gallery of the Mosque of Hagia Sophia ........................... 90
Figure 11. An Example of Superficial Official Record ............................................ 94
xi v
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
B.O.A. MF.MKT Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivleri: Maarif Nezareti
Mektubi Kalemi
B.O.A. A.}MKT.MHM Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivleri: Sadaret Mühimme
Kalemi Evrakı
B.O.A. HR.TH Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivleri: Hariciye Nezareti
Tahrirat
B.O.A. HRT.h.. Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivleri: Haritalar
B.O.A. İ..MTZ.(01) Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivleri: Yunanistan İradeleri
B.O.A. Y..PRK.A Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivleri: Yıldız Sadaret
B.O.A. Y..PRK.HR Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivleri: Yıldız Hariciye
Nezareti Maruzatı
B.O.A. Y..PRK.KOM Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivleri: Yıldız Komisyonlar
Maruzatı
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
At the beginning of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in a weaker position
than before. It could not preserve its former power and, meanwhile, European States
developed their economies and became more powerful. There are lots of reasons that
affect to empire. Nevertheless, this thesis will analyze developments by prioritizing
the Balkan region. In this case, nationalism1 one of the most crucial factors. 19th
century Balkan national leaders and thinkers were deeply influenced by two political
doctrines rooted in Western Europe: Liberalism, rooted in the 18th century
Enlightenment thought, and nationalism, rooted in 19th century historicism and
romanticism.2
With the French Revolution, nationalism in today's sense also emerged. This situation
affected multinational states such as the Ottoman Empire very severely. Because the
Ottoman Empire, which is now behind Europe in terms of economy and military, will
also have to deal with the rebellions within itself because the Ottoman State allowed
the nations to establish separate mechanisms in its own dynamics. Ottomans have
practiced tolerance to the nations since the past. This tolerance policy of preserving
their different traditions has constituted the basis of the division of nationalism.3
1 “Nationalism, ideology based on the premise that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nationstate
surpass other individual or group interests.” Kohn, H.. "Nationalism." Encyclopedia Britannica,
February 19, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/topic/nationalism.
2 Barbara Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 18. Ve 19. Yüzyıllar, vol:1, (İstanbul: Küre Yayınları, 2013), p. 195
3 “There were two different levels of nationality that operated from the very beginning in the Balkans:
nationality regulated by the treaty and based on living in a particular region, and nationality
proclaimed by the rulers of states and based on ethnicity,” Kemal Karpat, Balkanlarda Osmanlı
Mirası ve Mililyetçilik, (İstanbul: Timaş yayınları, 2015), pp. 17-18
2
In the Balkans, this situation has become inevitable with the deterioration of the
administration. Although the reforms were tried to bring about a specific order, the
progress did not succeed, and the gap between Muslims and non-Muslims was
gradually opened. According to Halil İnalcık, a social revolution that would change
millions of people's lives, a difficult struggle to stop national awakening was no longer
the thing that this state, or even other empires in Europe.4
The solution of the Balkan and Ottoman problems became much more complex in the
19th century when this region became the main battleground of the states. The fate of
the area has also become entirely dependent on the issue of maintaining the European
balance of power. The whole cluster of problems revolving around issues such as the
decline of the Ottoman Empire, the revolt of the Balkan peoples, and the European
intervention was called the Eastern Question.5
In the second chapter, the events mentioned above were tried to be summarized.
Significant events in the Balkans until the 1870s were mentioned. It is essential to
understand the banditry that emerged at that time and the struggles between states.
First of all, the social and economic situations in the Ottoman Empire were analyzed.
Then, the relations with the European states are summarized. Austria, Britain and
Russia stand out at this point. While Russia is trying to establish dominance over the
Balkan states with Pan-Slavism, England stands out as a balancing factor by
supporting the Ottoman Empire. On the other hand, Austria is another state badly
affected by the nationalist movement. While confronting the rebellions within himself,
he also wants to dominate Bosnia and Herzegovina in order not to lose his dominance
over the Balkans. This general situation, which was briefly mentioned, also caused the
problems between the Balkan States to grow. At the end of this chapter, the media
activities in the Ottoman Empire were examined. The primary source of the thesis is
the Zaman newspaper. This chapter is very necessary in terms of how we will evaluate
the Zaman newspaper in the Ottoman Empire. In this chapter, the characteristics of the
4 Halil İnalcık, Tanzimat Nedir?, in Tanzimat Değişim Sürecinde Osmanlı İmparatorluğu, by Halil
İnalcık, Mehmet Seyitdanlığolu, (İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2017), p. 53
5 Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 18. Ve 19. Yüzyıllar, p. 210
3
time newspaper will also be examined. The events described in the second and third
chapters are supported by the news of Zaman newspaper. After examining the
technical features of Zaman newspaper, characteristics of the news are also evaluated.
The third chapter starts with the Macedonian Question. This problem emerged on the
basis of the struggle of states to establish dominance over each other. After analyzing
this situation, the events that took place between the years 1875-78, which included
the publishing years of Zaman newspaper, are explained. The analyzed events are also
significant for immigrants and banditry, which is the main subject of the thesis.
Because the wars and rebellions in this period made people no longer able to live there.
The use of the word crisis in the title of the episode is not a coincidence. The process
that started with the Herzegovina revolt continued with the Ottoman-Russian war. The
Ottoman-Russian war resulted in a significant defeat for the Ottomans. In this period,
the Bulgarians helped the Russians and put the Ottoman Empire in a problematic
situation with the rebellions. These crises made it easier for the European States to
interfere in the internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire.
The fourth chapter focuses on the years between 1876-80 when Zaman newspaper was
published. It examines banditry and refugees’ movements, which are the main title of
the thesis. Newspaper news gives us more information about the characteristics of the
bandits. In this way, the general characteristics of the Bulgarian and Greek bandits of
the period were analyzed. Then, especially the atrocities committed by the Bulgarians
were explained, and their relations with Russia were discussed. At this point, Russia
stands out as the country that gave support to the Bulgarians during the war. For this
reason, the role of Russia in the revolts was also examined in detail. In addition, the
military situation of the Ottoman period was analyzed together with the news from the
newspaper. It is especially important to see the traces of the defeat against the Russian
army. Finally, how the bad situation that emerged as a result of banditry and rebellion
affected people were examined. I tried to show the difficulties experienced by
refugees from different perspectives based on the news of the Zaman newspaper. I also
discussed and analyzed population movements with different sources. I also add
various pictures to this chapter to support the subject.
4
In the conclusion chapter, the events described in the three chapters were briefly
evaluated. The general experiences of the refugees were summarized by writing the
conclusions reached based on the banditry news. It was told how banditry and refugees
increased depending on the conditions of the period and how Zaman newspaper wrote
about it. The characteristics of the Zaman newspaper were also analyzed. The
importance of the Zaman newspaper for this period was explained.
For the thesis, I started by examining the provincial newspapers in general. However,
I had to make a choice between newspapers because most of the newspapers did not
have records in the archives. The most important reason for choosing Zaman
newspaper as the subject of the thesis was the existence of its documents in the
archives. It is not a provincial newspaper, but it is quite similar in terms of features.
Secondly, when I was separating the newspapers in the archive according to dates, the
years of the Zaman newspaper were more suitable for the topic I chose. In addition, I
did not want to miss the opportunity to examine the turbulent period of the Ottoman
Empire from a different source. I tried to present a different perspective.
Refugees and banditry news were frequently featured in the newspaper, especially
with the Ottoman-Russian war. For this reason, my thesis focused on this point. But I
also wanted this thesis to serve as a guide. For this reason, I briefly touched on the
events of the period and supported them with examples from Zaman newspaper. In
this way, those who want to use the Zaman newspaper as a source will have
information about how the news is given and will have information about where and
in what number. Especially in the third chapter, I supported the important events of
the period with news from the Zaman. In this thesis, it will be seen in general that the
crisis period of the Ottoman Empire weakened its dominance in the Balkans. This
situation played a significant role in the increase of banditry. With this turmoil, the
Muslim people living in the war and rebellion regions were faced with atrocity. They
could no longer live there and migrated to various parts of the Ottoman Empire.
In the thesis, the problems in this period will be analyzed based on the news of Zaman
newspaper. The newspaper reacts to the riots with anger and sees Russia as responsible
for it. Both Russia's policies and how Zaman newspaper evaluates the events are very
5
important. Letters in the newspaper are another important point. By examining the
characteristics of the letters, it will be discussed whether people see the newspaper as
a solution place or not. It was also stated that the problems of banditry and refugees
would take place in the last section. It will be discussed whether the newspaper
supports the results evaluated in secondary sources. In particular, the atrocities of the
Bulgarians and the support of Russia for these events are frequently mentioned in the
books that are taken as reference. It will be analyzed whether the Zaman newspaper
news supports the sources mentioned in these events or not. In particular, what the
Ottoman Empire did to prevent these problems and whether the administrators were
seen as sufficient by the public will be analyzed together with the news.
Primary and secondary sources are included in this thesis. The primary source of the
thesis is the Zaman newspaper published in Selanik between 1876-1880. I wrote my
thesis based on the news in this newspaper. In the thesis, I also benefited from
documents from the Ottoman archives on refugees and banditry. In addition, there are
essential documents and books written and published on this subject. At this point,
Rumeli’den Türk Göçleri in 3 volumes published by Bilal Şimşir is significant.
Documents from domestic and foreign archives are included in this book, and Balkan
migrations are examined. It has been one of the books that I have received support
from in the thesis. At this point, the documents published in Zeynep Kerman's
Atrocities by the Russians in Asia and Rumelia and İlker Alp's Bulgarian Atrocities
with Documents and Photographs (1877-1989) are very important to understand the
Ottoman-Russian War and the disasters that followed.
I also benefited from memories in order to evaluate the period from different sources.
The memories of Raci Efendi can be given as examples at this point. Zağra
Müftüsünün Hatıraları are very important, especially in order to listen to the atrocities
and sufferings of the Bulgarians at first hand. He tells about the painful events that he
and the people around him experienced. It also gives us information about the
Bulgarian bandits and the general attitude of the Russians, which we will examine in
the next sections.
6
Along with the documents published on this subject, I frequently benefited from
secondary sources in my thesis. These secondary sources consist of different books
and articles. While some sources are directly related to my position, some are essential
sources related to the period. In my thesis, I frequently benefited from three sources:
Ömer Turan, The Turkish Minority in Bulgaria (1878 – 1908), Nedim İpek,
Rumeli’den Anadolu’ya Türk Göçleri (1877-1890), Justin McCarthy, Death and Exile,
The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims (1821-1922). I took them as a reference for
myself during my writing, as the three sources explained the events of the period very
well with different documents. I supported Zaman newspaper news with these books.
I also benefited from Enver Ziya Karal’s books which are Osmanlı Tarihi VII. Cilt,
Islahat Fermanı Devri (1861-1876) and Osmanlı Tarihi VIII. Cilt, Birinci Meşrutiyet
İstibdat Devirleri (1876-1907) while writing the general political events of the period.
In addition, Fikret Adanır's Makedonya Sorununun oluşumu ve 1908’e Kadar Gelişimi
and Kemal Karpat's Balkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve Milliyetçilik are very important in
terms of understanding the period that I have described. I also benefited from these
books while examining the general situation.
All the other documents, books and articles in the references section helped me write
my thesis. At the same time, they have been a guide for me and have given me access
to other essential books on the field.
7
CHAPTER 2
GENERAL SITUATION IN THE BALKANS IN THE 18TH AND 19TH
CENTURIES AND PRINTING ACTIVITIES IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
2.1 General Situation in the Balkans in the 18th and 19th Centuries
With the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire would have to deal with the nationalist
revolts that emerged in the Balkans. The developments and reforms mentioned in the
introduction chapter were not enough for the people and the nations living in the
Ottoman Empire did not hesitate to express their discomfort. The nationalist
movements and struggles for national independence that started from the beginning of
the 19th century also created an opportunity for the European powers to intervene in
the Ottoman internal affairs. In this process, Russia played the role of the main enemy
of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans. However, other European states also took a
position against the Ottomans by following policies suitable for their own interests.
During this period, people who living in the Balkans suffered the most. We will
examine the results of the riots mentioned in the second and third chapters.
In this section, first of all, a general examination will be made of the social and
economic events that took place until the period when nationalism began to be
effective. This chapter is very important to explain the rivalry between nations. In
addition, the details of how the interests of the European states are directed to the
Balkans depend on the social and economic conditions in this section. Then, the
relations of the Ottoman Empire with three states in the Balkans will be summarized.
It will also be explained how the relations with these states affected the Ottoman
Empire's dominance in the Balkans. This part is significant especially for the banditry
events that we will describe in the other sections. Finally, printing activities in the
Ottoman Empire will be explained. The development of newspapers is also very
8
important for the thesis. Then the characteristics of the Zaman newspaper will be
analyzed.
2.1.1 Social and Economic Conditions
For the understanding the conditions of the Balkans in the 18th and 19th century, first
of all, we must mention that Western Europe has undergone a significant economic
change with the industrial revolution. This change increased the demand for Balkans
raw materials.6 This economic transformation has led to an increase in trade with
Europe and the role of non-Muslims in European trade networks. However, economic
inequality between groups has increased. It led to an emphasis on ethnic and religious
competition within groups.7 At the same time, this economic development also brought
changes in the landholding system.
When we look at the Tımar8 system in the Ottoman empire with the changing
economic and social conditions started to be corrupted in the 16th century. State's
military power began to decline towards the end of the 16th century. Tımar holders did
not gain money from the wars any more efficiently. The beginning of market-oriented
agriculture in the 16th century in areas near the city or close to transportation has great
importance.9
6 Charles and Barbara Jelavich, The Establishment of the Balkan States, 1804-1920,
(Washington:University of Washington Press),p. 11
7 Karen Barkey, Farklılıklar İmparatorluğu Karşılaştırmalı Tarih Perspektifinden Osmanlılar,
(İstanbul: Versus Kitap, 2011), p. 364
8 “Under this system the cavalryman – sipâhî – resided in the village that was itself his source of
income, and was easily able to collect the tithe, a tax on crops, paid in kind. Thus the soldier replaced
the tax farmer, and on him fell the responsibility of converting the tithe into cash. One advantage of
the system was that the cavalryman, the chief element in the mediaeval army, was easily able to
maintain his horse in the village where he lived,” Halil İnalcık, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Klasik Çağ,
(İstanbul: Kronik Kitap, 2019), p. 139
9 Fikret Adanır, Makedonya Sorunu Oluşumu ve 1908’e Kadar Gelişimi, (İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt
Yayınları, 2001), p. 27
9
This Tımar system transformed into the Çiftlik10 system, and this also stimulates
Balkan nationalism.11 In this period, Ayans, the name given to the people who
regulated the relations between the state and people in cities and towns in the
Ottomans, began to gain power. The possibility of creating their armies in time led to
significant problems for the Ottoman Empire in the future. In the Balkans, Pazvantoglu
Osman and Tepedelenli Ali Pasha were among the most important names that caused
the state's difficulties through rebellions. In 1795, Pazvantoğlu Osman collected a big
bandit group in Vidin and declared independence and played an essential role in the
Serbian uprising. Also, the janissaries left the people in a difficult position. One of the
main reasons for the first Serbian rebellion was the janissaries' uncontrollable
behaviour.12 Tepedelenli Ali Pasha dominated the regions of Teselya, Epir and
encouraged them to rebel with the Greeks. In addition to these revolts, the deterioration
of the economy exacerbated the situation of the peasants. At the same time, it can be
seen that under the control of Ayans, some industrial development occurred. For
example, the cotton industry has developed in farms under the control of Ali Pasha in
Serez.13
Apart from these issues, Ottomans acted according to the definition of “millet” based
on religion. They allowed people of different religions to continue their existence for
many years. Religion-based separation has been strengthened with the establishment
of a management mechanism within millets. Every group, known as the millet in the
Ottoman Empire, has privileges. The management of education, courts, and charities
was under the control of religious officials. This distinction was reflected in the lives
10 The concept of the farm began to lose its original meaning as 60-150 acres of reaya land at that time
and in time became private property producing for the market. Adanır, Makedonya Sorunu Oluşumu
ve 1908’e Kadar Gelişimi, p. 29
11 L.S. Stavrianos, “Antecedents to the Balkan Revolutions of the Nineteenth Century,” The Journal
of Modern History, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Dec., 1957), pp. 335-348. p.340
12 Jelavich, The Establishment of the Balkan States, p. 11
13 Michael Palairet, Balkan Ekonomileri 1800-1914 Kalkınmasız Evrim, (Sabancı Üniversitesi
Yayınevi, 2000), p. 42
1 0
of the millets', and each lived in isolation from the other group.14 In some villages,
Muslims, Serbs, Bulgarians, and Greeks lived side by side for centuries.15
In the 19th century, non-Muslims established ties with other states in Europe, and they
have obtained substantial profits from economic opportunity. Non-Muslims, who hold
a significant part of the trade, have used Europe's economic development to their
advantage. Increasing the need for raw materials helped them a lot on this path. The
ideas of nationalism came to the Balkans with this interaction. However, Eastern
European nationalism developed differently. The desire to return to those days by
creating a golden age from the past with a strong commitment to religion has formed
Eastern European Nationalism.16
2.2 The Relations of the Ottoman Empire with the European Powers on the
Balkans in the 18th and 19th Centuries
The solution to the Balkan problems became much more complicated in the 19th
century when this region became the main conflict area of the great powers. The fate
of the region has also become entirely dependent on the issue of maintaining the
European balance of power. In particular, Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia and Italy
seem to be important powers in this struggle.
However, relations with all countries will not be examined in this study. Austria,
Russia and Britain come to the fore as the main actors of the 1875-78 eastern crisis,
which we will discuss in the second chapter. In this section, while examining the 19th
century Balkans in general, it will be tried to create a general framework by referring
to the relations of the Ottoman Empire with these states.
14 Justin McCarthy, Death and Exile, The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims (1821-1922),(New
Jersey:The Darwin Press,1999), p. 6
15 Jelavich, The Establishment of the Balkan States, p. 11
16 Peter Sugar, External and Domestic Roots of Eastern European Nationalism ,(ed.Peter Sugar, Ivo
John Laderer), Nationalism in Eastern Europe, (Washington: University of Washington Press), pp. 9-
11.
1 1
2.2.1 Relations with Austria
With the French Revolution, concepts such as the individual's freedom and nationalism
were introduced. The idea of nationalism was the beginning of the end for empires
with a feudal structure and people of many different ethnic origins. Although the defeat
of Napoleon against the Russian Empire and the conservative decisions taken in the
Congress of Vienna allowed the empires to preserve the existing system for a while,
the spread of nationalism could not be prevented.17
The developments greatly affected the Austrian Empire due to its multinational
structure. The last two hundred years of the history of the Austrian Empire witnessed
the struggle of many nations, which is included, to establish national enlightenment
and nation-state. For this reason, the empire had to follow a passive policy from time
to time in foreign policy. The internal dynamics, built on delicate balances, were
vulnerable to external interventions.18
Uprisings in the 1848 indicated that the pursuit of national identity, which was formed
by the winds of nationalism within the Austrian Empire, had matured, and these
uprisings in the empire would not stop there. The Austrian Empire was weakening and
losing territory with each passing day. The Habsburg Dynasty, which was able to
maintain the status quo for 20 years, could no longer withstand the pressures of the
Hungarian nobility in its lands and was declared a dual kingdom in 1867.19 Hungary
became an independent administration in internal affairs and subordinate to the
Habsburg administration in foreign affairs.
Within these developments, Austria determined its policy to protect the territorial
integrity of the Ottoman Empire. As long as the Ottoman territorial integrity prevented
establishing a large Slavic state in the Balkans and weakened Russia's influence over
17 Murat Önsoy, Avusturya-Macaristan İmparatorluğu’nda Milliyetçilik Hareketleri, in Balkanlar El
Kitabı Vol I, by Bilgehan A. Gökdağ and Osman Karatay (Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları, 2017), p. 435
18 Ibid., p. 436
19 Ibid., p. 437
1 2
the Slavs. Austria had reached an agreement with England to preserve the Ottoman
territorial integrity. But Austria also wanted to compensate for the territorial losses to
Italy and Prussia. It was ready to invade Bosnia and Herzegovina whenever it got the
chance, most notably to prevent the integration of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Serbia
or Montenegro.20
Beginning in 1867, nationalism became stronger among the nations of the empire. In
1871, the mission of the German Empire in Europe failed. In accordance with the treaty
made between Austria-Hungary and the German Emperors with the suppression of
Prussia, the two states would refrain from intervening in each other's internal affairs.
For this reason, the Austrian Empire changed its direction and focused on the policy
of expansion towards Southeast Europe and the Balkans.
Prussia also had significant interests in the return of Austria to the Balkans. The first
was the decline of Austria's political population in Central Europe and Prussia's
ownership of it. The second was to take advantage of the conflict of Russian and
Austrian interests in the Balkans to make Prussia's friendship necessary for both states.
Thirdly, it was to gain ground with the expansion of Austria in the developing German-
Slavic imperialism, which was sure to begin one day. Austria, which felt strong enough
under the influence of these factors, started to talk about its civilizing duty in the
provinces adjacent to its empire in the Balkans, beginning from 1875.21
2.2.2 Relations with Russia
Russia is one of the states that had the most problems with the Ottoman State in the
period we dealt with. Russia's attempt to be effective on the states in the Balkans and
its desire to expand into the Ottoman lands brought many wars with it. Looking at the
history of this expansionist policy, it is clear that the Russian government had specific
territorial ambitions that could be carried out against the Ottoman Empire, especially
20 Kemal Karpat, Balkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve Mililyetçilik, (İstanbul: Timaş yayınları, 2015), p.
178
21 Enver Ziya Karal, Osmanlı Tarihi VII.Cilt, Islahat Fermanı Devri (1861-1876), (Ankara:Türk Tarih
Kurumu,2003), p. 77
1 3
during the 18th century. Since the time of Petro I, an active expansion policy has been
followed in the black sea region.
It is significant to mention specific essential points as we move towards the Ottoman-
Russian War of 1878, which we will examine in the following chapters. One of them
is the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca. Russia, which claims to have taken the Ottoman
Orthodox subjects' protective role with the Küçük Kaynarca agreement in 1774, began
to express this at every opportunity.22 In the nineteenth century, Russia's significant
lasting impact on Balkan nationalism was to make Orthodox Christianity a political
ideology and use it to mobilize Orthodox Christians against the Ottoman Empire and
Muslims.23
Russia's aim here was to use this protection claim as an element of pressure. Now
Russia has become the biggest provocative of the internal revolts that shook the current
Ottoman political structure and aimed for independence in the long term. As a result
of the battles against the Ottomans, Russia was gaining land and encouraging rebellion
by assuming the protective role of the Ottoman Orthodox minority. At the end of the
18th century, Russia not only conquered Crimea; it was also deeply involved in the
affairs of the Orthodox Balkan peoples, which included Greeks, Serbs, Montenegrins,
and naturally Romanians in the province of Tuna.
Also, Pan-Slavism would play an essential role in the future of Russian policy. While
it was a philosophical and literary movement, it later became a critical political current,
especially after Austria found support in Russia as a political face against German
domination among the Czech and Southern Slavs. Russia aimed to establish a state
22 “With the treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, Russia had to right to build an Orthodox Church in İstanbul
and to represent the Orthodox Church and its servants which was potentialy dangerous phrase. The
terms of treaty were humiliating and terrible for the Ottomans.” Matthew Smith Anderson, Doğu
Sorunu, (İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2001), pp. 11-12
23 Karpat, Balkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve Mililyetçilik, p. 32
1 4
that would unite all Slavs under the rule of Russia. It was claimed that Russia had a
historical right to perform this mission.24
There was another reason why Pan-Slavism aroused greater interest in the Russian
public and official circles in the interests of Russia. It was Pan-Germanism and Pan-
Italianism that gained strength with the development of the nationalist movement in
Europe.25 Especially after the 1860s, the interest in the Slavic societies in the Balkans
increased incomparably with the past. Many travelers who visited the region openly
included in their works that the Balkan Slavs should be rescued from the hands of the
Turks. There were even Englishmen among them, like Georgina Mackenzie and
Adelina Irby, who went forward and dedicated themselves to the cause of Slavism. 26
2.2.3 Relations with Britain
Since the second half of the 18th century, the most critical danger for Britain was
Russia's expansionist policy. Because of this, keeping Russia away from its
commercial areas had become their main policy. The continuation of the expansionist
policy of the Russian since Peter I had disturbed England. Especially the Treaty of
Küçük Kaynarca significantly increased the uncomfortableness of England. In a
speech he gave in the House of Commons in 1791, Prime Minister William Pitt said
that Russia's policy on the Black Sea harmed British commercial interests and should
be prevented. While activating the policy of the preservation of the Ottoman Empire,
William Pitt also ensured the protection of British commercial interests in the region,
which continued with its ups and downs until 1875.27
24 Akdes Nimet Kurat, Rusya Tarihi Başlangıçtan 1917’e Kadar, (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu
Basımevi,1987), pp. 343-344
25 Mithat Aydın "Bosna-Hersek Ayaklanması (1875)'nda Panslavizmin Etkisi ve Sırbistan ve
Karadağ'ın Rolü". Belleten 69 (2005 ): 914
26 Zafer Gölen, Osmanlı İdaresinde Bosna Hersek, in Balkanlar El Kitabı Vol I, by Bilgehan A.
Gökdağ and Osman Karatay (Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları, 2017), p. 374
27 Taha Niyazi Karaca, “Dostluktan Çatışmaya: Osmanlı Dönemi Türk-İngiliz İlişkileri”, Journal of
Anglo-Turkish Relations (JATR), vol. 1, no. 1, January 2020, p.16
1 5
The principle of supporting the Ottoman Empire against Russia formed the basis of
relations between the two countries for a long time. Ottoman lands, so crucial for
Britain because of the main roads to imperial territories passing through the area. After
the invention of steamships and the opening Suez Canal increase, Ottoman Empire
lands importance.28 Also, Britain is generally afraid that after Balkan states gain their
freedom can be affected Russia easily.
The most obvious example of this policy was seen in the Crimean War. The problem
arose with the demands of France to reaffirm the rights of Catholics and Russia to
reaffirm the rights of Orthodox in the Ottoman Empire. France demanded from the
Ottoman government to increase the Catholic church's role in the Holy Places in and
around Jerusalem. This provoked a reaction from Russia. After that, Russia likewise
demanded the expansion of the rights of the Orthodox in the Holy places and the
official recognition of Russia as the patron of the Orthodox. Both parts try to gain an
important position for the guardianship of holy places in Jerusalem. As a result of the
negotiations that started in 1852, the Ottoman State renewed the right to protect
Catholics, which France acquired with the capitulations of 1740, and refused to do the
same for Russia and Orthodox.
No state or politician wanted war, but they all had responsibility for the war to break
out. The weak and inadequate management of the Ottoman empire prepared the
background of the war. Holy places issue was used as an excuse.29 When the Ottoman
government refused Russia's demands with the support of Britain, Russia occupied the
Wallachian and Moldavian principalities, and a war broke out between the Ottoman
state and Russia in 1853. If Russia had only fought against the Ottoman state, the
probability of winning was high. However, Britain and France sided with the Ottoman
Empire due to their interests. Russia, which was successful against the Ottoman
28 Barbara Jelavich, Russia’s Balkan Entanglements, (United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press,
2004), p. 26
29 Anderson, Doğu Sorunu, pp. 148-149
1 6
Empire, especially on the eastern front, could not hold on to the French in Crimea and
was defeated by the naval power of the British.
With the Paris Agreement signed right after the war, the Russians' ambitions to go
down to the Balkans and dominate Turkey were prevented, but this situation did not
last long. Taking advantage of the German-French revolution, the Russians attempted
to prepare a navy again in 1870. The Pan-Slavist Movement flared up again and began
to show significant activity.30
Also, in time the Ottoman Empire was quite isolated from Europe. The prestige and
friendly relations held during the Crimean War were now lost. The harsh measures
taken by the Ottoman Empire to suppress the rebellion turned the European public
opinion against the state. The presence of the Ottoman, known as the Eastern
Question, in the Balkans was now questioned every day in foreign newspapers.
During the Bulgarian revolts, statesmen such as William Gladstone, who rose to the
position of the moral leader of Europe with his human rights advocacy, also
contributed to the problem. With all these concerns until 1878, Britain supported the
maintenance of the Ottoman Empire. After that year, England's policy changed, and
they did not think of the Ottoman Empire as worthy of protection.31
2.3 Printing Activities in the Ottoman Empire
Europe started press activities in the 15th century, and the importance of the historical
development of press activities gradually increased. Especially economic dynamics
allow to this situation.32 Compared to Europe, Muslims in the Ottoman Empire started
press activity late. Therefore, when the Muslims began to use the printing press in the
30 Kurat, Rusya Tarihi Başlangıçtan 1917’e Kadar, p. 353
31 Alan Bodger, Russia and the End of the Ottoman Empire in The Great Powers and the End of the
Empire, ed. Marian Kent, (London: Frank Cass, 1996), p. 74
32 Orhan Koloğlu, Osmanlı Dönemi Basının İçeriği, (İstanbul: İstanbul Üniversitesi İletişim
Yayınları,2010), p. 2
1 7
Ottoman Empire, other millets had already set up their printers. Firstly, Jews founded
the printing house; Armenian and Greeks followed it and tried to catch up with
developments. On the positive side of this situation, minorities established their
printing house, and thanks to these activities, the Muslims met with the press' actions.
Therefore, Europe led to these developments, and they started to press the newspaper.
"While in 1711, 10 newspapers in London were driving 7,000 prints a day in the age
of Ottoman printing presses."33 This information was also a perfect summary of this
situation.
The main question is why the Ottoman Empire established a printing house so late?
Firstly, these activities need skilled human resources, which was not found at the
time.34 There are rumours about this situation, like religious reasons prevented printing
house activity. This argument is not very strong because the Ottoman and Iranian
governments of the 16th and 17th centuries did not oppose the pressure in other
languages (Latin, Greek, Jewish, Armenian). We can also indicate Kabakçı Revolt as
the proof of this situation. This movement did not even take note of Müteferrika and
his press.35 Also, the Ottoman Empire had different economic dynamics from
Europe.36 It is witnessed in Europe in the seventeenth century that the rising class
bourgeoisie developed newspapers that derive from newsletters to meet the need to
receive news in every sense.37 These differences explain the delaying printing press
activity.
33 Koloğlu, Osmanlı Dönemi Basının İçeriği, p. 2
34 Hidayet Y. Nuhoğlu, “Müteferrika’s Printing Press: Some Observations” in The Great Ottoman
Turkish Civilization, Vol.3, (Yeni Türkiye Yayınları, 2001), pp. 83-90
35 Nuhoğlu, Ibid., pp. 83 – 90
36 Koloğlu, Ibid., p. 2
37 Uygur Kocabaşoğlu, "Tuna Vilayet Gazetesi", Vol.2, (Ankara Üniversitesi Osmanlı Tarihi ve
Araştırma Uygulamaları Dergisi, 1991), pp. 141-149
1 8
In 1719, a printing house started to use by Muslims together with İbrahim Müteferrika.
However, the Ottoman Empire waited more than a hundred years for the newspapers.
There was press some books in Müteferrika's printing house, but this was not enough
for the empire's press culture. Moreover, Ottoman rulers learned about the existence
and function of the press in their contacts with Europe.38 When we look at this
carefully, French newspapers also affect the Ottoman Empire.
2.3.1 The First Ottoman Newspapers
In general, three newspapers stand out in the Ottoman Press History: “Takvim-i
Vekayi”, “Ceride-i Havadis” and “Tercüman-ı Ahval”. Before moving on to these
newspapers, each of which has a different important feature, it is necessary to mention
a few issues that are not discussed very often in the history of the Ottoman Press.
The first Turkish newspaper in the lands of the Ottoman Empire was published in
Egypt, half Turkish and half Arabic, under the name Vaka-i Mısriye, in 1828, with the
initiatives of the governor Mehmet Ali Pasha, three years before Takvim-i Vekayi.
In addition to the newspaper published in Egypt, French newspapers are also
significant for the Ottoman press. The Ottoman society, which is thinking, does not
need the press, with the French Le Spectateur Oriental published in İzmir, reminding
this need. These newspapers pressed with French, and their purpose was to tell their
country's developments. Writing French Revolution ideas their primary goal, but this
also affects II. Mahmud for the press activity. Although this newspaper was published
for French people, also they wanted to influence the Turkish people with their ideas.39
Also, these newspapers within the Ottoman borders were not seen as a part of the
Ottoman press life; it should be accepted that they were very effective in printing the
38 Koloğlu, Osmanlı Dönemi Basının İçeriği, p. 3
39 Ali Budak, “The French Revolution’s Gift to the Ottomans: The Newspaper, The Emergence of
Turkish Media,” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Vol. 2 No. 19, Special
Issue, (October 2012), pp. 157-169
1 9
first Ottoman newspaper. Takvim-i Vekayi it was also could be seen as a gift from a
French newspaper.40
Takvim-i Vekayi's first part helps us to understand the newspapers' aim. The beginning
of the two-page account referred to the necessity of history and the importance of the
state. The second point emphasized is to inform society correctly and prevent the
unrest that arises from it.41
The second newspaper of the Tanzimat period was Ceride-i Havadis, which was
published in 1840 by the British citizen and merchant William Churchill, who was the
İstanbul correspondent of the Morning Herald newspaper at that time, with the
concession and financial support of the state. It is vital in that it is the second
newspaper to be published after Takvim-i Vekayi by a private enterprise for the first
time and that private capital took part in its establishment. Taken as a whole, the
mainline was the extreme devotion and respect towards the sultan and the viziers, with
the suspicion of not losing the advantages gained in all private publications. Apart
from this, they were conducting their internal discussions of the millet system, which
was becoming more and more prominent and expressing their views on spiritual
administration.42
Although these two newspapers had an important place in the history of the Turkish
press, there was a need for more intellectual newspapers and publications that would
contribute to the developing world events and political events to produce results in
favor of the country. Takvim-i Vekayi was a state newspaper and was published by the
state. Likewise, Ceride-i Havadis has a semi-official newspaper identity. With these
qualifications, the newspapers did not have the opportunity to criticize the
administration and present alternatives. In order to close this gap, in 1860, a new
40 Budak, “The French Revolution’s Gift to the Ottomans: The Newspaper, The Emergence of Turkish
Media,” pp. 157-169
41 Uğur Akbulut, “Osmanlı Basın Tarihine Bir Katkı: Gazetelerin Yayınlanma Amaçları Üzerine
(1831-1876),” Turkish Studies - International Periodical for The Languages, Literature and History
of Turkish or Turkic, Vol. 8/5 Spring (2013),pp. 31-57
42 Koloğlu, Osmanlı Dönemi Basının İçeriği, p. 56
2 0
newspaper called Tercüman-ı Ahval took its place in the Ottoman press life under the
control of Agâh Efendi with the aim of an independent discussion and opinion
newspaper. Considering that Ceride-i Havadis continued its life with the help of the
state, it can be said that this new newspaper, published with the support of Şinasi, is
the first local Turkish newspaper with private capital.
2.3.2 1864 Vilayet Law and Provincial Newspapers
Ottoman Empire published Takvim-i Vekayi also in other languages. This situation also
continued the reforms of the Tanzimat Period. From this point of view, it is possible
to examine this period in two primary contexts: the İstanbul press and the provincial
press. The most characteristic feature of the Tanzimat Period was the provincial press
and their newspapers.43
In 1864, state regulation was the name Vilayet Law,44 and the first application with
the printing press was initiated in the Tuna province. The printing houses were
basically aimed at meeting the stationery needs of the governorships. In addition,
private individuals were allowed to publish in printing houses. As a result of this, on
the one hand, a useful tradition of publishing provincial annuals (salname) was
established. On the positive results of short-term applications establishing a printing
house in each provincial to meet their own needs enabled them to grow culturally.
With these developments, provincial newspapers were born in the new system.45
These newspapers are also published in the second language, common to the region
and the official Turkish language. Many of the provincial newspapers started from the
basics of journalism, as it was the first periodical publication of the published
43 Kocabaşoğlu, “Tuna Vilayet Gazetesi,” pp. 141-149
44 “This law implements a new administrative division. Smaller provinces are created by taking the
old states as an example.” Stefanos Yerasimos, Az Gelişmişlik Sürecinde Türkiye Tanzimattan Birinci
Dünya Savaşına, (İstanbul: Gözlem Yayınları, 1975), pp. 722,723
45 Koloğlu, Osmanlı Dönemi Basının İçeriği, p. 19
2 1
newspaper. Regulations on provinces state that all official and non-official letters in
the newspapers are under the provincial correspondent's responsibility.46
Therefore, a conscious journalistic approach is seen in the publications of these
newspapers. The fact that these newspapers were published in the second language,
which is common in the region, is proof that the Ottoman administration planned to
serve them by considering all their nationalities as equal. It was never considered to
force the Turkish language by being content with only Turkish. Thus, local languages
were given the opportunity to develop officially.47 52% of the local printing houses
could print only in Ottoman, 24% in Turkish-Arabic; % 10 Turkish-Greek; 0.6%
Turkish-Armenian; 0.6% could print in Serbian, Bulgarian, French as well as
Turkish.48 These provincial newspapers were beneficial for the local places entering
newspapers and printing houses in the provinces, the birth of regional journalism,
provision of public opinion, and establishing a communication channel between
management and ordinary people.49
2.3.3. Features of the Zaman Newspaper
The press appeared in Selanik later than in other ports in the Levant. As a matter of
fact, his birth coincided with the emergence of the municipality. In 1869, Sabri Pasha
founded an official weekly newspaper called Selanik; The newspaper contained news,
edicts and notices in four languages. This was followed by Rumeli, a Turkish weekly,
46 Bülent Varlık, "Yerel Basının Öncüsü: Vilayet Gazeteleri," Tanzimat'tan Cumhuriyet'e Türkiye
Ansiklopedisi, Vol.1, pp. 99-102
47 Koloğlu, Osmanlı Dönemi Basının İçeriği, p. 19
48 Uygur Kocabaşoğlu, Ali Birinci, “Osmanlı Vilâyet Gazete ve Matbaaları Üzerine Gözlemler”,
Kebikeç, vol.2 , Ankara, 1995, pp. 101-121
49 İsmail Eren, "Tuna Vilayet Matbaası ve Neşriyatı 1864—1877", Türk Kültürü, vol.3, Ocak 1965,
pp. 311-318 cited from Uygur Kocabaşoğlu, "Tuna vilayet gazetesi", pp. 141-149
2 2
and two major independent newspapers, Jewish La Epoca and Greek Ermis. In 1895,
Journal de Salonique and Asır joined them.50
Another newspaper is Zaman, which is a continuation of Rumeli. This newspaper is
the main source of the thesis. Before examining the crises in the Ottoman Empire, the
characteristics of the Zaman newspaper, which is a main source in the thesis, will be
analysed. Zaman newspaper was first published under Rumeli name between 1873
and 1876 by Mustafa Bey in Selanik. After three years newspaper name changed, and
it continues as Zaman. Furthermore, at the beginning of the Zaman, Hamdi Bey started
publishing the newspaper.51 The news was searched in the newspaper to find
information about both Hamdi Bey and Mustafa Bey. However, no information could
be found except that Mustafa Bey started to write in Istanbul newspapers, and no clues
could be found about whether the newspaper was published by a single person or had
a team. There is a Hamdi Bey, who was the civil inspector in Edirne and Selanik
provinces, in the records.52 However, there is no information about whether that person
and the person who published the newspaper are the same.
In the archives, there are 195 issues with the name of Zaman, which continued until
1880. This newspaper is published once a week on Mondays. Zaman was not officially
a provincial newspaper, but if it analysed carefully with other provincial newspapers,
they are similar. For example, the provincial newspaper of the Tuna is dated March 3,
1865. While all the contents of the first eight newspapers were gathered in three
clusters under internal events, external events, and announcements, it was later
gathered under four headings: general news, special news, external events, and
reports.53
50 Mark Mazower, Selanik Hayaletler Şehri: Hristiyanlar, Müslümanlar ve Yahudiler, 1430 – 1950
(İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2007), p. 256
51 Zaman, No.164, 4 Cemaziyelahir 1293 [27 Haziran 1876], p. 1., B.O.A. MF.MKT. 43/20
52 Archives Salt Research. “Osmanlı Devlet Adamları”, Accessed June 20, 2021.
https://archives.saltresearch.org/handle/123456789/25050
53 Kocabaşoğlu, "Tuna vilayet gazetesi," pp. 141-149
2 3
It can be said that Tuna's language is quite understandable and straightforward. While
there is not much news about Istanbul and the other regions, the information about the
Tuna province is somewhat overwhelming.54 This situation informs us about what kind
of content the provincial newspapers generally have. The newspaper's primary
function and purpose are to make the town residents aware of their problems and
participate.55 Zaman newspaper also has similar specialities. Only one issue has five
pages56 , but all of them are published with four pages without it. The definition of the
newspaper was that it is an Ottoman newspaper that writes about everything.
Figure 1. Title of the Zaman Newspaper57
54 Kocabaşoğlu, "Tuna vilayet gazetesi," pp. 141-149
55 Koloğlu, Osmanlı Dönemi Basının İçeriği, p. 21
56 Zaman, No. 337, 4 Rebiülahir 1297 [16 Mart 1880]
57 Left Side of Title: Bir seneliği 3 altı aylığı 2 beyaz mecidiyeye bir nüshası 50 paraya 12
kuruş posta ücreti başkaca alınır. Right Side of Title: Abone olmak isteyenler gazete namına olarak
doğrucana Selanik vilayeti matbaasına müracaat edeler. Under the Title: Her şeyden bahseder
Osmanlı gazetesidir. Zaman, No. 147, 11 Muharrem 1293 [7 Şubat 1876], p. 1
2 4
Also, in the newspaper, it could observe this situation. There is news about provincials,
about other countries, especially relations with the Ottoman Empire, telegraphs about
wars, and bandit incidents in the newspaper. There are reports mostly given in laws,
regulations, public officials' rewards, appointments, governors' speeches, official
notices, and works accomplished by public institutions.
Also, some letters that people could write to their complaints and some news about
their provinces. Thanks to these letters it could be observed which regions could reach
the newspaper. It can be seen on the map, environs of the Selanik are generally
interested in the newspaper. These letters subjects are education, diseases, or any other
problems about their provinces.
Figure 2. Places That Letters Sent to the Zaman Newspaper
In the Zaman newspaper, sometimes it could also be seen that some thoughts about
the news give us information about Mustafa and Hamdi Bey's ideas. In the beginning,
they describe the purposes that the newspaper is written with the intention to serve the
country and the nation.58 While publishing special letters, they indicated that Zaman,
58 Zaman, No. 147, 11 Muharrem 1293 [7 Şubat 1876], p. 1
2 5
the newspaper publishes these incoming letters with the principle of neutrality. After
that also they can define their ideas about problems.59
It could be seen that the Zaman newspaper is also important for the provinces. Because
newspapers also give news about problems of the municipality. The newspaper seems
to be a place where complaints are resolved. For example, there is a mosque in Selanik
named Hamza Bey. In the newspaper, they warn people because the mosque's minaret
was damaged from rain and wind at that time. Furthermore, this became dangerous for
people. People had to be careful during their passing from there.60 Newspaper warning
governor of the provinces too. After that, in future issues, they started to repair the
mosque's minaret. Newspaper realized this situation, and they wrote their gratitude to
the governor of the cities.61
If analyzed thoroughly, we can say that the newspaper's general opinion is close to
Ottomanism62. Sometimes they wrote about their ideas about the empire's situation,
which can be seen as the main idea around all millets. At number 165, they were
talking about the economy, and they said that we need to help the state together:
Today, you can prove that you can serve the homeland. These regions are our
homeland, as there is no need to describe them. Because we live in this
homeland, we are all like a household. Who will defend the homeland in this
situation? We will defend. For us, as Ottomans, homeland always comes first.
Since the earliest times, this has been known by everyone. 63
59 Zaman, No. 149, 25 Muharrem 1293 [21 Şubat 1876], p. 3
60 Zaman, No.272, 17 Şevval 1295 [14 Ekim 1878], p. 3
61 Zaman, No. 275, 8 Zilkade 1295 [3 Kasım 1878], p. 2
62 Ottomanism is basically Ottoman Nationalism. Which hopes to unite all Ottoman people under one
identity and served the interests of the state. Şerif Mardin, Jön Türklerin Siyasi Fikirleri, (İstanbul:
İletişim Yayınları, 2008), pp. 265- 279
63 Zaman, No. 165, 11 Cemaziyelahir 1293 [4 Temmuz 1876], p. 1
2 6
Furthermore, in another issue, they emphasize:
All of the people in the empire have to do their duties for the homeland. If the
homeland is safe, people will be happy. if the homeland is in danger, it means
danger to all of us.64
With these sentences clearly, we can understand their thoughts about how they could
survive in the empire. All people have to defend the empire together. These sentences
also will guide us while writing about the news. Newspaper defends Ottomans rights.
64 Zaman, No. 169, 17 Recep 1293 [8 Ağustos 1876], p. 3
2 7
CHAPTER 3
CRISES IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE BETWEEN 1875-78 AND RELATED
NEWS IN THE ZAMAN NEWSPAPER
In this chapter first of all, nationalism, which is increasing its influence in the Balkan
states, will also be analyzed together with the Macedonian question. It is very
important to understand the struggles that took place during this period. Then, the
important events experienced by the Ottoman Empire will be explained. The subjects
will be supported by giving examples from the news. The word "crises" was used
especially in the title of this section. Because the events in this period put the
Ottoman Empire in a very difficult situation. At the same time, the decrease in the
authority of the state led to an increase in banditry incidents. The most important
factor revealing this situation is the Ottoman-Russian War. Russia both defeated the
Ottoman army and helped the bandits in the region. Russia, with the policies it
implemented, played one of the most important roles in the process of independence
of the Balkan states.
3.1 Causes of the Crisis
The word crisis is used in the title of this section. Especially the economic problems
of the Ottoman Empire, the successive change of sultans and the 77-78 Ottoman-
Russian War that followed will lead us to understand the word crisis better. In the next
section, the details of the bandits will be examined. However, it is necessary to
investigate the facts of the period before going to that section. In this way, we can
better understand the political and social foundations of the turmoil in society. In the
previous section, we focused on the problems of the Ottoman Empire with other states
in general. Also, we touched on the internal issues of the Ottoman Empire in the 18th
2 8
and 19th centuries. In this section, we will examine the critical events in the Balkans
between 1875 and 1880 with the help of the Zaman newspaper, which is also the main
point of the thesis. Especially the war with Russia constitutes the main point of this
section. The crises experienced in this period mainly affected the people living in the
Balkans and caused the Muslims to migrate.
When we look at the general situation, we can see that the turbulent social-political
development since the 18th century reached its high point in the 1870s. Undoubtedly,
there were many reasons for the disturbance in the 19th century Balkans; the bigotry
and insecurity of the people and the civil servants, the violent contradictions of interest,
and the non-adoption of the people's to reform policy, a multiplicity of internal and
external causes.65 These were the increasing economic and financial stagnation of the
empire.
Harvesting of bad crops and various natural disasters were everyday things in Ottoman
provinces. Nevertheless, from 1873 to 1875, the problems had become much more
intense than in recent years.66 The bad harvests of 1873 were followed by a very severe
winter. Then the hunger went to a disastrous degree.67 All of these brought a lack of
satisfaction and caused revolts. However, when we look at the riots, we realize that
nationalism is essential but not the main reason. The rebellions took the form of a
struggle between the aghas and the reaya rather than direct action against the state. The
force that dispelled the rebels and suppressed the rebellion was not the regular state
force, as we know, but the irregular gangs formed by the aghas.68
As mentioned in the introduction, the threats from the outside, as well as the internal
problems, were effective in the crises of the Ottoman Empire in this period. Russia is
65 Halil İnalcık, Tanzimat ve Bulgar Meselesi, (İstanbul: Kronik Kitap, 2019), p. 33
66 Roderic H. Davison, Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Reform,1856-1876, vol:2, ( Ankara: Papirüs
Yayınevi, 1997), p. 70
67 Ibid., pp. 70-71
68 İnalcık, Ibid., p. 131
2 9
one of the most critical figures in this section. The defeat of Russia in the Crimean
War generally ended with losing its prestige. However, the situation in Europe in 1870-
71 prepared the repair of the broken reputation, and Russia did not miss the opportunity
to return to its aggressive policy against the Ottoman Empire.69
Russia's Balkan policy was explained in a memorandum by prime minister Gorchakov
in 1862. The main idea of this policy was described as autonomy or anatomy. In other
words, the provinces inhabited by Christians would be made autonomous, otherwise,
they would be separated from the Ottoman Empire. Gorchakov showed Bosnia,
Herzegovina, Albania, Bulgaria, Epir and Teselya as provinces eligible for
autonomy.70 This thesis of the Russian Prime Minister, the Pan-Slavist writers also
began to work in the field of literature and spread it among the people; in this way,
this thesis, which was primarily defended in terms of religion until 1870, was defended
in terms of nationality and humanity after this date.71
Also, it can be seen that Pan-Slavism, led by Russia, was not a cultural movement. It
was purely imperialist, in keeping with Russia's expansionist ambitions.72 For this
purpose, Russia primarily wanted to defend the Black Sea region, and Russia was so
interested in the Romanian and Bulgarian territories and the straits' status.73 Also, this
situation reason for the wars in 1828, 1853, 1877 and 1914.
These mentioned wars were another factor for the dire situations of the Balkan people.
The region where the people lived turned into a battleground, which led people to be
angry more and more for the state. As the Ottoman State was weak in military terms
69 Yuluğ Tekin KURAT,"1877-1878 Osmanlı-Rus Harbinin Sebepleri", Belleten, (1962), p. 570
70 Karal, Osmanlı Tarihi VII.Cilt, Islahat Fermanı Devri (1861-1876), p. 76
71 Ibid., p. 77
72 Sacit Kutlu, Milliyetçilik ve Emperyalizm Yüzyılında Balkanlar ve Osmanlı Devleti, (İstanbul:
İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2007), p. 84
73 Jelavich, Russia’s Balkan Entanglements, p. 28
3 0
against Russia, it could not protect its territory. For this reason, England tried to
prevent Russia's spread by protecting the Ottoman Empire's interests. In short, when
the Ottoman Empire lost power, the Balkans turned into the struggle of the foreign
powers. When Russia gained an advantage, Britain and France protected the balance
by eliminating that advantage.
All these policies are understandable if Russia wanted to create states under its control.
Russia plays a vital role in Bulgarian, Greek, and Serbian nationalism. Also, it can be
said that Russia discovered Bulgarians as a nation as the last one.74 However, an
interesting point should be mentioned in this section. Although Russia provided all
kinds of support during the beginning phase of rebellions, the states, after gaining their
independence, chose protection from other foreign powers such as England and
France.
3.1.1 The Macedonian Question
The European territory of this empire was divided into six administrative units after
1864 and the largest administrative unit in the Ottoman Empire was the province.
Generally, a province (vilayet) consisted of many sancaks. These provinces are Edirne,
Selanik, Manastır, Yanya, İşkodra and Kosova.75 In this region, Üsküp, Selanik and
Manastır began to be called as Macedonia in general.
The Macedonian Question was a part of Eastern Question and also this was born out
of Ottoman decline. Furthermore, foreign powers effects, the rise of the Balkan
nationalism, religious purposes, and the spread of education all contributed to its
problem.76 This Macedonian Question was a recurring theme in European politics
74 Ömer Turan, The Turkish Minority in Bulgaria (1878 – 1908), (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu
Basımevi, 1998), p. 41
75 Adanır, Makedonya Sorunu Oluşumu ve 1908’e Kadar Gelişimi, p. 3
76 Duncan M. Perry,The politics of Terror The Macedonian Liberation Movements 1893-
1903,(London:Duke University Press, 1988), p. 2
3 1
during 1878-1913. It gained urgency after the uprising and reprisals in Ottoman
Bulgaria of 1876-77. After these things, war between the Russian and Ottoman
Empires that revealed the fragility of Ottoman control in the Balkan provinces.77 When
we look at the problem in general, it can be seen that the problem in Macedonia started
to grow, especially in the early 1900s. These dates are excluded from the study
examined by the thesis. However, this issue gives us important clues to understand the
riots and conflicts between the people in 1876 and 1880.
In the subtitles of this section, we will focus on how nationalism developed in different
nations during the last period of the Ottoman Empire. In this way, both the Macedonian
problem and how banditry is increasing in that region will be better understood.
3.1.1.1 Serbian Nationalism
After the emergence of the nationalist movement in the Ottoman Empire, the first
rebellious community was the Serbs. But their first rebellion was not started for
independence. The Serbian Revolt of 1804 was a classic peasant uprising caused by
the dissolution of Ottoman central power that encouraged the Janissaries' efforts to
seize peasant land.78 Throughout this period, Serbian leaders continued their
negotiations with the Ottoman government. During the first period of the revolt, the
objections of the Serbs were always the same. They wanted Selim III's edicts to be
implemented and the state to fulfill their commitments.79
The ideas of the French Revolution, such as nationalism, independence and freedom,
had a slight effect on the Serbs. Among the reasons for the rebellion, the Ottoman-
Austrian wars took place on the territory of Serbia and the frequent handover of Serbia
during these wars. Also, Russia's provocations were effective in this revolt. It was
77 Keith Brown, The Macedonian Question: Ask and Answered 1878-1913, in The Routledge
Handbook of Balkan and Southeast European History, ed. John R. Lampe and Ulf Brunnbauer, (New
York: Routledge, 2021), p. 122
78 Karpat, Balkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve Mililyetçilik, p. 45
79 Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 18. Ve 19. Yüzyıllar, p. 221
3 2
Karageorgevich who was responsible for adding a Christian political direction to the
1804 peasant uprisings. Russia stopped supporting Karegeorgevich due to its
opposition to creating a central Serbian state and turned its support to Milos
Obrenovic.80
After 1807, the revolution's fortunes steadily deteriorated. The fate of Serbia became
more and more dependent on the relations of the great powers, and a division emerged
between the Serbian leadership. Milos Obrenovic undertook the leadership of the
rebellions that would occur later. Obrenovic failed to establish a constitutional regime
and form a group of intellectuals, which later proved beneficial to Serbian nationalists.
After 1860 all the ornaments of nationalism were created, including the army.81
Serbia aimed to become the "Sardinia of the Balkans" as one of the most important
centers of Pan-Slavism in the Balkans and create a unified Balkan state under the
Serbian administration was in the position of a principality affiliated to the Ottoman
State by 1875. However, although Serbia's loyalty was in form, it had come a long
way towards independence. The independence movement initiated by the Serbs in
1804 under the leadership of Karageorgevich had created a Serbian principality with
extensive rights as a result of the treaties of Bucharest (1812) and Edirne (1829).
Serbia, which was removed from Russian protection with the Treaty of Paris (1856)
and placed under the protection of the European Great Powers, gained its
independence in 1867 with the withdrawal of Ottoman military forces from all
fortresses, including Belgrade.82 In 1876, Serbia attacked the Ottomans intending to
seize what it called Greater Serbia. In this attack, the Serbian army was disastrously
defeated, and only Russian intervention saved the country from being occupied and
thus losing its autonomy.
80 Karpat, Balkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve Mililyetçilik, p. 45
81 Ibid., p. 47
82 Aydın, "Bosna-Hersek Ayaklanması (1875)'nda Panslavizmin Etkisi ve Sırbistan ve Karadağ'ın
Rolü", p.922
3 3
Serbs were also tied to Macedonia with historical ties. Macedonia, formerly, was part
of the Serbian Empire, which Dushan established. Furthermore, Serbs were mainly in
the northwest of the region, and when they could not have a port on the Adriatic when
Austria was an obstacle, they thought of descending into the Aegean Sea. For this
reason, they wanted to have all or most of Macedonia.83
In this period most important tension was between Bulgaria and Greece. With the
independence of the Bulgarian Church in 1870, patriarchist and exarchist became
mutually exclusive and antagonistic identities.84
3.1.1.2 Greek Nationalism
The Greek national awakening began to develop in the 18th century. In the process of
reconstructing their historical past, the Greek leaders said they were inheritors of
classical Greece, which was firmly rejected by Byzantium but attracted the attention
of the West. At the same time, they claimed that they were the heirs of the Byzantines,
from whom the Greek Orthodox identity features, authentic personality, culture were
compiled.
The Greek independence movement began in 1821 with the revolt of Ypsilanti in
Crimea. However, the Greek uprising that started in the Mora succeeded, which
received great help from Ali Pasha and was supported by Russia, England and France,
each for its reasons, started as a social uprising.85
When the Mora rebellion started, Europe opposed this rebellion and even criticized the
Greek Cypriot rebels in the press. As a matter of fact, at the Congress of Vienna in
1815, European states decided to suppress all nationalist revolts and liberal movements
83 Enver Ziya Karal, Osmanlı Tarihi VIII.Cilt,Birinci Meşrutiyet İstibdat Devirleri(1876-1907),
(Ankara:Türk Tarih Kurumu,2007), pp. 146 -147
84 Ibid., p. 124
85 Karpat, Balkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve Mililyetçilik, p. 42
3 4
together. However, the European powers took part in this rebellion against the
Ottoman Empire to protect their interests. The mixed relationship with England, which
we discussed in the previous section, showed itself here, and England sided with the
Greeks.
While looking at the history of the problem, it seems that trade with Western Europe
was most beneficial to the Greeks. The majority of the trade in the Ottoman Empire
was in their hands. In this way, they can increase their financial situation and have the
opportunity to develop themselves ideologically.86
Their education level has increased, and the Greek people's influence in the 18th and
19th centuries had increased considerably in the other Balkan nations. This movement
played an important role in raising awareness among other Balkan peoples. However,
while the Greeks wanted to accept their superiority, the effect they had caused turned
to the opposite. The Balkan peoples have begun to work for their nationality and have
been against the Greek influence.
The Greeks were attached to Macedonia in various ways. This region had long been
the home of Alexander the Great, had been under the rule of the Byzantine Emperors,
and the Greek church missionaries had changed the religions. On the spread of
nationalism and the Greek state's establishment, the Greeks considered Macedonia as
their land.87 Besides, at the beginning of the 19th century, religious monopolies were
owned by the lantern patriarchate in Macedonia. It is necessary to add the commercial
power that the Greeks have in the region. Moreover, this enrichment was soon
followed by the schools established under the patriarchate's patronage in the towns
where trade was developed.88
86 Yannis Yannoulopoulos, Greek Society on the Eve of Independce,(ed.Richar Clogg), Balkan Society
in the Age of Greek Independence,(New Jersey:Barnes&Noble Books, 1981), pp. 26-27
87 Karal, Osmanlı Tarihi VIII.Cilt,Birinci Meşrutiyet İstibdat Devirleri(1876-1907), pp. 146-147
88 Anastasia N. Karakasidou, Buğday Tarlaları Kan Tepeleri Yunan Makedonyasında Millet Olma
Aşamasına Geçiş Süreçleri 1870-1990, (İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2010), p. 113
3 5
3.1.1.3 Bulgarian Nationalism
It can be realized that one of the reasons for Bulgarian nationalism was directly against
the Greek patriarch. Until the 1840s, the children of the Bulgarian upper classes were
educated in Greek schools, primarily in Izmir, Yanya and İstanbul. However, these
students resisted the Hellenization policy followed by the independent Greek State.
After that, the wealthy Bulgarian merchant class living in İstanbul, Odessa and
Bucharest began to send their children to schools in Wallachia and Russia in Europe.89
They tried to gain their autonomous Bulgarian church under the pressure of the Greeks
until 1870.90
When we look at the history of the Bulgarian revival, it can be said that in the Ottoman
times, a national revival had begun in Bulgaria long before the reforms of Tanzimat
and Father Paisii was an essential figure for Bulgaria. In his book, which discusses
Bulgarian history, he emphasizes the importance of Bulgarians' history. "Why are you
ashamed to call yourself Bulgarian?" This sentence was one of the most famous
words, and he emphasized one of the most critical determinations of Balkan
nationalism in this period.91 However, it would be wrong to describe Paisii as the
pioneer of Bulgarian nationalism. Paisii's work began to gain recognition in the 1830s
and was first published in the 1850s. Therefore, identifying Paisii as the progenitor of
Bulgarian nationalism may mean creating a myth.92
There were social and administrative developments that emerged during the Ottoman
rule that contributed to the foundation of the Bulgarian state and its nation. They
worked the land as tenants of the state. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, they
were in a reasonably good situation due to the increasing demand for agricultural
89 Karpat, Balkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve Mililyetçilik, p. 52
90 Turan, The Turkish Minority in Bulgaria (1878 – 1908), p. 43
91 Marin V. Pundeff, Bulgarian Nationalism in Nationalism in Eastern Europe by Peter Sugar, Ivo
John Laderer (Washington: University of Washington Press), p. 9-11
92 Karpat, Ibid., p. 51
3 6
products, the commercialization of agriculture and the privatization of state lands.
They experienced a massive class increase and eventually formed the first actual
agricultural class in the Ottoman Empire.93
The Bulgarians, beyond being the first beneficiaries of the transfer of Ottoman state
lands to private ownership, benefited greatly from the Tanzimat reforms of 1839,
especially when the Tuna province was chosen as an exemplary modernization site
after 1860, which resulted in government investments in agriculture, schools, roads
and improved administration. The Ottoman modernization program laid the social and
economic foundations of a relatively modern Bulgarian state.94
Despite the political lethargy of the Bulgarians until the nineteenth century, after
recognizing autonomy, the policies implemented by the Bulgarian regime in creating
their nation were more successful than the Serbian policies. In fact, the country had a
significant and uniform middle class with the best workforce in the Balkans.95 Under
these conditions, the Bulgarian middle classes developed rapidly, and the Bulgarian
intellectuals first felt the enthusiasm of ethnic – not national – consciousness.
The Bulgarians were most interested in Macedonia after the Berlin Treaty when
Bulgaria's principle was established. They ruled Macedonia by establishing the
Bulgarian Empire during the Middle Ages. After 1878, Bulgarian intellectuals
engaged in the politics of Bulgarisation in Macedonia. In some places, they were
successful in politics because they were the majority.96 Aims to descend to the Aegean
Sea with the gain whole of Macedonia.
93 Karpat, Balkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve Mililyetçilik, p. 51
94 Ibid., p. 52
95 Ibid., p. 55
96 Karal, Osmanlı Tarihi VIII. Cilt, Birinci Meşrutiyet İstibdat Devirleri (1876-1907), pp. 146-147
3 7
3.2 Herzegovina Uprising in 1875
The details of the Macedonian problem were explained in detail in the previous
section. In this way, the crises to be examined will be better understood. As mentioned
before, the thesis will focus on the events in the years when Zaman newspaper was
published. The Herzegovina uprising is one of them.
When Zaman 155 is opened among the newspaper pages, the traces of the first of the
rebellions that we will talk about in this section can be seen. There is a paragraph that
introduces this topic:
The Ottoman Empire has two issues that occupy politics today. One is the
Herzegovina rebellion, and the other is financial situations. The first of these
issues was mentioned many times in the newspaper, but now it is no longer a
problem. However, it is necessary to say a few words about finance.97
It is understood from the introduction of this news that when this issue was published,
the Herzegovina problem was partially resolved, but the financial problems continued.
The examination of this frequently mentioned Herzegovina rebellion is also significant
for this section. Herzegovina was a sanjak of the Bosnian province in 1875. Bosnia
and Herzegovina were adjacent to two Slavic countries, such as Serbia on the one hand
and Montenegro on the other. It was also adjacent to the Austrian provinces of
Dalmatia and Croatia. With this situation, it was a suitable country for both these
countries and Russia's Slavic propaganda.98
Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Ottoman Empire's most extreme point in Western
Europe, had chronically suffered from mismanagement and corruption throughout the
empire's history. Muslim landowners enjoyed near-independence autonomy for
centuries. Mahmud II made reforms, but his efforts did nothing to change the ancient
social and economic structure, which was the primary source of unrest in the region.
97 Zaman, No. 155, 9 Rebiülevvel 1293 [4 Nisan 1876], p.1
98 Karal, Osmanlı Tarihi VIII. Cilt, Birinci Meşrutiyet İstibdat Devirleri (1876-1907), p. 73-74
3 8
Muslim rulers often harshly ruled over Christian peasants, many of whom were still
serfs. The mismanagement and economic problems that gripped the entire Ottoman
Empire in the early 1870s were causing the unrest there to continue to grow.99
In Herzegovina in 1874, the crop was very scarce. The arbitrary increase in the tax on
wheat, tobacco, vegetables, fruits and straw was influential at the beginning of the
events.100 In July 1875, increased taxes and unbearable agricultural conditions led to
an uprising of predominantly Christian peasants against Muslim landlords. This
uprising caused unrest in the capitals of the great powers and sympathy throughout
much of the Slavic world.101
The rebellion that broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1875 was enlarged and
turned into an international issue. At the beginning of the revolt, Russia and Austria
gave assurances to the Ottoman Empire that the status quo would be preserved. But
besides this official statement, they provoked and encouraged the rebels. Russian
agents and Slavic gangs prepared in Austria were helping the insurgents as best they
could. This movement of the two states gave strength to the insurgents. They also
encouraged Serbia and Montenegro to start hostile preparations against the state.102
When the Bosnia and Herzegovina rebellion broke out, Russian prime minister
Gorchakov was in principle, a supporter of peace diplomacy. But the Pan-Slavist
representatives of Russia in the Balkans thought it was time to fight for the
independence of the Slavs openly. Pan-Slavist circles in Russia organized a great
incitement campaign to support the rebels materially and morally. The two southern
states, Serbia and Montenegro permitted the rebels to use their territory as a base of
99 Anderson, Doğu Sorunu, p. 195
100 Kurat,"1877-1878 Osmanlı-Rus Harbinin Sebepleri," p. 569
101 Anderson, Ibid., p. 195
102 Karal, Osmanlı Tarihi VII.Cilt, Islahat Fermanı Devri (1861-1876), p. 79
3 9
operations. 103 This made it impossible for the Ottoman forces to achieve any decisive
success.
Therefore, we can say that; the Herzegovina uprising was to some extent a product of
the activities of the Pan-Slavist committees in Russia and the Balkans. Likewise,
Ottoman and British documents show that Pan-Slavism played a significant role in the
uprising's emergence, development, and spread. In the correspondences of the British
consuls or ambassadors in the region since the emergence of the uprising, it is seen
that the Pan-Slavists or Slavic sympathizers in Dalmatia, Serbia and Montenegro gave
great support to the uprising. 104
On the other hand, the neighboring European great power, Austria, after 1866 wanted
to bind the Slavs of the Balkan peninsula to itself more than ever politically and
economically, especially in order to stop the advance of Pan-Slavism in this region.
Here the Catholicism of the Croats was tasked with giving way to the Austrian policy.
The rebellion in Herzegovina was also started mainly through Austrian propaganda
and in areas where Catholics lived first.105 Meanwhile, the Muslim people in the
rebellion region took up arms to protect their lives and properties and started to resist.
The government decided to use force against the rebels after the events progressed too
far.
The uprising that broke out in Herzegovina in 1875 formed the first and most crucial
stage of the Balkan crisis between 1875 and 1878, laying the groundwork for the
Bulgarian uprising in 1876, the Ottoman-Serbian and Montenegrin wars that started in
the same year, and the Ottoman-Russian Wars of 1877-1878.106
103 Adanır, Makedonya Sorunu Oluşumu ve 1908’e Kadar Gelişimi, p. 82
104 Mithat Aydın "Bosna-Hersek Ayaklanması (1875)'nda Panslavizmin Etkisi ve Sırbistan ve
Karadağ'ın Rolü," Belleten 69 (2005): p. 920
105 Adanır, Ibid., p. 81
106 Aydın, Ibid., p. 920
4 0
3.3 The Andrassy Note
When the Herzegovina Revolt began, Austria was in the process of reorganizing its
internal organization and shifted to the Prussian side. While its interest in Bosnia and
Herzegovina was lively, it was concerned about the Slavist currents in the Balkans,
especially the ambitions of Russia and Serbia under its influence on the region. 107 In
short, the strengthening of the Slav hegemony in the Balkans and its orientation to new
areas were seen by the Austrian statesmen as an invitation to the disintegration of the
Austro-Hungarian Empire. In this respect, it was thought that the territorial integrity
of the Turkish Empire would serve the interests of Austria.
Although some were in favor of this traditional policy in Austria, the new land
acquisition was viewed with sympathy to compensate for the lands lost to Italy and
Germany. There were those who thought of sharing the Balkans with Russia if
necessary. However, Andrassy, who was very influential in Austrian foreign affairs,
was in favor of Ottoman territorial integrity. Although Andrassy was not the highestranking
person in Vienna, he was someone who spoke against the soldiers and received
the support of the Austrian public.108 With the beginning of the rebellion, Austria saw
the problem of being neutral in terms of its interests as an internal problem of Turkey.
Austria is one of the leading actors that manage the process in the period that the
uprising turns into a crisis and extends to the Ottoman-Russian war. The Vienna
Conference, the Andrassy Note, and the Berlin Memorandum highlighted Austria as
the essential phases of the process. In this process, it can be said that Andrassy acted
according to the ambitions of Russia, the other major player of the Eastern Question,
and the interests of Austria.
The Andrassy Note is one of the moves made by Austria after the Herzegovina Revolt
to keep control of the events. The Eastern Crisis reached a new climax towards the end
107 Mithat Aydın, “1877-1878 Osmanlı Rus Savaşı’nda Avusturya Diplomasisi”, Akademik Tarih ve
Düşünce 2018, 5 (18), p. 155
108 Ibid., p. 156
4 1
of 1875. Austria-Hungary and Russia agreed to ask the Ottoman State for further
reforms in the rebel areas. Their proposal was formulated in the Andrassy Note dated
late December 1875.109 The main points of the note were as follows: Freedom of
religion and sect for the Christian people, immediate abolition of tax farming, taking
necessary measures for farmers to own their lands, spending taxes for local needs and
establishing a commission of Muslim and Christian representatives to oversee the
implementation of all these reforms.110
Since October 1875, the Ottoman Empire was ready to accept various levels of reform.
So it was not surprising that the state adopted the Andrassy Note. But the rebels
rejected the note because they wanted political autonomy for Bosnia and Herzegovina,
not reforms.111
Discussions about Andrassy are published in Zaman newspaper. It is stated that the
report prepared by Andrassy was accepted. In this way, the Herzegovina issue is
expected to be resolved.112 It was also learned from foreign newspapers that Andrassy
prepared another report for the Berlin Conference.113 However, it is stated that, instead
of the reports prepared by Andrassy, Gorchakov also had a plan. A two-month
ceasefire is requested for troop movements in Bosnia within two months. In addition,
bandits should be recognized as a regular community and start negotiating with the
state. With the initiative of Russia, it is requested that the big states gather in order to
compromise on these issues. However, the Ottoman Empire opposed this plan, and
other great powers supported the Ottoman Empire in this regard. But also newspaper
109 Adanır, Makedonya Sorunu Oluşumu ve 1908’e Kadar Gelişimi, p. 81
110 Karal, Osmanlı Tarihi VII.Cilt, Islahat Fermanı Devri (1861-1876), p. 81
111 Adanır, Ibid., p. 83
112 Zaman, No.150, 3 Safer 1293 [29 Şubat 1876], p. 4
113 Zaman, No.160, 28 Rebiülahir 1293 [23 Mayıs 1876], pp. 2-3
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news adds that in general, the great states now follow a policy to leave everyone
alone.114
The rebels of Bosnia and Herzegovina were quick to take up arms again, confident
that they would be supported by Serbia and Montenegro as well as by Russia. This
time, Montenegro started to help themselves, as they predicted. After a while, the
Bulgarian revolt, which was expected everywhere, started.
Figure 3. Alexander Gorchakov’s Plan for Herzegovina115
114 Zaman, No.161, 12 Cemaziyelevvel 1293 [5 Haziran 1876], pp 2-3
115 “1-) İki mah müddetle Hersek’te harekât-ı askeriyenin tatili, 2-) Eşkıya bir heyet-i muntazama
tanınarak Devlet-i Aliyye ile mükalemata girişmesi, 3-) Bir muhtelit komisyonun teşkili, 4-) Bu babda
uzlaşmak için Rusya’nın harekat fi’iliyyesiyle birlikte Almanya ve Rusya ve Avusturya’nın
donanmasının Akdeniz’e sevki bunlardan başka bir de gizli bir madde varmış ki o maddenin hükmü
neticeye bırakılmış imiş.” from Zaman, No.161, 12 Cemaziyelevvel 1293 [5 Haziran 1876], pp 2-3
4 3
3.4 Bulgarian Uprising
3.4.1 The Beginning of the Bulgarian Legion and Uprisings
With Russian propaganda and encouragement, the rising nationalism and discontent
in the Balkans led to national uprisings in important places such as Vidin, Niş and
Tırnova in the 1850s. In this way, the Bulgarian national movement reached its peak
in the 1860s, both in ideological development and organization.
When we look at the beginnings of these activities, Bulgarian historians started an
armed movement called Bulgarian Legion with the aim of national foundation in 1862.
The organizer of these preparations was Georgi Staykov Rakovski.116 His primary goal
separation of Bulgaria from Ottoman rule. However, it is also not true that there has
been no national movement before. The Vidin Rebellion is national as well as social
in general.117 Conditions in Bulgaria were not suitable for a general uprising. Rakovski
reorganized the ordinary bandit groups for a national purpose, but these bands kept
their illegal and irregular structures.118
Although the conflicts, which stopped with the death of Rakovski in 1867, brought the
committee members to the point of disintegration, in 1868, the Bulgarian Association
was founded in Bucharest. After 1868, the committee members' activities increased
their violence, especially in the Tuna province. The Ottoman State also increased the
powers of the Tuna governorship due to wrong actions in that area. 119 In this period,
news about the revolts in Bulgaria was frequently published in the foreign press. The
Times, reporting that the fire of rebellion would flare up in Bulgaria, emphasized that
116 Bilal Şimşir, Rumeli’den Türk Göçleri, Belgeler, vol.2, (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu
Basımevi,1989), p. LXII
117 İnalcık, Tanzimat ve Bulgar Meselesi, p. 141
118 Turan, The Turkish Minority in Bulgaria, p. 44
119 Serap Toprak, “XIX. yüzyılda Balkanlarda Ulusçuluk Hareketleri ve Avrupalı Devletlerin
Balkanlar Politikası,” PhD diss., (Ankara Üniversitesi, 2011), p. 316
4 4
the rebels easily crossed from Wallachia to Bulgaria and returned to Wallachia after
getting involved in the events.120
The Turks suppressed these rebellions, but the heads of the rebels were trying to revolt
all of Bulgaria and aimed to establish a Bulgarian principality like Serbia. They hoped
that they would drag all the Bulgarian peasant masses behind them, like the Vidin
peasants, whose situation was challenging and suitable for rebellion. Furthermore, the
Bulgarians, who increased their committee activities in the Balkans and significant
European cities quickly, tried to create an environment that would contribute to their
cause by causing various uprisings and chaos in Bükreş, Filibe, and Sofya. They know
the fact that Bulgarians were not in a majority position in that area, and with these
revolts, they wanted to exterminate the non-Bulgarians from that area.121
The Ottoman Empire took all possible measures to protect the Christians in this period.
As a matter of fact, to prevent events that may cause a movement against Christians to
emerge, news about Russian terrorist activities was not allowed to be published in
Turkish newspapers. Also, Abdülhamid II gave the necessary orders to the state
authorities in the provinces in order to preserve the feelings of friendship between
Muslims and Christians in the empire and to prevent possible actions against the
Bulgarians.122
We can see the traces of this unrest that is wanted to be created among the people in
the pages of newspapers. Especially after the April Uprising, there was a warning to
the public in the Zaman newspaper. People are warned so that foreign people can open
their shops and do their shopping comfortably as in the old times. It is stated that any
120 Toprak, “XIX. yüzyılda Balkanlarda Ulusçuluk Hareketleri ve Avrupalı Devletlerin Balkanlar
Politikası,” p. 316
121 Turan, The Turkish Minority in Bulgaria, p. 120
122 Nedim İpek, Rumeli’den Anadolu’ya Türk Göçleri (1877-1890), (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu
Basımevi, 1994), p. 16
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action that will cause distress is prohibited, and anyone who does such an action will
be punished for inciting mischief.123
3.4.2 The Role of Russia in the Uprisings
Russia is the biggest supporter of these uprisings. Despite the vital support and
essential role it played in the establishment of Greece, Russia was uncomfortable with
the fact that during the Crimean War, Greece did not support her morally but also
gradually entered the British hegemony.
Russia had three goals in total. To disrupt the game of the Crimean war's victorious
powers, re-establish the Russian sovereignty in the Black Sea, and accelerate the
Christian peoples' independence process in the Ottoman Empires. 124Also, Russia did
not hesitate to use religion too for its goals. The church struggle between the
Bulgarians and the Greeks reached its peak in the late 1860s when the Russians
provoked and supported the Bulgarians. 125 Despite all these supports, Russian
diplomacy began to change tactics when the bandit operation failed in 1867 and the
bandits were dispersed or destroyed.126 Thereupon, the Bulgarian issue was not
revealed in 1870, and the secret organization was accelerated.
The Herzegovina Revolt's spread to Bulgaria in May 1876 brought the rivalry between
the great states and regional powers to a new stage. That is to say, the rumors about
the suppression of the Bulgarian revolt caused significant repercussions in Europe,
which led to the emergence of a strong public opinion against the Turks. While the
negative situation created by the Bulgarian revolt for Turkey left the British
123 Zaman, No. 159, 21 Rebiülahir 1293 [16 Mayıs 1876], p.2
124 Adanır, Makedonya Sorunu Oluşumu ve 1908’e Kadar Gelişimi, p. 81
125 Kutlu, Milliyetçilik ve Emperyalizm Yüzyılında Balkanlar ve Osmanlı Devleti, p. 92
126 Şimşir, Rumeli’den Türk Göçleri, Belgeler, p. LXIX
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government inactive against Russian ambitions, it created the conditions that would
allow Russia to act freely against the Ottoman Empire in the solution of the Eastern
Question.127
3.4.3 April Uprising of 1876
It was time for an excellent uprising for the Russians and Bulgarians, who could not
revolt the entire people with bandit groups and gang movements and realized that they
could not get anywhere in this way. All preparations were completed. In 1875, the
Ottoman Empire was in a difficult situation as it had been dealing with the
Herzegovina uprising for a long time. This indicated that the time had come for the
great Bulgarian uprising.
Currently, the Ottoman Empire was also in a terrible situation economically. They had
to make a statement on October 6, 1875.128 They declared that they would not fulfil
the obligations arising from his foreign debts as of the following year. This also affects
these rebellions badly in time.
All the uprisings carried out until 1876 were either prevented from starting or failed
before reaching the masses. However, Russia had been waiting for the day of great
rebellion for many years through education, culture, press and propaganda and aimed
to revolt all Bulgarians. Until that time, the failure of all uprisings pushed the Russians
127 Aydın, “1877-1878 Osmanlı Rus Savaşı’nda Avusturya Diplomasisi”, p. 156
128 “The budget deficit for the 1875 fiscal year exceeded 5 million liras. In the same year, 14 million
lira foreign debt installment had to be paid as principal and interest. There was an urgent need for 2
million liras for the army dealing with the rebellions in Rumelia. In the face of this situation, Grand
Vizier Mahmud Nedim Pasha embarked on a financial operation that aroused all the world stock
markets. He published a decree on October 6, 1875, after he had the matter examined by a
commission including Midhat Pasha and had Sultan Abdülaziz approve the decisions taken. It was
stated here that half of the foreign debt installment would be paid in cash, the budget deficit exceeded
5 million, it was impossible to get a new foreign loan under the current conditions, and there was no
better way to avoid making the creditors suffer.” from Cevdet Küçük, Tevfik Ertüzün, "DÜYÛN-I
UMÛMİYYE", TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/duyun-i-umumiyye
(30.11.2021).
4 7
to act more carefully and planned. For this reason, the Russians went through a long
period of preparation while waiting for the weak moments of the Ottoman officers.129
The failure of the Herzegovina uprising to be suppressed in a short time encouraged
the Bulgarian nationalists. After this declaration, there was an uprising on April 20,
1876. They started a more significant uprising in the mountain villages of Filibe and
Tırnova. The provocative actions of Bulgarians against Turkish and Circassian
villages gradually spread. Most units were shifted to Herzegovina.
Maintaining public order in Bulgaria was entrusted to the Circassians and the Bashibazouks.
The use of Circassians, who came from the Caucasus with resentment and
did not listen to the orders of anyone other than their lords, was not a correct choice.
The fact that some Ottoman officers approved of the punitive actions against Bulgarian
villages in order to make an example, reinforced the Ottoman image in the West. There
was an atmosphere in favor of the Bulgarians.130
The situation overturned the local Turkish authorities and made the masses of the
indigenous people attack each other. In essence, the policy of the Pan-Slavists was to
spread the idea that the Bulgarians could not live side by side with the Turks, and
therefore the expulsion of the native Turks from their homes.131
The Bulgarian uprising of 1876 was not a crucial incident. Compared to Herzegovina's
uprising, which continued for more than a year, it was a short live event. It only took
a few weeks, and at the time, it was not the most critical event in the Ottoman
Empire.132 The April Uprising, considered the most significant event in Bulgarian
129 Toprak, XIX. yüzyılda Balkanlarda Ulusçuluk Hareketleri, p. 323
130 Kutlu, Milliyetçilik ve Emperyalizm Yüzyılında Balkanlar ve Osmanlı Devleti, p. 98
131 Şimşir, Rumeli’den Türk Göçleri, Belgeler, p. CII
132 Turan, The Turkish Minority in Bulgaria, p. 47
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nationalist mythology, was an utterly unsuccessful rebellion. Apart from the
catastrophes suffered by the Bulgarian people due to this incident, the leaders of the
movement failed to get the support of even a small proportion of the population.133
However, the Ottoman Empire was relatively isolated from Europe. The prestige and
friendly relations that had been held during the Crimean war were now lost. The harsh
measures taken by the Ottoman state to suppress the rebellion turned the European
public opinion against the Ottoman Empire. During the Bulgarian revolts, statesmen
such as William Gladstone, who rose to the position of the moral leader of Europe
with his human rights advocacy, also contributed to the problem. Gladstone published
a work titled Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East on September 6, 1876.
He stated that the Turks were an enemy of civilization and weakened their power after
they ruled Europe for centuries. He emphasized the events taking place in Bulgaria,
talking about the cruelty of the Turks in history and arguing that the Turks should be
expelled from Bulgaria.134
In this situation, the Ottoman-Russian war was approaching. In the events of those
years, this rebellion should be seen as a provocation for the benefit of the Pan-Slavist
cause. The aim was to open the eastern problem to the international view and thus call
for Russia's direct military participation. 135
3.5 Wars with Serbia and Montenegro
While these revolts continued, problems continued in Serbia and Montenegro. Zaman
newspaper also sees the source of these problems as a result of the Herzegovina
uprising:
133 Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 18. Ve 19. Yüzyıllar, vol:1, p. 377
134 Taha Niyazi Karaca, Büyük Oyun, (İstanbul: Timaş Yayınları,2011), p. 173
135 Adanır, Makedonya Sorunu Oluşumu ve 1908’e Kadar Gelişimi, p. 84
4 9
Christians in Herzegovina started a revolution eleven months ago. They
eventually forced the state into the current Serbian and Montenegrin conflict,
at a great expense.136
At the same time, it is understood that foreign newspapers are followed in these times.
Austrian newspapers liken Serbia and Montenegro to dogs that Russia releases at will.
However, it is also emphasized that since Russia gave a lot of freedom in its time, its
former control in that region no longer exists. It is stated that with the intervention of
the Ottoman Empire in this matter, they will no longer be able to establish contact with
Russia.137 Also Pan-Slavism policy of Russia is analysed before this subject. We see
that this problem is mentioned in the newspaper in particular. They emphasize that the
people in this region were revolted by Russia because of Slavism and this policy has
continued since Peter the Great.138
According to the newspaper, Serbian chorbajis are among the causes of this war. It is
said that they did not find the privileges given sufficient and that they did not hesitate
to clash with the soldiers for this cause. In the news, it is mentioned how unreliable
and monster they are. In the previous news, we see that they are likened to dogs. Here
they refer to it as a monster. As it can be understood, there is a great reproach against
the rebels of that region, and they are not satisfied with the situation at all.139
Immediately after April Uprising, on 1 July 1876, Serbia embarked on war
movements. A day later, Montenegro informed İstanbul that it would support Serbia.
Thus, the war between the Ottoman state and Serbia and Montenegro began. Despite
the Russian government's attempt to prevent this declaration of war, there was good
136 Zaman, No. 167, 25 Cemaziyelahir 1293 [18 Temmuz 1876], p. 4
137 Zaman, No. 166, 18 Cemaziyelahir 1293 [11 Temmuz 1876], p. 3
138 Zaman, No. 170, 1 Şaban 1293 [22 Ağustos 1876], p. 3
139 Zaman, No. 170, 1 Şaban 1293 [22 Ağustos 1876], p. 3
5 0
reason in Serbia and Montenegro to anticipate that Russia would help these
countries.140
The diplomatic isolation of the Ottoman Empire was complete when it became clear
in the early autumn of 1876 that the Serbs would be defeated. Russia was aware of this
situation, and with the ultimatum it gave, it prevented Serbia from suffering a heavy
defeat.
Pan-Slavist thinkers were putting pressure on the government to intervene militarily
in the Balkans, claiming that Russia was in danger of losing all its credibility in that
region. Finally, the representatives of the six great powers came together at a
conference in Istanbul in December to consult on the content and form of reforms to
be made in Bosnia and Bulgaria.
Since the Ottoman State always considered it possible for the conference to reach
conclusions that did not agree with the independence of the state, it decided to use it
as a shield by declaring the “Kanun-i Esasi”141 against them. But the European
diplomats continued the planned daily program without letting this statement affect
them. Under these conditions, the Istanbul Conference was doomed from the start to
fail. From day one, the Ottoman government tried to block the continuation of the
talks, thereby demonstrating its fundamental rejection of the draft conference followed
by the great powers.142 Later, another conference was organized in London for the
solution of the Balkan problem. The Ottoman parliament rejected the London Protocol
on 9 April. Thereupon, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire on April 24, 1877.
140 Adanır, Makedonya Sorunu Oluşumu ve 1908’e Kadar Gelişimi, p. 84
141 The constitution of the Ottoman State adopted in 1876. For more information see: Mehmet Âkif
Aydın, "KĀNÛN-ı ESÂSÎ", TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/kanun-i-esasi
(30.11.2021).
142 Adanır, Ibid., p. 87
5 1
3.6 Year of the Three Sultans
However, the reflection of these rebellions in the European news and public opinion
and the reaction which emerged with the subsequent effects in the international arena
followed successive rings of incidences to the 1877-78 Ottoman Russian war and the
foundation of the Bulgarian principality.143
The Ottoman government faced tremendous pressure to solve these problems. While
the revolt in the Western Balkans continued, the empire did not have a regular army.
Therefore, the state used irregular troops and Circassians to face the rebellions.144 In
the future, this problem is also seen in refugees. There are also attacks by Circassian
refugees in the Tuna province against Bulgarian Christians. Therefore, in Ottoman
documents, there are concerns that Serbs will also enter the border to cause chaos as
bandit groups, which will cause Bulgarian attacks.145
The wave of Muslim anger against the rebellious Slavs and the great powers that
protected them rose steadily in the spring and summer. On May 5, the angry crowd
killed the German Consul and his French colleague in Selanik.146 This event was also
143 Turan, The Turkish Minority in Bulgaria, p. 47. 173
144 Barbara Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 18. Ve 19. Yüzyıllar, p. 377
145 B.O.A. A.}MKT.MHM. 480/6
146 “The first spark of the event occurred on May 5, 1876. The Bulgarian girl named Stefana came
after the Turkish teenager Mehmed Emin Efendi, whom she fell in love with, to become a Muslim.
However, she will get into a argument with his mother at Selanik station. The mother aims to force
Stefana out of her decision. On that day, many Christians gathered at Selanik station due to the Hagia
Yorgi Festival. The Christians of Selanik, who heard the mother's cries who screamed and asked for
help in saving her daughter, got involved in the issue there. Stefana was hurriedly put on the vehicle
of the American Consul Pericles Hacilazaru, who was a Greek and managed to get her away from
there. She is transferred to a house in the Greek neighbourhood in the southeast of the city, and the
Greeks make a decision. To prevent the girl from converting, they will not hand her over to the
Turkish authorities. As a matter of fact, the Turks of Selanik, who are aware of the abduction, decide
to take the girl back by holding a meeting. After the Greeks did not give the daughter, the Turks set
out with all kinds of weapons and held every corner waiting for orders on the streets. The muezzins
call the believers from the minarets to protect Islam. They were intending to lower the tension by
meeting with the governor of Selanik, the German consul Henry Abbott and the French consul Jules
Moulin head towards the government house. The governor and provincial council members gathered
at Saatli Mosque. Both consuls will go towards the mosque. The consuls will be taken hostage right
after the events and will be killed together because there is no news from the girl.” Fanny, Lady
5 2
featured in the Zaman newspaper. It is stated that the incident occurred because of the
young girl who came to Selanik station to become a Muslim.147 This event badly
affected the first years of Abdulhamid II's reign and remained like a dark cloud over
the people of Selanik. Also, it affects the state’s image in Europe.148
Süleyman Pasha, who is the minister of military schools, said that it was a crime.
However, it was also an indication that the nation of Islam was losing its patience in
the face of the constant humiliation of religion and the Muslim community and showed
that religious and national enthusiasm still existed among Muslims.149 Herzegovina
uprising, Bulgarian events, foreign states' interventions in these uprisings and other
related things made the public opinion extremely sensitive. For this reason,
demonstrations began to be organized everywhere. A big march organized on May
10th led to the dismissal of grand vizier Mahmut Nedim Pasha.150
Mithat Pasha, the leader of the New Ottomans, was taken into the new council of
ministers. Finally, on the night of 29-30 May 1876, Sultan Abdülaziz was deposed by
a coup d'etat of the New Ottomans. His successor, Murad V, was spiritually unstable
and shocked by the fate of his predecessor. He never played an active role in
management. His brother Abdülhamid, who had promised to enact a constitution on
Blunt, My Reminiscence,(London,1918), pp.138-147. For more detailed information about Salonika
Incident see: Berke Torunoğlu, “Murder in Salonika, 1876: A Tale of Apostasy Turned into an
International Crisis”(A Master’s Thesis, Bilkent University Ankara, 2009)
147 Zaman, No. 159, 21 Rebiülahir 1293 [16 Mayıs 1876], p. 1
148 Torunoğlu, Ibid., p. 86
149 Davison, Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Reform,1856-1876, p. 98
150 “Mahmud Nedim Pasha, with the support of Sultan Abdulaziz, left the European-oriented policy
followed by the Tanzimat politicians in foreign policy and entered the Russian influence. His mentor
was the Russian ambassador in Istanbul, Ignatiev. Russian influence gained such a widespread
position that the pasha became popularly known as Nedimov. The reaction to his pro-Russian policies
extended to the sultan, and the European public opinion also turned against the Ottoman Empire.” Ali
Akyıldız, "Mahmud Nedim Paşa", TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi,
https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/mahmud-nedim-pasa (30.11.2021)
5 3
August 31st and act with a council of responsible advisors. Abdülhamid took the
throne. Never since the Uprising of 1807 has the empire experienced more turmoil
than during the Year of the Three Sultans. 151
Anti-Turkish behaviour of the Bulgarians must be evaluated in the light of the
Bulgarian uprising of 1876 and the horrors that followed. The tradition of attacking
the helpless peasants started with the attacks against the Muslims during the revolution
and continued with the atrocities committed against the Bulgarians during the
retaliation.152 The war frenzy has turned people who were passive in everyday life into
butchers in Bulgaria as well as in many other places.153
3.7 1877-78 Ottoman – Russian War
The most critical result caused by the uprisings and the turmoil in this period was the
Ottoman-Russian War. It is one of the most important factors that cause people to
migrate, which we will examine in the next section. It is not a coincidence that the
news of both banditry and refugees increased in the newspaper with the start of the
war. First, we get the news that the war has started in newspaper number 202154. Until
this time, both the rebellions and the general situation of the Ottoman Empire were
evaluated, but after this issue, the news of banditry and refugees started to gain a lot
of places in the newspaper.
The 1877-78 Ottoman-Russian War began by shattering the principle of religious and
ethnic tolerance established in the early days of the Ottoman Empire. From the very
beginning of the war, the march of the Russian army into the Balkans took the form of
151 Anderson, Doğu Sorunu, p. 201
152 McCarthy, Death and Exile, p. 73
153 Ibid., p.82
154 Zaman, No. 202, 23 Rebiülahir 1294 [7 Mayıs 1877], p. 2-3
5 4
an Orthodox Christian crusade, directed first against Muslims regardless of ethnic
origin and later against Jews, Catholics, Protestants, and others. 155
During this dangerous situation, it was emphasized that everyone should unite and
defend the homeland. All these revolts were made specifically for the destruction of
the Ottoman Empire. That's why unity has gained importance in this period. 156 Also,
in the following news, we see that there is no possibility of any help from the other
side. It was mentioned how lonely the Ottoman Empire was political. This situation is
highlighted once again, and it is stated that it is only possible with our strength to
protect Istanbul from enemy invasion since no help will come from anyone.157
The Ottoman-Russian wars were generally concentrated in the Balkans, and the
developments that brought the war to a conclusion in parallel with the political
developments took place on this front. The Balkans, which has strategic importance
due to its proximity to Istanbul and is the focal point of political goals, has been
accepted as a center for both the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire. In the 1877-
1878 Ottoman-Russian War, the Balkans was the place where the Ottoman and
Russian armies mobilized their best opportunities and capabilities.
Russia's war aims apparently consisted of getting the Ottoman Empire to accept the
proposals determined at the Istanbul Conference. In reality, it was to liberate the
Slavic-inhabited provinces from Ottoman rule in the Balkans. Russia also wanted to
approach Istanbul with the pressure he would put on the provinces.
The hopelessness and loneliness felt in public grew over time and began to appear
frequently in the news. This situation can be better understood if we look at the general
course of the war and its essential points.
155 Yahya Kemal Taştan, Balkanlarda Ulusçuluk Hareketleri, in Balkanlar El Kitabı Vol I, by
Bilgehan A. Gökdağ and Osman Karatay (Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları, 2017), p. 429
156 Zaman, No. 203, 1 Cemaziyelevvel 1294 [14 Mayıs 1877], p. 1
157 Zaman, No. 226, 21 Şevval 1294 [29 Ekim 1877], p. 1
5 5
3.7.1 General Situation of the Ottoman Army 1877-78
Considering the general situation of the Ottoman army, before the war, the total
number of soldiers to defend against the Russian troops was 287,000. But those who
were educated among them were only about 150,000.158 The Russian army's forces
sent to the battles in the Balkans and the east-north of Anatolia have changed over
time. In general, the Russian forces in the Balkans were 250,000, while those in the
east-north of Anatolia were around 160,000. More than 60,000 Romanian army joined
the forces in the Balkans shortly after the declaration of war.159
First of all, we should mention about that period, Sultan Abdülhamid and his advisors
could not develop an effective and applicable strategy despite the second wave of
nationalism. Also, the central administration preferred to prioritize diplomacy in order
to prevent possible intervention by the great powers rather than fighting the
nationalists. As a result, the fight against separatist nationalist movements was left
entirely to the army's responsibility.160
One of the most important events of the period was the Ottoman-Russian war. War
and the Bandit attacks put the military in a complicated situation at that time. The news
in the newspapers aims to support the military in general. The newspaper urges people
to empathize to understand these tough times better and mentions the difficulty of this
period in particular, and states that the soldiers always work for the people living
there.161
However, the inadequacy in the fight against bandits is also observed in the war. When
we look at the general course of the war, we come across the problems arising from
158 Karal, Osmanlı Tarihi VIII.Cilt,Birinci Meşrutiyet İstibdat Devirleri(1876-1907), p. 43
159 Ibid., p. 44
160 Mesut Uyar, Edward J. Erickson, Osmanlı Askeri Tarihi, (İş Bankası Yayınları, 2017), p. 429
161 Zaman, No. 180, 25 Şevval 1293, [13 Kasım1876], pp. 2-3
5 6
the decision mechanisms in the Ottoman Empire. The issues of administration in the
Ottoman army were deeply felt, especially in the Tuna Front. The multi-headed
decision mechanism caused many problems in the administration of a comprehensive
war like the Ottoman-Russian War.162
The defense concept followed by the Ottoman army in the first three months of the
war consisted of waiting and avoiding moves, contrary to the nature of the strategy.
The Ottoman troops did not try to delay the Russian advance by destroying the
strategic points for the Russian army beyond the Tuna, and sufficient information
could not be obtained about the concentration of the Russian army since
reconnaissance and surveillance activities could not be carried out in this region.163
The failure of the strategically correct deployment of the recruited force was the main
reason for the passive attitude of the Ottoman army on the Tuna Front until August
1877.
Hints about the general conditions of military service can be seen in the Zaman
newspaper. There are reports in Greek newspapers that the soldiers are deserting due
to the insufficient salary. However, the newspaper denies this and says nothing like
that was heard. We notice that Greek newspapers are also read here. Generally, they
follow the news.164 However, it is worth noting that in an official announcement they
publish, we see that an amnesty announcement has been published for those who
escape from military service. This statement, stating that they will not be penalized,
can show us that Greek newspapers are telling the truth in this case.165 In addition, it
is necessary to add another critical piece of information that when the civilian
population started to flee towards the south as a result of the planned attacks targeting
162 Ahmet Taşdemir, Osmanlı Ordusunda Stratejik Yönetim Zaafiyeti Örneği: 93 Harbi’nde Balkan
Savunmasının Çöküşü, Harp Tarihi Dergisi, Vol 1, (June 2020), p. 3
163 Ibid., 29-31
164 Zaman, No. 192, 12 Safer 1294 [26 Şubat 1877], p. 2
165 Zaman, No. 239, 17 Safer 1295 [20 Şubat 1878], p. 1
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the Muslim people, there were significant blockages in the main supply routes and the
redif soldiers, who were trying to protect their families, started to flee en masse.166
3.7.2 Siege of Plevne
Considering the general breaking points of the war, the defense of Plevne is at the
forefront of them. The Russian army was commanded by Alexander II's brother, Grand
Duke Nikola Nikolayevich. A Russian force led by General Gurko advanced rapidly
and occupied the Şıpka Pass in the Balkans.167
It was as if the road to Edirne and Istanbul had been opened for the Russians. But
Osman Pasha's strong forces, who came to Pleven and turned Pleven into a fortress,
stopped the advance of the Russians.168 When the Russians started the war, they hoped
that they would be victorious easily and reach Istanbul quickly. However, they were
disappointed when Süleyman Pasha forced the Gurko forces to withdraw and
especially Osman Pasha's heroic defense of Plevne.169
We see the traces of this defense of Osman Pasha in Zaman 68. It is stated that there
are no Moskov soldiers left on the sides of Ziştovi, where Osman Pasha did not allow
the enemy's victory. However, when we look at the general situation, it is understood
that the battle will continue throughout the winter.170 In addition, the reproach felt
against Mahmut Nedim Pasha, who is seen as responsible for these wars, is also
included in this news. “A sultan and faithful people are necessary for this situation. If
166 Uyar, Erickson, Osmanlı Askeri Tarihi, p. 377
167 For more information Ahmet Taşdemir, Harp Prensipleri Bağlamında 93 Harbi’nde Şıpka
Taarruzları, Harp Tarihi Dergisi, Vol. 3 (Haziran 2021), p. 115-166
168 Zaman, No. 215, 26 Recep 1294 [6 Ağustos 1877], p. 1
169 Karal, Osmanlı Tarihi VIII. Cilt, Birinci Meşrutiyet İstibdat Devirleri(1876-1907), pp. 50-51
170 Zaman, No. 217, 17 Şaban 1294 [27 Ağustos 1877], p. 1
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our situation is left to the vizier, our situation is terrible.”171 At the end of the news,
their reaction to the situation was stated with this sentence.
Above all, Plevne's long-term resistance caused England to change its attitude towards
the Ottoman Empire. The defense of Plevne provided a respite for the memories of the
Bulgarian disaster to fade. The Ottoman Empire had shown that it was still alive and
standing enough to be defended. However, although it is a successful defense, the
situation generally seems to be bad. This situation is also felt among the news of
Zaman newspaper. The call for help is repeated, emphasizing that the homeland is in
danger and that the homeland is moaning under the feet of the enemy.172 At the same
time, it is stated that there is a possibility that the Russians may advance as far as
Erzurum. Concern about which side Britain will support is also seen in the news.173
When the Russians realized that they could not take Plevne by an attack, they decided
to besiege it. Osman Pasha could not replace the killed soldiers and officers. Material,
ammunition, trouble began. Hunger began to take effect. In the end, he was forced to
surrender. Although the heroes of Plevne could not change their war fortune, they
saved the military honor of the Turkish army.174
3.7.3 The Treaty of San Stefano and Berlin Conference
Victory for the Russian forces had not been easy. The advance of the army was stopped
at Plevne until the city was suddenly taken in December. After that, the army quickly
marched towards Istanbul. Faced with a military disaster, the Ottoman government
demanded peace and a ceasefire was signed in Edirne on 31 January. After this, the
Treaty of San Stefano was signed.
171 Zaman, No. 217, 17 Şaban 1294 [27 Ağustos 1877], p. 1
172 Zaman, No. 229, 13 Zilkade 1294 [19 Kasım 1877], p. 1-2
173 Zaman, No. 230, 21 Zilkade 1294 [27 Kasım 1877], p. 2-3
174 Karal, Osmanlı Tarihi VIII. Cilt, Birinci Meşrutiyet İstibdat Devirleri (1876-1907), p. 51
5 9
The Treaty of San Stefano is a turning point in Ottoman-Russian relations. Romania,
Serbia, Montenegro became independent by altogether leaving the Ottoman
domination. The new principality, which was established as the Great Bulgarian
principality, divided the Ottoman lands in Europe into two.175 Although this
principality was respected by the Ottoman domination, it was under constant threat in
Istanbul as it would be under the occupation of Russian soldiers and under the de facto
administration of a Russian commissioner within two years. Apart from this, there are
expectations that the Russian military will withdraw from other lands within three
months.176 Bosnia and Herzegovina will now be governed according to the wishes of
Russia and Austria. With the abandonment of Kars, Ardahan, Batum and Bayezit,
Russia has become a power that poses a significant danger to Anatolia from the east.177
It has been emphasized many times that this treaty is preliminary. Although assurances
were given that the treaty would be reviewed by the great powers, it caused significant
reactions in European capitals. The Treaty of San Stefano threatened to change the
balance of power in the Near East. This resulted in a long-term crisis.178 Taking
advantage of these reactions, the Ottomans succeeded in obtaining the opportunity for
a new treaty in Berlin.
A warning is made to the states to meet in Berlin for the treaty in the newspaper. The
general policy of the Russian state is explained. In addition, a text describing the
general situation of the state was written for the British ambassador in İstanbul. Britain
support is vital to this conference and is seen in the news.179
175 Karal, Osmanlı Tarihi VIII. Cilt, Birinci Meşrutiyet İstibdat Devirleri (1876-1907), p. 66
176 Zaman, No. 242, 7 Rebiülevvel 1295 [11 Mart 1878], p. 3
177 Karal, Ibid., p. 66
178 Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 18. Ve 19. Yüzyıllar, p. 388
179 Zaman, No. 255, 9 Cemaziyelahir 1295 [10 Haziran 1878], pp. 2-3
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The Berlin Conference started on 13 June 1878 and lasted for a month. The most
important achievement of the Ottoman Empire was the sharing of the lost Balkan
lands. The great Bulgarian state was divided into three: Bulgaria, covering the region
of Sofya and the north of the Balkan Mountains, became an autonomous but taxpaying
province; Eastern Rumelia, between the Balkan and Rodop Mountains, gained
a semi-autonomous status under a Christian governor appointed by the Ottomans and
was taken under the protection of the great powers; Macedonia and Trakya were also
given back to the Ottoman administration.180
This war and its consequences are crucial for the events that will be explained in the
third chapter of the thesis. Because at the end of this war, especially the Turkish people
in Bulgaria were driven away from their lands, where they lived for centuries as a
homeland, both by being massacred and forced to migrate. Because of this movement,
which was put into practice jointly by the Russians and Bulgarians and was the
complete destruction of the Turks, the number of refugees in Istanbul has been
described as hundreds of thousands. These refugees, who tried to survive despite all
kinds of impossibilities, settled in various parts of Anatolia.
180 Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 18. Ve 19. Yüzyıllar, p. 390
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CHAPTER 4
ACCORDING TO THE ZAMAN NEWSPAPER BANDITRY AND
REFUGEES IN THE SELANİK PROVINCE AND ENVIRONS (1876-1880)
In this section, along with the news in Zaman newspaper, banditry incidents and
immigrants will be examined. First of all, the characteristics of both the Greek and
Bulgarian bandits will be examined. It is clearly seen in the news how they attacked
and what methods they used to scare the people. In the Zaman newspaper, especially
with the Ottoman-Russian war, the news of bandits increased. In the previous sections,
Russia's struggle for dominance with the Ottoman Empire on Balkans and the effect
of this situation on the banditry were examined. In this section, Russia's relations with
the bandits will be examined in detail. This news increased with the attack of the
Russians. This section also includes analysis of the military situation. In this way, the
difficulties experienced by the Ottoman state in providing security were analyzed.
The people living in that region have been most affected by these developments. The
bandits wanted to disturb the peace in the region, and they succeeded. People had to
leave their homes. Many of the people were killed by bandits and many of them faced
various diseases. We witness the difficulties experienced from the news in the Zaman
newspaper.
4.1 Importance of Selanik in the 19th Century
Selanik province was established with the Vilayet Law in 1864. Consists of Selanik,
Serez and Drama sanjaks. The newspaper examined is published in Selanik. For this
reason, news from Selanik province is mostly included in the Zaman newspaper.
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Figure 4. Map of the Selanik Province181
When we examine the city of Selanik in general, it is seen that they have developed
quite a lot in trade thanks to the port in the city. Particularly from 1838 onwards, it
benefited from the various treaties signed by the European powers and the Ottoman
Empire. Due to a series of negativities in the grain harvest in Europe after the Crimean
War, traders from Selanik took advantage of this opportunity and replaced the Russian
traders who were out of power. The economic growth that had marked Selanik since
the middle of the 19th century would slow down with the Bosnian Crisis and the
Ottoman-Russian War.182 The banditry incidents that emerged in this period and
refugees coming to the city will also be important factors affecting this growth.
Especially in this section, the dissatisfaction of the people with the situation will be
understood more clearly while the events are being examined.
181 B.O.A. HRT.h.. 325, Sanjak, district, town centers, villages, swamps and roads are shown.
182 Anastassiodou, Tanzimat Çağında Bir Osmanlı Şehri Selanik, p. 93
6 3
At the same time, Selanik is very important for the Macedonian problem analysed in
previous chapter. The most important reason for the Macedonian issue has been
ethnography. Turks, Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbs, Vlachs, Albanians, Jews lived side by
side. In this case, the words used by British travellers in describing the Selanik are
interesting. They said that “The population was mixed, and if you want to understand
the nationality of the people, you have to observe their faces and behaviours. Without
these, you cannot understand.”183 These words describe the complexity of Macedonia.
These racial communities in Macedonia were divided into Muslim, Christian, and
Jewish aspects of religion. Almost all Christians were Orthodox. Until the Abdülaziz
period, they were attached to the Phanariot Greek church. In 1870 the Bulgarians were
able to leave the Greek church and establish a national church. The establishment of
this church became a source of great unrest for Macedonia. Greek and Bulgarian
churches struggle to take under the influence of Macedonian Christians. Both nationstates
were struggling to liberate the countryside of Macedonia on their own. Religion,
supported by nationalism, was their greatest weapon.184 Serbs and Romanians,
together with this situation, developed the idea of establishing national churches.185
In short, religion was a factor that helped the development of the Macedonian issue
together with nationality Selanik was one of the most important cities in a region that
everyone wanted to control. The environment in which the ethnic tension was at the
highest level was also reflected in public. These events were frequently mentioned in
the letters of the French Consuls. They served in the Tanzimat period about the daily
life of the city. Robber raids, bandit incidents, simple cabaret fights are just a few of
them.186
183 Mark Mazower, Selanik Hayaletler Şehri, (İstanbul: Alfa Yayınları, 2013), p. 338
184 Karakasidou, Buğday Tarlaları Kan Tepeleri Yunan Makedonyasında Millet Olma Aşamasına
Geçiş Süreçleri 1870-1990, p. 111
185 Karal, Osmanlı Tarihi VII.Cilt, Islahat Fermanı Devri (1861-1876), pp.146-147
186 Meropi Anastassiodou, Tanzimat Çağında Bir Osmanlı Şehri Selanik, (İstanbul:Tarih Vakfı Yurt
Yayınları,1998), p. 347
6 4
4.2 General Description of Bandits
Generally, banditry occurs when the central authority is weakened. It is a common
situation that banditry activities increase in periods when laws weaken, and injustices
grow. The bandit news analyzed in this study are generally political. However, while
examining the events in the thesis, no distinction was made, and the term “banditry”
was preferred.
Before going into the banditry news details, how they behave in general, and their
characteristics should be examined. Zaman newspaper also gives us clues about this.
Bandits are always fighting with rifle fire from behind the stone. When the troops
attack, they flee and take refuge at the Montenegro or Serbia border.187 They do not
have regular troops. We will often see this in the upcoming news we will examine.
They are working to disrupt order and try not to encounter the army. They even attack
the wrong people, even though they set a trap. Later, we witness their efforts to escape
this confusion in an existing report. They try to close these mistakes by attacking other
people.188 In general, their goal is to make as much chaos as possible.
When they cannot respond to the soldiers' attacks, they start to burn around.189 This
point is also necessary for their general purpose. Deliberate burning of villages from
which their owners abandoned and fled has no military and economic benefit to the
invaders but prevents the former owners of those places from returning. 190
Rob and kidnapping people to the mountain are his main movements. We see that they
are concentrated on the sides of Serez, Karaferye, and Katrin. The methods of torture
187 Zaman, No. 148, 17 Muharrem 1293 [13 Şubat 1876], p. 1
188 Zaman, No. 336, 27 Rebiülevvel 1297 [9 Mart 1880], pp. 1-2
189 Zaman, No. 280, 21 Zilhicce 1295 [16 Aralık 1878], pp. 2-3
190 McCarthy, Death and Exile, p.74
6 5
of the bandits are also revealed from the news. Cutting ears, stealing clothes, and
letting them out into the street naked, splitting their throat with a knife to the belly,
torture with a hot iron are some of them. 191 At the same time, the bandits steal supplies
as well as damage villages. Telegraphs from the Petriç and Nevrekop sides provide
information about the people in bad condition due to this lack of supplies.192
4.3 Characteristics of Bandits in the Balkans Between 1876-1880
In the previous chapters, the general situation in the Balkans was tried to be explained.
It was essential for us to understand the period between 1876 and 1880 when the
newspaper was published. As can be seen, the conflicts and the economic situation
affected the people considerably, and the conflict between nations gradually increased.
There is frequent news of Bulgarian and Greek bandits in Selanik and its environs. In
this section, together with the newspaper's information, the activities of the bandits in
the region and how they affect the people will be examined.
4.3.1 Characteristics of Greek Bandits
Greek bandits frequently appeared in the news, especially with the Ottoman-Russian
war. They are attacking villages and people, especially around Karaferye and
Katrin.193 Especially by gathering bandits in the border regions, they attack the lands
of the Ottoman Empire.194 These days, when the country is dealing with the enemy,
191 Zaman, No. 257 23 Cemaziyelahir 1295 [24 Haziran 1878], pp. 1-2, Zaman, No. 258,
Cemaziyelahir 1295 [1 Temmuz 1878], p. 2, Zaman, No. 267 4 Ramazan 1295 [1 Eylül 1878], p. 1,
Zaman, No.316, 6 Şevval 1296 [23 Eylül 1879], p. 2
192 Zaman, No. 333, 5 Rebiülevvel 1297, [16 Şubat 1880], p. 1
193 Zaman, No. 192, 12 Safer 1294 [26 Şubat 1877], p. 2, B.O.A. HR.TH.. 22/56
194 B.O.A. İ..MTZ.(01) 16/527
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these Greek bandits' efforts are seen as opportunistic. Native and Greek bandits want
to grow this mess for their benefit.195
They use different tactics during these attacks. They can deceive people by wearing
Muslim clothes. 196 The newspaper complains that this situation is constant. They state
that since the Herzegovina issue, the Greeks have always benefited from the
opportunity and cannot be trusted. The newspaper also mentions that these events had
happened before, but the state's problems were few. Nevertheless, now the situation is
more complicated.
They have confidence in the state. However, we have stated that the war with Russia
is a more confusing situation. Here again, this is emphasized and complained that
dealing with so many problems provoke the bandits to act more comfortably. Over the
years, the situation is not getting better. We can understand from the frequency of the
news that the cases are increasing day by day. They send soldiers from the battalions
fighting with Russia to fight the bandits.197 With this news, it can be said that the
bandits not only disturb the order but also reduce the combat power of the regular
army.
In addition to sending troops to the regions, the Ottoman Empire also used diplomatic
means. Meetings were organized with Britain to disperse the Greek bandits and ensure
order.198 Britain warned the Greek government199 , and British consuls stepped in and
talked to the bandits. This meeting has worked for some bandits, and that they returned
195 Zaman, No. 207, 29 Cemaziyellevvel 1294 [11 Haziran 1877], pp. 3-4
196 Ibid.4, pp. 3-4
197 Zaman, No. 238, 10 Safer 1295 [15 Şubat 1878], p. 1
198 B.O.A. Y..PRK.A… 1/106
199 B.O.A. Y..PRK.A… 1/101
6 7
to their hometown asking for forgiveness.200 Although the British state prevented these
Greeks' attacks, these solutions are always temporary. Due to the fact that the Greeks
gathered at the border of the Ottoman state and prepared for an attack and there were
insufficient soldiers, soldiers had to be sent to Tırhala.201 The Greek atrocities continue
to increase, and the village people try to find a solution against the bandit.202
4.3.2 Characteristics of Bulgarian Bandits and Bulgarian Atrocities
One of the worst incidents that the Balkan people were subjected to during this period
was the Bulgarians' atrocities. They had a common purpose with the Russians. In the
process leading up to their independence, the Bulgarians forced the people to migrate,
burn and plundered their villages, and help the Russian armies.203
During the War of 1877-78, the Bulgarians made great efforts to advance the Russians.
A large number of Bulgarians fought against the Ottoman Empire in the Russian army,
and the Bulgarians attempted to revolt to facilitate the Russian advance. In this case,
the activities of the Bulgarians living behind the Tuna were especially important.
Bulgarians living in Serbia were organized to form the core of the Bulgarian
Volunteers Union with the decision of the Russian government. The Bulgarians, who
came from Romania and Serbia by crossing the Tuna, formed a guard regiment of
7,000 people in the Russian army. They fought with the Russians against the Ottomans
in Eski Zağra, Şıpka and Plevne.204
200 Zaman, No. 204, 2 Cemaziyelahir 1295 [3 Haziran 1878], p. 2
201 B.O.A. İ..MTZ.(01) 16/533
202 Zaman, No. 300, 13 Cemaziyelevvel 1296 [5 Mayıs 1879], p. 2, Zaman, No. 302, 27
Cemaziyelevvel 1296 [19 Mayıs 1879], p. 1
203 McCarthy, Death and Exile, p.71-72
204 Toprak, XIX. yüzyılda Balkanlarda Ulusçuluk Hareketleri, p. 345
6 8
We have seen in previous reports that the people are struggling with the bands,
including the inadequacy of the military. Especially the resistance of the Rodop Turks
stands out a little more here. We see once again that the Russian and Bulgarian
atrocities have reached an unbearable point, and the Pomaks defend themselves.205 At
the same time, the newspaper considers this resistance very important. Thanks to their
resistance, the Bulgarians are blocked, and if that resistance is broken, it will not be
possible to stand in front of the Bulgarians.206 The massacres and brutalities that took
place in this region are detailed in the report published on August 27, 1878.207
The most important reason why the Bulgarian militia units and bandits were so
successful and effective was that during the mobilization period, the Ottoman high
command transformed the local gendarmerie and police units into infantry units and
sent them to the front.208 This wrong decision left the Muslim population vulnerable
to Bulgarians and Russians. Also in addition to these news Bulgarians used to attack
by wearing Islamic clothes. They became even more encouraged as the situation turned
in their favor. Now they do not hesitate to wear military uniforms to deceive people.209
With this situation the Bulgarian people also want to go back with the Russian soldiers
where they retreated.210 However, we do not witness that the Muslim people do
anything to the Bulgarians in the newspaper. For this, it will be helpful to look at the
Greek and Bulgarian sources. As a clue, we learn the police officer's report, who was
205 Zaman, No. 252, 17 Cemaziyelevvel 1295 [19 Mayıs 1878], pp. 2-3
206 Zaman, No. 204, 2 Cemaziyelahir 1295 [3 Haziran 1878], p. 2, For more information about
“Rhodope Resistance” see : Turan, The Turkish Minority in Bulgaria (1878 – 1908), pp. 155-163
207 Ömer Turan, “Rodoplarda 1878 Türk-Pomak Direnişi ve Rodop Komisyonu Raporu”, Türk
Kültürü Araştırmaları, XXXIV/1-2, 1996, ss.129-156
208 Uyar, Erickson, Osmanlı Askeri Tarihi, p. 377
209 Zaman, No. 318, 20 Şevval 1296 [7 Ekim 1879] p.1
210 Zaman, No. 273, 24 Şevval 1295 [21 Ekim 1878] p.3
6 9
employed by Britain, on this complicated situation in the Balkans. They mention that
Muslims did not mistreat the Christian population after the Russians withdrew.211
With the withdrawal of the Russians from Yeşilköy, about 80,000 Bulgarians from
Trakya withdrew with them and settled in eastern Rumelia. 15,000 Bulgarians from
Western Macedonia and 40,000 from Wallachia and Serbia were resettled in places
evacuated by the Turks. However, there was a lot left open. Thereupon, 42.000 people
returned to Edirne in June 1879. Between 90,000 and 95,000 Bulgarians were settled
in Turkish territory in the mid-1880s.212
4.3.3 The Role of the Cossacks
Lacking food and hunger is another great danger. After the war with the Russians, this
danger grew even more with the activities of the bandits.213 At the same time, in this
war, the Russians first wanted to send the Turks to Russia, but then they gave up and
chose to implement the destruction plan. The primary purpose behind the Russian
attempts to massacre the civilian population was to cause terror among the Turkish
villagers to flee their homeland. The most reasonable force to implement this plan was
the Cossacks. Even the rumour that they were approaching was enough for the Turkish
refugees to hit the roads, just as planned.
This atmosphere of atrocity is reflected in the documents of the British ambassador.
He confirms that under the auspices of Cossack cavalry, the Bulgarians burned down
the towns and villages. Although the British ambassador is uncertain about the
Russians' support, it is stated that the Russians are aware of these situations.214 It is not
yet known what kind of orders were given to the Cossacks, but when their behaviour,
211 Zaman, No. 275, 8 Zilkade 1295 [3 Kasım 1878] p. 4
212 İpek, Rumeli’den Anadolu’ya Türk Göçleri (1877-1890), p. 129
213 Zaman, No. 204, 2 Cemaziyelahir 1295 [3 Haziran 1878], p. 2
214 Zaman, No. 263, 6 Şaban 1295 [5 Ağustos 1878], p. 2
7 0
in general, is examined, it is clear that they do not resemble irregular troops. Cossacks,
who also work in harmony with the local Bulgarian people, sometimes act
independently, but they follow a particular order against the Turks.215 The Cossacks
surrounded the villages so that no one could escape, and the Bulgarians who entered
after them pillaged and massacred, thus working within a typical plan.216
In August 1877, many Muslims were killed by the Russian Cossacks and Bulgarians
on the Ferdice-Kızanlık road. On the other hand, the 26th Don Cossack Regiment under
the command of General Rauhda drove the Muslims in the villages around Hainköy
towards the mountains in the direction of Tunca. Approximately 700 Muslims fleeing
from Tırnova in July 1877 were killed by the Cossacks. In the massacres carried out
by the Russian and Don Cossacks troops at the beginning of 1878, an estimated
40,000-100,000 Muslims were killed, which is referred to as the Harmanlı Massacre
in the sources.217
4.3.4 Reactions Among Bulgarian People
There is no one type of behaviour among the Bulgarian people. There are behaviours
both supporting and against the Ottoman Empire. As an example, not all Bulgarians
supported the rebellion. We see in a report that the bandits were handed over to the
government by the Bulgarians.218 At the same time, it is stated in one of the letters that
Muslims and non-Muslims live together and are not disturbed by each other.219
215 McCarthy, Death and Exile, p. 70
216 Ibid. p.69
217 İpek, Rumeli’den Anadolu’ya Türk Göçleri (1877-1890), pp. 18-19
218 Zaman, No. 163, 26 Cemaziyelevvel 1293, [19 Haziran 1876], p. 2
219 Zaman, No. 292, 16 Rebiülevvel 1296, [10 Mart 1879] , pp. 1-2
7 1
Apart from these, we also see that the people in Nevrekop help the bandits. They help
the bands for burning and destroy houses.220 Besides, in a report received by Melnik,
it is mentioned that the bandits travel easily in the villages. If there is no help from the
people, this would not be possible.221 Hüseyin Raci Efendi also states in his memories
that the Bulgarians were spying and that the Russians were aware of the developments
thanks to this espionage. At the same time, they were trying to turn other nations
against the Ottoman Empire by spreading the slander that the Muslims were
persecuting the Bulgarians.222
It can be guessed that the Bulgarians who helped the bandit were looking for economic
gain. If all Muslims left their villages, they would harvest the Muslims' lands and own
their fields.223 In order to encourage the Bulgarian peasants to engage in the desired
level of criticism against the Turks, the Bulgarian peasant mass was promised lands
and assets owned by the Turkish and Muslim elements. Even not being satisfied with
this, the houses belonging to the Turks and the animals left over from the Russians
were given to this mass. Thus, the gates of return to Turkish immigrants were closed.224
It can be seen that there are divisions within the population, and these divisions
increase as the bandit events continue.
4.4 Russian Influence in Bandits’ Attacks
The previous section examined that Russia is one of the countries with the most
significant share in the confusion that emerged in the Balkans. Undoubtedly, the most
important event of the period we are dealing with for the Balkans is the Ottoman-
220 Zaman, No.279, 5 Zilhicce 1295, [30 Kasım 1878], p. 2
221 Zaman, No. 317, 13 Şevval 1296, [30 Eylül 1879], p. 3
222 Hüseyin Raci Efendi, Zağra Müftüsünün Hatıraları, ed. M. Ertuğrul Düzdağ, (İstanbul: İz
Yayıncılık, 2018), pp. 102-103
223 McCarthy, Death and Exile, pp. 72-73
224 İpek, Rumeli’den Anadolu’ya Türk Göçleri (1877-1890), p.20
7 2
Russian war. News about Russia and telegrams about war are frequently featured in
the newspaper. However, in addition to the details of the war, Russia's atrocities with
the Bulgarian bandit are also widely seen in the news. The Bulgarians get the support
of the Russians, and with this support, they increase their atrocities.225 The Russian
troops, moving freely in the regions they occupied, started to recruit soldiers for the
Bulgarian volunteer militia units that were formed before the war. As these units
encouraged the local people to revolt, they carried out raids behind the Ottoman lines
and caused significant damage to the military operation.226
In the following issues, there are detailed examinations. With the permission of the
Russian commanders of the Bulgarian bandits, they can be so aggressive. With the
inadequacy of the military, the people, who are now desperate, have started to fight,
and with this, it is effective in the emergence of the issue of Pomaks227
The Russians also dually approach the people. Although they take the Muslim people's
weapons, they do not interfere with the Bulgarians in any way.228 The method used in
the extermination of the Turks in the city of Eski Zağra constitutes the role of the
Russians in the extortion and massacre of Turks and other Muslims in Bulgaria. As
usual, when the Russians entered the city, they collected the weapons of the Turks.
They distributed these weapons to the Bulgarians in the city.229
According to the report of the former district governor of Zağra, General Gurko, who
occupied the town, asked the local administrators to collect the weapons of the Muslim
people and hand them over to him within two hours. When the general was asked
225 Zaman, No. 249, 26 Rebiülahir 1295 [29 Nisan 1878], p. 3
226 Uyar, Erickson, Osmanlı Askeri Tarihi, p. 377
227 Zaman, No. 250, 3 Cemaziyelevvel 1295 [5 Mayıs 1878], p. 2
228 Zaman, No. 251, 10 Cemaziyelevvel 1295 [12 Mayıs 1878], p. 2
229 McCarthy, Death and Exile, p. 69, Hüseyin Raci Efendi, Zağra Müftüsünün Hatıraları, pp.107-108
7 3
whether the Bulgarians were included in the scope of this order, he replied, "The
Bulgarians are soldiers, the weapons of the Muslims I desire." The Russian Colonel,
who was appointed to the police station when the delivery of the weapons was delayed,
collected the weapons of the Muslims with the 300 Bulgarian gendarmes under his
command, and 1,100 people were killed in eleven days.230 Besides the Russians'
support, they killed the Turkish civilian population and their soldiers. Not only did the
survivors tell them who their attackers were, but the shape of their injuries made it
confident that the killers were Russian soldiers.231
Figure 5. Wounded Refugee Women Displaying Leg Wound and Wound in Back232
There are also movements of the Russians against the villages together with the
Bulgarians. They are attacked and plundered villages together.233 Volunteer Bulgarian
battalions were established, then Bulgarian bandits were equipped with weapons, and
230 İpek, Rumeli’den Anadolu’ya Türk Göçleri (1877-1890), p.15
231 McCarthy, Ibid., pp. 70-71
232 By Pascal Sebah from the photo series “Russian Atrocities” (Istanbul,1877), Berlin, Political
Archive of the Federal Foreign Office, R 12818 from William H. Holt, The Balkan Reconquista &
Turkey’s Forgotten Refugee Crisis, (Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press), p. 247
233 Zaman, No. 251, 10 Cemaziyelevvel 1295 [12 Mayıs 1878], p. 2
7 4
then weapons were distributed to the Bulgarian people. These bandits and armed
Bulgarians, who entered Rumelia by following the Russian army, attacked the
unarmed and innocent Turkish people.234 These explanations are also present in the
Ottoman reports: the Russians massacred 400 Muslims in the village of Hıdırbey in
the Eski Zağra district.235 The Ottoman government also reported that the Russian
artillery unit burned Turkish villages near Tırnova236 , and Russian cavalries captured,
raped, and killed the escaped refugee groups.237 It is also seen that regular Russian
armies burned Muslim villages on their way.238
We also see in the news that the Russians trained the Bulgarians. The Bulgarians,
whom the Bulgarian and Russian Government recruited, were sent to the Rodop after
being trained for a short time. Russians also specially train soldiers. However, it is
heavy for Bulgarians and some escape from military service.239 Also, Bulgarians did
not listen to the Russians in some places, and clashes broke out with the Russian army
and Bulgarians between each other. 240 Although it was possible to disarm the
Bulgarians in such regions and even transfer them to another region, it was not possible
to achieve this.241
234 İpek, Rumeli’den Anadolu’ya Türk Göçleri (1877-1890), pp. 15-16
235 McCarthy, Death and Exile , p.70
236 Bilal Şimşir, Rumeli’den Türk Göçleri, Belgeler, vol.2, (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu
Basımevi,1989), p. 136
237 Ibid., p. 135
238 McCarthy, Ibid., p. 71
239 Zaman, No. 256, 16 Cemaziyelahir 1295 [18 Mayıs 1878], p. 3
240 Zaman, No. 267, 4 Ramazan 1295 [1 Eylül 1878], p. 4
241 İpek, Ibid., p. 17
7 5
At the same time, Russians interfere with the clothing of the Muslim people. They
banned fez and insisted on wearing Bulgarian calpacks for the Muslims.242 In addition,
it is seen that the Russians do not respect Muslims' religious beliefs and openly attack
them. As a matter of fact, the mosques and tombs of Muslims were plundered, their
holy books were torn, their prayers were ridiculed by imitation, and their worship was
forbidden. In addition, casinos were built on cemeteries, and some mosques were
converted into churches or barns.243
From these events emerges the fact that Russia neglected nothing to give this war a
religious character. As a matter of fact, the Russians explained to their soldiers and
Bulgarians the reason for these massacres as the fulfilment of a supreme order of the
Orthodox Church. Thus, it is thought that if it is successful in presenting this war as a
Muslim-Christian struggle, Europe will not intervene in favor of the Ottomans.244
Also, in the news, clearly can be seen that Bulgarian atrocity affects not only Muslims
but also the Greek and Jewish people.245 Russians do not apply these practices only
against Muslims. Anyone who is not an orthodox Bulgarian is subjected to this illtreatment.
246 The Jewish community in Kazanlık and Eski Zağra had to endure the
same cruelties. Greeks also complain about this issue. While the Russians register
Greeks from the Filibe side, they oblige them to register themselves as Bulgarians.247
The Russians are also making an effort to overestimate the Bulgarian population living
242 Zaman, No. 301, 20 Cemaziyelevvel 1296 [12 Mayıs 1879], p. 4
243 İpek, Rumeli’den Anadolu’ya Türk Göçleri (1877-1890), p. 21
244 Ibid., p. 21
245 Zaman, No. 299, 6 Cemaziyelevvel 1296 [28 Nisan 1879] p.2
246 Turan, The Turkish Minority in Bulgaria (1878-1908), p. 130
247 Zaman, No. 251, 10 Cemaziyelevvel 1295 [12 Mayıs 1878], p. 4
7 6
there. The large population will make it easier for Bulgarians to claim there. Greeks
come to İstanbul to report their complaints.248
Figure 6. The Bulgarian Martyresses249
At the same time, the British Vice- Consul at Burgas reported that:
… from all what I have seen and heard, I have the full conviction that the
Russians are endeavouring, by indirect means, to drive out of the country all
Turks, Jews, Armenian, and Greeks, leaving only the Bulgarian element.250
With these, it can be seen that the Russians support the Bandits at every opportunity.
Because in this way, the Ottoman army had to fight with the Russian army while
maintaining order inside. In this respect, the Russians have been very successful. The
masses of Turkish immigrants filled the roads and restricted the movement of the
248 Zaman, No. 253, 24 Cemaziyelevvel 1295 [26 Mayıs 1878], pp. 3-4
249 Pictured is the rape of Bulgarian women by Ottoman Soldiers . A picture for propaganda purposes
to increase the Slavic consciousness in Bulgarians. By Konstantin Egorovich Makovskii (1877).
Public Domain: Wikimedia Commons from Holt, The Balkan Reconquista & Turkey’s Forgotten
Refugee Crisis, p. 64
250 Turan, The Turkish Minority in Bulgaria (1878-1908), p. 130
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soldiers. 251 In addition to restricting the manoeuvring area of the Ottoman armies, the
Muslim population's fleeing eliminated the danger of guerrilla action that could attack
the Russian troops from behind and restricted the formation of Ottoman forces that
could cut off their reinforcements. 252
The oppression and brutality of the Bulgarians against the Muslim people exceeded
the expectations of the Russian generals. For this reason, the European press found the
killing of Turks in the Tuna and Edirne provinces inhumane, despite the Russians'
blocking of news coverage and misleading publications. They wrote a lot of news
about the indescribable evils of the Russians.253
All these events determined and changed the way of life of Turks in Bulgaria at the
principality time.254 Long after the conflicts ended, the Russian soldiers continued to
attack the Turks in an attempt to force them to leave their land, even though the
Muslims in Bulgaria no longer posed any military threat. 255 According to the results
of the first official census conducted by the Bulgarians during the principality period,
the total number of Muslims is 802,597. They constitute 26.9% of the entire Bulgarian
population. In 1910, the Muslims' population dropped to 601,999, that is, 13.9% of the
total Bulgarian population.256 These numbers allow us to see clearly the policies that
Muslims have been subjected to.
251 Justin McCarthy, Death and Exile, p. 68
252 Ibid., p. 68
253 İpek, Rumeli’den Anadolu’ya Türk Göçleri (1877-1890), p. 17
254 Turan, The Turkish Minority in Bulgaria (1878-1908), p. 134
255 McCarthy, Ibid., p. 71
256 Turan, Ibid., p. 309
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4.4.1 Measures Taken for Bandits and Reactions of People
It is seen that precautions were taken to prevent the attacks of the bandits both during
the war and before. However, the newspaper is not satisfied with the measures taken
in general. While talking about the details of the events, promises were made that the
bandits would be caught, but they were not fulfilled.257 It can be observed that the
measures are taken work in some regions. The measures taken by Katrin and Karaferye
have worked. We see people returning to their jobs. It can also be seen from this news
that the threat of the bandits also threatens the economy. People are becoming afraid
of going to their jobs. 258
Simultaneously, the newspaper warns the people in Selanik that it seems deficient in
their duties. We see an example of the Selanik municipal police not doing their job
well. News conveys that the public complains about this issue.259 In another article, it
is mentioned that Selanik provincial officials committed irregularities. The newspaper
reports that they complain about their misconduct.260 However, in the following
months, we see that in Katrin and Karaferye, although the precautions worked first,
there is news that the bandits increased again. It is observed that the soldiers are
ineffective this time, and the bandits are walking around and hurting people.261
Abdullah Pasha, who is the commander of the soldier, is criticized. It is said that
bandits increased on the sides of Katrin and Karaferye because of the commander's
incompetence262. Later, we learn that Saffet Pasha was appointed to the Selanik region.
257 Zaman, No. 207, 29 Cemaziyellevvel 1294 [11 Haziran 1877], pp. 3-4
258 Zaman, No. 249, 26 Rebiülahir 1295 [29 Nisan 1878], p.3
259 Zaman, No. 262, 28 Recep 1295 [28 Temmuz 1878], p. 3
260 Zaman, No. 268, 11 Ramazan 1295 [8 Eylül 1878], pp. 3-4
261 Zaman, No. 274, 1 Zilkade 1295 [27 Ekim 1878], pp. 1-2
262 Zaman, No. 305, 18 Cemaziyelahir 1296 [9 Haziran 1879], p. 1
7 9
Salih Zeki Pasha, the commander of the Kozana, is also coming to the Karaferye. The
newspaper states that at least these changes work a little bit.263
The difficulty of fighting the bandit with the regular army increases with each passing
day. Even though certain troops have been established for a while, they are not enough
either. The irregular forces called “Kırserdarları” come into the scene in this
problematic situation.264 They are fighting against the bandits together with these
soldiers. Because of this, Bulgarian bandits are attacking and trying to disperse
them.265
However, this method will not be beneficial, as special battalions begin to gather again
later. 266 It can be seen that they have not been completely removed from the benefits
they provide in the future news. They were trying to save a kidnapped Christian
family.267 In general, the prevailing atmosphere is mixed, and the bandits' attacks
cannot be responded to. There is a constant search for how to stop bandits.
One of the most important news can be seen in the Zaman newspaper, number 317.
The bandit attacked the households, and the district governor told the villagers who
asked for help that they could not do anything unless an official letter was received.
Major Hacı Tevfik Efendi was informed immediately afterwards, and she replied that
I could not send the military unnecessarily. Later, when the households caught fire,
the people said, "People are burning; what are you waiting for?" The intervention was
made after these crying for help. However, the bandits were not followed, and the
263 Zaman, No. 306, 25 Cemaziyelahir 1296 [16 Haziran 1879], p. 1
264 Zaman, No. 276, 15 Zilkade 1295 [10 Kasım 1878], p. 2
265 Zaman, No. 278, 28 Zilkade 1295 [23 Kasım 1878], p. 2
266 Zaman, No. 288, 18 Safer 1296 [11 Şubat 1879], p. 2
267 Zaman, No. 303, 4 Cemaziyelahir 1296 [26 Mayıs 1879], pp. 1-2
8 0
houses were burned. It is essential here to hesitate to arrive late for an intervention. It
can be seen that lacking military intervention here most clearly.268
The strategy, management, and administration of the irregular war to be carried out
against the separatist nationalist movements that threatened the empire's integrity and
survival were left to the young officers at the regiment and battalion level. These
officers did not receive clear directives and orders from their superiors, nor did they
have the support of other organs and institutions of the state.269 Besides, because of
Abdülhamit II’s distrust of the commanders and seeing his authority above all else, the
Balkan front command chain was utterly disrupted.270
4.5 General Situation of Refugees in the Balkans in the 1970s
4.5.1 Definition of Word of “Refugee”
Another vital element mentioned in the Zaman newspaper is the refugees. It is seen
that the word “muhacir" was preferred more to describe the people who immigrated in
the Ottoman Empire. However, there are examples where the word “göçmen” is also
used.271
In British archive documents, the word "göçmen" is commonly used as a substitute for
the word “refugee”. However, it is possible to find different names in British archive
documents as well as in the Ottoman archive. For example, it can be seen as
Mussulman refugees, Turkish refugees, Turkish emigrant/immigrant, fugitives.272 For
268 Zaman, No. 317, 13 Şevval 1296 [30 Eylül 1879], pp. 3-4
269 Uyar, Erickson, Osmanlı Askeri Tarihi, p. 430.
270 Ibid., p. 383
271 Ufuk Erdem, Osmanlı’dan Cumhuriyete Muhacir Komisyonu Faaliyetleri (1860-1923), (Ankara:
Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, 2018), p. 6
272 Ibid., p. 6
8 1
Muslims who escaped from the Russian occupation and took shelter in the Rodop
Mountains, the words "fugitives" and, in some places "refugee" are used in British
consular reports. On the other hand, they were called "muhacir" in Ottoman sources.
Here, the word "muhacir" is used in the sense of "refugee".273 One of the words
expressing refugees, the phrase “muhacir” is used only for the predominantly Muslim
refugees who entered the Ottoman Empire's lands.274
After the 1877/78 Ottoman-Russian war, the term "macir", which was distorted from
the word "muhacir", was used for Muslim immigrants from Georgia. The term means
immigrants of Georgian origin in the Central Black Sea Region. 275
In this section, the situation of refugees, in general, was analyzed using the news of
Zaman newspaper. First of all, the problem that draws our attention is the relationship
between the Ottoman Empire and Russia. While Russia was struggling with the
Ottoman Empire, it took steps towards its geographical and strategic goals to
consolidate its domination in its lands. Russia's expansion policy through war is one
of them. The increasing number of refugee news, primarily due to the Ottoman-
Russian war, allows us to observe this in Zaman.
4.5.2 Population of Refugees
The general situation regarding the refugees in the Balkans was tried to be examined.
Population statistics are also vital. Knowing the number of immigrants, even if
estimated, allows us better to understand the magnitude of the events in that period.
First of all, it should be noted that the number of refugees calculated at that time
primarily did not reflect the truth. No one has ever had the opportunity to accurately
273 Mehmet Hacısalihoğlu, “89 Göçü” ile ilgili Tarih Yazımı ve Kamuoyu Algıları in 89 Göçü
Bulgaristan’da 1984-89 Azınlık Politikaları ve Türkiye’ye Zorunlu Göç by Neriman Ersoy
Hacısalihoğlu and Mehmet Hacısalihoğlu, (İstanbul: BALMED, 2012) p. 33
274 Erdem, Osmanlı’dan Cumhuriyete Muhacir Komisyonu Faaliyetleri (1860-1923), p. 6
275 Hacısalihoğlu, Ibid., p.34
8 2
count these people as they run away on the roads. However, after the refugees settled
somewhere for a while, the Ottoman and European authorities could directly count the
number of people they were.276
Table 1
Turkish Refugees* as Estimated in Various Sources (1877-80)277
District Population Date
Eski Cuma 5,000 20 July 1877
15,000 Families 19 August 1877
Eski Zağra 30,000 3 August 1877
Pazarcık** 20,000 17 November 1877
Filibe 5,000 30 July 1877
15,000 February 1878
7,000 20 December 1879
Varna 8,000 31 January 1878
30,000 8 February 1878
Burgas 15,000 – 20,000 13 March 1878
Şumla 200,000 2 March 1878
200,000 29 June 1878
Edirne 3,000 4 August 1877
10,000** 19 August 1877
30,000 15 April 1878
60,000 24 April 1878
40,000 29 May 1878
45,000 8 August 1878
28,000 26 May 1879
Rodop Region 100,000** 8 July 1878
İstanbul 150,000 28 February 1878
200,000 4 March 1878
Üsküp 22,500 10 May 1880
Yenipazar Sancak Less than 10,000 10 May 1880
* In and near cities, unless otherwise noted
** A small number of Pomaks and Circassians included
Before the Ottoman-Russian war of 1877-78, 3,200,000 people lived in the land on
which Bulgaria was founded. Approximately 1,600,000 of these people are Turkish
276 McCarthy, Death and Exile, p.88.
277 Ibid., p.88-89
8 3
and Muslim. They were scattered all over the country. The settlement was mixed, as
expected from the regions where different people lived together for hundreds of years.
The number of villages where Bulgarians and Turks lived together was high.
According to the census results conducted in 1880 in the Principality of Bulgaria and
in 1884 in the province of Eastern Rumelia, which was established after the war,
around 800,000 Turks and Muslims remained in these lands. Eight hundred thousand
people were either killed or had to flee to save their lives.278
Table 2
Surviving Turkish Refugees From Bulgaria* in 1879 (Estimates)
Residing in Number
Edirne Vilayeti 105,000
Selanik Vilayeti 60,000
Kosova and Manastır Vilayeti 140,000
İstanbul** 120,000
Ottoman Asia 90,000
Total 515,00
* i.e., the future area of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia
** Includes Asian dependencies
Some of refugees returned. However, as can be seen from the Table 2, more than
500,000 of them remained as refugees in the Ottoman lands they went to.279 They
settled in Macedonia and Trakya from the lands that remained in the hands of the
Ottoman Empire. But from there, they or their families would once again escape and
become refugees during the Balkan wars.
278 Turan, The Turkish Minority in Bulgaria (1878 – 1908), p. 141.
279 Ibid., p. 90
8 4
4.5.3 Routes of Refugees on Balkans
While the Ottoman government was struggling with the wars, on the other hand, it was
trying to get the refugees out of the war zone in a controlled way. The Ottoman
government instructed its citizens living in critical areas of the northern front to leave
the war zones. But at the same time, the Ottoman State did not want to leave anything
useful for the Russian army. The government also instructed them to burn their food
and animal feed storage so that the invading Russians could not use them, but at first,
the Muslims did not obey these orders, thinking that their losses would be high. The
onset of frontline clashes set them in motion.280
Figure 7. Turkish Refugees Fleeing Toward Şumnu 1877281
However, the problems experienced by the Ottoman Empire at that time were also
reflected in the people living in the Balkans. For this reason, they had to leave the
places where they lived in order to escape the attacks of the Russians. The refugees
280 Turan, The Turkish Minority in Bulgaria (1878 – 1908), p.77
281 Illustrated London News from Holt, The Balkan Reconquista & Turkey’s Forgotten Refugee Crisis,
p. 137
8 5
are trying to save their lives from the enemy's offensive invasion of the Tuna.282 Those
who escaped from Tırnova turned south and set out to cross the Balkan Mountains.
Those who escaped from Dobruca and Northeast Bulgaria went to Şumnu Varna
Region, which the Ottoman army held after the war. Refugees from western Bulgaria
went to Sofya and Üsküp.283 When Sofya fell, the immigrants who had gathered there
fled to Üsküp with Sofya's local Turkish people; from there, they reached the Tatar
Pazarcık and from there to Selanik via Köstendil.284
The news about the migration routes mentioned in the newspaper can be examined.
We learn that about six hundred immigrants sent to Kavala came to Selanik. The
newspaper complains that the people are making an effort for the refugees, but the
government is not showing enough interest. The news mentions that although it was
confident that the refugees would come here ten days ago, no commission was
established285 Even a civil servant was not sent to that region.286
It was mentioned in the previous sections that the Ottoman-Russian War was the most
significant cause of these problems. One of the biggest problems in this period was
that the refugees used the railway to escape. Refugees also prevented the soldiers from
getting support by filling the train wagons to transport soldiers and supplies to the
front.287 Many froze to death alongside the railroad tracks, and observers got used to
seeing human corpses piled up along the way.288
282 Zaman, No. 219, 2 Ramazan 1294 [10 Eylül 1877] p.2-3
283 McCarthy, Death and Exile, p.77.
284 Ibid., p.77.
285 Zaman, No. 220, 9 Ramazan 1294 [17 Eylül 1877] p. 1
286 Zaman, No. 221, 16 Ramazan 1294 [24 Eylül 1877] p. 3
287 H. Yıldırım Ağanoğlu, Osmanlı’dan Cumhuriyete Balkanların Makus Talihi Göç,(İstanbul: Kum
Saati Yayınları, 2001), p. 34
288 McCarthy, Ibid., pp. 78-79
8 6
Figure 8. Arrival Train of Refugees289
Refugees suffer the consequences of this disorder. There is a demand for hospitals to
be used for refugees because they get miserable on the street.290 In the coldest days of
the Balkan winter, many of these people, who had to flee without food, froze from the
cold or starved.291 Mahmut Celalettin Pasha also tells about the difficulties
experienced by refugees. It was a time when winter was intense, and snow was all over
the place. Hundreds of people were frozen on the road.292 Also, he wrote a story about
a women refugee:293
I saw an immigrant woman at the cemetery outside Sofya. She had two
daughters and a son, aged seven or eight, with her. The woman called around
and said, "Let me take care of myself with these girls. Is there no benefactor to
take this boy from me?" she said. At that moment, someone replied, "I accept”
289 Graphic (February 16, 1878) from Holt, The Balkan Reconquista & Turkey’s Forgotten Refugee
Crisis, p. 171
290 Zaman, No. 223, 30 Ramazan 1294 [8 Ekim 1877] p .2
291 McCarthy, Death and Exile, p.79.
292 Mahmut Celalettin Paşa, Mirat-i Hakikat, (İstanbul:Berekat Yayınevi,1983), p. 508
293 Ibid., p. 508
8 7
The poor woman slapped the boy’s neck violently while sending the boy
towards him. When the people there said:" Woman, why are you beating the
child? " I hit this slap so that he would not forget his mother as long as he lived,
even though his pain remained in his heart.
Even with this story, we can guess refugees how much the suffer from the situation.
Figure 9. Flying Before the Enemy294
4.5.4 Circassian Refugees
Apart from the refugees' misery, we also get the opportunity to see their effects in the
places they went. Especially the news of the Circassian refugees is frequently seen in
Zaman newspaper. They cause unrest where Circassian refugees go. It is even
mentioned that they are bad people.295 Even if they were Sunni / Hanafi Muslims,
Circassians had a very different cultural, political and social structure from Ottoman
society. They would now lead a difficult life in foreign geography where they came as
guests. They were faced with dozens of difficulties, mainly due to not knowing
294 Graphic (February 16, 1878) from Holt, The Balkan Reconquista & Turkey’s Forgotten Refugee
Crisis, p.202
295 Zaman, No. 237, 1 Safer 1295 [4 Şubat 1878] p. 3-4
8 8
Turkish. Many of their traditions were found strange, male-female relations were
condemned, women who did not wear veils were not regarded well, and both the
people and the administrators could not understand their ancient traditions such as
horse theft.296
Circassians often attacked the peasants while retreating with the regular Ottoman
army. It is seen that Muslim villages, like Christian villages, were also affected by the
Circassian plunder.297
40-50 years after the exile, the Circassians had problems with the Ottoman society,
and as a result, the refugees took up arms in some regions. In the reports prepared by
the Ottoman officials, the widespread militia activities of the Circassians in the
countryside were mentioned, it was noted that they went to the mountains; it was
claimed that they disturbed the peace by gathering on the streets in Istanbul and were
involved in violence. Over time, a phrase emerged, and these conflicts became known
as “Circassian, Abaza, God forbid!” in Ottoman society.298
4.5.5 Diseases Among Refugees
It was one of the critical problems in the diseases brought by the immigrants at that
time. Due to reasons such as the fact that the crowds in the places where the immigrants
were settled could not be reduced regularly by the state, and the issue of food was not
settled, infectious diseases arose among the immigrants who already had no resistance
to the disease, and the death rate increased.299 Diseases occur, especially in animals.300
296 Elbruz Aksoy, 1864 Çerkes Sürgünü Kafkasya’dan Anadolu’ya Sürgün Hikayeleri, Atlas Tarih,
vol: 71, (October-November 2021), p. 50
297 McCarthy, Ibid., p. 75.
298 Aksoy, Ibid., p. 49
299 İpek, Rumeli’den Anadolu’ya Türk Göçleri (1877-1890), p. 90
300 Zaman, No. 241, 29 Safer 1295 [4 Mart 1878] p. 1
8 9
Also, not only are animal diseases common. It is frequently seen in diseases such as
typhoid and cirrhosis.301 It is also seen in the news that the refugees' clothes are not
good, especially the children are in bad condition. This situation also invites disease.302
Undoubtedly, many more refugees died of the disease than the Russians and
Bulgarians killed. Typhoid-typhus and often smallpox were seen where there were
many refugees. Of the 45,000 refugees in Edirne, 16,000 suffered from typhoid, and
100-120 people died every day.303
Cleanliness rules were not followed in and around the places where the refugees were
collectively sheltered. The streets were not cleaned, the garbage and animal carcasses
were not removed, the sewers were flowing openly, and the graves were left half-open.
This allowed contagious diseases such as smallpox and typhoid to spread quickly.304
We learn that not only the public but also a large number of sick soldiers are among
the refugees.305 Even among the Russian soldiers who fell ill in İstanbul. Due to the
weather's warming, the danger of spreading the disease even to the local population
has emerged.306
As it can be understood from the increasing number of diseases, health services were
inadequate, hospitals were full of immigrants, and patients were waiting in line for
days before being admitted to the hospital. As a result, 800-900 patients with typhus
were in the mosques. This allowed the disease to spread more easily 307
301 Zaman, No. 245, 28 Rebiülevvel 1295 [1 Nisan 1878] p. 3
302 Zaman, No. 278, 28 Zilkade 1295 [23 Kasım 1878] p. 3
303 McCarthy, Death and Exile, p.80
304 İpek, Rumeli’den Anadolu’ya Türk Göçleri (1877-1890), p. 92
305 Zaman, No. 237, 1 Safer 1295 [4 Şubat 1878] p. 3-4
306 İpek, Ibid., p. 90
307 Ibid., pp. 90 – 91
9 0
Figure 10. Refugees in a Gallery of the Mosque of Hagia Sophia308
4.5.6 Refugees in Selanik Province
During the 93 War and in the following period, Selanik province was a collection
center for refugees. While some of the immigrants gathered in Selanik were sent to
Anatolia and Syria, some were tried to settle within the province. The news of the
government's disorder is reflected in the complaints of the newspaper. Although there
are three or four thousand refugees in small places like Kavala, it has complained that
this number is deficient in the Manastır.309 On the other hand, while approximately
15,000 immigrants sent from Kosovo were temporarily settled in Selanik province,
18,874 people were sent from Istanbul to be resettled between 1877-1891.310
308 By Gyula Tornai (1861-1928), Courtesy Damien Peronnet / Art Digital Studio “Sotheby’s from
Holt, The Balkan Reconquista & Turkey’s Forgotten Refugee Crisis, p. 180
309 Zaman, No. 244, 21 Rebiülevvel 1295 [25 Mart 1878] p. 3
310 İpek, Rumeli’den Anadolu’ya Türk Göçleri (1877-1890), p. 176
9 1
We mentioned that the reason for the migration was war. Nevertheless, as time passed,
the war was not the only reason. The cruelty of the Bulgarians also had a significant
impact on the migrations.311 In addition to the pain of the immigration conditions that
refugees always faced, those who fled Bulgaria in 1877-78 were subjected to brutal
attacks by the Russians and Bulgarians, were forced to migrate in winter conditions,
and Ottoman Empire did not provide enough assistance to the refugees.312
Despite the measures taken by the provincial authorities, Selanik still could not be
settled in 1888 due to the constant arrival of refugees, and there were settled refugees
in mosques and madrasahs.313 In Table 3, we have the opportunity to see where the
refugees settled in province of Selanik. The inequality between regions was mentioned
above. In this table, it is seen that more immigrants come to Selanik and Serez districts.
Another important issue that appeared in the newspaper in this irregularity was the
British helping the refugees. We see it for the first time that British officials were the
Ahi Çelebi. It can be seen that food aid is provided.314 Later, aid is sent to the refugees
who is in Gümülcine. Quilt and cardigan aid continue to be supplied to other
regions.315 We frequently read the name of Selanik consul Monsieur Blonde in this
helpful news. Monsieur Blonde mediates assistance, and the newspaper states
satisfaction with this assistance316
311 Zaman, No. 255, 9 Cemaziyelahir 1295 [11 Mayıs 1878] p. 3
312 McCarthy, Death and Exile, p.74
313 İpek, Rumeli’den Anadolu’ya Türk Göçleri (1877-1890), pp. 176,177
314 Zaman, No. 259, 7 Recep 1295 [7 Temmuz 1878] p. 2
315 Zaman, No. 287, 11 Safer 1296 [4 Şubat 1879] p. 2, Zaman, No. 291, 9 Rebülevvel 1296 [3 Mart
1879] p. 2
316 Zaman, No. 328, 29 Muharrem 1297 [12 Ocak 1880], p. 2, Zaman, No. 329, 6 Safer 1297 [19 Ocak
1880], pp. 1-2
9 2
Table 3
Villages and Neighbourhoods Created by Refugees Settled in Selanik Province317
District Village Neighbourhood Buildings
(Houses)
Population
Usturumca Hamidiye 33
Serez Osmaniye 60
Serez Mahmudiye 80
Selanik Selimiye
Selanik Mecidiye
Yenice Hamidiye 100
Tikveş Hamidiye 40 180
Çeç Nahiyesi Hamidiye
Serez Selimiye
Selanik
In addition, philanthropic citizens were also helping the refugees directly. These two
commissions called on the people to contribute continuously and announced the names
of the donors in the newspapers in order to encourage them to help.318 The aid given
to the commissions consisted mainly of the following forms: food aid, monetary aid,
clothing aid. We witness that the people also help refugees with all their deficiencies.
They cook and host refugees as much as possible in their homes.319 The essential needs
of immigrants were met by the people in the villages, towns and cities.320 In 1880, out
317 İpek, Rumeli’den Anadolu’ya Türk Göçleri (1877-1890), p. 177
318 Ibid., p. 39, Zaman, No. 149, 25 Muharrem 1293 [21 Şubat 1876], p.1
319 Zaman, No. 241, 29 Safer 1295 [4 Mart 1878] p. 1
320 B.O.A. Y..PRK.KOM. 1/6, B.O.A. Y..PRK.HR. 1/87, B.O.A. Y..PRK.KOM. 1/23
9 3
of 60,000 immigrants, 30,107 immigrants received food from the government,
including 12,486 in Selanik, 10,352 in Serez and 7269 in Drama.321
When we examine the population numbers in Table 4 together with these numbers, the
size of the number of refugees appears more clearly. In the numbers in 1880, we
understand that there were refugees in the regions almost half the population. In this
way, the difficulty of finding aid and the inability of the people to help can be analysed
better.
Table 4
Province of Selanik Population, 1877 – 78322
Main Census
District
Sancak Population Buildings
(Houses)
Kazas in District
Selanik
Selanik
177,761
13,990
Usturumca, Petriç,
Tikveş, Toyran,
Avrathisarı,
Karaferye, Köprülü,
Yenicevardar
Serez 151,612 9,542 Demirhisar, Zihne,
Melnik, Nevrekop
Drama 63,656 3,521 Darıdere, Kavala,
Yenicekarasu
Total (3) 393,029 27,053 (16)
These aids ran out in a short time. The presence of many wounded and sick soldiers
and poor and miserable refugees in Istanbul caused the local resources to melt in a
very short time. Thereupon, the commissions invited philanthropic institutions and
organizations in Europe to help. As a result of these calls, aid began to arrive from
321 İpek, Rumeli’den Anadolu’ya Türk Göçleri (1877-1890), p. 177
322 Salname of 1294 from Kemal Karpat, Osmanlı Nüfusu 1830-1914,(İstanbul: Timaş Yayınları,
2010), p. 251
9 4
European countries.323 England stands out as the country that helps the most among
these states.324
4.5.7 Evaluation of the Superficial Official Records in the Zaman Newspaper
In this section, together with table 5, the records of events in Selanik, which is
reported monthly in Zaman newspaper, will be examined. However, our main focus
will be on banditry. In the thesis, examples of population statistics from many
sources are given. The numbers written in the newspaper are also very important in
this respect. These are superficial numbers. However, it is still included in the thesis
in terms of creating a different perspective and resource.
Figure 11. An Example of Superficial Official Record325
323 İpek, Rumeli’den Anadolu’ya Türk Göçleri (1877-1890), pp. 79-80
324 Zaman, No. 334, 13 Rebiülevvel 1297 [24 Şubat 1880], p. 4
325 Zaman, No. 272 17 Şevval 1295 [14 Ekim 1878], “Eylül ibtidasından nihayetine kadar alelusul
tutulan kayd-ı resm-i hükmünce bir mah zarfında dahil-i daire-i vilayette başlıca yirmi beş vukuatın
kaydı bulunmuştur. Müddet-i mezkure zarfında vilayetin mahal ve mevak-ı muhtelifesinde otuz üç
maktul yirmi bir mecruh vuku bulmuş ve elli üç kişi dahi esir olarak dağlara kaldırılmıştır...”
9 5
Table 5
Number of Incidents Caused by Bandits in the Province of Selanik
Deaths Enslaved Bandits Killed
by Soldiers
Muslim Christian
No. 264326 6 4 23 2
No. 269327 10 1 14 3
No. 272328 19 1 53 11
No. 276329 22 7 62 56
No. 280330 15 7 10 190
No. 284331 5 3 5 39
No. 289332 5 4 14 7
No. 293333 2 9 2 2
No. 297334 8 16 12 2
No. 301335 4 7 11 8
No. 306336 3 4 6 12
326 Zaman, No. 264, 13 Şaban 1295 [12 Ağustos 1878]
327 Zaman, No.269 18 Ramazan 1295 [15 Eylül 1878]
328 Zaman, No. 272 17 Şevval 1295 [14 Ekim 1878]
329 Zaman, No. 276 15 Zilkade 1295 [10 Kasım 1878]
330 Zaman, No. 280, 21 Zilhicce 1295 [16 Aralık 1878]
331 Zaman, No.284, 20 Muharrem 1296 [14 Ocak 1879]
332 Zaman, No. 289, 25 Safer 1296 [18 Şubat 1879]
333 Zaman, No. 293 23 Rebiülevvel 1296 [17 Mart 1879]
334 Zaman, No. 297, 22 Rebiülahir 1296 [15 Nisan 1879]
335 Zaman, No.301, 20 Cemaziyelevvel 1296, [12 Mayıs 1879]
336 Zaman, No.306, 25 Cemaziyelahir 1296, [16 Haziran 1879]
9 6
Table 5 (cont’d)
Deaths Enslaved Bandits Killed
by Soldiers
Muslim Christian
No. 315337 1 1 4 -
No. 319338 4 4 9 -
No. 323339 1 3 14 3
Total 93 71 239 335
As can be seen above, a record of the events was kept in the Zaman newspaper under
examination for one year, and they were published in the newspaper once a month.
When we take out the people's daily events, the number of people killed by the bandits
appears. These records are explicitly given to the province of Selanik.
In these official records, we witness that the bandits kidnapped and killed people
without distinction between Muslims and Christians. In general, both Greek and
Bulgarian bandits are included in these official records. Trapping people on the roads
and kidnapping them into the mountains as prisoners are among their primary actions.
During this period, an Istanbul newspaper wrote that even an hour away from Selanik
was unreachable because the area was full of bandits.340 As we mentioned in previous
chapters, some prisoners' ears are amputated while others can be released. They also
steal animals such as sheep and goats whenever possible.
Simultaneously, in addition to the death numbers, they also have acts like violating the
house and robbing the shops. Meanwhile, whoever resists, they do not hesitate to kill
337 Zaman, No. 315, 29 Ramazan 1296 [16 Eylül 1879]
338 Zaman, No. 319, 27 Şevval 1296, [14 Ekim 1879]
339 Zaman, No.323, 16 Zilhicce 1296 [1 Aralık 1879]
340 François Georgeon, “Müslüman ve Dönme Selanik,” in Selanik 1850-1918, ed. Gilles Veinstein,
(İstanbul: İletişim yayıncılık, 2014), p. 142
9 7
them. Especially once a priest tries to resist these events, but the bandit kills him and
his child.341
There is an increase in the number of bandits killed in the winter of 1878. It is quite
high compared to other months. However, there is no clue as to the reason for this
situation seen in the statistics in the newspaper. On the other hand, while 91 Muslims
were killed in a year, and 71 Christians were killed at a level close to that, it provides
us with necessary information about the mess the bandits want to cause. The killing of
people every day and taking them to the mountains as prisoners are developments that
can shake people's trust in the state. It is also likely part of the plan to shake this trust,
especially bandits' use to send prisoners back by damaging their bodies.
Bandits are acting to cause unrest and displace the population there. They are trying to
pull out all the confusion necessary for this. The numbers in our hands also support
this.
341 Zaman, No. 280, 21 Zilhicce 1295 [16 Aralık 1878] 128
9 8
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
As can be seen, the rebellion movements that caused significant discomfort in the 18th
century turned into movements that demanded autonomy and independence with the
idea of nationalism in the 19th century. On the one hand, the Ottoman Empire struggled
with the rebellions and, at the same time, fought with Russia. There was turmoil in
many places, and the Ottoman Empire had difficulty using its army in a balanced way.
Banditry movements have also increased and spread among these problems. Over
time, the Ottoman Empire lost the support of Europe against these rebellion
movements. In addition, the support of countries such as England, Russia and Austria
to these rebellions due to their conflict of interests led to even more negative results.
Because of these situations, the years 1875-78 were a very critical period for the
Ottoman Empire. In this period, England, together with William Gladstone, gave up
the policy of protecting the Ottoman Empire. This policy has been very beneficial for
Russia. Along with the revolts in the Balkans, Russia's expansionist policy left the
Ottoman Empire in a problematic situation. Austria also wanted to dominate over
Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to use this problematic situation in its favor. Social
and economic conditions played a significant role in the emergence of such a scenario.
The inability to provide internal authority caused other states to increase their
influence on the Balkans.
Evaluating such a period through a newspaper published in Selanik is very important
in terms of presenting a different perspective. Zaman newspaper has similar features
with a provincial newspaper. Complaints and compliments and various advertisements
in the city of Selanik take place in this newspaper. In addition, letters from other cities
are also significant. They express their complaints to authorized persons through the
newspaper. Thanks to these letters, we understand that newspapers reached the
9 9
province of Selanik and its environs. People see the newspaper as a tool to solve
problems. The language of the Zaman newspaper is understandable and
straightforward. We both get the opportunity to see the telegrams about the European
States and have information about the Province of Selanik.
Thanks to Zaman newspaper, we also have information about the uprisings and wars
of the period. The newspaper thinks that Russia had a significant influence on the
events. Pan-Slavism policy is frequently repeated, and it is stated that Russia has
continued this policy since Peter I. In addition, the newspaper does not think that the
Balkan peoples rebelled against their own will. They are also under the control of
Russia. Russia has plans for the Balkans, and Russia's policy is frequently tried to be
explained to other European states. With this turmoil, the Bulgarians also increased
their rebellion movements. With the Russians supporting them, the Bulgarians had the
power they wanted in order to raise stronger rebellions. In Zaman newspaper, the
public is warned frequently, and they want people to behave in a more controlled way
in this conflict. Any immoral act to disturb this order will be punished.
The general situation explained with examples from the newspaper in the first and
second parts is very important to understand the banditry and refugees’ movements in
the last chapter. In order to save their lives in this turmoil, people left their homes and
had to migrate to various parts of the country. If we look at how the bandits act in
general, we will see that their main aim is to disrupt the order. They want to expel
Muslims from the Balkan region, mainly because they want to become superior in
terms of population. But at the same time, we analyze that they generally do not
distinguish between Jews or Christians in their actions and that they can kill anyone
for their purposes. By spreading these actions to Europe in the opposite way, they try
to attract the European public opinion to their side with this news. The Russian army
also ignores these movements of the Bulgarians in the areas they occupy. Except for
the Bulgarians, Russia collects the people's weapons and makes them vulnerable. At
the same time, when we look at the injured people, we can understand that the Russians
are also persecuting the people most of the time.
10 0
In Zaman newspaper, we see that the governors of the provinces do their duties
incompletely. Especially in military terms, the Ottoman Empire took certain
precautions for bandits. However, the irregular attack of the bandits and the fact that
the state was at war with Russia adversely affected this struggle. People are very
uncomfortable about this. Although the measures are taken work for a short time,
complaints are increasing. For this reason, units were established alongside the regular
army, but they were also not very effective. At the same time, we see people's
complaints from local administrators in the news. There are complaints that banditry
incidents have increased due to not performing their duties well.
With these developments, the Muslim people had to migrate. On the one hand, the
Muslim people fleeing from the Russian army, on the other hand, were subjected to
the atrocities of the Bulgarians. Meanwhile, they suffered misery on the roads and
various diseases spread among the refugees. The Ottoman State tried to collect aid
within itself with the commissions established. However, it was insufficient after a
while, and help was received from Europe. At this point, England became one of the
states that helped the most. The people also helped themselves. People supported the
refugees who came to Selanik as much as they could. At the same time, donations were
collected frequently. Their lists were published in the Zaman newspaper.
In general, when we look at the thesis, we witness the difficulties experienced by
refugees and the atrocities of bandits. Finally, some of Raci Efendi's memories also
summarize how the immigrants felt during the events. He talks about people leaving
their homes in horror. Because gunshots are constantly heard near the houses, these
events enter people's dreams and prevent them from sleeping. Afterwards, guarantees
were given so that the immigrants could return to their homes. However, those who
trusted this call faced a second disaster. He states explicitly that they will prefer the
black stones of the homeland to the bright diamonds of the foreign country. But all
they want is peace and security.342
342 Hüseyin Raci Efendi, Zağra Müftüsünün Hatıraları, p. 210, “Şöyle ki: Yukarda anlatılan vak’alar
gözönüne alınırsa, öyle dehşet içinden çıkan ve cellat önünden kaçan insan, kulağı dibinde
mütemadiyen top patlarken, o evlerde, o köylerde nasıl durabilirdi? Hala o müdhiş hadiseler her gece
rüyalarına girip rahat uyuyamıyorlar. Birçok kimseler, teminata aldanarak vatanlarına dönünce ikinci
bir felakete uğradılar. Evvelki tehlikeden yakasını kurtaranlar, bu ikinci müdhiş vak’ada ezilip gitti.
10 1
While writing the thesis, Zaman newspaper was my primary source. I wanted to reflect
on its characteristics while giving examples from the news. However, at this point, I
could not include the Bulgarian and Greek sources of the period since I do not know
other languages. For this reason, it can be seen as a lack of the thesis because it has a
single point of view. For this reason, I have tried to use many secondary sources to
examine different researches. Another limitation of the thesis is that I did not describe
the period's events in detail. Since I focus on banditry and refugees, I supported them
with news from the newspaper as much as possible. In this way, I wanted it to be a
guide for other researchers who will study those parts. In the central part of my thesis,
I included Zaman newspaper’s news as much as possible. I tried not to give too many
examples from the documents in the books, which are my main sources. I did this both
to avoid repetition and to bring the news of Zaman newspaper more prominent. I
mostly took the results of the books as a reference. Then I evaluated my results.
In the thesis, we have the opportunity to see the perspective of Zaman newspaper in
general. They describe the rebellious nations as monsters. However, the influence of
Russia in these rebellions is very high. At the same time, newspaper warn other states
against these aims of Russia. On the other hand, the newspaper is also seen as a
solution tool. It is understood from the letters sent to the newspaper from different
regions that people think that they can reach the authorized persons thanks to the
newspaper. It is seen that the solutions for the incoming letters are being worked on
and some problems have been solved. In the last chapter, the results, together with the
analysis of banditry and immigration problems, support the secondary sources related
to the subject. The Bulgarians, taking advantage of the occupation of the Russians and
the turbulent situation, persecuted the people living in that region. The Russians also
supported the Bulgarians in various ways and played an important role in the increase
of banditry incidents. As a result of these situations, people had to leave their places.
There is a lot of news on this subject in Zaman newspaper. The problems experienced
by the refugees were tried to be solved by the Ottoman Empire. However, it is seen
Evet vatanın o siyah taşlarını, gurbetin parlak elmas ve pırlantalarına değişmeyiz. Ama emniyet
bekleriz, huzur ve asayiş bekleriz.”
10 2
that the administrators are insufficient in this regard, and complaints increase from
time to time among the people.
10 3
REFERENCES
I. Archival Documents
B.O.A. MF.MKT. 43/20
B.O.A. A.}MKT.MHM. 480/6
B.O.A. HR.TH.. 22/56
B.O.A. HRT.h.. 325
B.O.A. İ..MTZ.(01) 16/527
B.O.A. İ..MTZ.(01) 16/533
B.O.A. Y..PRK.A… 1/106
B.O.A. Y..PRK.A… 1/101
B.O.A. Y..PRK.HR. 1/87
B.O.A. Y..PRK.KOM. 1/6
B.O.A. Y..PRK.KOM. 1/23
II. Zaman Newspaper
Zaman, No. 147, 11 Muharrem 1293 [7 Şubat 1876]
10 4
Zaman, No. 148, 17 Muharrem 1293 [13 Şubat 1876]
Zaman, No. 149, 25 Muharrem 1293 [21 Şubat 1876]
Zaman, No.150, 3 Safer 1293 [29 Şubat 1876]
Zaman, No. 155, 9 Rebiülevvel 1293 [4 Nisan 1876]
Zaman, No. 159, 21 Rebiülahir 1293 [16 Mayıs 1876]
Zaman, No. 160, 28 Rebiülahir 1293 [23 Mayıs 1876]
Zaman, No. 161, 12 Cemaziyelevvel 1293 [5 Haziran 1876]
Zaman, No. 163, 26 Cemaziyelevvel 1293, [19 Haziran 1876]
Zaman, No. 164, 4 Cemaziyelahir 1293 [27 Haziran 1876]
Zaman, No. 165, 11 Cemaziyelahir 1293 [4 Temmuz 1876]
Zaman, No. 166, 18 Cemaziyelahir 1293 [11 Temmuz 1876]
Zaman, No. 167, 25 Cemaziyelahir 1293 [18 Temmuz 1876]
Zaman, No. 169, 17 Recep 1293 [8 Ağustos 1876]
Zaman, No. 170, 1 Şaban 1293 [22 Ağustos 1876]
Zaman, No. 180, 25 Şevval 1293, [13 Kasım1876]
Zaman, No. 192, 12 Safer 1294 [26 Şubat 1877]
Zaman, No. 202, 23 Rebiülahir 1294 [7 Mayıs 1877]
10 5
Zaman, No. 203, 1 Cemaziyelevvel 1294 [14 Mayıs 1877]
Zaman, No. 204, 2 Cemaziyelahir 1295 [3 Haziran 1878]
Zaman, No. 207, 29 Cemaziyellevvel 1294 [11 Haziran 1877]
Zaman, No. 215, 26 Recep 1294 [6 Ağustos 1877]
Zaman, No. 217, 17 Şaban 1294 [27 Ağustos 1877]
Zaman, No. 219, 2 Ramazan 1294 [10 Eylül 1877]
Zaman, No. 220, 9 Ramazan 1294 [17 Eylül 1877]
Zaman, No. 221, 16 Ramazan 1294 [24 Eylül 1877]
Zaman, No. 223, 30 Ramazan 1294 [8 Ekim 1877]
Zaman, No. 226, 21 Şevval 1294 [29 Ekim 1877]
Zaman, No. 229, 13 Zilkade 1294 [19 Kasım 1877]
Zaman, No. 230, 21 Zilkade 1294 [27 Kasım 1877]
Zaman, No. 237, 1 Safer 1295 [4 Şubat 1878]
Zaman, No. 238, 10 Safer 1295 [15 Şubat 1878]
Zaman, No. 239, 17 Safer 1295 [20 Şubat 1878]
Zaman, No. 241, 29 Safer 1295 [4 Mart 1878]
Zaman, No. 242, 7 Rebiülevvel 1295 [11 Mart 1878]
10 6
Zaman, No. 244, 21 Rebiülevvel 1295 [25 Mart 1878]
Zaman, No. 245, 28 Rebiülevvel 1295 [1 Nisan 1878]
Zaman, No. 249, 26 Rebiülahir 1295 [29 Nisan 1878]
Zaman, No. 250, 3 Cemaziyelevvel 1295 [5 Mayıs 1878]
Zaman, No. 251, 10 Cemaziyelevvel 1295 [12 Mayıs 1878]
Zaman, No. 252, 17 Cemaziyelevvel 1295 [19 Mayıs 1878]
Zaman, No. 253, 24 Cemaziyelevvel 1295 [26 Mayıs 1878]
Zaman, No. 255, 9 Cemaziyelahir 1295 [11 Mayıs 1878]
Zaman, No. 256, 16 Cemaziyelahir 1295 [18 Mayıs 1878]
Zaman, No. 257 23 Cemaziyelahir 1295 [24 Haziran 1878]
Zaman, No. 258, Cemaziyelahir 1295 [1 Temmuz 1878]
Zaman, No. 259, 7 Recep 1295 [7 Temmuz 1878]
Zaman, No. 262, 28 Recep 1295 [28 Temmuz 1878]
Zaman, No. 263, 6 Şaban 1295 [5 Ağustos 1878]
Zaman, No. 264, 13 Şaban 1295 [12 Ağustos 1878]
Zaman, No. 267, 4 Ramazan 1295 [1 Eylül 1878]
Zaman, No. 268, 11 Ramazan 1295 [8 Eylül 1878]
10 7
Zaman, No.269 18 Ramazan 1295 [15 Eylül 1878]
Zaman, No.272, 17 Şevval 1295 [14 Ekim 1878]
Zaman, No. 273, 24 Şevval 1295 [21 Ekim 1878]
Zaman, No. 274, 1 Zilkade 1295 [27 Ekim 1878]
Zaman, No. 275, 8 Zilkade 1295 [3 Kasım 1878]
Zaman, No. 276, 15 Zilkade 1295 [10 Kasım 1878]
Zaman, No. 278, 28 Zilkade 1295 [23 Kasım 1878]
Zaman, No.279, 5 Zilhicce 1295, [30 Kasım 1878]
Zaman, No. 280, 21 Zilhicce 1295 [16 Aralık 1878]
Zaman, No.284, 20 Muharrem 1296 [14 Ocak 1879]
Zaman, No. 287, 11 Safer 1296 [4 Şubat 1879]
Zaman, No. 288, 18 Safer 1296 [11 Şubat 1879]
Zaman, No. 289, 25 Safer 1296 [18 Şubat 1879]
Zaman, No. 291, 9 Rebülevvel 1296 [3 Mart 1879]
Zaman, No. 292, 16 Rebiülevvel 1296, [10 Mart 1879]
Zaman, No. 293, 23 Rebiülevvel 1296 [17 Mart 1879]
Zaman, No. 297, 22 Rebiülahir 1296 [15 Nisan 1879]
10 8
Zaman, No. 299, 6 Cemaziyelevvel 1296 [28 Nisan 1879]
Zaman, No. 300, 13 Cemaziyelevvel 1296 [5 Mayıs 1879]
Zaman, No. 301, 20 Cemaziyelevvel 1296 [12 Mayıs 1879]
Zaman, No. 302, 27 Cemaziyelevvel 1296 [19 Mayıs 1879]
Zaman, No. 303, 4 Cemaziyelahir 1296 [26 Mayıs 1879]
Zaman, No. 305, 18 Cemaziyelahir 1296 [9 Haziran 1879]
Zaman, No. 306, 25 Cemaziyelahir 1296 [16 Haziran 1879]
Zaman, No. 315, 29 Ramazan 1296 [16 Eylül 1879]
Zaman, No.316, 6 Şevval 1296 [23 Eylül 1879]
Zaman, No. 317, 13 Şevval 1296, [30 Eylül 1879]
Zaman, No. 318, 20 Şevval 1296 [7 Ekim 1879]
Zaman, No. 319, 27 Şevval 1296, [14 Ekim 1879]
Zaman, No.323, 16 Zilhicce 1296 [1 Aralık 1879]
Zaman, No. 328, 29 Muharrem 1297 [12 Ocak 1880]
Zaman, No. 329, 6 Safer 1297 [19 Ocak 1880]
Zaman, No. 333, 5 Rebiülevvel 1297, [16 Şubat 1880]
Zaman, No. 334, 13 Rebiülevvel 1297 [24 Şubat 1880]
10 9
Zaman, No. 336, 27 Rebiülevvel 1297 [9 Mart 1880]
Zaman, No. 337, 4 Rebiülahir 1297 [16 Mart 1880]
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APPENDICES
A. ETHNIC DISTRIBUTION OF THE OTTOMAN POPULATION IN
THE BALKANS 1876-1878
According to Ravenstein343
Total Population Muslims
Number % Number %
Turks(Tatars) 1.338.000 17 1.338.000 39
Circassians 144.000 2 144.000 4
Arabs 3.000 - 3.000 -
Greeks 1.120.000 14 38.000 1
Albanians 1.031.000 13 723.000 20
Romanians 200.000 2 - -
Bulgarians 2.861.000 35 790.000 22
Serbians 1.114.000 13 442.000 12
Russians 10.000 - - -
Armenians 100.000 1 - -
Jews 72.000 1 - -
Gypsies 104.000 1 52.000 1
Foreigners 60.000 1 5.000 -
Total 8.207.000 100 3.585.000 100
343 E.g. Ravenstein, “Distribution of the Population in the Part of Europe Overrun by Turks.” The
Geographical Magazine 3 (October 1876) from Kemal Karpat, Osmanlı Nüfusu 1830-1914,(İstanbul:
Timaş Yayınları, 2010), p. 123
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According to Bianconi and Kiepert344
Muslims Number Christians Number
Turks and Tatars 750.000 Pure Greeks 3.000.000
Circassians 200.000 Greeks-Albanians 630.000
Bosnians 150.000 Greeks-Wallachs 70.000
Pomaks 140.000 Bulgarians (Orthodox) 3.000.000
Albanians and
Greeks
170.000 Bulgarians (Catholic) 100.000
Total 1.410.000 Albanians (Orthodox) 290.000
Albanians (Catholic) 80.000
Croatians (in Bosnia) 75.000
Herzegovinians 140.000
Serbians 550.000
Armenians 110.000
Vlahs(Romanian) 90.000
Total 8.135.000
344 F.Bianconi, Ethnographie et statistique de la Turquie d’Europe et de la Grece(Paris,1877). pp.50,
Heinrich Kiepert, Das Ausland, no:20 (20 May 1878): 393-416, from Kemal Karpat, Osmanlı Nüfusu
1830-1914,(İstanbul: Timaş Yayınları, 2010), p. 124
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B. MUSLIMS IN EUROPEAN PROVINCES, 1860-1878
A. By Ethnic Group345
Ethnic Group Vilayets Number %
Turks a small
number of Crimeans,
Çerkes, Pomaks and
Albanians
İstanbul 342.200 57
Edirne 597.100 39
Tuna 945.600 45
Sofia 154.200 23
Selanik 264.800 49
Yanya 430.500 36
Albanians and Turks
(Small groups only)
Manastır(Kosova) 860.000 56
İşkodra 141.100 47
Bosnians Bosnia and Herzegovina 520.000 40
Turks Crete 48.400 50
Islands 80.000
Total 4.384.500 44,6
B. By Ethnic Total*
Turks 2.000.000
Albanians 1.300.000
Bosnians 600.000
Circassians 400.000
Others 84.500
Total 4.384.500
*Approximate Totals
345 Engin Akarlı, “Ottoman Population in Europe in the 19th Century: Its Territorial, Racial, and
Religious Composition” (M.A. thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison,1970), p.82, from Kemal
Karpat, Osmanlı Nüfusu 1830-1914,(İstanbul: Timaş Yayınları, 2010), p. 124
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C. POPULATION OF EASTERN RUMELIA BEFORE AND AFTER THE
WAR OF 1877-1878
Before the War After the War346
Muslims Turks 210.000 to 220.000 80.000 to 90.000
Pomaks 20.000 to 25.000 20.000 to 24.000
Tatars 5.000 to 10.000 5.000 to 8.000
Circassians 6.000 to 10.000 -
Gypsies 24.000 to 25.000 15.000 to 16.000
Jews
8.000 to 9.000
7.000 to 8.000
Christians Bulgarian Catholics 8.000 to 9.000 8.000 to 9.000
Bulgarian Exarchists 380.000 to 400.000 370.000 to 380.000
Greek Bulgarians 25.000 to 35.000 25.000 to 30.000
Greeks 25.000 to 35.000 24.000 to 30.000
Greek Vlahs 1.000 to 2.000 1.000 to 2.000
Greek Albanians 1.000 to 2.000 1.000 to 2.000
Armenians 1.000 to 2.000 1.000 to 2.000
346 FO 424/75 (Drummons- Wolff to Salisbury, 26 September 1878), from Kemal Karpat, Osmanlı
Nüfusu 1830-1914,(İstanbul: Timaş Yayınları, 2010), p. 137
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D. TURKISH SUMMARY / TÜRKÇE ÖZET
Bu tez Selanik’te 1876 – 1880 yılları arasında çıkan Zaman Gazetesi haberlerinden
yola çıkarak, o tarihlerde meydana gelen isyanları, savaşları, eşkıyalığı ve bu
problemlere bağlı olarak sayıları gittikçe artan göçmenleri incelemektedir. Hem
Zaman gazetesinin özellikleri incelenmiş hem de gazetenin çıktığı dönemde Osmanlı
Devleti’nin yaşadığı sorunlar analiz edilmiştir. Bu dönemin olaylarını gazete
üzerinden incelemek isteyen diğer araştırmacılar için de bir kılavuz görevi
üstlenmesine çalışılmıştır. Zaman gazetesi genel olarak bakıldığı zaman vilayet
gazeteleriyle birlikte benzer özellikler göstermektedir. Hem vilayetlerle ilgili haberler
yer alırken hem de Osmanlı Devlet’inde meydana gelen gelişmelerle ilgili bilgi de
vermektedir. Halk aynı zamanda gazeteyi bir çözüm aracı olarak da görmektedir.
Yetkili kişilere şikayetlerini bildirebilmek için gazeteye mektuplar göndermektedirler.
Bu dönemde özellikle Osmanlı Rus Savaşı’ndan sonra eşkıyalık olaylarında artış
gözlenmektedir. Rusya’nın ordularıyla ilerlemesi Bulgarları da cesaretlendirmiştir.
Bulgarlar bu karmaşık durumu kullanarak Selanik vilayeti ve çevresinde yaşayan
halka zulmetmişlerdir. Ruslar genel olarak bu duruma göz yummuşlar ve yerli halkı
silahsız bırakarak Bulgarlara yardım etmişlerdir. Ardı ardına gelen olaylar ardından
insanlar savaş ortamından kaçmak zorunda kalmışlardır. İnsanların yaşadıkları
zorluklar ve hayatta kalma mücadeleleri de Zaman gazetesi haberlerinde karşımıza
çıkmaktadır. Tez içerisinde eşkıyalık olayları ve göçmenlerin yaşadıkları problemler
detaylı bir şekilde incelenmiştir. İkincil kaynaklarla desteklenen haberler bu dönem
için farklı bir kaynak sunmaktadır.
Giriş ve sonuç bölümünü çıkardığımızda tez temel olarak üç bölümden oluşmaktadır.
Bu bölümlerden ilkinde Osmanlı Devleti’nin 18 ve 19. Yüzyıldaki genel ekonomik ve
sosyal durumu ve bununla birlikte o dönemde yaşanan problemler incelenmiştir. 1876
– 1880 yılları arasında gazetenin çıktığı dönemde yaşanan karışıklıkları tam olarak
anlamak için Osmanlı’nın yıllar içinde geçirdiği aşamaları incelemek gereklidir.
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19. yüzyılın başlarında, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu eskisinden daha zayıf bir konumdaydı.
Eski gücünü koruyamayan Osmanlı Devleti’nin yanı sıra Avrupa devletleri
ekonomilerini geliştirmiş ve daha güçlü hale gelmiştir. İmparatorluğu etkileyen birçok
sebep olmasına rağmen bu tez içerisinde, Balkan bölgesi ön plana alarak gelişmeler
analiz edilecektir. Bu durumda milliyetçilik en önemli etkenlerden biridir. 19. yüzyıl
Balkan ulusal liderleri ve düşünürleri, kökleri Batı Avrupa'ya dayanan iki siyasi
doktrin tarafından derinden etkilendiler. Bunlardan biri kökleri 18. yüzyıl Aydınlanma
düşüncesine dayanan liberalizmdir. Diğeri de tezin de konu edindiği, karışıklıklara
sebebiyet veren ve kökleri 19. yüzyıl romantizmine dayanan milliyetçiliktir.
Fransız İhtilali ile bugünkü anlamıyla milliyetçilik de ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu durum
Osmanlı İmparatorluğu gibi çok uluslu devletleri çok ciddi şekilde etkilemiştir
Osmanlılar geçmişten beri milletlere karşı hoşgörülü davranmışlardır. Milletler de bu
sayede geleneklerini koruyabilmişlerdir ve kendi yapıları bozulmadan Osmanlı
Devleti’nin son dönemine kadar gelmiştir. Bu hoşgörü politikası, milliyetçiliğe bağlı
problemlerin temelini oluşturmuştur. Ekonomik ve askerî açıdan Avrupa'nın gerisinde
kalan Osmanlı Devleti’nin, Balkanlardaki yönetiminin de bozulmasıyla birlikte
milliyetçilikle ilgili problemler de iyice görünür bir hale gelmiştir. Reformlarla belirli
bir düzen getirilmeye çalışılsa da ilerleme sağlanamamış ve Müslümanlarla
gayrimüslimler arasındaki uçurum yavaş yavaş açılmıştır.
19. yüzyılda Balkan bölgesinin devletlerin ana savaş alanı haline gelmesiyle birlikte
Osmanlı Devleti’nin sorunlarının çözümü çok daha karmaşık bir hale gelmiştir.
Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun gerilemesi, Balkan halklarının isyanı ve Avrupa
müdahalesi gibi meseleler etrafında dönen sorunların tümüne Doğu Sorunu adı verildi.
Bu bölümün içerisinde daha sonra Avrupa devletleri ile ilişkiler özetlenmiştir.
Avusturya, İngiltere ve Rusya bu noktada öne çıkmaktadır. Bu ilişkilerin detayları da
Balkan bölgesinde ortaya çıkan problemler için oldukça önemlidir. Özellikle Osmanlı
Devleti’nin eski gücünü kaybetmesinden sonra büyük devletler o bölgedeki üstünlüğü
ele geçirmek için çeşitli mücadelelere girişmişlerdir.
Rusya, ele aldığımız dönemde Osmanlı Devleti ile en çok sorun yaşayan devletlerden
biridir. Rusya'nın Balkanlar'daki devletler üzerinde etkili olma girişimi ve Osmanlı
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topraklarına yayılma arzusu birçok savaşı da beraberinde getirmiştir. Bu yayılmacı
politikanın tarihine bakıldığında, Rus hükümetinin özellikle 18. yüzyılda Osmanlı
İmparatorluğu toprakları üzerinde planları olduğu açıktır. I. Petro döneminden itibaren
Karadeniz bölgesinde aktif bir genişleme politikası izlenmiştir. 19. yüzyılda Rusya,
Kırım Savaşı’nda yenilgiye uğradıktan sonra tekrardan Osmanlı Devleti’ne karşı
harekete geçmek için beklemek zorunda kalmıştır. Çünkü o dönem gelişen olaylarla
birlikte İngiltere ve Fransa Rusya’nın karşısında yer almıştır. Bu da Rusya’nın
diplomatik olarak yalnız kalmasıyla sonuçlanmıştır. Bu havayı kırmak için bekleyen
Rusya 1870’li yıllarda istediği politik ortamı oluşturmayı başarmıştır.
18. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren İngiltere için en önemli tehlike Rusya'nın
yayılmacı politikası olmuştur. Bu nedenle Rusya'yı ticaret yollarından uzak tutmak
ana politikaları haline gelmiştir. I. Petro'dan beri Rusların yayılmacı politikasının
devam etmesi İngiltere'yi rahatsız etmişti. Özellikle Küçük Kaynarca Antlaşması
İngiltere'nin rahatsızlığını önemli ölçüde artırdı. Başbakan William Pitt 1791'de Avam
Kamarası'nda yaptığı konuşmada, Rusya'nın Karadeniz politikasının İngiliz ticari
çıkarlarına zarar verdiğini ve engellenmesi gerektiğini söyledi. William Pitt, Osmanlı
İmparatorluğu'nun korunması politikasını harekete geçirirken, 1875 yılına kadar inişli
çıkışlı olarak devam eden bölgedeki İngiliz ticari çıkarlarının da korunmasını
sağlamıştır. Ancak İngiliz devlet adamı William Gladstone bu koruyucu politikadan
vazgeçilmesi gerektiğini savunmuştur. Bu sebeple Gladstone politik olarak gücü ele
geçirdikten sonra koruyucu politikanın tam tersi şekilde hareket etmiştir. Rusya’nın
istediği devletler arası ilişkiyi oluşturan en önemli unsur İngiltere’nin değişen tavrı
olmuştur.
Gelişmeler, çok uluslu yapısı nedeniyle Avusturya İmparatorluğu'nu büyük ölçüde
etkilemiştir. Avusturya İmparatorluğu tarihinin son iki yüz yılı, dahil olmak üzere
birçok ulusun ulusal aydınlanma ve ulus-devlet kurma mücadelesine tanık olmuştur.
Bu nedenle imparatorluk dış politikada bazı zamanlar pasif bir politika izlemek
zorunda kalmıştır. Hassas dengeler üzerine kurulu iç dinamikler, dış müdahalelere
karşı savunmasızdı. 1848'deki ayaklanmalar, Avusturya İmparatorluğu içinde
milliyetçilik rüzgarlarının şekillendirdiği ulusal kimlik arayışının olgunlaştığını ve
imparatorluktaki ayaklanmaların bununla sınırlı kalmayacağını gösterdi.
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Bu gelişmeler içerisinde Avusturya, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun toprak bütünlüğünü
korumaya yönelik politikasını belirlemiştir. Osmanlı Devleti’nin toprak bütünlüğü
Balkanlar'da büyük bir Slav devleti kurulmasını engellemektedir ve Rusya'nın Slavlar
üzerindeki etkisini zayıflatmıştır. Ancak Avusturya, İtalya ve Prusya'ya verilen toprak
kayıplarını da telafi etmek istemektedir. Aynı zamanda Bosna ve Hersek'in Sırbistan
veya Karadağ ile bütünleşmesini engellemeye çalışıyordu. Bu sebeple her an Bosna
ve Hersek'i işgal etmeye hazır bir şekilde bekliyordu. Devletler arasında bahsedilen bu
genel durum Balkan devletleri arasındaki sorunların da büyümesine neden olmuştur
Bu bölümün sonunda Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'ndaki medya faaliyetleri incelenmiştir.
Tezin birincil kaynağı Zaman gazetesidir. Bu bölümle birlikte, Zaman gazetesinin
Osmanlı Devleti basın yayın faaliyetleri içerisinde nasıl bir konumda yer aldığını
anlamış oluruz. En önemli kısım vilayet gazetelerinin ortaya çıkışıdır. 1864 yılında
Abdülaziz tarafından Vilayet Nizamnamesi kabul edilmiştir ve matbaa ile ilgili ilk
uygulama Tuna vilayetinde başlatılmıştır. Matbaalar temel olarak valiliklerin kırtasiye
ihtiyaçlarını karşılamaya yönelikti. Ayrıca özel kişilerin matbaalarda yayın yapmasına
izin verilirdi. Bunun sonucunda bir yandan vilayet salnamelerinin yayımlanması
konusunda faydalı bir gelenek oluştu. Kısa süreli uygulamaların olumlu sonuçları
üzerine, her ilde bir matbaa kurularak kültürel olarak gelişmeleri sağlandı. Bu
gelişmelerle birlikte yeni sistemde vilayet gazeteleri doğmuştur. Bu gazeteler aynı
zamanda bölgede yaygın olan ikinci dilde ve Türkçe olarak yayınlanmaktadır. Zaman
Gazetesi de şekil ve içerik bakımından bu gazetelere benzemektedir. Yalnızca bir
sayının beş sayfası vardır, ancak onun haricinde bütün sayılar dört sayfa olarak
yayınlanmıştır. “Her şeyden bahseder Osmanlı gazetesi” olarak kendini tanıtmaktadır.
Gazetede özellikle Osmanlı ile ilişkilerle ilgili haberler yer almaktadır. Kanunlar,
yönetmelikler, kamu görevlilerinin ödüllendirmeleri, atamalar, vali konuşmaları,
resmî duyurular da gazetede bulunmaktadır.
İkinci bölümde ilk olarak Osmanlı Devleti’nin yaşadığı krizlerin nedenlerine
odaklanmaktadır. Özellikle Balkan milliyetçiliğini en bariz bir şekilde gördüğümüz
Makedonya sorunu da bu noktada ele alınmıştır. Bu sorunun detaylarını incelemek
daha sonradan ortaya çıkacak olan anlaşmazlıkları anlamak için oldukça önemlidir.
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Milletler Makedonya olarak adlandırılan bölgenin kendilerine ait olduğunu
savunmaktadırlar. Bu sebeple de incelediğimiz dönemde ortaya çıkan isyanlar ve
eşkıyalık olaylarının temelinde eski topraklara hâkim olma anlayışı sıkça karşımıza
çıkmaktadır. Bu bölümden sonra Zaman gazetesinin yayın yıllarını içeren 1875-78
yılları arasında yaşanan olaylar anlatılmaktadır. İncelenen olaylar, tezin ana konusu
olan eşkıyalık ve göç olayları açısından da önemlidir. Çünkü bu dönemdeki savaşlar
ve isyanlar insanları artık Balkanlarda yaşayamaz hale getirmiştir. Bölümün başlığında
kriz kelimesinin kullanılması tesadüf değildir. Hersek isyanı ile başlayan süreç,
Osmanlı-Rus savaşı ile devam etmiştir.
Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun Batı Avrupa'daki en uç noktaları olan Bosna ve Hersek,
imparatorluk tarihi boyunca kronik olarak kötü yönetim ve yolsuzluklardan
şikayetçiydi. Müslüman toprak sahipleri yüzyıllardır neredeyse bağımsız özerk bir
şekilde orada yaşadılar. İkinci Mahmud reformlar yaptı, ancak çabaları bölgedeki
huzursuzluğun birincil kaynağı olan eski sosyal ve ekonomik yapıyı değiştirmek için
yeterli olmadı. 1875 yılında Hersek'te çıkan isyan büyüyerek uluslararası bir mesele
haline geldi. İsyanın başlangıcında Rusya ve Avusturya, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'na
statükonun korunacağına dair güvence verdiler. Ancak bu resmî açıklamanın yanı sıra
isyancıları kışkırtıp cesaretlendirdiler. Avusturya'da hazırlanan Rus ajanları ve Slav
çeteleri, ellerinden geldiğince isyancılara yardım ediyorlardı. İki devletin bu hareketi
isyancılara güç verdi. Ayrıca Sırbistan ve Karadağ'ı devlete karşı düşmanca hazırlıklar
başlatmaya teşvik ettiler. 1875 yılında Hersek'te patlak veren ayaklanma, 1875-1878
yılları arasındaki Balkan krizinin ilk ve en önemli aşamasını oluşturmuştur. 1876
Bulgar ayaklanmasının, aynı yıl başlayan Osmanlı-Sırp ve Karadağ savaşlarının ve
1877-78 Osmanlı Rus savaşlarının zeminini hazırlamıştır
Mayıs 1876'da Hersek isyanının Bulgaristan'a sıçraması, büyük devletler ile bölgesel
güçler arasındaki rekabeti yeni bir aşamaya taşıdı. Yani Bulgar isyanının
bastırılacağına dair söylentiler Avrupa'da önemli yankı uyandırmış ve Türklere karşı
güçlü bir kamuoyu oluşmasına neden olmuştur. Bulgar isyanının Osmanlı Devleti için
yarattığı olumsuz durum kendisini Avrupa devletleri ile olan ilişkilerde göstermiştir.
İsyan, İngiliz hükümetini Rus emelleri karşısında hareketsiz bırakırken, Doğu
Sorunu’nun çözümünde Rusya'nın Osmanlı Devleti'ne karşı özgürce hareket etmesini
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sağlayacak koşulları yaratmıştır. Bu durumda Osmanlı-Rus savaşı yaklaşmaktaydı. O
yılların olaylarında, bu isyan Panslavizm davasının yararına bir provokasyon olarak
görülmelidir. Amaç, Doğu Sorunu’nu uluslararası görüşe açmak ve böylece Rusya'nın
doğrudan askeri katılımını sağlamaktı.
Nisan ayaklanmasından hemen sonra 1 Temmuz 1876'da Sırbistan savaş hareketlerine
başladı. Bir gün sonra Karadağ, Sırbistan'ı destekleyeceğini İstanbul'a bildirdi.
Böylece Osmanlı devleti ile Sırbistan-Karadağ arasındaki savaş başlamış oldu. Rus
hükümetinin bu savaş ilanını engelleme girişimine rağmen, Sırbistan ve Karadağ’ın
Rusya'dan gelecek olan yardımı beklemek için iyi sebepleri vardı. Osmanlı
İmparatorluğu'nun diplomatik izolasyonu, 1876 sonbaharının başlarında Sırpların
yenileceği netleştiğinde tamamlandı. Rusya bu durumun farkındaydı ve verdiği
ültimatomla Sırbistan'ın ağır bir yenilgiye uğramasını engelledi.
Bu dönemdeki ayaklanmaların ve çalkantıların yol açtığı en kritik sonuç Osmanlı-Rus
Savaşı olmuştur. Bir sonraki bölümde incelenen eşkıyalık olaylarıyla birlikte
insanların göç etmesine neden olan en önemli faktörlerden biridir. Genel politika
olarak Rusya, Balkanlarda Slavların yaşadığı eyaletleri Osmanlı yönetiminden
ayırmak istiyordu. Osmanlı-Rus savaşı Osmanlılar için önemli bir yenilgiyle
sonuçlandı. Bu savaş ve sonuçları, tezin üçüncü bölümünde anlatılacak olan olaylar
için büyük önem taşımaktadır. Çünkü bu savaşın sonunda özellikle Bulgaristan'daki
Türk halkı yüzyıllardır vatan olarak yaşadıkları topraklarda hem katledildiler hem de
göçe zorlanarak sürüldüler. Ruslar ve Bulgarlar tarafından ortaklaşa uygulamaya
konulan ve Türklerin tamamen yok edilmesi olan bu hareket nedeniyle İstanbul'daki
göçmen sayısı yüzbinlerce olarak tarif edilmiştir. Her türlü imkansızlığa rağmen
hayatta kalmaya çalışan göçmenler, Anadolu'nun çeşitli yerlerine yerleşmişlerdir. Bu
krizler, Avrupa devletlerinin Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun iç işlerine karışmasını
kolaylaştırmıştır.
Bu olaylar incelenirken Zaman gazetesinde yer alan haberlerden de yararlanılmıştır.
Gazete Balkan halklarının kendi iradeleriyle isyan ettiğini düşünmemektedir. Milletler
Rusya’nın kontrolü altındadır. Rusya'nın Balkanlar için planları vardır ve Rusya'nın
politikası sıklıkla diğer Avrupa devletlerine haberlerle birlikte anlatılmaya
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çalışılmaktadır. Bulgarlar da Ruslarla iş birliği yapmaktadır. Rusların onlara destek
vermesiyle Bulgarlar daha güçlü isyanlar çıkarmak için istedikleri güce kavuştular.
Zaman gazetesinde de kamuoyu sık sık uyarılmakta ve bu çatışmalarda halkın daha
kontrollü davranmasını istemektedir. Düzeni bozacak her türlü davranış
cezalandırılacaktır.
Tezin üçüncü bölümü, Zaman gazetesinin yayınlandığı 1876-80 yılları arasındaki
yıllara odaklanmaktadır. Tezin ana başlığı olan eşkıyalık ve mülteci hareketlerini
incelemektedir. Selanik şehri bu noktada oldukça önemlidir. Zaman gazetesi burada
çıkmaktadır ve haberler genel olarak bu bölgede yoğunlaşmıştır. Selanik, herkesin
kontrol etmek istediği bir bölgedeki en önemli şehirlerden biriydi. Etnik gerginliğin
en üst düzeyde olduğu ortam kamuoyuna da yansımış, bu olaylara Fransız
Konsoloslarının mektuplarında da yer verilmiştir. Hırsız baskınları ve haydut olayları
sıkça mektuplarda geçen konular arasındadır.
Gazete haberleri haydutların özellikleri hakkında oldukça bilgi içermektedir. Eşkıyalar
her zaman taşların arkasından düzensiz bir şekilde savaşırlar. Birlikler saldırdığında
kaçarak Karadağ veya Sırbistan sınırına sığınmaktadırlar. Genel olarak amaçları
mümkün olduğu kadar çok kaos yaratmaktır. Düzeni bozmak için çalışıyorlar ve
orduyla karşılaşmamaya çalışıyorlar. Hırsızlık ve insanları dağa kaçırmak eşkıyaların
en sık görülen eylemleridir. Serez, Karaferye ve Katrin taraflarında yoğunlaştıkları
belirtilmektedir. Sık görülen özellikleri sıralandıktan sonra Bulgar ve Rum
eşkıyalarının eylemleri analiz edilmiştir. Rumların devletin içinde bulunduğu karışık
durumlardan yararlanmak için sürekli fırsat kolladıkları ve onlara güvenilemeyeceği
sıkça belirtilmektedir. Rumlar özellikle sınırlarda asker biriktirmekte ve saldırmak için
doğru bir zamanı beklemektedir. Ancak gazetenin asıl olarak ağırlık verdiği haberler
Bulgarlar ve onların yaptığı mezalim ile ilgilidir.
Bu dönemde Balkan halkının maruz kaldığı en kötü olaylardan biri de Bulgar
mezalimidir. Bulgarların Ruslarla ortak bir amaçları vardı. Bağımsızlıklarına giden
süreçte Bulgarlar Müslümanları göçe zorlamış, köylerini yakıp yağmalamıştır. Aynı
zamanda Rus ordularına yardım etmiştir. 1877-78 Savaşı sırasında Bulgarlar, Rusları
ilerletmek için büyük çaba sarf etmişlerdir. Çok sayıda Bulgar, Rus ordusunda
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Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'na karşı savaştı ve Bulgarlar, Rus ilerlemesini kolaylaştırmak
için isyan etmeye çalıştı. Bu nedenlerle isyanlarda Rusya'nın rolü de ayrıntılı olarak
incelenmiştir. Bulgar haydutlarının Rus komutanlarının izniyle çok daha saldırgan
oldukları haberlerde sıkça karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Ordunun yetersizliği ile artık çaresiz
kalan halk savaşmaya başlamış ve bununla birlikte Pomak meselesinin ortaya
çıkmasında etkili olmuştur. Ruslar da halka çift taraflı yaklaşmaktaydılar. Müslüman
halkın silahlarını almalarına rağmen Bulgarlara hiçbir şekilde müdahale
etmemişlerdir.
Bulgar halkı arasında tek tip davranış yoktur. Osmanlı'yı hem destekleyen hem de ona
karşı gelen davranışlar vardır. Örnek olarak bakıldığı zaman, tüm Bulgarların isyanı
desteklemediği haberlerde karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Eşkıyaların Bulgarlar tarafından
hükümete teslim edildiği bir raporda görülmektedir. Aynı zamanda mektuplardan
birinde Müslüman ve gayrimüslimlerin bir arada yaşadıkları ve birbirlerinden rahatsız
olmadıkları belirtilmektedir. Bunların dışında Nevrekop’ta yaşayan Bulgarların da
eşkıyalara yardım ettiğini görüyoruz. Evleri yakmak ve yıkmak için çetelere yardım
etmektedirler. Ayrıca Melnik'e ulaşan bir raporda, haydutların köylerde rahatça
dolaştıkları belirtilmektedir. Halktan yardım gelmeseydi bu mümkün olmazdı diye
gazete şikâyette bulunmaktadır. Ayrıca incelenen Hüseyin Raci Efendi de anılarında
Bulgarların casusluk yaptığını ve Rusların da bu casusluk sayesinde gelişmelerden
haberdar olduğunu belirtmektedir. Aynı zamanda Bulgar Müslümanların kendilerine
zulmettiği iftirasını yayarak diğer milletleri Osmanlı Devleti aleyhine çevirmeye
çalışıyorlardı. Bütün bu olaylar, Bulgaristan'daki Türklerin yaşam biçimini belirlemiş
ve değiştirmiştir. Çatışmalar sona erdikten çok sonra, Rus askerleri, Bulgaristan'daki
Müslümanlar artık herhangi bir askeri tehdit oluşturmamasına rağmen, topraklarını
terk etmeye zorlamak amacıyla Müslümanlara saldırmaya devam etmiştir.
Hem savaş sırasında hem de öncesinde eşkıyaların saldırılarına karşı önlem alındığı
görülmektedir. Ancak gazete genel olarak alınan tedbirlerden memnun değildir.
Olayların detayları haberlerde kendini gösterirken yöneticiler haydutların
yakalanacağına dair sözler vermiştir, ancak bunlar yerine getirilmemiştir. Bazı
bölgelerde alınan önlemlerin işe yaradığı gözlemlenebiliyor. İşlerine geri dönen ve
dükkanlarını açabilen insanları görüyoruz. Ancak sıkça karşımıza çıkan bu tarz
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haberlerden anlaşılmaktadır ki eşkıyalık şehir ekonomisini de oldukça kötü
etkilemektedir. Zamanla insanlar işlerine gitmekten korkar hale gelmişlerdir.
Son olarak eşkıyalık ve isyan sonucunda ortaya çıkan kötü durumun insanları nasıl
etkilediği incelenmiştir. Zaman gazetesi haberlerinden yola çıkarak mültecilerin
yaşadıkları zorluklar farklı açılardan gösterilmeye çalışılmıştır. 1877-78 Osmanlı-Rus
savaşından önce Bulgaristan'ın kurulduğu topraklarda 3.200.000 kişi yaşıyordu. Bu
insanların yaklaşık 1.600.000'i Türk ve Müslüman'dır. Ülkenin dört bir yanına
dağılmışlardır. Yerleşim, yüzlerce yıldır farklı insanların bir arada yaşadığı
bölgelerden beklendiği gibi karışık bir haldeydi. Bulgar ve Türklerin bir arada yaşadığı
köylerin sayısı fazlaydı. 1880 yılında Bulgaristan prensliğinde ve 1884 yılında
savaştan sonra kurulan Doğu Rumeli vilayetinde yapılan nüfus sayımı sonuçlarına
göre bu topraklarda 800 bin civarında Türk ve Müslüman kalmıştır. Sekiz yüz bin
insan ya öldürülmüştür ya da hayatlarını kurtarmak için kaçmak zorunda kalmışlardır.
O dönemde göçmenlerin getirdiği hastalıklarda kritik sorunlardan biriydi.
Göçmenlerin iskân edildiği yerlerdeki kalabalığın devlet tarafından düzenli olarak
azaltılamaması ve gıda sorununun çözülememesi gibi nedenlerle, hastalığa karşı zaten
direnci olmayan göçmenler arasında bulaşıcı hastalıklar baş gösterdi. Bunlarla birlikte
ölüm oranı arttı. Rusların ve Bulgarların öldürdüğünden çok daha fazla göçmen
hastalıktan öldü. Birçok mültecinin olduğu yerlerde tifo ve sıklıkla çiçek hastalığı
görüldü. Edirne'deki 45.000 mülteciden 16.000'i tifoya yakalandı ve her gün 100 -120
kişi öldü.
93 Harbi ve sonrasındaki dönemde Selanik vilayeti mülteciler için bir toplanma
merkeziydi. Selanik'te toplanan göçmenlerin bir kısmı Anadolu ve Suriye'ye
gönderilirken bir kısmı da vilayet içine yerleştirilmeye çalışılmıştır. Hükümetin
yönetimdeki yetersizliği haberleri de gazetenin şikayetlerine de yansıdı. Kavala gibi
küçük yerlerde üç-dört bin sığınmacı olmasına rağmen Manastır'da bu sayının eksik
olduğundan şikâyet edilmektedir. Öte yandan, Kosova'dan gönderilen yaklaşık 15.000
göçmen Selanik vilayetine geçici olarak yerleştirilirken, 1877-1891 yılları arasında
İstanbul'dan 18.874 kişi tekrar iskân edilmek üzere geri gönderilmiştir.
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Zaman gazetesi içerisi haberlerde yer alan resmi olmayan kayıtlar incelendiğinde
eşkıyaların asıl amaçlarına dair de bilgiler elde ederiz. Eşkıyalar Müslüman veya
Hristiyan ayırt etmeden öldürmektedir. Eşkıyaların çıkarmak istediği karışıklığı bu
raporlardan açıkça anlayabilmekteyiz. Her gün insanların katledilmesi ve tutsak olarak
dağlara götürülmesi, insanların devlete olan güvenini sarsabilecek gelişmelerdir. Bu
güveni sarsmak da planın bir parçası olarak kendini göstermektedir.
Birincil ve ikincil kaynaklar bu tezde yer almaktadır. Tezin birincil kaynağı 1876-1880
yılları arasında Selanik'te yayınlanan Zaman gazetesidir. Tez bu gazetedeki haberlere
dayanılarak yazılmıştır. Tezde ayrıca Osmanlı arşivlerindeki muhacir ve eşkıyalık
belgelerinden de faydalanılmıştır. Bu konuda yazılmış ve yayınlanmış önemli belgeler
ve kitaplar bulunmaktadır. Bu noktada Bilal Şimşir tarafından yayınlanan 3 ciltlik
Rumeli'den Türk Göçleri önemlidir. Kitapta yerli ve yabancı arşivlerden belgelere yer
verilmiş ve Balkan göçleri incelenmiştir. Tezde destek alınan kitaplardan biri
olmuştur. Ayrıca Zeynep Kerman'ın Atrocities by the Russians in Asia and Rumelia ve
İlker Alp'in Bulgarian Atrocities with Documents and Photographs (1877-1989) adlı
eserlerinde yayınlanan belgeler, Osmanlı-Rus Savaşı'nı ve sonrasında yaşanan
felaketleri anlamak açısından oldukça önemlidir.
Dönemi farklı kaynaklardan değerlendirmek için de anılardan yararlandım. Raci
Efendi'nin anıları bu noktada örnek olarak verilebilir. Zağra Müftüsünün Hatıraları,
özellikle Bulgarların vahşet ve acılarını birinci ağızdan dinlemek için çok önemlidir.
Kendisinin ve çevresindekilerin yaşadığı acı olayları anlatır. Ayrıca birçok yerde
incelenen Bulgar eşkıyaları ve Rusların genel tavrı hakkında da bilgi vermektedir.
Tezde bu konuda yayınlanan belgelerin yanı sıra ikincil kaynaklardan da sıklıkla
yararlanılmıştır. Bu noktada üç önemli kaynak öne çıkmaktadır: Ömer Turan, Turkish
Minority in Bulgaria (1878 – 1908), Nedim İpek, Rumeli'den Anadolu'ya Türk Göçleri
(1877-1890), Justin McCarthy, Death and Exile, The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman
Muslims (1821-1922). Üç kaynak dönemin olaylarını farklı belgelerle çok iyi anlattığı
için, tezdeki olaylar anlatılırken sıklıkla referans olarak alınmıştır. Dönemin genel
siyasi olayları anlatılırken Enver Ziya Karal'ın Osmanlı Tarihi VII. Cilt, Islahat
Fermanı Devri (1861-1876) ve Osmanlı Tarihi VIII. Cilt, Birinci Meşrutiyet İstibdat
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Devirleri (1876-1907) kitaplarından yararlanılmıştır. Ayrıca Fikret Adanır'ın
Makedonya Sorununun oluşumu ve 1908’e Kadar Gelişimi ve Kemal Karpat'ın
Balkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve Milliyetçilik de anlatılan dönemin anlaşılması
açısından oldukça önemlidir.
Sonuç olarak tezde Zaman gazetesinin genel bakış açısı haberlerle birlikte analiz
edilebilmektedir. İsyan eden uluslar bazı haberlerde canavar olarak tanımlanmıştır.
Ancak bu isyanlarda Rusya'nın etkisi oldukça fazladır. Gazete aynı zamanda Rusya'nın
bu amaçlarına karşı diğer devletleri de uyarmaktadır. Gazetenin insanlar açısından
önemi de gazeteye gelen mektuplar sayesinde anlaşılabilmektedir. Gazete genel olarak
bir çözüm aracı olarak görülmektedir. İnsanlar, gazete sayesinde yetkili kişilere
ulaşabileceklerini düşünmektedirler. Gelen mektupların çözüm yolları üzerinde
çalışıldığı ve bazı sorunların çözüldüğü haberlerde karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Son
bölümde ise, eşkıyalık ve göç sorunlarının analiziyle birlikte ulaşılan sonuçlar,
konuyla ilgili ikincil kaynakları desteklemektedir. Bulgarlar, Rusların işgalinden ve
çalkantılı durumdan yararlanarak o bölgede yaşayan halka zulmetmişlerdir. Ruslar da
Bulgarları çeşitli şekillerde desteklemiş ve eşkıyalık olaylarının artmasında önemli rol
oynamıştır. Bu durumlar sonucunda insanlar yaşadıkları yerleri terk etmek zorunda
kalmışlardır. Zaman gazetesinde bu konuyla ilgili birçok haber yer almaktadır.
Göçmenlerin yaşadığı sorunlar Osmanlı Devleti tarafından çözülmeye çalışılmıştır.
Ancak yöneticilerin bu konuda yetersiz kaldığı ve halk arasında zaman zaman
şikayetlerin arttığı görülmektedir.