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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents………………………………………………………..………...……..I
Abstract………...………………………………………………………………….…...IV
Özet…………….…………………………………………………………………..…....V
List of Abbreviations.……………………………………………………….……..…...VI
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1
Subject and Problem of research .............................................................................. 2
Objective and Importance of Research ..................................................................... 5
Methodology and Data Analysis ............................................................................... 5
Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 7
The Place of Bhakti in Hindu Theology ................................................................... 8
Etymological Analysis of Bhakti .............................................................................. 9
Definition of Bhakti ................................................................................................ 11
CHAPTER ONE
BHAKTI MOVEMENT: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
1.1. PRE-BHAKTI PERIOD ...................................................................................... 15
1.1.1. Nastika Sects ................................................................................................. 17
1.1.1.1. Buddhism ............................................................................................... 17
1.1.1.2. Jainism ................................................................................................... 20
ii
1.1.1.2. Charvakism ............................................................................................ 21
1.1.2. Astika sects ................................................................................................... 23
1.1.2.1. Nyaya ..................................................................................................... 24
1.1.2.2. Vaisheshika ............................................................................................ 26
1.1.2.3. Samkhya ................................................................................................. 28
1.1.2.4. Yoga ....................................................................................................... 30
1.1.2.5. Mimamsa ............................................................................................... 33
1.1.2.6. Vedanta .................................................................................................. 35
Shankaracharya ............................................................................................... 37
1.1.3. Theological Sects .......................................................................................... 41
1.1.3.1. Shaivism ................................................................................................. 42
1.1.3.2. Vaishnavism ........................................................................................... 44
1.1.3.3. Shaktism ................................................................................................. 46
1.2. BHAKTI PERIOD ............................................................................................... 47
1.2.1. Alvars ............................................................................................................ 48
1.2.1.1. Poygai, Puttatar and Pey ........................................................................ 52
1.2.1.2. Tirumalisai ............................................................................................. 54
1.2.1.3. Tondaradippodi ...................................................................................... 56
1.2.1.4. Kulasekara ............................................................................................. 57
1.2.1.5. Periyalvar ............................................................................................... 58
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1.2.1.6. Andal ...................................................................................................... 59
1.2.1.7. Tirumangai ............................................................................................. 61
1.2.1.8. Tiruppan ................................................................................................. 63
1.2.1.10. Madhurakavi ........................................................................................ 67
1.2.1.11. Nalayira Divya Prabandham ................................................................ 67
Ramanuja ........................................................................................................ 73
1.2.2 Nayanmars ..................................................................................................... 79
1.2.2.1 Tevaram .................................................................................................. 83
Sambandar ...................................................................................................... 85
Appar .............................................................................................................. 88
Sundarar .......................................................................................................... 90
1.2.2.2 Tiruvachakam ......................................................................................... 91
1.2.2.3 Tiruvicaippa and Tiruppallantu .............................................................. 93
1.2.2.4 Tirumantiram .......................................................................................... 94
1.2.2.5 Prabandhams ........................................................................................... 97
Karaikkal Ammaiyar ....................................................................................... 99
Cheraman Perumal ........................................................................................ 102
1.2.2.6 Periya Puranam ..................................................................................... 103
1.2.3 MAJOR BHAKTI SAINTS ......................................................................... 104
1.2.3.1 Basavanna ............................................................................................. 105
iv
1.2.3.2 Akkamahadevi ...................................................................................... 109
1.2.3.3 Ramanand ............................................................................................. 111
1.2.3.4 Kabir ..................................................................................................... 112
1.2.3.5 Guru Nanak ........................................................................................... 115
1.2.3.6 Vallaba .................................................................................................. 118
1.2.3.7 Chaitanya .............................................................................................. 120
1.2.3.8 Mira Bai ................................................................................................ 123
1.2.3.9 Surdas .................................................................................................... 124
1.2.3.10 Tulsidas ............................................................................................... 125
1.2.3.11 Tukaram .............................................................................................. 127
1.3. Major Impacts of Bhakti .................................................................................... 129
1.3.1. Lingayat; a new religion within religion ..................................................... 129
1.3.2. Sikhism ....................................................................................................... 133
CHAPTER TWO
BHAKTI IN HINDU SCRIPTURES
2.1. Bhagavad-Gita ................................................................................................... 140
2.2. Nalayira Divya Prabandham .............................................................................. 150
2.3. Panniru Tirumurai .............................................................................................. 166
2.3.1. Tevaram ...................................................................................................... 166
v
2.3.2. Tiruvachakam ............................................................................................. 175
2.3.3. Tirukkovaiyar .............................................................................................. 178
2.3.4. Tiruvicaippa and Tiruppallandu .................................................................. 179
2.3.5. Tirumantiram .............................................................................................. 180
2.3.6. Eleventh Tirumurai ..................................................................................... 184
2.4. Bhagavat-Purana ................................................................................................ 186
2.5. Shandilya Bhaktisutra ........................................................................................ 194
2.6. Narada Bhaktisutra ............................................................................................ 208
CHAPTER THREE
THEORIES ON EMERGENCE OF BHAKTI AND
INFLUENCE OF ISLAM
3.1. Indigenous Emergence ................................................................................... 219
3.2. Religion’s Influence on Bhakti Emergence ....................................................... 221
3.2.1 Buddhist and Jain Influence ......................................................................... 221
3.2.2 Christian Influence ....................................................................................... 223
3.3. Islamic Influence ................................................................................................ 226
3.3.1 Advent of Muslims to Indian Subcontinent ................................................. 226
3.3.2. Similarities between Islam and Bhakti ideology ........................................ 233
CONCLUSION ......................................................................... 241
vi
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................... 250
vii
IAbstract
Bhakti in Hinduism offers salvation to the followers through ardent devotion and
love to God and considered as one of three paths of moksha other than Jnana and Karma.
It had triggered a popular movement that may had changed the course of Hinduism paving
the way for two new religions; Sikhism and Lingayats. Our study aims to explore and
rightly present the emergence of Alvars and Nayanmars, whose contributions are often
neglected in literature on Bhakti. To figure out this objective comprehensively, a concise
history of pre-Bhakti period is given, then it elaborates each and everyone of Alvars and
Nayanmars. Their personal history as well as tradition are tried to be unfold since these
personalities hardly recounted in Bhakti literatuters. Contribution of Ramanuja, the first
one to systematically present Bhakti, is sufficiently higlighted in the work. Brief mentions
on key figures of Bhakti also done though it is out of research-focus. I also tried to
illustrate Sikhism and Lingayats; two new religions in Indian sub-continent that evolved
with influence of Bhakti. Texts that discusses Bhakti are unfolded to inspect the
emergence of Bhakti thoughts in Hindu theology. Hymns in Bhagavat-Gita, foremost text
of Bhakti, are expounded as well as Nalayira Divya Prabandham and Shaiva Tirumurai
the canonized collections of Alvars and Nayanmars respectively. Other Bhakti texts like
Bhagavat Purana, Narada Bhaktisutra and Shandilya Bhaktisutra are also investigated. In
the end of study, a succinct note on different theories of influence on emergence of Bhakti
is outlined as well as a conclusion of our research.
Key words: Bhakti, Alvars, Nayanmars, Bhagavat-Gita, Nalayira Divya Prabandham,

viii
Özet
Takipçilerine tanrıya coşkulu bir bağlılık ve sevgiyle kurtuluş sunan Bhakti
düşüncesi Jnana ve Karma ile birlikte Hinduizmde mokşaya ulaşmanın üçüncü bir yolu
olarak kabul edilmektedir. Bhakti düşüncesi aynı zamanda Sihizm ve Lingayatlar olarak
bilinen iki yeni dinin ortaya çıkmasında da önemli rol oynamıştır. Bu çalışmamızdaki
temel amacımız Bhakti düşüncesiyle ilgili araştırmalarda genellikle ihmal edilen Alvarlar
ve Nayanmarların Bhakti hareketinin ortaya çıkmasındaki rolünü sunmaktır. Kapsamlı ve
daha doğru sonuçların elde edilebilmesi için Bhakti öncesi dönemin kısa bir tarihinden
başlayarak sırasıyla Alvarlar ve Nayanmarlar ayrıntılı bir şekilde incelenmiştir. Bhakti
literatüründe neredeyse hiç anlatılmayan bu şairlerin hayatlarına dair bilgiler verdikten
sonra geleneklerine katkıları ve gelenek içerisindeki konumları da tespit edilmeye
çalışılmıştır. Bu çalışmamızda aynı zamanda Bhakti düşünceisini sistematik olarak ilk
kez anlatan Ramanuja’nın katkılarına ışık tutulmuştur. Araştırmamızın ana konusu Bhakti
hareketi olmasından ötürü Bhakti'nin diğer önemli figürlerine ilişkin de bilgiler
verilmiştir. Daha sonra Bhakti’nin etkisiyle Hint alt kıtasında gelişen iki yeni din olan
Sihizmi ve Lingayatlar da ele alınmıştır. Bhakti’nin en önemli dini metni Bhagavat-
Gita’daki ilahiler, sırasıyla, Alvarlar ve Nayanmarlar’ın şiirlerin koleksiyonları olan
Nalayira Divya Prabandham ve Shaiva Tirumurai da incelenmiştir. Ayrıca Bhakti
düşüncesini konu edinen Bhagavat Purana, Narada Bhaktisutra ve Shandilya
Bhaktisutra gibi temel metinler analiz edilmiştir. Son olarak çalışmamız Bhakti
düşüncesinin ortaya çıkışını tetikleyen faktörlerle ilgili öne sürülen farklı teorilerine dair
bir değerlendirme ve sonuç bölümünden oluşmaktadır.
Anahtar Kelimeleri: Bhakti, Alvarlar, Nayanmarlar, Bhagavat-Gita, Nalayira Divya
Prabandham, Shaiva Tirumurai, Narada Bhaktisutra and Shandilya Bhaktisutra.
ix
List of abbreviations
BCE. = Before Common Era
BhG. = Bhagavat-Gita
BhP. = Bhagavata Purana
CE. = Common Era
NdBhS. = Narada Bhaktisutra
NlDvPb. = Nalayira Divya Prabandham
P. = Page
PtYgSr. = Patanjali Yogasutra
RgV. = Rigveda
RjGtBh. = Ramanuja Gitabhashya
ShBhS. = Shandilya Bhaktisutra
ShTsVtr. = Shvetashvatara Upanishad
V. = Volume
1
INTRODUCTION
While mysticism is a common phenomenon found in religions, the crux of some
religions itself is imbued and developed with it. Even though we can understand
mysticism as a metaphysical explanation of sacred texts or concepts of religion, it’s very
complicated and complex to define it exactly. If the particular elements of each religions
left aside, the mystic interpretations are corresponding each other in most cases like the
merging with highest existence is considered as the zenith of mysticism.
When Mysticism is represented by Sufism in Islam, Kabala in Judaism and
monastic culture in Christianity, Bhakti is marked as mystical exposure in Hinduism the
religion originated and developed in Indian subcontinent where ascetism had sprouted.
Starting from Veda period, Hindu religious tradition revolved around rigid rituals as well
as philosophical discussions about the nature of soul, God and mode of salvation.
Producing a vast collection of materials including Upanishads and Brahmanas, Hinduism
had turned into six Astika (orthodox) sects and some other Nastika (heterodox) sects.
After a long course of philosophical discourses, Hinduism takes a turn towards theistic
expressions that marked by Bhakti and its movement. Bhakti, more than a mysticism,
seems to have played a revivalist role in Sanadhana Dharma-how Hinduism was
mentioned before seventeenth century- attracting large mass to Dharma fold. Contrary to
Brahmanism that restricted moksha only for selected upper castes, Bhakti had offered
eternal salvation for all irrespective of caste and creed, gaining popularity. It taught that
everyone can attain moksha the eternal salvation in Hinduism with divine devotion and
dedication, replacing the earlier belief of attaining it only after obeying strict socioreligious
orders and rituals. Bhakti movement, originating from south India roughly in 7th
century, had been developed in central India from 12th century onwards and touched its
peak in Northern India from 15th to 17th centuries. Even though Bhakti faded from the
scenario with the conquest of Indian subcontinent by British army in 18th century, it had
already influenced extensively both Hindus and Indian people. Even though works on
Bhakti movement are abundant, the work that deals with the emerging period of the
movement is rare, therefore it invites for research on the topic that can depict how Bhakti
2
and movement were emerged and accommodated within Hinduism that was ritualistic
religion till then.
Even though Bhakti had developed and flourished in central and northern India
throughout different communities in its history of one millennium, it had originated in
south India. Contrary to other parts of India, southern India–thanks to its geographical
specialties- had familiarized with religions and movements that erupted in other parts of
the world in earlier period than rest of India as it engaged with different states and
communities through the sailing merchants who passed in the Arabian and Indian seas.
As the principles of belief, proposed social structure had visible changes in Hinduism
before and after Bhakti movement, it may denote that Bhakti is not a movement from
inner circle of the religion itself but a trend that developed with the influence from
external sources most likely other religions. The advent of Islam to the subcontinent soon
after the demise of Prophet Muhammed in 7th century through the sea merchants is clear
in the documents. Since Islam entered south India and Bhakti originated in south India in
same time span as well, examining the possible influence of Islam on Bhakti is inevitable.
As it shows great similarity between principles of Islam and Bhakti’s teachings on beliefs,
methods towards moksha and social structure, it should be worthful to conduct research
to check whether it had influenced or not, that focuses on the emergence of Bhakti
movement and influence of Islam as well as other religions.
Subject and Problem of research
Even though Bhakti movement had developed and flourished in central and
northern India throughout different communities in its history of one millennium, its
emergence as an ideology had brought different narratives. Many historians had attributed
its origin to Ramanuja (d.1137) a Hindu theologian lived in twelfth century while some
others focus, when they discuss Bhakti movement, only on Bhakti’s development in
central India and Northern India that happened from 12th to 18th centuries. Moreover,
while discussing Bhakti and its movement, excessive focus of scholarly circle on
Ramanuja and limiting on medieval poets like Kabir (d.1518) and contemporaries had
created a shrinking of Bhakti to these images only. While assigning Bhakti’s origin to
3
Ramanuja seems as s misunderstanding, the limiting of Bhakti to medieval poets is might
be because of incomprehension of Bhakti movement. Even though the works that discuss
Bhakti movement only, mentioning of Alvars and Nayanmars and their enormous
composition in which Bhakti really awakes, was often ignored. These cases also motivate
research that scrutinizes the emergence of Bhakti in Hinduism especially its origin as a
movement in south India. In the research, vast texts of Alvars and Nayanmars must be
inspected thoroughly especially their contribution in awakening Bhakti in Hindu religion.
In Vedic scriptures, Bhakti was only regarded as one of three of paths to
salvation along with Karma and Jnana Margas and that was only in later texts like
Bhagavat-Gita. Later, the concept was strengthened through poets and their poems that
are widely circulated to the people, and persuaded them to hug the Hinduism. It is to be
noticed that these poems were written in vernacular languages instead of Sanskrit that
may be conceived as formal or authoritative language of Hinduism in which Brahmins
are considered superior. Along with the movement’s strengthening across Indian
subcontinent through engaging with different societies, Bhakti split up to different
streams, and different forms of Bhakti had developed. Since the principles of belief,
proposed social structure had visible changes in Hinduism before and after Bhakti
movement, some historians noted that Bhakti is not a movement from inner circle of the
religion itself but a trend that developed with the influence from external sources most
likely other religions. Considering different reasons, many theories are raised by different
historians ranging from indigenous identity of the movement to external influence of
religions like local religion of Buddhism and foreign religions of Christianity and Islam.
When different theories are looked over, some historians have made effort to connect it
with their background like orientalists who were eager to bridge it with Christianity as
well as some Muslim historians who tried to link it with Islam. To better understand these
theories and conclude, it needs an unbiased and objective inspection of Bhakti
movement’s emergence and influence of other religions, thus it highlights the vitality of
a research on its emergence.
4
The research will focus on both historical and doctrinal emergence of Bhakti and
its movement especially those developments in the emerging period. The subject of
research constitutes around how Bhakti and its movement were emerged both in texts and
history. Considering the problem and subject of research, the research focus is only on
period before tenth century the end of emerging period. The problem of scrutinization is
how Bhakti and its movement were emerged in Hinduism, therefore, the research will
revolve mainly around Alvars and Nayanamars, the first proponents of Bhakti. Meantime,
popular images of Bhakti especially developments happened after eleventh century is out
of research’s scope, yet these are mentioned briefly to fill the gap if avoids.
In nutshell, the main questions that aim to answer it throughout our research are
as follows;
A. “What is Bhakti and what are its main teachings?”
B. “Was Bhakti mentioned in Vedas. What are other scriptures that discuss
Bhakti?.”
C. The prime question of research is “how Bhakti was emerged in Hinduism
in both doctrine and tradition?” Regarding this question, I aim to answer
the question of “what is the role of Bhagavat-Gita in Bhakti movement?”
D. “what are the roles of Alvar and Nayanmar poets in Bhakti movement and
its emergence?”
E. “What are the teachings of great canons of Nalayira Divya Prabandham
and Panniru Tirumurai and how these canons contributed in the
emergence of Bhakti?”
F. “Is Ramanuja the first one to introduce Bhakti?” Regarding this question,
I closely examine the notion that Ramanuja was the first one to introduce
Bhakti.
G. “What is the influence of Islam in the emergence of Bhakti and its
teachings?”
H. To clearly answer the last question, I aim to answer the question whether
religion other than Islam had influenced in the emergence of Bhakti.
5
Objective and Importance of Research
The prime objective of research is to understand the emergence of Bhakti and its
movement in Hinduism. Since different theories arose on emergence and influence of
other religions to ignite this emergence, an unbiased and objective description of
emergence is another prime motive. Research that scrutinizes these different theories and
conclude, therefore, the research is important and unavoidable one in the field.
The great Bhakti canons of four thousand hymns of Alvars and more than fifteen
thousand hymns of Nayanmars, were little discussed in academic texts on Bhakti and its
movement. Raising the gloomy curtains on enormous compositions of Alvars and
Nayanmars is also one of the objectives of the research. Beside these, it is also aimed to
present a scholarly study on mystic movement of Hinduism, thus it may help the
comparative religious discourses on mysticism especially when different theories of
cross-cultural and religious influence revolve around mysticism. As few works on
mystical movements of Hinduism are done in Turkey, the research can contribute well to
the field and encourage researchers to compose works on the subject and related fields.
These objectives of research illustrate the importance of the topic. Research that focuses
on emergence of mysticism in Hinduism will help to comprehend the synchronizations
of ideologies, a major significance of research.
Methodology and Data Analysis
Since the research is on the field of History of Religions, I aim to use its own
methods. For this reason, I plan to portray the subject from an internal perspective and to
discuss it using descriptive method from the information given in the sources. Rather than
depending on secondary sources that describes Bhakti, I collected data from first sources
of Bhakti as much as possible. I had also depended on precise translation-materials of
many texts rather than translating ourself that may bring false understandings. In the first
part of first chapter, I tried to summarize pre-Bhakti Hinduism as a step to our subject and
as a helping note for first reader of Hinduism. In the section, I had also used secondary
sources to easily summarize long history. In the study, data is collected from relevant
6
literature, especially the first sources of the movement, in accordance with current
research methods.
In our research, resources like books, articles, theses, periodicals, web pages that
are written on the subject are used. When I analyzed the various scriptures, most authentic
translations were used as well as understanding from original language where possible.
When historical data is not available other than traditional documents, I had mentioned it
deliberately. The sources that obtained, will be read and recorded after being classified
within the framework of hypotheses. The obtained data will be evaluated in accordance
with the concepts formed within the framework of the topic which are put forward by the
research questions. Thus, I try to examine the works within the framework of principles
of rationality, objectivity and coherence.
An introduction to understand Bhakti, its etymology and definition is the first
part of our study. The first part of first chapter traces pre-Bhakti state of Hinduism in
order to better understand of Bhakti and the changes it had brought. Next, I closely inspect
the emergence of movement historically, then proceeds to mention some important
figures of Bhakti movement. I also try an aftermath picture of Hinduism after Bhakti
movement developments in order to understand how Bhakti influenced Hinduism as well
as Indian society. In the second chapter, I closely examine Bhakti in various scriptures of
Hinduism starting from Bhagavat-Gita to Panniru Tirumurai including Nalayira Divya
Prabandham the collection of Naynamars and Alvars respectively. I use descriptive
method when I analyze the emergence because it will suit our objectivity, so a deliberate
effort is done to present it as it is. As I noted earlier, the advent period and geography of
Islam to Indian subcontinent resembles the emerging period and geography of Bhakti as
well. So, I discuss the possible influence of Islam on the emergence of Bhakti along with
different theories on the emergence. In the section, I had used comparative method while
discussing these theories of influence from Christianity, Buddhism or Islam rather than
descriptive method.
7
Literature Review
Even though there are vast works on Bhakti, the literature that specially focuses
on the emerging period of Bhakti highlighting the contributions of Alvars and Nayanmars
is very rare. Most of works on Bhakti, revolve around main Bhakti figures in central and
northern India. Many works attribute Ramanuja, the first one to systematically present
Bhakti, as the founder of Bhakti diminishing the enormous contribution of Alvars and
Nayanmars.
While giving an introduction and a short History of Bhakti period, I had relied
on primary sources as well as secondary sources in order to get concise history. Since I
couldn’t find a single text that elaborately discusses each and every twelve Alvar poets,
we had used different works that discusses different or some Alvar poets. Yet, a short
chronological note is available in ‘Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with special
reference to Nammalvar’ of N. Subbu Reddiar (d.2006), on which we depended to rightly
present the chronology of these poets among different dating in various texts. To trace
the history of Alvars as well as their contribution to Bhakti literature, I had mainly
referred ‘Alvars of South India’ of K.C Varadachari (d.1971), 'Philosophy and theistic
mysticism of the Āl̲vārs' of S. M. Srinivasa Chari, and ‘Krishna: A Source Book’ of
Vasudha Narayanan. Even though all four thousand hymns of ‘Nalayira Divya
Prabandham’ were collected and translated in ‘The Sacred Book of Four Thousand’ of
Srirama Bharati, I also referred various works that discussed specified Alvar and his
poems. Moreover, I had collected poems or hymns only with very little mention about the
author. I had extensively relied on English translations of these hymns wherever available
to escape from the faults while translating.
Like in the case of Alvars, there is not any historical text that gives enough
details on each and every 63 poet-saints of Nayanmars, so I inspected their history from
various works. Even though 'Sixty-Three Nayanar Saints’ of Sivananda mentions all 63
Nayanmars, the work is hagiography rather a historical text. Since historicity of
Nayanmars except very few is not sure, I had depended on the text where historical note
is not available. Other works that I depended to trace the history of Nayanmars are
8
‘Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais’ of V.C. Sasivali, 'The Historical Study of
Tevaram Hymns' of A.M Paramasivanandan and unpublished thesis 'Sanskrit Words in
Tevaram' of B. Sreenivas. As in the case of personal history, I couldn’t find any work that
collect all 12 Tirumurai of Nayanars. Since these twelve Tirumurais are scattered, I had
separately inspected Bhakti hymns from hymns more than fifteen thousand. In the last
part of our research where external influence was discussed, I inspected various texts to
examine different opinions of different authors from different backgrounds who studied
about Bhakti. In the section, texts of authors who defend indigenous origin of Bhakti
movement are also inspected.
The Place of Bhakti in Hindu Theology
According to Sanadhana Dharma1 philosophy of life, popularly known as
Hinduism nowadays, one Sanadhin, a Hindu, should move on his life with four principles;
Kama, Artha, Dharma and Moksha. Starting with Kama, he must continue his life with
Artha and Dharma aiming Moksha the salvation that saves his from Samsara2 cycle.
While Kama means emotion and points to the necessity of marital life to satisfy emotions,
Artha means earnings and encourages to make a living in good manner. Since Dharma
means ethics, it instructs to follow religious duties till he attains Moksha or Mukti, the
liberation achieved through realization of God.3 Dharma are those instructions in Veda
and its auxilary texts. Ther term ‘Moksha’ is derived from ‘much’ in that means
discharge, release or let go. The term ‘Moksha’ means freedom, liberty or emanicipation
and it is used in Hinduism to denote eternal salvation from Samsara cycle or cycle of birth
1 Sanadhana Dharma is a Sanskrit term that means ‘eternal duties.’ This is how Hindus identify their
religion. For more information, pls refer Saduseelan K Paramesvara Pillai, Hindu Dharma Parichayam
(Thrissur: Sri Ramakrishna Madam, 2001), p. 7.
2 Samsara is cycle of birth and death. One suffers because of his birth; therefore, salvation is to be free from
the cycle.
3 Bhaskarananda, The essentials of Hinduism: a comprehensive overview of the world’s oldest religion
(Mylapore, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1998), p. 7.
9
and death.4 There are three paths (marga) to attain the salvation; Karma Marga (the path
of action), Jnana Marga (the path of knowlege) and Bhakti Marga (the path of devotion
and love).5
The term ‘Karma’ is derived from ‘Kri’ which means ‘to do’ in Sanskrit. In
Hinduism, it is also used to denote the effects of actions and our actions in the past are
the the causes of these effects.6 Karma, as a path (marga) towards liberation, is acting
rightly to please the God.7 According to Karma, a Sanadhin can get his desired result if
the Yajna (Vedic sacrifice) perfomed correctly as presrcibed in Vedas without any false.8
Yajna should be organized as instructed in Brahmana in the presence of numerous priests
reciting the mantras in particular accent assigned to that specific ritual without giving any
chance of minute faults as it may spoil the deed itself. Moreover, it needs many resources
like rice and milk and even animal to complete Yajna and may long two days to 12 years
to successfully complete the ritual.9 Jnana Marga, the path of knowledge, is another path
towards liberation and will be discussed in detail in first chapter. Third path of Moksha
is Bhakti Marga the path of love and devotion and it is the core subject of our research.
Etymological Analysis of Bhakti
Even though different opinions are put forward by many researchers on
terminological analysis of term ‘Bhakti’, I try to describe almost of them as it will help
4 Rhys Davids., “Moksha.” V. VIII, p. 770.
5 W. J. Johnson, A dictionary of Hinduism, 1st ed (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), p.
53. In some relatively later texts, four paths are mentioned instead of three. But three is regarded here as in
most texts.
6 Swami Vivekananda, The complete works of Swami Vivekananda (Culcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1958), v.
I, p. 27.
7 Bhaskarananda, The essentials of Hinduism: a comprehensive overview of the world’s oldest religion, p.
133.
8 W. J. Johnson, A dictionary of Hinduism, p. 170.
9 S.N. Dasgupta, Hindu Mysticism (New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1959), p. 4-7. For detailed
reading on Karma-Yoga, please refer; Vivekananda, Karma Yoga and Bhakti Yoga.
10
us to understand the term from diverse perspectives. The term ‘Bhakti’ is derived from
Sanskrit term ‘bhaj’ which carries meanings like divide, distribute, dispense, supply,
provide, get one’s share- as in Vedic usages-, revere, serve, and worship.10 The term
‘bhaj’ is also used in Rigveda to mean ‘worship’ as it says “A asya jananto nama chid
vivkatna mahas te Vishno sumatim bhajamahe (O Lord Vishnu, we worship you, and we
are fully conscious of the spiritual nature of your holy names enjoy the grace of thee the
mighty one) (RgV. 1/156).”11 (The suffix of ‘ktin (ti)’- that used generally to give form
of an action or agent noun- is added, thus the term ‘Bhakti’ can mean reverence,
experience, practice and recourse.12 ‘Bhakti’ was used in earliest times as a condition
where one has share in others, for the term carried the meaning of ‘share’.13
Acting from ‘Bhakti’ is being derived from ‘bhaj’ which means ‘divide,
distribute, share and take part’; some scholars assert that ‘Bhakti’ comes for ‘possession’
or ‘dividend’. In early usages, while term ‘bhagavat’ was used for tribal chief as he was
the owner of wealth, term ‘Bhakti’ was used for a dividend of the wealth and term
‘bhakta’ for one who possesses it. In Panini Sutra, one of ancient religious texts, ‘Bhakti’
was used to denote material wealth that possessed by anyone and it was also, in early
days, used in place of ‘Prasada’ the term used by Hindus nowadays for any gift that
symbolizes fondness of God. Then, it was being used to denote the fondness and
commitment between them but it hadn’t carried any kind of degree in the meaning, neither
of one who gives nor of one who accepts; thus, it was used for both fondness of God to
servant and servant to God. And in texts next to them, ‘Bhakti’ gradually used only for
10 https://www.sanskritlexicon.unikoeln.de/scans/MW72Scan/2014/web/webtc/servepdf.php?page=0695,
retrieved on 12/1/20.
11 Ralph T.H Griffith, trans., Rigveda (Benares: E.J Lazarus and Co., 1896), v. I, p. 209.
12 Krishna Sharma, Bhakti and The Bhakti Movement: A New Perspective (New Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal Publishers, 1987), p. 40.
13 Vasudha Narayanan, “Bhakti,” Brill’s Encyclopedia of Hinduism, ed. Knut. A Jacobson (Leiden: BRILL,
2010), p. 710.
11
servants’ dedication and fondness to God, while term ‘bhagavat’ for God and ‘bhakta’
for anyone committed towards him.14
‘Bhakti’, though it was being used for extensive dedication and limitless love of
servant to God in Bhagavad-Gita part of Mahabharata legend, labelled and addressed a
new path that proposed Bhakti Marga (path) for moksha the eternal salvation along with
Karma and Jnana Margas. In short, while ‘Bhakti’ was used for material possession in
ancient texts, later it denoted a Marga that projected way of dedication and love to attain
moksha the eternal salvation for Hindus.
Definition of Bhakti
Bhakti was defined differently by various proponents of Bhakti, which will help
us to understand Bhakti through different dimensions. Ramanuja (d.1137), the first one
to present Bhakti systematically, says defining Bhakti yoga “Bhakti Yoga is abidance in
meditation and other forms of adoration with one-pointed love for the supreme Being
(RjGtBh 1/15,16,24).”15 He places ‘Brahman’, as object of meditation, so Bhakti is
continuous loving meditation of the beloved.16
In Narada Bhaktisutra Bhakti is defned like this “Bhakti is of the nature of
highest love for this one (God). And of the nature of immortal bliss (NrBhSr. 1/2,3).”17
Shandilya Bhaktisutra defines as follows:
14 Jaiswal, The Origin and Development of Vaisnavism, p. 111.
15 Rāmānuja, Śrī Rāmānuja Gītā bhāṣya, trans. Adi Adidevananda (Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Math, 2009),
p. 6.
16 Krishna Datta Bharadwaj, The philosophy of Ramanuja (New Delhi: Shri Shankar Lal Charitable Trust
Society, 1958), p. 169-170.
17 Y. Subrahmanya Sarma, Narada’s aphorisms on Bhakti (Mysore: The Adhyatma Prakasha Karyalaya,
1938), p. 2.
12
“That (Bhakti) is to have supreme, true, undiluted and untainted love and attachment
(paranurakti) for the Supreme Being, the Lord God of creation (risvare) (ShBhSr. 1/1/2).”18
Swami Vivekananda (d.1902), the famous figure of Hinduism in modern times,
says defining Bhakti:
“Bhakti-Yoga is a real search after the Lord, a search beginning, continuing, and ending
in love. One single moment of the madness of extreme love to God brings us eternal freedom.”19
In all these definitions, great reverance and attachment towards God with lovely
approach is witnessed, thus in Bhakti, moksha is attained through love and devotion.
Even though there are different categorization of Bhakti based on various
principles, it differs mainly as Saguna (with attributes) and Nirguna (without attributes)
Bhakti. In Saguna Bhakti, devotees are keeping relation with God who has forms and
attributes often represented by images or statues whereas Nirguna Bhakti proposes a God
without forms. According to the classification, Alvars and Nayanmars were proponents
of Saguna Bhakti while Basvanna (1196), Ravidas (1520), Mirabai (d.1547), Surdas
(d.1584), Tulsidas (d.1623) and most importantly Kabir imagined God as Nirguna.
Regarding the source of each kind, Nirguna is Jnanshrayi (rooted in knowledge) while
Saguna is Premashrayi (rooted in love).20 As some theologians tried to trace the origin of
Bhakti in Vedas, they understood call for genuine spirit of worship as first step of
devotion and named it as Shraddha21 Bhakti.22
18 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, (Faizabad: Pothi online publishers, 2018), p. 17.
19 Swami Vivekananda, The complete works of Swami Vivekananda (Culcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1958), v.
III, p. 31.
20 Karen Pechilis, The embodiment of Bhakti (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 21.
21 ‘Shraddha’ means ‘genuine regard’. For more information on Sraddha Bhakti, pls refer; Shastri, The
Bhakti Cult in Ancient India.
22 Bhagwat Kumar Goswami Shastri, The Bhakti Cult in Ancient India (Delhi: Oriental Publishers and
Distributors, 1924), p. 2-3.
13
CHAPTER ONE
BHAKTI MOVEMENT: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Hinduism, one of the oldest religions in the world, is a general denotation to
wide range of religious practices and ideas of communities lived in Indian subcontinent
that have evolved over three millennia through cross-cultural interconnections which led
to divine worship in diverse forms. Even there is a hot debate on whether Hinduism is
religion or tradition of the native lived beyond Indus River, a scholarly consensus is being
prevailed in academic circle that the term rightly denotes the religion which was identified
by its followers as ‘Sanadhana Dharma’,23 however, it is notable that the term
‘Hinduism’ which refers a pan-Indic set of religious practices and ideals, was firstly used
by Raja Ram Mohan Roy (d.1833) and that was only in 1816.24
Although most Hindu communities recognize the authority of Vedas the name
used for vast collection of scriptures in general and for 4 Vedas in particular namely
Rigveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda and Samaveda,25 it is tough task to distinguish each
practices and beliefs that every Hindu is associated.26 Indeed, defining Hindu as one who
accepts the Veda as revelation is popular,27 yet almost of them believe the incarnation of
divine in variety of forms and the Samasara cycle that makes Atma or Jiva the eternal
soul to be reborn in body after another due to karma the reverberation of human actions,
till he attains moksha the relieving amalgamation of one’s Atma in Brahma the divine
existence. To be more precise, those who respects Vedas are considered as Hindus until
23 Saduseelan K Paramesvara Pillai, Hindu Dharma Parichayam (Thrissur: Sri Ramakrishna Madam,
2001), p. 7.
24 “Hinduism,” Pluralism Project (Harvard: Divinity School, Harvard University, 2015), p. 10.
25 Swami Vivekananda, The complete works of Swami Vivekananda (Culcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1962), v.
8, p. 329.
26 “Hinduism.”, p. 5.
27 Gavin Flood, An introduction to Hinduism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 35.
14
they openly oppose Vedas, that’s why Buddhism and Jainism are labelled as Nastika
(heterodox) and sects like classical Samkhya philosophy that ignores the God’s existence
is called Astika (orthodox). Thus, the sects that not explicitly disrespect Vedas, come to
Hindu fold even they have not any direct connection with Vedas.28
To date back the tradition of Hinduism, it prolongs, for many of scholars, to
Indus valley civilization that flourished in Harappa and Mohen Jedaro the cities in the
river banks of Indus from which the term ‘Hinduism’ is originated.29 The genesis of
Hinduism lies in two ancient cultures; the Indus valley civilization that developed from
2500 BCE to 1500 BCE and the Aryan culture that flourished from 2000 BCE to 1000
BCE. Two theories are interpreted to decode the syncretism of these two cultures; the
Aryan migration theory and theory of Aryan culture is a development from Indus valley
civilization. Aryan migration theory that suggests Indo-European people from Caucasus
region migrated into South Asia via central Asia after the declination of Indus valley
civilization, is supported by many historians. The view is supported by the evidences like
the close resemblance between the Iranian religion of Avesta the sacred scripture of
Zoroastrianism and the religion of Veda, and the linguists’ grouping Sanskrit the language
of Veda in Indo-European languages.30 Another theory proposes that there was no
migration from outside but the Aryan culture was a development from the civilization
itself. However, whether migration happened or not, Hinduism originated and developed
in next 2 millennia through interaction of Aryan culture and local Dravidian culture with
Aryan culture acting as dominant factor.31 Even some scholars make explicit division
28 Sudhakara Chattopadhyaya, Evolution of Hindu sects up to the time of Shankaracharya (New Delhi:
Munshi Ram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 2000), p. 2.
29 Jawaharlal Nehru, Discovery of India (London: Asia Publishing House, 1947), p. 62.
30 Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism, p. 30-31, Jawaharlal Nehru, Discovery of India, p. 61-63.
31 T Muhammed, Bharateeya Samskaarathinte Adiyozhukkukal (Kozhikode: Islamic Publishing House,
2011), p. 59, Gavin Flood, An introduction to Hinduism, p. 23.
15
between Vedism and Hinduism as Aryan religion based on rituals, and mixture of Aryan
religion with non-Aryan beliefs based on devotion respectively.32
When the 5 millennial long history of Hinduism is considered, Indologists
categorize into three;33
1) Classical period that starts from genesis to roughly 7th century, the epoch
witnessed for introspection of its own visions and policies and for the emergence of new
parallel religions namely Buddhism and Jainism,
2) Medieval period (800-1850) that characterized with Bhakti movement’s
sprawling throughout India and its interconnections with Islam that lead to a syncretic
production of new religion the Sikhism,
3) Modern period that stretches from 1850s to present day in which reform
movements are flourished to integrate with modern values, and spreading of the religion
beyond Indian sub-continent through its migrants, is spotted. Another approach in the
categorization is also available adding ‘ancient period’34 before the ‘classical period’, but
categorization into three epochs naming it as pre-Bhakti period, Bhakti period and post-
Bhakti period that resemble with Indologists’ categorization in its timelines, is considered
here regarding the scope of our research. We go through these periods in our first chapter
and in the part of pre-Bhakti period, a short history of Hinduism is outlined for a general
understanding.
1.1. PRE-BHAKTI PERIOD
Pre-Bhakti period of Hindu history had witnessed the origin of Vedas the basic
sacred texts of Hinduism namely Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda, yet
the genesis period of the scriptures is argued but it is generally agreed that these were
32 Chattopadhyaya, Evolution of Hindu Sects up to the Time of Shankaracharya, p. 2.
33 Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism, p. 32.
34 Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism, p. 21.
16
composed between 1500-1000 BCE at earliest.35 Among four Vedas, Rigveda is the oldest
one which is said to have composed in the period between 1500-1200 BCE, which is often
termed as Rigvedic period. Other 3 Vedas were composed between 1200-1000 BCE, the
period that witnessed the expansion of Vedic people from Indus valley to Ganga and
Yamuna banks. In the epoch, systematization of Vedic form of Hinduism is held
facilitating its religious dominance in Indian subcontinent for next 500 years. Kuru
kingdom that favored Vedism was established in the period and their domain Kurukşetra
(field of Kurus) is famous center of Sanskrit tradition. As a part of systematization under
the patronage of Kurus, the classifying of people based on the occupations and duties of
them in society, is done and that is understood, by many scholars, as the root of Varna
dharma or caste system in Hinduism.36
The epoch is often named as Vedic period as these scriptures directed and
dominated the Hindu religious tradition during the period, and lines from these were
chanted as hymns and Mantras, thus these were transmitted to next generations orally and
verbally. The epoch is characterized by ritualistic tradition that based on Vedas’ teachings
often discriminatory like Varna dharma the doctrine of obligations based on hereditary
caste division namely Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Şudra in hierarchical order. The
doctrine that commanded superiority of one caste over another, relegation of disobedient
of this dharma to untouchable caste and prohibition of sacred texts to low castes, triggered
irritations and infuriation among followers, thus these paved way for formations of
heterodox sects which later developed to indigenous religions like Buddhism and Jainism.
Let us briefly examine these heterodox sects which are referred as Nastika in Hindu
tradition as well as orthodox (Astika) sects.
35 Ali İhsan Yıtık, Doğu Dinleri, (Istanbul: ISAM Yayınları, 2014), p. 49.
36 Theodore Proferes, “Vedic Period (1750-400 BCE),” Brill’s encyclopedia of Hinduism, ed. Knut A.
Jacobsen - Johannes Bronkhorst (Leiden: Brill, 2012), v.4, p. 21-25.
17
1.1.1. Nastika Sects
In Hindu tradition, sects are classified as orthodox and heterodox or Astika and
Nastika based on its acceptance or rejection of Vedas’ authority regardless of its character
as theistic or atheistic, thus a system can be both orthodox and atheistic. So, sects that
accept the authority of Vedas are considered as orthodox or Astika while the sects that
reject the authority of Vedas are named as Nastika or heterodox.37 The term ‘Nastika’ is
a Sanskrit term which means ‘it is not’ (na asti) while the term ‘Asti’ means ‘it is’.38 There
are six orthodox sects that didn’t reject Vedas and these are Samkya, Yoga Nyaya,
Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta. These six systems are coupled as Yoga-Samkya,
Nyaya-Vaisheshika and Mimamsa-Vedanta based on the phenomenon that one of two is
theorical and other one is practical. While Yoga is practical method to realize the truths
taught by Samkya, Vaisheshika is a metaphysical system supported by Nyaya. However,
prominent Nastika traditions that reject the authority of Vedas are Buddhism which is a
prominent religion in nowadays, Jainism and Charvakism or materialism.39 Even though
Buddhism and Jainism later developed into indigenous religions, these religions emerged
as heterodox sects in Hinduism. Let us go through these Nastika traditions shortly.
1.1.1.1. Buddhism
Buddha (d. 483 BCE) the central character of Buddhism is assumed to be born
around 500 BCE, a neutral period between those who believe his birth date in fourth or
fifth century BCE and those who believe in fifth or sixth century BCE,40 yet, some scholars
on Buddhism like Ananda k. Coomaraswamy points out with some kind of certainty that
37 Ramakrishna Puligandala, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy (New Delhi: D.K. Print world, 2008), p.
10.
38 Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian philosophy. Vol. 4: Indian Pluralism (London: Cambridge
Univ. Press, 2009), v. 1, p. 67; Damodaran K, Bharatiya Chinda (Calicut: Current Books, 2011), p. 102.
39 Puligandala, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, p. 10.
40 Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism, p. 37.
18
he was born in 563 BCE and died in 483 BCE.41 Buddha’s original name is Siddhartha
Gautama and also known as Shakyamuni (sage of Shakya clan),42 who born as the heir of
Shakhyas the ruling family, got fed up with his life of luxury due to its uncertainty and
mortality, and left his home as wanderer in his search of immortal truth.43 His teachings
of equality and leading of ascetic life abandoning his royal life had attracted many
followers who dignified or worshipped, as some sects do, him after his life, thus
Buddhism a new religion was emerged.
In Hinduism of Vedic age that dominated by Brahmanism, the authority to teach
the religious texts was exclusively reserved for Brahmins which is hereditary but
Buddhism taught the authority is decided on personal merits not based on birth.44 Buddha
rejected the authority of Vedas, that’s why they were not considered as Hindus. Likewise,
he denied the existence of Brahman the notion of God in Vedas and of Atman the human
self, but he advocated the same bliss in attainment of moksha through the theory of
Nirvana.45 More importantly, he denounced the caste system and the superiority of
Brahmins over others based on birth and evaluated one’s deeds as basis of merit. As
Hinduism was confused with many theories, sects and complex ritual rites, ideas of
Buddha were welcomed by many who kept same dissent on Brahmanism.46 In early times
of Buddhism, it was considered as a path of some group who lead an ascetic life in
monasteries near Ganga planes denouncing Brahmanism. Yet, it managed to organize a
council that acted as core of the Buddhism itself and was attended by about 500 Buddha
disciples in the same year that Buddha died. The council that took place in Rajagriha
41 Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Budha and Gospel of Buddhism (USA: Kessinger Publications, n.d.), p. 9.
42 Vasudha Narayanan, “Buddhism,” in Eastern religions: origins, beliefs, practices, holy texts, sacred
places, ed. Micheal David Coogan (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 119.
43 Coomaraswamy, Budha and Gospel of Buddhism, p. 9-12.
44 Richard H. Robinson - Willard L. Johnson, The Buddhist Religion; a Historical Introduction
(Massachusetts: Duxbury Press, 1977), p. 12.
45 Elizebeth Seeger, Eastern Religions (New York: Y. Crowell Company, 1973), p. 57.
46 Seeger, Eastern Religions, p. 57-58.
19
accepted two sacred scriptures namely Vinaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka, the crux of
Buddhist holy literatures, thus the Buddhism was officially emerged.47
The Ashoka (d.232 BCE) period of Buddhism witnessed a dramatic growth of
Buddhism as Ashoka the great ruler embraced it and made it as official religion of empire.
Even though Buddhism had already divided into sects on the basis of different approaches
in particular matters, Ashoka had organized a council in Pataliputra in his presidency, in
order to make a mutual understanding between different sects, to canonize Buddhist
sacred texts and to preach Buddhist ideas to different parts of the world, but the first one
was unsuccessful while other two were almost successful. As Ashoka ruled almost parts
of Indian subcontinent, Buddhism spread all over the area as well as other neighboring
states from Afghanistan to Hellenistic world like Greece and Egypt. A lot of stupas in the
memory of Buddha were built in different parts of India to show his attachment with
Buddhism.48
After the death of Ashoka and power was transferred into the hands of Sunga
dynasty, Buddhists were forced to migrate as the king of Sungas was a rigorous Brahmin
and ordered to demolish all stupas, to turn Viharas the temples of Buddhism into Hindu
temples and even to kill the monks lived there.49 The period witnessed for political
embracement of religions in the subcontinent in order to consolidate their influence, and
for interferences of religious sentiments in politics like assassination of Brhadratha the
last king of Mauryan empire (320-185 BCE) by brahmin general Pusyamitra Sunga (d.
149 BCE).50 Pusyamitra the assassin of last Mauryan, brought back Vedic sacrificial
religion and even performed human sacrifice as the celebration.51 The royal patronage for
Buddhism by many kingdoms like Satavahanas in Deccan continued well after 200 BCE
47 Yıtık, Doğu Dinleri, p. 85.
48 Yıtık, Doğu Dinleri, p. 87-88.
49 Yıtık, Doğu Dinleri, p. 87-88.
50 Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism, p. 51.
51 Yıtık, Doğu Dinleri, p. 87-88.
20
which made Buddhism to be flourished to different parts of the sub-continent. While some
Satavahana queens who were Buddhists and some other kingdoms were donating lands
to Buddhists foreseeing that giving land to monasteries may create conflict free zone,
therefore, it is easy to rule and prolong their supremacy.52 Even though the official
religions of kingdoms changed, Brahmanical ideology managed to consolidate its hold
on politics of Indian sub-continent which controlled royal rituals and various social
obligations.53
Buddhism separated into many sects throughout its history but a new sect in the
name of Mantrayana/Vajrayana that focused on magical and mysterious rites and on
reciting of mantras in order to achieve spiritual results, was emerged and the sect used to
accept many practices that belonged to Hinduism; therefore, it was classified often as a
sect of Hinduism.54
1.1.1.2. Jainism
Like Buddhism, Jainism is also another Nastika sect that emerged as an outcome
of dissent on Brahmanism especially on its divisive caste system and blood shedding
animal sacrifices. With close similarity between Jainism and Buddhism like its origins in
sixth century BCE and in Ganga planes, antagonism towards Brahmanism, denial of
God’s existence and ascetic lifestyles, Jainism often considered as a sect in Buddhism.
Like Buddhism was sprouted around Buddha, Jainism was also emerged around
Vardhamana (d.527 BCE) who born in north India. The life of Vardhamana is also similar
to Buddha in his birth in Hindu ruling family, his ascetic way of life, his attainment of
eternal bliss and many more.55 Jains were often mentioned as Arhatas, Vratyas,
Sramanas, Nirgranthas and Jinas, and they were one of three prominent communities in
52 Greg Bailey, “Hinduism and Buddhism, Ancient Period,” Brill’s encyclopedia of Hinduism, ed. Knut A.
Jacobsen - Johannes Bronkhorst (Leiden: Brill, 2012), v. 4, p. 490.
53 Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism, p. 52.
54 Yıtık, Doğu Dinleri (Eastern Religions), p. 89.
55 Yıtık, Doğu Dinleri, p. 139-142.
21
India till the advent of Islam. Jainism is famous for its theory of Ahimsa (non-violence)
which forbids its followers eating meats or fish because slaughtering them is a violence
and therefore, most of Jains are pure vegetarians.
The embracement of Jainism by Chandra Gupta (d.335) of Maurya empire who
ruled a great portion of India, and designating it as official religion fueled the spread of
Jainism throughout the empire and, in the period, Jainism witnessed its maximum
outreach in the history.56 Both Buddhism and Jainism were reactionary movements
against Brahmanism the version of Hinduism in Vedic period due to its divisive
ideologies. Among Nastika sects, Buddhism and Jainism are characterized by asceticism
as both systems advocated for simple and monkish lifestyles but there is also a sect that
applause material life.
1.1.1.2. Charvakism
Charvakism, often mentioned as Indian materialism, is also one of Nastika sects
in Hindu tradition but the sect was not enough influential nor developed in the history, so
the school is often neglected. While Charvaka tradition says that sage Charvaka founded
the school, some scholars believe that he was the disciple of Brihaspati (10th century BCE)
who is actual founder of the school. However, the term ‘Charvaka’ derives from the root
‘charv’ that means to chew or eat, later it turned to denote anyone who is understood as
materialist or follower of the doctrine ‘eat, drink and be merry’.57 Some scholars describe
the term as the combination of two words ‘charv’ that means to chew and the word ‘vak’
that means words, thus Charvaka means ‘sweet tongued’ pointing to the general of feeling
about this philosophy of pleasure. Charvaka is also called ‘Lokayata’ which means ‘that
56 Yıtık, Doğu Dinleri, p. 143.
57 Puligandala, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, p. 13.
22
is prevalent among the common people’, as the term is combination of two words; ‘loka’
that means the world and ‘ayata’ that means ‘basis or prevalence.’58
Charvakas did not accept the authority of Vedas or any other sacred scripture
and believe there is no rebirth after the body is burnt. Charvakas divide into two groups
as Dhrutta Charvakas who believe there is no soul at all and life and body is result of
atomic combination of four elements; earth, water, fire and air, and as Susikshita
Charvakas who believe there is soul other than body but will be deliberated through
deliberation of the body.59 The foundational text of the school is Charvakasutra or
Lokayatasutra of Brihaspati and there is no other available early texts of school except
Tattvopaplavasimgha of Jayarasi Bhatta but there is an argument that text is not a
complete Charvaka text.60
Charvakism’s concept of epistemology, universe and life may be conceived
shortly as said in Prabodha-Chandrayaya;
“The Shastra (Charvaka) whose doctrines are obvious to all, and which is founded on
the evidence of the senses; which admits only the elements of earth, water, fire, air, which
maintains the sustenance and love are the objects of human existence; which asserts that matter
possesses intelligence, which denies the existence of separate spirits and affirms that death is
blessedness.”61
In Hinduism, there are four human values (Purushartas) namely pleasure
(Kama), wealth (Arta), religious morality (Dharma) and salvation (Moksha) but
Charvakas accept only two; Kama and Arta rejecting dharma and moksha.62 Even though
58 Bibhu Padhi - Minakshi Padhi, Indian Philosophy and Religion; a reader’s guide (New Delhi: D.K. Print
world, 2005), p. 48.
59 Surendranath Dasgupta, v. 1, p. 67.
60 Padhi - Padhi, Indian Philosophy and Religion; a Reader’s Guide, p. 50.
61 Krishna Mishra, Prabodha Chandrodaya, trans. J. Taylor (Bombay: Vinayakarao Gopalarao Ghosalkar,
1872), p. 26-27.
62 Padhi - Padhi, Indian Philosophy and Religion; a Reader’s Guide, p. 60.
23
Charvakism is identical with materialistic hedonism in matter of ethics and conduct of
life, many thinkers differentiate between egoistic hedonism and altruistic hedonism, so
need for the law and order in society is recognized with pleasure and enjoyment and selfdiscipline
is necessary within Charvaka circle.63
The period between 400 BCE and 200 BCE witnessed the composition of
Brahmana texts often called as Vedanga the limbs of Vedas. Along with Vedanta texts
like Aranyaka, Upanishads, Samhitas and Sutras composed in the period, Puranas and
Itihasas also penned down in the subsequent centuries. While the early epoch of pre-
Bhakti period is centered around Brahmanism, the later epoch witnessed splitting of
Hinduism into various sects and groups for variety of reasons. The proliferation of
religious literatures from 400 BCE to approximately 7th century and absence of clear
criterion of what makes one a Hindu, prompted to the sprouting of numerous groups based
on religious philosophies and practices, thus Hinduism remained as a common name for
variety of traditions that prevailed in Indian sub-continent.
1.1.2. Astika sects
Speculations and confusions in Vedas on conceiving eternal God and
cosmology, salvation and its path, ritualism and its efficacy and on nature of soul and
death, led to various interpretations of these matters, which eventually resulted in the
emergence of different schools of thought like Purva Mimamsa, Vedanta, Samkhya,
Nyaya, Vaisheshika and Yoga among other numerous schools of thought. But these six
schools are referred as Sadıdarshanas the six orthodox (Astika) Hindu philosophical
sects.64 As some scholars put forward, these schools are not conflicting or competing each
other but these are different viewpoints as the term ‘darshana’, this is how these schools
mentioned in Hindu tradition, is derived from root ‘drish’ which means to see.65 These
63 Puligandala, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, p. 21.
64 Jessica Frazier, ed., The Bloomsburry Companion of Hindu Studies (London: Bloomsbury, 2014), p.25.
65 René Guénon, Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, trans. Marco Pallis (Hillsdale New York:
Sophia Perennis, 2004), p. 163.
24
six schools offer Moksha through Jnana Marga the path of knowledge. We inspect these
sects in order to better understanding of Jnana Marga and how these offer Moksha through
Knowledge.
A common feature that seen in all Darshanas is that basic teachings of the sect
are condensed into Sutras (leading threads) that expresses precise summary of thoughts
and are easy to be memorized. The sects develop through the expansion of these Sutras
especially with commentaries that describe each term of Sutras with depicting the key
differences of the sect with other sects and showing evidences on the righteousness of the
sect. As the Sutras are not understandable without commentary, the commentary work
(Bashya) is most referred, thus it turned as authoritative text of the sect itself, prompting
to the writing of many sub commentaries. Considering the subject matters of each
Darshanas, these six sects stereotypically classified into three; Nyaya-Vaisheshika,
Samkhya-Yoga, and Purva Mimamsa-Uthara Mimamsa or Vedanta,66 and these six
schools are famous six Indian schools of philosophy. In our context, we go lightly
through these Astika traditions in order to better understanding of history of pre-Bhakti
Hinduism.
1.1.2.1. Nyaya
Even though Nyaya school is based on Nyayasutra of Gautama67 and is believed
to be originated by at least by 2th century BCE, the school developed systematically after
the composition of Nyayabashya the legendary commentary by Vatsayana who lived
around 450-500. Nyayabashya subjected to many commentaries when scholars of the
school penned down many works to defend their school of thought as Nyaya-Vaisheshika
were prime targets of contemporary Buddhist philosophers like Vasubandhu (d.569).
Other works like Nyayamanjari composed by Jayanta Bhatta (d.900), and Nyayasara and
Nyayabushana written by Basaravajna (9th century) in second half of the 9th century
66 Klaus K Klostermaier, Hinduism; a Short History (Oxford: One world, 2000), p. 230-231.
67 Klostermaier, Hinduism; a Short History, p. 232.
25
remain as the important works of the school. Udayana (d.1100) was exceptional and
considered as one of the greatest philosophers of the school as he wrote 7 qualified works
like Atmatattvaviveka that penned against Buddhists and Nyayakusumanjali which
considered as magnum opus of Udayana.68
As the term ‘Nyaya’ means ‘logic’ or ‘method’ and used to denote the school, it
turned as synonym for ‘logic’69 but Nyaya as a school includes two parts; Adhyatmavidya
the metaphysics and Tarkashastra the logic. The school deals with science of debate with
acute analysis, as well as theories of soul, its suffering and salvation. The school starts
with theory that knowledge of the true character of sixteen categories will lead to the
attainment of salvation and these 16 categories (Padartas) are; the means of right
cognition, the objects of right cognition, doubt, example, motive, theory, cogitation,
factors of inference, demonstrated truth, discussion, disputation, fallacious reason,
wrangling, casuistry, futile rejoinder and clinchers.70
In the epistemology of Navya-Nyaya, Pratyksha is perception that occurs when
any one of the senses is contacted with object; it is unassociated with names,
uncontradicted and indefinite. Anumana is three kinds: Purvavat the inference from cause
to effect, sheshvat the inference from effect to cause and Samayatodrishta the inference
from common characteristics. Upamana is the knowing of anything through similarity
like giving examples and Shabda is the testimony of authoritative texts like Veda. The
syllogism of Nyaya philosophy is consisting of five elements; pratinja the statement, hetu
the reason, udaharana the example, Upanaya the corroboration by the instance and the
final assertion.71
Nyaya school seek to establish that real salvation is possible through true
cognition of reality and they agree with metaphysics of Vaisheshika when they denote
68 Encylopedia of Indian philosophies, edi. Karl H. Potter, v. II, p. 2-8.
69 Guénon, Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, p. 169.
70 Guénon, Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, p. 236-237.
71 Guénon, Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, p. 238-239.
26
moksha as absolute freedom from pain, therefore Jivanmukta the condition of immortality
is possible only after bodily death. Nyaya school demonstrates the existence of Ishvara
the lord as it argues that experience of activity and individual existence requires an unseen
cause responsible for joys and sorrows of human life and that is lord. The lord is one who
has right knowledge free from adharma or mithya jnana (false knowledge) and his grace
is needed for the positive results of peoples’ efforts.72 The notion of Ishvara by Nyaya
school is somehow parallel with Islamic views of God. As the ‘Ishvara’ is originally a
name of Siva, most of Nyayayikas (followers of Nyaya school), were Saivites
(worshippers of Siva) and their concept of God is monotheistic not pantheistic.73
Even though Nyaya and Vaisheshika counted as different schools in
Sadıdarshanas, there is a mutual understanding between two often accepting theories
each other. Both schools had considered themselves mutually supportive as Vaisheshika
specialized in metaphysics while Nyaya in epistemology and methodology.74 Therefore,
Nyaya-Vaisheshika is full scale philosophical school which deal with logic, ethics, theory
of value, metaphysics, epistemology, methodology and moksha.75
1.1.2.2. Vaisheshika
Vaisheshika school is attributed to Kanada (6th century BCE) and is based on his
work Vaisheshikasutra.76 The name ‘Vaisheshika’ is derived from the term ‘vishesha’
which means ‘distinctive character’ and ‘individual thing’, so this school deals with
knowledge of individual things in their distinctive mode. While Vaisheshika treats things
72 Guénon, Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, p. 239.
73 Karl H. Potter, ed., The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies, Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology: The
Tradition of Nyaya-Vaisesika up to Gangesa, 1st ed (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1970), v. II, p. 21-23.
74Karl H. Potter, ed., The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies, Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology: The
Tradition of Nyaya-Vaisesika up to Gangesa, v. II, p. 12.
75 Karl H. Potter, ed., The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies, Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology: The
Tradition of Nyaya-Vaisesika up to Gangesa, v. II, p. 1.
76 Klostermaier, Hinduism; A Short History, p. 232.
27
directly for what they are in themselves, Nyaya considers them in their relationship with
human understanding.77
The early classical commentaries and sub commentaries on Vaisheshikasutra is
seemed to be lost with other independent works in the school, yet some Sutras or some
quotes are available and known as Vaisheshikasutravakayas. Vaisheshika school is
further systematized through Padartadarmasangraha, therefore the work is subjected for
commentaries and is most referred by scholars of the schools. Another major text of the
school is Dasapadartshastra which is preserved only in its Chinese translation. Later, this
school is developed through the works of Nyaya school scholars as the two schools are
mutually syncretic in nature.78
As in Vedic thoughts, Vaisheshika also emphasizes on dharma as method of
salvation and prosperity. Achieving salvation is the result of cognition of six categories;
action, quality, concept, class, inherence and particularity, of substances that are water,
fire, earth, time, ether, air, space, mind and atman. School also teaches that there are many
atmans separated by their relative and specific Visheshas. A normal man can recognize
their distinction based on their external actions but a yogi has the insight to realize its
essence and the real cause of their diversity. Atman is eternal but the actions of atman are
non-eternal and bound to physical body with which it is united. Manas or mind that given
to every atman is its instrument which couldn’t produce anything but with cooperation.79
Vaisheshika teaches that Mukti is a state of qualitylesness in which it remains
itself in its own purity, and therefore moksha is not s state of pure knowledge nor a bliss.
For Kanada, the substances are eternal and their movement is because of impersonal and
eternal principle of adrsta (unseen). Later Vaisheshika scholars introduced an
omnipresent Ishavara who is responsible for the universal order of atoms and their
77 Guénon, Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, p. 174
78 Karın Preisendanz, “Vaisesika,” Brill’s encyclopedia of Hinduism, ed. Knut A. Jacobsen - Johannes
Bronkhorst (Leiden: Brill, 2011), v. III.3, p. 705-709.
79 Guénon, Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, p. 232.
28
movements but atman and anu (atom) don’t require to a creator for their existence and
they are independent and eternal. The difference between atman and Ishvara is that
Ishvara never tangled with Samsara the birth recycles.80
1.1.2.3. Samkhya
Each of Hindu schools of thought normally based on a foundation text and the
school is being developed through commentaries and sub-commentaries of this
foundation text. In Samkhya’s case, this foundation text is Samkhyakarika of
Ishvarakrishna (350-400 BCE) and tradition develops through Sanskrit commentaries on
it but Kapila is considered as founder of Samkhya thought 81 as his work ‘Samkhyasutra’
describes the school in detail whereas former is consisted of only seventy aphorisms.82
Samkhya thoughts are dominant in numerous Indian knowledge traditions such as
Ayurveda the Indian knowledge of medicine, classification of living beings and so on.
Samkhya ideas have great influence on theological systems of Saiva, Vaishnava and
Shakta. Samkhya categorization of fundamental principles is also fundamental in
religious and social teachings of Bhagavad-Gita.83
The term ‘Samkhya’ means that ‘related to number, calculation or enumeration’
and it defined as
“a specific system of dualist philosophizing that proceed by a method of enumerating
the contents of experience and world for the purpose of attaining radical liberation.”84
80 Guénon, Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, p. 236.
81 Knut A. Jacobsen, “The Bloomsburry Companion to Hindu Studies,” ed. Jessica Frazier (London:
Bloomsbury, 2014), p. 75.
82 Klostermaier, Hinduism; a Short History, p. 242.
83 Knut A Jacobson, p. 75.
84 Gerald James Larson - Ram Shankar Bhattacharya, eds., The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies,
Samkhya: A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy, 1st ed (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1970) , v. IV, p. 3.
29
as prescribed in encyclopedia of Indian philosophies. As per Samkhya thoughts,
it starts from Prakriti or Pradana which is unmanifested and undifferentiated universal
substance but from which all things proceed through modifications. There are twenty-five
tattvas or true principles that corresponds to degrees of each substance in their
hierarchical order. The first tattva is mula the root of manifestation, then its modifications
in different stages is represented by tattvas. In this stage, Samkhya sees things in its
universal sense but to consider those things, it needs to a complementary principle that
can be called ‘essence’ and this principle is named as Purusha or Pumas,85 thus, Samkhya
thought envisions a dualism of universe through Prakriti and Purusha or Pradana and
Pumas, the female and male principle, matter and spirit.86
Prakriti and Purusha, the beginningless two realities were existing separately in
polarity before their concrete existences and are interacted and combined in actual
existence. Purusha which is pure consciousness experiences the changes through Prakriti
in her three gunas (qualities) in varying degrees of Sattva the pure essence, rajas the
passion and tamas the ignorance or darkness. By the interaction of Purusha with Prakriti,
the balance of three gunas start to change and evolution happens. The first product of this
evolution is called Budhi the intellect, then it produces ahamkara the principle of
individuation, thus, it enumerates 24 basic elements that evolve through varying degrees
of these three gunas. While sattva the guna (quality) of essence dominates in saintly
people, rajas the passion dominates in ordinary people and tamas the darkness in
animals.87
The salvation happens when Purusha understands Prakriti as Prakriti without
gunas in its pure consciousness and she is the reason for the changes that leads to
suffering, but he is incapable of acting himself when he is associated with Prakriti even
though he is free through salvation. When the bodily separation takes place, Prakriti
85 Guénon, Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, p. 181-182.
86 Klostermaier, Hinduism; a Short History, p. 243.
87 Klostermaier, Hinduism; a Short History, p. 243.
30
ceases to be active and then only Purusha reaches pure salvation or freedom through
perfect aloneness and the stage is denoted as kaivalya. It’s the stage when spirit realizes
matter was the cause of his restlessness.88
Samkhya school is paired with Yoga school and the pair is very influential in
different sects of Hinduism like in Saivism, Vaishnavism and Şaktism. Samkhya-Yoga
was proposed numerous times as path of salvation in Puranas till Vedanta became
dominant school of theology in Hinduism. Mahabharata the great epic sees Kapila the
founder of Samkhya school as the son of Brahman while he is an avatar of Vishnu in
Bagavatapurana, who teaches Samkhya as a path of salvation through which his mother
attains the moksha. while Samkhya school doesn’t recognize sacred scriptures as base of
their thoughts as most of schools do, and it doesn’t designate Shruti (revealed texts) higher
than reasoning, moreover it doesn’t acknowledge a lord beyond Purusha and Prakriti.
For these reasons, polemics between Samkhya and Vedanta philosophy were inevitable.89
1.1.2.4. Yoga
Although the Yoga is one of six school of Hindu philosophy, the term is turned
to a popular one nowadays as it denotes the method of meditation that produces peace of
mind. Yoga, as a philosophical school, is mentioned often with Samkhya philosophy for
both are interdependent. While Samkhya deals mainly with attributes of substance
through Purusha and Prakriti, Yoga discusses more about path of salvation and its way
of practicing with proper rules. The school starts with Yoga sutra of Patanjali who is
believed to be lived around 350-450, the text is popularly known as Patanjaliyogasutra.
Contrary to what we witnessed earlier in other schools, Vyasabashya is the commentary
on Yoga sutra by Vyasa that describes the school in detail, but Patanjaliyogasutra didn’t
lose its importance in the tradition as many others also commented on it. Some scholars
claim that even Shankara (d.820) the famous Vedanta philosopher had also penned down
88 Guénon, Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, p. 244.
89 Guénon, Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, p. 241-242.
31
a commentary on the text with a title of Patanjaliyogasutravivarana irrespective of strong
polemics between Vedanta and Samkhya-Yoga. The close relation of Samkhya and Yoga
philosophies is obvious as Vyasabashya identified itself as Samkhyaprachana that means
‘explanation of Samkhya philosophy’.90
The great grammarian Panini (d. 350 BCE) describes that the term ‘yoga’ means
‘union with supreme God’ for the term was derived from ‘yuj’ that means to join. While
Vedanta philosophers say that Yoga denotes the return of Jivatman the individual being
to its union with Paramatman, Patanjali itself defines it as “Concentration, or Yoga, is
the hindering of the modifications of the thinking principle (PtygSr. 1/2),91 thus the
definition shows its relation with Samkhya philosophy. But in many Hindu scriptures, the
term is also used generally as a synonym to Marga the path like in Karma-yoga and
Bhakti yoga. As the term Yoga corresponded to a wide range of practices, the term
‘Samkhya-Yoga’ is used to denote Yoga as a philosophic school described in
Patanjaliyogasutra, which is also known as Raja Yoga.92
Patanjaliyogasutra, a text with only ten pages in original,93 is divided into four
parts i.e., the four Padas of Yoga; these are trance (Samadhi), means of realization
(Sadhana), pre-natural accomplishment (Vibhuti) and ultimate aim (Kaivalya).94 The first
sutra of the text defines Yoga as cessation of all changes in the consciousness, in which
Chitta is identical with Mahat the first evolved in Samkhya, whose changes are the reason
for all kind of suffering. Cessation of Chitta means merging into Prakriti, that is when
Prakriti disassociated from Purusha, Purusha achieves Ekagrata the one pointedness or
Kaivalya the aloneness, or state of being with himself only, being nothing but
90 Gerald James Larson - Karl H. Potter, eds., Yoga: India’s philosophy of meditation, 1. ed (Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, 2008), v. 12, p. 21-23.
91 Patanjali, The Yoga Aphorisms of Patanjali, trans. William Q. Judge (New York: The Path, 1890), p. 2.
92 Guénon, Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, p. 240-242.
93 Patanjali, The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, trans. Charles Johnston (New York: Charles Johnston, 1912), p.
3.
94 Patanjali, The Yoga-system of Patanjali, trans. James Haughton Woods, p. XXIV- XXVIII.
32
consciousness. In Fivefold changes that affect Chitta are imagination, perception, deep
sleep, delusion and memory which are removable with Abhyasa the dialectic interaction
of positive efforts and Vairagya the renunciation. Contrary to Samkhya, Yoga introduces
lord (Ishvara) as point of concentration who is a Purusha without sufferings and activities
and is denoted by the term ‘Om’. Continuous recitation of ‘Om’ is recommended to Yogi
in order to attain Kaivalya as he can help to remove obstacles that obstruct self-realization
like pains, indecisions and so on. Truthfulness, compassion with other positive traits and
breath control are described as remedies for these obstacles and are recommended in
Sutra.95
Sadhana in Yoga is the means of realization and is consisted of austerities
(Tapas), scriptural study (Svadhyaya) and meditation with lord (Ishvara Pradana) which
are practiced to attain inner peace (Samadhi) and to terminate frustrations (Kleshas).
Practicing austerities purifies sins and give some supernatural abilities (Sidis) to Yogin
the one who practices Yoga. The study of scriptures (Svadhyaya) brings him to his
favorite lord (Ishtadevata) and surrender to Lord (Ishvara pranidhana) leads to Samadhi.
Lack of wisdom (Avidya) is root cause of all sufferings and it can be seen in four forms
mainly; egoism (Asmita), attachment (Raga), aversion (Dvesha) and love of physical life
(Abinivesha). To liberate from avidya the ignorance, knowledge (Viveka) is essential as
it discriminates the real from illusory, and this is achieved only after the impurities of
mind are removed through 8 limbs of Yoga or Yogangas and that are; ethical commands
and prohibitions (Yama and Niyama), bodily postures (Asana), breath control
(Pranayama), concentration (Dharana), meditation (Dharana), withdrawal of the senses
95 Patanjali, The Yoga-system of Patanjali, trans. James Haughton Woods, p. 1-101; Guénon, Introduction
to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, p. 244-245.
33
(Pratyahara) and trance (Samadhi). There are 84 postures (Asanas) that enables Yogin to
be motionless for a long time and without straining or falling asleep in that position.96
The third pada (Vibhuti) is a state of achieving supernatural abilities (sidis) but
Patanjali warns Yogin that sidis never should be the aim of Yoga as it will distract him
from the true and real goal that is spiritual realization. In the fourth Pada (Kaivalya), one
reaches salvation the ultimate realization.97
1.1.2.5. Mimamsa
Mimamsa is philosophy or science of language, grammar and meaning evolved
from instructions to correct pronunciations of mantras and enactment of rituals prescribed
in Vedas.98 The word ‘mimamsa’ means ‘profound thought’ through which deep study of
Vedas is done and it was used to understand the precise meaning of Vedas and Vedanta.
There is Purva Mimamsa and Uthara Mimamsa that developed to understand the persons
in Vedas especially Brahman the divine and Atman the soul along with causes, nature and
efficacy of rituals. Considering the concerned matter of both, Purva Mimamsa also named
as Karma Mimamsa as it deals with realm of action while Uttara mimamsa is referred as
Brahma mimamsa as it explores knowledge of Brahman. The second Mimamsa is also
constitutes Vedanta texts, therefore is well known as Vedanta while Purva Mimamsa is
intended in case of the term ‘Mimamsa’ only mentioned as the title here.99 The common
feature of both Mimamsas is that they develop their school of theology based on Shruti
scriptures of Hinduism the Vedas.100 While the Purva Mimamsa is based upon the first
two parts of Vedas the Samhitas and Brahmanas, Uttara Mimamsa is based upon next
96Patanjali, The Yoga Darsana; The Sutras of Patanjali with the Bashya of Vyasa, trans. Ganganatha Jha
(Bombay: Bombay Theosophical Publication, 1907), p. XVII-XVIII; René Guénon, Introduction to the
Study of Hindu Doctrines, trans. Marco Pallis, p. 245-246.
97 Guénon, Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, p. 247.
98 Frazier, The Bloomsburry Companion of Hindu Studies, p. 25.
99 Guénon, Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, p. 191.
100 Klaus K. Klostermaier, p. 250.
34
two parts of Vedas namely Aranyaka and Upanishads.101 Although both schools differ at
many points, they are supportive of each other and considered as two most orthodox
schools of Sadıdarshanas but Purva Mimamsa is most orthodox one.102
Even though Mimamsa school is attributed to Jaimini (4th century BCE) and his
work Mimamsasutra is considered as foundational text of school, almost literatures in the
school are based in its oldest commentary ‘Mimamsasutrabashya’ due to difficulty to
understand the former text comprehensively. The school is said to have emerged by the
start of second mid of first millennium BC and developed in subsequent centuries. In the
7th century, main two subdivisions of the school; Batta Mimamsa on the basis of
Kumarilabatta’s (7th century) works and Prabakra Mimamsa on the base of Prabhakara’s
(7th century) works, were emerged.103
While early Mimamsakas were reluctant to use the term moksha and were using
Swarga the heaven, later Mimamskas, with Vedanta’s influence, started to use the term
moksha the salvation.104 In Mimamsa school, different opinions including mistaken about
a question are put forward and then rejected, and finally the correct solution of the
question is given as a conclusion. The study aims to display proofs and rationale behind
the Karmas the rituals prescribed in Vedas in keeping one’s dharma. It also defends the
theory of infallibility of the traditional doctrine, and if any wrong is noticed, then its
mistake of the person who compose that, therefore, only one who well versed with Veda
and its science is qualified to compose sacred traditional scriptures. Mimamsa is
necessary to understand the scriptures with true pronunciation and correct spelling as
taught by Shiksha the modus operandi, and describes different classes of mantras based
101 Karl H. Potter, ed., The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies, Philosophy of Purva Mimamsa, 1st ed
(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1970), v. 16, p. 22.
102 Klaus K. Klostermaier, p. 250.
103 Lawrence J. McCrea, “Mimamsa,” Brill’s encyclopedia of Hinduism, ed. Knut A. Jacobsen - Johannes
Bronkhorst (Leiden: Brill, 2011), v. 3, p. 643-650.
104 Guénon, Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, p. 251.
35
on proper rhythms as per Chandas the principles of tempo. Close inspection of words and
meanings with Vyakarana the grammar in order to differentiate various usages of the
word used in Veda and to find suitable one, is another aspect of Mimamsa. Mimamsa also
deals with jurisprudential matters that concerns with Vedas.105 Considering these aspects
of Mimamsa, it is also known as ‘science of sentences’ (Vakyashastra), ‘science of words’
(Pada shastra) and ‘science of valid knowledge’ (Paramanshastra) and was considered
popularly as kernel of Brahmanical education. 106
1.1.2.6. Vedanta
As we discussed earlier, Vedanta is Uttara Mimamsa that deals with aspects for
intellectual basis of rituals prescribed in Vedas especially about Brahman, Atman and
moksha’s realities. Even though Vedanta is common name for all schools that serves as
the explanations of Veda scriptures, this Advaita Vedanta is denoted when the term
‘Vedanta’ is used as this school was popularly considered as authentic and right teachings
of Vedas especially after the contribution of Shankaracharya, the prominent exponent of
this school, to the school.107 Vedanta school has divided itself to many sects like
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta of Ramanuja and Vallabha’s (d.1531) Dvaita Vedanta but
Advaita Vedanta that establishes non dualism (Advaita) of Brahman and Atman, and
advocated by Shankaracharya, had secured great prominence in the tradition.108 Out of
ten recognized schools of Vedanta, Advaita Vedanta is non theistic Vedanta philosophy,
Vaishnavism and Saivism are examples of theistic philosophy which have close ties with
Bhakti109. Advaita Vedanta focuses on the ultimate teachings of Upanishads, that is non
105 Guénon, Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, p. 191-194.
106 Lawrence J. McCrea, “Mimamsa,” v.3, p. 643.
107 Karl H. Potter, ed., Advaita Vedānta up to Śaṃkara and his pupils, Reprint (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,
2008), v. 3, p. 6.
108 Richard King, Indian Philosophy and Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thoughts (Edinburgh:
Edinburgh Universtiy Press, 1999), p. 53.
109 Klostermaier, Hinduism; A Short History, p. 254.
36
dualism in which Atman is identical with Brahman or monism which means there is only
one kind of thing that exists.110
As in cases of other schools, Vedanta school flourished on the basis of
Shankara’s (d. 820) Brahmasutrabashya, even though the foundation script of the school
is attributed to Brahmasutra of Badrayana (5th century BCE).111 All traditions
(sampradaya) of Vedanta accept Upanishads, Brahmasutra and Bhagavad Gita as three
foundations of the school and name it as Prastanatraya (three foundations).112
Vedantasutra is divided into four chapters (adhyaya) in which first chapter completely
discusses about Brahman the supreme being and rejects all systems that teach otherwise
as heretical. While the second chapter discusses evolvement of universe and rejects
Samkhya and Vaisheshika schools, third chapter describes about Jivatman (soul) and its
conditions in dream, dreamless sleep and after death. The last chapter deals with
meditations towards Brahman and state of Muktas those who attained the liberation
through knowing of Brahman.113 Advaita Vedanta school teaches that there is no
distinction between Atman the one’s self and Brahman the eternal being but the illusion
(Maya) arisen by ignorance (Avidya) is the reason behind one’s perception of different
things. The illusion forces one to Samsara the rebirth cycle till he gets moksha through
Jnana or Vidya the knowledge. The excessive knowledge leads to the realization of one’s
self that he is not different from Brahman and he is identical with Brahman the eternal
being, so he is eternally liberated from rebirth cycle.114 Non dualism of Atman and
Brahman is often justified or described through famous quoting from Upanishad, that are
“aham Brahmasam” that means “I am the Brahman” and “tat tvam asi” that means “that
is what you are.” The school teaches that when one’s self obtains moksha he is freed from
110 Christopher Bartley, “Vedanta, Advaita Vedanta and the Schools of Vedanta,” Brill’s encyclopedia of
Hinduism, ed. Knut A. Jacobsen - Johannes Bronkhorst (Leiden: Brill, 2011), v. 3, p. 719.
111 Karl H. Potter, ed., Advaita Vedānta up to Śaṃkara and his pupils, v.3, p. 6.
112 King, Indian Philosophy and Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thoughts, p. 53.
113 Klostermaier, Hinduism; A Short History, p. 254.
114 Karl H. Potter, ed., Advaita Vedānta up to Śaṃkara and his pupils, v. 3, p. 6.
37
all bonds by his merging with the Universal, and through this realization alone one
becomes a Yogi while he is called Jivan mukta if he delivered during life in contrast with
Videha mukta who delivered it when he was out of the bodily form and reached this
realization only after death and cessation of his bodily wastes.115
Among numerous orthodox (Astika) and heterodox (Nastika) schools in
Hinduism, Vedanta school emerged as dominant divine and philosophical thought system
in Hinduism especially with efforts of Shankaracharya, therefore, he is considered great
revivalist in the history of Hinduism itself and some scholars classify Hindu theology as
pre-Shankara and post-Shankara. A brief description on him and his contributions in the
theology of Hinduism is must be useful one and unavoidable.
Shankaracharya
The great philosopher, even compared with western philosophers like Plato,
Shankara holds a distinguished place in history of Hinduism as well as Indian philosophy
for his enormous efforts in the field through his philosophy of non-duality or Advaita
Vedanta as popularly known. It is said that he systematized and reformed Hinduism from
a ritualistic and mythical one to sophisticated philosophical religion. Based on
hagiographies of Shankara, it is believed that he was an exceptional Sannyasin (ascetic)
who engaged in debates with sectarian Hinduism, which lead to the acceptance of
Shankara’s ideology. It may be concluded that he was a legend, often attributing his as
incarnation of God itself, in the history of Hinduism as he synthesized different sects of
Hinduism to a common Hindu line. When we move out of hagiographies, it is understood
that Shankara affirmed traditional orthodoxy and its exclusionary social visions as he
defended the Varnashrama dharma the principle that leads to caste system, and founded
Sringeri Matha the religious school where only brahmins were allowed. And in his theory
of salvation, only brahmins were eligible to perform Nitya (necessary) and Naimittika
115 Guénon, Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines, p. 202.
38
(occasional) duties that makes one capable for close inquiry with Brahman the eternal
God.116
Shankara born in Kaladi, a province in south India, had lived only 32 years from
788-820 as most of historians pointed out, while some others pushed back to an earlier
epoch between 700 and 750.117 He was born for Shivaguru (8th century) and Aryamba (8th
century) couple in a brahmin family namely Nambudiri and was named as Shankara
which is a name of Siva the God and means ‘accomplisher of peace and good.’ He left
his home renouncing this world as a Sannyasin in the age of 8 after demise of his father,
and reached banks of Narmada River where he acquired traditional Vedic instructions
under Govinda (8th century). Then he walked by bare foot to Kashi where he started his
public debates and teachings and three of his famous four disciples namely Padmapada
(8th century), Hastamalaka (8th century) and Totaka (8th century) had joined him.
According to some records, he had travelled to Badrinath in Himalayas where he stayed
there for four years penning down his works and had completed his major works there
before the age of sixteen. Returning to Kashi, he restarted his public life as a debater and
his debate with Mandana is famous as the later gave up his argument and joined Shankara
as his disciple. In order to hand over right Vedanta teachings, he established monasteries
(matha) of Vedic instructions in four directions: Dwarka in the west, Puri in the east,
Badrinath in the north and Sringeri in the south.118 He appointed his four disciples as head
(Acharya) of each one; Suesvara (8th century) at Sringeri, Padmapada at Badrinath,
Hastamalaka at Dwaraka and Totaka at Puri. In some traditions, Kanchipuram is
considered as fifth center of Matha. Moreover, Shankara had established 10 renunciation
order associated with each monastery (Matha); Saraswati, Puri, and Bharati orders
associated with Sringeri, Vana and Ananya orders associated with Puri, Asrama and
116 Forsthoefel, “Handbook of Oriental Studies.”, v. 4, p.388.
117 Bradely J. Malkovsky, The Role of Divine Grace in the Soteriology of Samkraracharya (Leiden: BRILL,
2001), p.1-10.
118 Swami Mukhyananda, Sri Shankaracharya life and Philosophy (Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama, 2015), p.
6-11.
39
Thirtha orders associated with Dwaraka, and Sagara, Giri and Parvata orders associated
with Badrinath (8th century), and the supreme of leader of all 10 orders of Dashanami,
who is also the abbot of the Puri, was named as Jagadguru (teacher of the universe) while
heads of four Mathas were named as Acharya. These 10 ascetic orders were instrumental
in eradicating Buddhism and Jainism from south India and also in giving a pan Indian
identity for orthodox Vedic tradition while for some scholars these are learned and most
orthodox of Hindu ascetics. He had died in Kedarnath in Himalayas at the age of 32,
leaving a great footprint in Hinduism and influence of his legacy in the tradition
continues. Some later traditions designated him as incarnation of Siva but it was rejected
as Shankara himself favors Vishnu in most of his works.119
Even though there are over 400 of works attributed to Shankara, scholars had
examined authenticity and confirmed that very few of them are written by Shankara
himself. Among all his works, Brahmasutrabashya is most important and considered as
magnum opus of Advaita Vedanta. Other works with proven authority are
Upadeshashasri, Bagavatgitabashya, commentaries on ten Upanishads; Chandogya,
Aitareya, Taittiriya, Brhadaranyaka, Katha, Isopa, Kena, Prashna, Mandukya and
Mundaka.120
Shankara’s significant contribution to Hinduism as well as Indian philosophy is
Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism) which rejects the duality of Atman the self and Brahman
the eternal being. In classical Hinduism, amalgamation of mortal Atman with immortal
Brahman is moksha and the path for this amalgamation is described in Vedas in which
rituals hold the importance. Advaita rejects this duality and proposes that Atman itself is
Brahman because Brahman is real being and eternal while all others are mortal and unreal,
119 Thomas Forsthoefel, “Sankara,” v.4, p. 391.
120 Joseph Payyappilly, The Concept of Man in The Advaita Vedanta of Sankara; an Inquiry to theological
persepectives (New York: Peter Lang, 2004), p. 40.
40
through Mahavakyas (passage of great excellence) put forward by Upanishads and these
are;
 Tat tvam asi (that you are),
 Aham Brahma asmi (I am Brahma)
 Ayam atma Brahma (that self indeed is Brahman)
 Sarvam khalu Brahma (verily all this is Brahman).121
Moreover, Shankara attributes the eternal being as a being that doesn’t suffer
changes in three-time phases; past, present and future (trikale abadhyatva). One’s
misguided notion to consider changing one as changeless is source of suffering and, in
Shankara’s view, this ignorance brings Samsara (rebirth) cycle, that is why, the solution
is only liberating knowledge. Therefore, Advaita Vedanta prefers knowledge portion
(Jnana Kanda) over action portion (Karma Kanda).122
Energized from Shankara’s efforts, Vedanta dominated Hindu theological
thoughts and prevailed as theology of Hinduism itself. But Vedanta further divided to
many divisions like Vishishtadvaita propounded by Ramanuja who was also considered
as great master in Bhakti tradition also. Even though sects based on the Gods were in
existence before him, Vaishnava sect who worships lord Vishnu in his various forms
embraced Vishishtadvaita, and the sect flourished throughout Hindu mass in Indian
subcontinent, the phenomenon marked the development of both Bhakti and
Vishishtadvaita. In nutshell, there are recognized six orthodox schools of Hinduism but
Vedanta dominated in the philosophical or intellectual thoughts of Hindu theology.
121 Payyappilly, The Concept of Man in The Advaita Vedanta of Sankara; an Inquiry to Theological
Persepectives, p. 40-41.
122 Thomas Forsthoefel, “Sankara,” v.4, p. 392.
41
1.1.3. Theological Sects
Contrary to most of religions, the concept of God in Hinduism is complex as
wide range of Gods are worshipped by followers, the phenomenon caused Hinduism to
be denoted as a pantheistic religion. Mentioning of various names in Vedas led to different
sects as each one worshipped one of those names, eventually it turned into pantheism.
Even though the numbering of these Gods arbitrary but generally reckoned as 33, the
classification of powers and functions of these Gods holds some importance. Based on
primary location and domain of functions,123 Gods in Vedic age are classified into three;
1. Heavenly Gods like Surya, Pusha, Mitra, Sabita, Varuna, Vishnu and Usha, etc.
2. Atmospheric Gods like Vayu, Rudra, Maruta, Indra, and Aja, etc.
3. Earthly Gods like Soma, Brhaspati, Agni and Sarasvati, etc.124
The Gods are known as Deva and each God was assigned with some natural
powers like Varuna125 was guardian of cosmic order while Mitra was solar God assisting
Varuna and a friend of men.126 Among many Gods with assigned natural functions, Indra
the God famous for warfare127 and Rudra the supreme God of storms had some
importance but the later was greatest of Vedic Gods for his velour against enemy of men.
Agni128 the God of fire and central figure in sacrifices also turned into primary Gods when
Hindus concentrated on rituals and sacrifices.129 Scholars hold different views on whether
there was image worship in Vedic age itself, but it is generally agreed that the start of
123 Thomas J. Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition (California: Wadswoth Publishing Company, 1971),
p. 11.
124 Chattopadhyaya, Evolution of Hindu Sects up to the Time of Shankaracharya, p. 7.
125 Ralph T.H Griffith, trans., Rig Veda (Benares: E.J Lazarus and Co., 1889), v. I, p. 43-44 (1/25), v. I, p.
379-380 (2/28).
126 Ralph T.H Griffith, trans., Rig Veda, v. III, p. 77-87 (7/60-67).
127 Indra is mentioned over 250 times in Rigveda alone. Ralph T.H Griffith, Rigveda (Benares: E.J Lazarus
and Co., 1920), v. I, p. 43-47 (1/32,33).
128 Rigveda starts with hymns glorifying Agni. Ralph T.H Griffith, trans., Rig Veda, p. 1-2.
129 Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition, p. 11-21.
42
image worship led to sectarianism.130 However, spread of Vaishnavism and Shaivism
through Bhakti in middle ages had prompted historians to conclude the sects based on
Gods mainly into three; Shaivism and Vaishnavism along with Şaktism the another sect
without much prominence.
1.1.3.1. Shaivism
Along with popular Gods of Vedic period like Varuna and Indra, the God Siva
is also had existed in early Vedic period but was not popular as in middle ages.131 While
God Rudra of Vedic age was considered as ascendant of Siva,132 inscriptions that found
in the first century CE denoting the names ‘Shivarakshita’ that means ‘protected by Siva’
and ‘Shivasena’ that means ‘army of Siva’, point to its existence in earlier periods.133 The
term ‘Shiva’ means ‘auspicious’ but he was considered as a destroyer in earlier times.134
Based on different mentions in various scriptures, a subsect of Shaivism namely
Pashupata was existed in many parts of Indian sub-continent as early as fourth century
BCE.135 Some historians like Thomas J. Hopkins view its origin in Indus cult itself as
earlier as 3rd millennium BCE because Veda criticize the sect that worships Phallus which
is early form of Shaivism in his view.136 Along with Pashupatas, Pashupata-Lakulisas, a
subsect of Pashupatas known for extreme ascetic practices like being naked and sleeping
on ashes or dirts, and Smartas represent early forms of Shaivism.137 While Panini in fourth
century refers to some images of Siva, Kadphises who was a Kushana king and lived in
130 Chattopadhyaya, Evolution of Hindu Sects up to the Time of Shankaracharya, p. 7.
131 Nirad C. Chaudhari, Hinduism; a Religion to Live by (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003), p.
45.
132 Chaudhari, Hinduism; a Religion to Live By, p. 239.
133 Chaudhari, Hinduism; a Religion to Live By, p. 45.
134 F. Kingsbury - G.E Philips, Hymns of Tamil Saivite Saints (Culcutta: Association Press, 1921), p. 3-4.
135 Chattopadhyaya, Evolution of Hindu Sects up to the Time of Shankaracharya, p. 91.
136 Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition, p. 10.
137 Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition, p. 99.
43
2nd century BCE, had circulated coins with Siva-in scripted images describing himself as
a Siva devotee.138
In Shaivism, lord Siva is attributed often as Ishvara (Lord) or Maheshvara (Great
Lord) while the followers of the cult call themselves Parama-Maheshvara. Beside these
names, Siva is also referred with many mythological names like Bhutpati, Mahadeva,
Parameshvara, Pashupati, Pinakin, Shulapani and so on.139 Many observations suggest
that Shaivism had emerged before Vaishnavism due to many reasons including seeking
of Krishna, the Godly incarnation of Vishnu, help from Siva as depicted in Mahabharata,
a legendary text that is believed to be composed in 2nd century BCE.140 In Mahabharata,
Siva is worshiped as the creator of the universe who is unborn and powerful.141 Some
theologians argue that Shaivism may be the one and only monotheistic Hinduism since
some of Siva worshippers argued that Siva is the only supreme God and defended his
association with Goddesses like Durga and Kali as polymorphous, the argument is almost
rejected by academicians while they name the argument as polymorphous monotheism.
As we will witness in Shakta cult, Siva is often mentioned with his consort Parvati who
is named as Kali or Durga and by other names, and worshipped together.142
To understand Siva followers, they used to dress themselves with the skin of
wild beasts and had clubs as their weapons. They are also famous for worship of Linga,
which is a single rock curved roundly on the top and may be easily understandable symbol
of the sect. The term ‘Ling’ means penis and it may indirectly denote the vegetation of
Siva143 and the worship of Lingam is reported as early as Indus civilization about 3rd
millennium BCE.144 Two stories of Lingam attached with Siva are reported. In first one,
138 Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition, p. 60-62.
139 Chattopadhyaya, Evolution of Hindu Sects up to the Time of Shankaracharya, p. 47.
140 Chattopadhyaya, Evolution of Hindu Sects up to the Time of Shankaracharya, p. 89.
141 Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition, p. 88.
142 Chattopadhyaya, Evolution of Hindu Sects up to the Time of Shankaracharya, p. 241.
143 Chattopadhyaya, Evolution of Hindu Sects up to the Time of Shankaracharya, p. 84-88.
144 Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition, p. 11.
44
Siva the great creator slashed his penis (Lingam) as he realized no need of it and went for
ascetic life, and the Lingam sticks up in the ground. Another one story describes that Siva
is God whose penis (Lingam) is worshiped by men and his creatures bear his symbol the
Lingam or his wife’s the vulva or Yoni.145 In Shaivism, both Yoga and Bhakti are
combined together with much emphasis on Yoga.146 Shaivism flourished in the subcontinent
through Nayanmar poets who wandered the regions in south singing devotional
songs to Lord Siva. As Nayanmar poets were also exponents of Bhakti, we will discuss
comprehensively in coming part.
1.1.3.2. Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism is another major theological sect in Hinduism who worships God
Vishnu. In Rigveda, five hymens were addressed to him mentioning his name more than
hundred times and he was ranked fourth representing the form of sun.147 As in case of
Siva too, Vishnu was also not major God in early Vedic times, but he was worshipped in
other manifestations by some sects like Bhagavatas. Vasudeva, the earliest version of
Vishnu, was worshipped by devotees who called themselves as Bhagavatas the
worshippers of Bhagavan ‘the Generous Lord.’148 While Panini pointed to images of
Vishnu, Heliodors (d.175 BCE), a Greek ambassador in India lived in second century
BCE, described himself as a Bhagavata.149 In Brahmanas, Vishnu was called as highest
of the Gods after he won earth for Gods against Asuras (demons). Vishnu was also
referred as Narayana who was eternal supreme deity in some Brahmana texts as well as
in Dharma Sutras while he was called by name Hari in Taittirya Aranyaka. In
Mahabharata, Vasudeva, who was merged with Krishna and known as Vasudeva Krishna,
145 Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition, p. 88.
146 Chattopadhyaya, Evolution of Hindu Sects up to the Time of Shankaracharya, p. 84-88.
147 Suvira Jaiswal, The origin and development of Vaisnavism (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Oriental
Publishers and Booksellers, 1967), p. 50.
148 Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition, p. 89
149 Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition, p. 60-62
45
was identified with Vedic God Vishnu. In short, all these Gods namely Vasudeva,
Krishna, Narayana, Hari, Shankar and Vishnu were used to refer Lord Bhagavan in
Mahabharata.150 Yet, names of different sects who worship different manifestations of
same God were mentioned in the epic like Bhagavatas, Pancaratras, Ekantins, Sattvatas
and Vaishnavas but the God is same Vishnu around whom the tradition developed later.151
Bhagavat-Gita acts as a doctrinal basis of Vaishnavism merging different Gods to one
God Vishnu. Even though Siva had some importance in early portions of Mahabharata,
Vaishnavism was turned as dominant theology in the final stages of the epic.152
Other Purana texts like Vishnu purana, a product of Pancaratra sect of
Vaishnavism, and Harivamsa purana give details about Vaishnavi teachings of creation
and avatars the incarnations of God Vishnu. By second century BCE, the earliest
Vaishnavi center of worship and column of Heliodors that were dedicated to Vasudeva,
were located in nearby areas of Mathura on the banks of Jumna River.153 Silappadhikaram
a Tamil poem of fifth century mentions about Krishna temples in Madura and
Kaveripattanam in South India. Stone inscriptions dated to fifth century found in Gadhwa,
Guwahati, Mandor and Pahapur also descript the existence of Vishnu worship or his
manifestations.154 In third century, Guptas established their own strong empire and
endorsed Vaishnavism as they referred themselves as Parama-Bhagavatas (chief
Bhagavatas) devoting Vasudeva-Krishna avatar (incarnation) of Vishnu. Incarnation of
Vishnu as boar with the name of Varaha gained some importance as it incarnated to save
earth from destruction. The avatar doctrine was adopted by royal circle including Guptas
and Chalukya rulers of the south as they considered themselves as preservers of the world,
thus boar symbolized royal power.155 From these evidences, it may conclude that
150 Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition, p. 88-89
151 Jaiswal, The Origin and Development of Vaisnavism, p. 32
152 Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition, p. 88-89.
153 Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition, p. 97-103.
154 Jaiswal, The Origin and Development of Vaisnavism, p. 59-60.
155 Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition, p. 108-109.
46
Vaishnavism was popularly existed from north to south of India through worship of
Vishnu or his other manifestations. Vaishnavism was flourished in next centuries through
glorifying poems of Alvars who are also exponents of Bhakti.
1.1.3.3. Shaktism
Shaktism means worshipping Goddesses but was not powerful sect as Shaivism
and Vaishnavism. But the cult flourished with both Shaivism and Vaishnavism as a
feminine counterpart of them was accommodated within their sects. Worship of female
deities that prevailed in villages turned to semiautonomous cult when they adopted as
consorts and wives of Siva and Vishnu. In Sri Sukta a supplement of Rig Veda, Goddess
Sri Lakshmi was eulogized as a deity and in later texts, she was considered as Goddess
of fertility, wealth, prosperity and luck. As she was regarded as Goddess of prosperity,
she was attracted by all sections of Hindu society turning the worship of Goddess to a
popular cult, moreover Vaisyas were more indulged in her worship as the class was
obliged for trade and commerce. Worship of Goddess was traced as early as first century
BCE since coin inscriptions of Sunga kings, kings of Ajodhya and Mathura, point out and
Shakti cult worship was almost emerged within the second century CE.156
Worship of Goddess accompanied, without few exceptional cases, a male partner
God starting from Indra the Vedic God to Siva and Vishnu. In Sri Sukta, she was
associated with Kubera the God of wealth and riches while she was seen as his wife in
some passages of Mahabharata. In fourth or fifth century, her association with Vishnu in
his various incarnations gained popularity within Vaishnavas often portraying her as wife
of Vasudeva-Krishna incarnation of him, and in later periods, both of them seen as
couples giving much more importance than before.157 Meanwhile, worship of Goddess
156 Jaiswal, The Origin and Development of Vaisnavism, p. 84-96.
157 Jaiswal, The Origin and Development of Vaisnavism, p. 96-106.
47
Durga had also received much importance as she was worshipped, in Mahabharata, for
granting victory in battlefield.158
Shaktism based on worship of Goddess was existed as Sri Lakshmi in
Vaishnavism and as Durga in Shaivism. Shaktism developed through tantrism since
feminine figure played active role in tantric practices. Goddesses played role of energy
(shakti) for creation of universe in tantrism which believed that unification of masculine
and feminine characters represents the universe. They believed that divine is embodied
within every woman since highest deity is women, thus it led to esoteric and orgy
practices of tantrism. Moving from the fact that women womb is source of all life, Shakta
followers thought that supreme creator should be feminine and focused on worshipping
Goddesses. As Devi (Goddess) is also source of Shakti (energy), all other Gods like Siva
and Vishnu are within her.159
In short, by ninth century, there were numerous philosophical and theological
sects of Hinduism as well as heterodox sects. Vishnu, Siva along with Goddess were main
deities but different names, forms or incarnations of them were worshipped often
constituting their own sects and these sects were powered by one of six orthodox
philosophical schools. In subsequent centuries, some group of poets emerged in south
India who worshipped their Gods with great devotion and love often rejecting traditional
practices within religion. These poets were classified mainly into two, Alvars who were
devotees of Vishnu and Nayanmar who were devotees of Siva and the common feature
of devotion found in them transformed to a movement the Bhakti movement.
1.2. BHAKTI PERIOD
Even though it is hard to clearly point out the exact genesis of Bhakti period, the
period starts with Alvars and Nayanmars. Bhakti movement, originated through these
158 R.G Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism, Saivism and Other Minor Religious Systems (Varanasi: Indological Book
House, 1965), p. 142.
159 Sir John Woodroffe, Shakti and Shakta (Celephias Press, 2009), p. 111.
48
poets, influenced almost parts of India for one millennium forming different sects, groups
and even syncretic religious traditions. Bhakti was scarcely mentioned in Vedas, but in
Bhagavad-Gita of Mahabharata the popular text among Hindus presented it as one of
three paths of salvation. Moreover, the text served as basic scripture of Bhakti tradition
for those who wanted to accommodate it within the Brahminic religion. To be clear on
whether the text infuriated a new tradition or served as a foundation text for a movement
that developed later, we must go through Bhakti tradition deeply especially its period of
genesis.
Buddhism and Jainism had grown much in south India and established their
supremacy in the region in 6th and succeeding centuries. But Pallava kingdom, the first
monarchial power of south India, had granted royal patronage to Hinduism irrespective
cults and sects. As a result of Tamil and Aryan interaction with influence of Sangam
poetries,160 some group of wandering poets praising their Gods emerged in the region in
a period between 8th and 10th centuries. Even though they devoted to different Gods within
Hinduism occasionally fighting each other, they united to tear down the supremacy and
influence of Buddhists and Jains in the region. The main Gods of these poets were Siva
and Vishnu or his incarnations, later these poets named as Nayanmars and Alvars
respectively. Under the royal patronage, the culture of these poets namely Shaivism and
Vaishnavism sprouted in the region.161 So let us discuss elaborately about Alvars and
Nayanmars who were first group to introduce Bhakti through their poems.
1.2.1. Alvars
Alvars are saint poets who wandered from temple to temple in south India
singing panegyric songs that expressed their intense devotion and love to God Vishnu or
his incarnations. Their poems are considered as revealed as Vedas among Vaishnavas,
160 Sangam is referred to age between 3rd century BCE and 3rd century CE, in which poets of Tamil land
were used to gather in a specified place. Later, these poems known as Sangam poetry.
161 N. Subbu Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with special reference to Nammalvar
(Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara University, 1977), p. 199.
49
along with accepting four Vedas, Vedangas and epics like Mahabharata and Ramayana.162
The term ‘Alvar’ is derived from ‘al’ a Tamil word with meaning of ‘dive’ and the title
‘alvar’ will mean that ‘one dived in God or divinity.’ Vaishnava tradition consecrates
these Alvars often elevating to the level of divinity even surpassing the God of whom he
was a devotee.163 The title of ‘Alvar’ is given to 12 poets who were ardent devotees of
Vishnu and they are; Poygai (d.713), Bhuttat (Puttatar) (d.713), Pey (d.713), Tirumalisai
(d.720), Tondaradipodi (d.726), Kulasekara (d.767), Tiruppan (d.781), Tirumangai
(d.776), Periya (d.785), Andal (d.767), Nammalavar (d.798) and Madhurakavi (d.800).
Out of 12 Alvars, 11 are men while Andal is a poetess whose icon is worshipped in many
Sri Vaishnava temples. Their 24 poems with 4 thousand verses are combined in the
collection known as Nalayira Divya Prabandham (Divine collection of 4 thousand
verses) which is popularly called as Divya Prabandham. The poems were collected by
Nathamuni (d.823) a brahmin scholar lived in ninth century and considered later as first
Acharya (master) of Sri Vaishnava community. According to the tradition, he heard elven
stanzas of later identified as Tiruvayamoli from some wandering devotional singers and
these verses forced to him search more as he felt after hearing eleventh one that there
should be one thousand more stanzas. In the search, he found all stanzas, more than
thousand, of Tiruvayamoli and blessed with revelation of different three short poems of
same poet and about 20 poems of others. Therefore, Tiruvaymoli which was penned by
Sathakopan, popularly called as Nammalavar (our Alvar), holds a parent status along with
its author and regarded as equal to Sama Veda by Vaishnava community.164
While Vaishnavism is claimed as monotheistic with ultimate divine of Vishnu
only, Shri Vaishnavas assign the ultimacy to his consort Shri Lakshmi along with him,
therefore the cult is also mentioned as Shri Sampradaya. Vaishnavas worship different
names and incarnations of Vishnu, meanwhile Shri Vaishnavas favorably name him as
162 Vasudha Narayanan, Krishna: A Source Book, ed. Edwin F. Brayant (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2007), p. 187-189.
163 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 197.
164 Narayanan, Krishna: A Source Book, p. 187-189.
50
Narayana since Alvars like Tirumangai and Tirumalsai designated him so. Alvars
composed their poems in the praise of Tirumal (Mal with Tiru-Shri- or Holy Mal) a south
Indian deity which later identified as Vishnu. Alvars’ strong emotional lines in folk style
heavily influenced local mass, thus their devotionalism conveyed in Sanskrit too through
Bhagavat Purana which caused to influence much of Hindu societies.165 Since Alvars
were wandering poets, they sang their poems in different cities, forests and mountains,
therefore Vaishnava tradition celebrates the places glorified in poems. The places are
counted as 106, most of them in South India, along with two places of hereafter life;
Vaikuntha the heavenly abode of Vishnu and ocean of milk upon which Vishnu relaxes.166
More than being mere some poets and poems, Alvars and their poems are
significant in Hindu tradition as these brought salient reforms within religion. Firstly,
these poems were composed in a vernacular language of Tamil instead of Sanskrit the
language of Vedas and other sacred scriptures. Uplifting poems that are written in a
vernacular language to the status of revealed, challenged supremacy of Sanskrit in the
tradition which was accessible for upper castes only. Secondly, these poets come from
different castes even from low castes who were forbidden from religious activities and
studies, like Tiruppanalvar who was from Panjama an outcaste,167 moreover these poets
are regarded as saints in the Vaishnava tradition questioning autonomy of brahmins to be
priestly class. The tradition of Shri Vaishnava also questioned male supremacy as they
included Andal a woman in Alvar poets while women were also forbidden from religious
studies. These reforms in the religion materialized only when they projected Bhakti above
all other features like hereditary merit.
As the tradition described, Alvars are incarnations of God Vishnu as first four
poets were considered as incarnations of Vishnu’s weapons, thus, Poygai was incarnation
165 Jaun Paul Sydnor, “Jaimini, Shankara and the Alvars; Ramanuja’s Enduring Synthesis” 22/2 (2014), p.
6.
166 Narayanan, Krishna: A Source Book, p. 190.
167 Narayanan, Krishna: A Source Book, p. 188.
51
of Sankha (conch), Puttatar was of Gada (mace), Pey was of Nandaka (sword) and
Tirumalasai was of Chakra (discus). While Nammalvar was mentioned as incarnation of
divine angel namely Vishvaksena, Kulasekara was considered as Kaustubha (ornament
worn by Vishnu in chest). The other incarnations were; Periya was of Garuda (divine
bird), Tondaradippodi was of Vanamala (the garland born by Vishnu), Tirumangai of
Saranga (bow of Vishnu) and Tiruppan was of Srivatsa (the mole in Vishnu’s chest).
While Andal was considered as a manifestation of Bhudevi, one of Vishnu’s consorts,
Madhurakavi is taken as representing Vishnuguna’s chief.168 The underlying motive
behind these mythical traditions is belief of avatar (incarnation) which states God Vishnu
will incarnate in the forms of human beings or other animals to protect human world when
it submerges in the darkness of evils.169
Works like Divyasuri-Charitam (history of divine saints), written in Sanskrit by
Garudavahana Pandita in 11th century and Guruprambaras (lineage of Masters) give most
of available biographical details of Alvars. Based on Divyasuri Charitam, two more
works are penned down; first one by Pinpalakiyaperumal Jiyar (13th century) in
Manipravala170 style with a title of ‘Guruprambaraprabhavam-arayirappadi (origin of
Master’s lineage-six thousand units) and second one by Tritya Brahmatantra
Parakalasvami (14th century) with a title of Guruprambaraprabhavam-moovayirappadi
(origin of Master’s lineage-six thousand units). But it is necessary to keep in mind that
these Guruparampara texts are encomiums in style rather than credible historical
works.171
168 S. M. Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and theistic mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, 1st ed (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas,
1997), p. 13-14.
169 R.G Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism, Saivism and Other Minor Religious Systems (Varanasi: Indological Book
House, 1965), p. 13.
170 A hybrid language emerged through combination of Tamil and Sanskrit languages.
171 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 10.
52
Tradition considers these Alvars as divine incarnations who lived between 4200
BCE and 2700 BCE but scholars place them in very late period ranging from fifth, at
earliest, to ninth centuries CE. According to Guruparampara, Poygai, Puttattar, Pey and
Tirumalisai were born in 4200 BCE while Madhurakavi was born in 3222 BCE, a timeline
that falls under Dvaparayuga (era of Dvapara) as tradition describes. Next four Alvars
including Nammalvar, Kulasekara, Periya and Andal who was believed as an adopted girl
of Periya, are dated between 3101 BCE and 3003 BCE, the first century of Kaliyuga (era
of Kali) according to tradition. Remaining Alvars namely Tondaradippodi, Tiruppan and
Tirumangai are believed to be born in 2803 BCE, 2758 BCE and 2702 BCE respectively,
a timeline that corresponds Kaliyuga (era of Kali).172 Even though scholars differ on the
birth years of these Alvars and place them in centuries ranging from fifth to ninth, Dr. N.
Subba Reddiar (d. 2006) had presented much possible dating as follows; Firs three Alvars
namely Poygai, Puttattar, and Pey in (d.713), Tirumalisai in (d.720), Tondaradippodi in
(d.726), Kulasekara and Andal in (d.767), Tirumangai in (d.776), Tiruppan (d.781),
Periya in (d.785), Nammalvar in (d.798), Madhurakavi in (d.800). It may be a reliable
dating of Alvars but two problems are pointed out against dating that Andal was an
adopted girl of Periya, therefore Periya should succeed her and Nammalvar was older
than all except first four. However, it is asserted that they lived before Nathamuni (d.823)
who collected their poems into Nalayira Divayaprabandham. Based on this chronological
order, time span of Alvars is fixed from 700 to 800.173
1.2.1.1. Poygai, Puttatar and Pey
The first and oldest three Alvars namely Poygai, Puttatar and Pey are known as
‘Mudal-Alvargal’ and these three were contemporaries but Poygai was oldest of them.174
The tradition describes that they were born in consecutive three days in same month and
172 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 10-11.
173 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 170-194.
174 R. Balasubramanian, The Mysticism of Poygai Alvar (Madras: Vedanta Publications, 1976), p. IX.
53
year.175 These three Alvars namely Poygai, Puttatar and Pey were mythically believed to
be born of golden lotus at Kanci, Kurukatti176 flower at Mahabalipuram and red lotus at
Madras respectively.177 Another myth narrates a story of their accidental meet under one
roof in the temple city of Tirukoilur when there was rain. The first to enter the shelter
which had space for one person to lie down, was Poygai and second one was Puttattar
who asked permission saying that the space will be enough for two people to sit down.
Then Pey entered the shelter pointing that space for two people to sit down is enough for
three to stand. They felt the presence of fourth one who was invisible while they stood
together there waiting rain to stop and they realized that it was the supreme being. Poygai
sensed God’s existence through his transcendental knowledge (Paranjana) while
Puttattar perceived it through his mystical devotion (Para Bhakti). Pey attained the
supreme vision of God’s form with his consort through combining knowledge with Bhakti
(ParamaBhakti).178
The first Alvar Poygai was born in a water tank (poygai) in the courtyard of
Yathoktakari temple in Kanchi and this is the reason to be named as Poygai. He was also
named Sarayogi referring his birth in Sara (tank).179 Poygai had composed devotional
poems that included in Divya Prabandham and known as Mutal Tiruvantadi which
includes one hundred verses. Antadi is combination of two words; ‘anti’ which means
‘end’ and ‘adi’ which means ‘start’. Antadi refers to a kind of poems found in Tamil
language in which last syllable or word of preceding stanza is the opening syllable or
word of succeeding stanza. Considering his prominence, Vaishnavas refer him as Adikavi
(first poet) and as Kavikulaşabha (eminent among galaxy of poets).180
175 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 16.
176 A kind of flower commonly seen in south India with scientific name of Hiptage benghalensis.
177 K.C Varadachari, Alvars of South India (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1966), p. 1.
178 K.C Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 2.
179 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 16.
180 Balasubramanian, The Mysticism of Poygai Alvar, p. IX.
54
The second Alvar Puttatar’s poem also constitutes one hundred verses and
known as ‘Irandam Tiruvantadi’. During the meeting of Mudhal Alvargal, he identifies
the supreme being as he saw him in the form of Narayana and describes it in the first
verse of his Tiruvantadi.181 Puttatar is important in the tradition as he molded Paranjana
(transcendent knowledge) into Para Bhakti (transcendent devotion), so he explains that
he saw the God which is different from ‘he knew the God.’182
Peyalvar, the last of Mudhal Alvargal, goes further and gives the details of what
he had witnessed in the first verse of Tiruvantadi which is known as Munram Tiruvantadi.
His greatness lies in his perception of God’s duo unity combining Narayana and his wife
Shri. Shri is a symbol of transcendent love and the heart of divine. Shri Vaishnava sect,
to which Alvars belong, got its name from this vision of Shri as divine consort.183
1.2.1.2. Tirumalisai
Tirumalisai is the fourth Alvar and was born in the time span of Mudhal Alvargal
in Tirumalisai. He was also named in tradition as Bhaktisara that means ‘essence of
Bhakti’ for his personification of Bhakti. Tradition narrates that Tirumalisai was born to
a sage named Bhargava184 who was enticed by a celestial nymph during his penance and
the baby born out of this union was deserted by the nymph in a jungle.185 Tradition
continues that he was brought up by a childless cowherd named as Tiruvalan186 after he
found Tirumalisai abandoned in forest. Upon his feeding disorders, they consulted him to
a sage and he offered him milk. He drank some and requested his foster mother to drink
181 Balasubramanian, The Mysticism of Poygai Alvar, p. IX.
182 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 17.
183 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 21-23.
184 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 177.
185 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 14.
186 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 177.
55
saying she will have a child soon and the born child was named Kanikanna who stayed
with Bhaktisara during his lifetime.187
Bhaktisara was well versed with different religious and philosophical schools of
the time as he wandered shrine to shrine after his renounce of food for seven years from
the incident of milk, as the tradition describes. During his wanderings, he practiced yoga,
became Siddha an ardent devotee of God Siva and adopted Maunavrata (oath of silence).
Peyalvar the last of Mudhal Alvargal, engaged with Bhaktisara after he came to know
Bhaktisara as great devotee but of Siva, arguing the supremacy of Narayana. As a result
of argument series, Tirumalisai accepted the supremacy of Narayana and he composed
poems which is called as Nanmukan Tiruvantadi.188 The work is composed of 96 verses
in the style of first three Tiruvantadi and first Vaishnava treatise that establishes the
supremacy of Narayana or Vishnu rather than any other Gods like Brahma and Rudra.189
Tiumalisai was known as Bhaktisara because his knowledge has transfigured
into devotion in whom transcendental knowledge (Paranjana) of Poygai, transcendental
devotion (Para Bhakti) of Puttatar and supreme devotion (Parama Bhakti) of Pey were
rightly assembled. There are several stories of his supernatural powers available in the
tradition like changing rosary into precious stones and much more.190 Another work of
Tirumalasai with title of ‘Tiruchandaviruttam’ comprising of 120 hymns that describe
chief metaphysical principles of Vishishatadvaita Vedanta.191 Final days of Tirumalisai
were spent at Kumbhakonam where he died.192
187 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 28.
188 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 28-29.
189 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 14.
190 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 29.
191 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 14.
192 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 31.
56
1.2.1.3. Tondaradippodi
Tondaradippodi Alvar’s story of sinner turned to saint is famous within the
tradition as it portrays protection and affection of God towards his devotee even his time
of sins. Vipranarayana, later known as Tondaradippodi, born in an orthodox brahmin
family in Tanjavaur and acquired knowledge of Vedas in his early years.193 He spent most
of his time in caretaking the garden in Srirangam and offering flowers to Lord Ranganatha
the deity of temple in Srirangam. A gorgeous girl of village named as Devadevi, who
passed by his garden and informed by her companion that the owner of garden is a pious
devotee, decided to allure him. In the next day, Devadevi approached him wearing plain
clothes but Vipranarayana who was keen in his devotional services to God neglected her.
Understanding the reaction, she begged him pardon and informed him her desire to
service of Gods abandoning her hereditary profession of dancing. Upon the request, he
permitted her to work in his garden for the service of Gods. But in a rainy day, he lost his
control on her seductive beauty when they took shelter under one roof. Slowly, he used
to neglect his Brahmanical duties as well his services in garden as he lost himself in her
beauty. Davadevi made use of the situation even by seizing his properties.194
The tradition narrates that Lord Ranganatha and his wife Mahalakshmi desire to
rescue him from this pathetic condition. Ranganatha gave the golden vessels that used to
perform daily worships in his temple, to Devadevi in the form of a man introducing him
as a servant of Vipranarayana. In the next morning, local chieftain ordered for a search
upon missing of vessels in the temple and found it in the house of Devadevi. When
Devadevi described that the servant of Vipranarayana gave it her, he denied it and even
cut the relation with his servant. In the night, lord Ranganatha unfolded the story to
chieftain through dream and described his intention was to bring back both of them to
God services and the humiliation in the public is enough for them to understand their
pathetic situation, thus they were released in the next morning. Realizing God’s grace, he
193 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 180.
194 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 83.
57
once again started to concentrate on divine services. To repent from his sexuality, he
pledged to worship the feet of God devotees and to stick the dust under their footstep on
his head. Therefore, he named as Tondaradippodi meaning that wearer of foot dust of
devotees (tondars),195 and for the same reason, he also known as Bhaktanghrirenu. He
penned down 45 hymns with a title of Tirumalai (sacred garland) describing his
experiences of sin and repentance and offering it to Lord Ranganatha.196 While his story
was shortly described in the verses from 23 and 40, his practice of sticking devotee’s feet
dust even of low castes, is depicted in verses from 39 to 42.197
Another poem of Tondaradippodi consisting 10 verses with a title of
Tiruppalliyelucci was penned down to wake up lord Ranganatha from his Yoga-nidra
(yogic nap) and is celebrated as morning song. The poem illustrates pleasing natural
phenomenon in early mornings as well as noble acts of God during incarnations.198
1.2.1.4. Kulasekara
Kulasekara was born to royal family of Chera kingdom who ruled present state
of Kerala. His birth place is Tiruvancikkulam in Malabar and was crown prince of Kerala
region. He was known as Kolikkon (lord of Uraiyur), Kutal Nayakan (the lord of Madurai)
and Kollikavalan (king of Kolli) and it points that he was crown prince of Chola, Pantiya
and Kerala regions.199 But he was not interested in royal duties, instead he spent time with
Bhagavatas indulging in religious matters as he was a devotee of Vishnu. Aware of this
situation, ministers plotted a theft scenario of family deity’s ornament in order to blame
Bhagavatas and to bring back him to royal duties. But Kulasekara stood with Bhagavatas
and tried to expose their innocence even by inserting his hand to a pot with poisonous
195 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 84.
196 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 26-27.
197 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 85.
198 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 27-28.
199 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 182.
58
cobra. After a while, he moved to Srirangam after abdicating throne for dedicated service
of God and Godly men.200
Kulasekara Alvar’s contribution in Divya prabandaham is his poem of 105
hymns with a title of Perumal Tirumoli which is divided to ten decads. In first 5 decads,
he glorifies the deities in temples. While first three dedicated only to deity at Srirangam,
the next two composed to glorify deities at Chidambaram, Tirumalai and Tiruvakkodu.
In other decads, he discusses his mystic experiences with God. His major contribution to
Vaishnava theology is the doctrines of Bhagavat kainkarya (service to God) and
Bhagavata kainkarya (service to devotees of God). Tondaradippodi’s poems serve as
basis of Bhagavata kainkarya (service to the devotees of Bhagavan) principle which
evolved as a major doctrine in the tradition.201
1.2.1.5. Periyalvar
Periyalvar, whose real name is Vishnucittan (one who thinks Vishnu), born in a
brahmin family in Ramanatathapuram but was not received intense Veda teachings and
was, therefore, not well versed with Vedas unlike other brahmins.202 Energized by the
doctrine of Kainkarya (divine service),203 he used to spend his times making garlands of
flowers that plucked from his garden and serving it to deity of local temple. But his great
devotion to Shri Krishna caused for divine bliss and it was expressed through his songs
later known as Periyalvar Tirumoli.204
Distinction of Periyalavar among other Alvars lies in his story of establishing
God Mal (Narayana) as Para tattva (Supreme truth). The tradition depicts that he was
summoned by Pandya king Vallabh deva (d. 862) to elucidate the essence of Veda and to
200 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 14.
201 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 14.
202 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 190
203 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 23
204 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 126
59
win prize. Initially he hesitated to respond as he was not mastered Vedas but accepted the
challenge upon divine command. Surprisingly, he recited core verses of Vedas in front of
other pandits and establishing Narayana is Para tattva and won the prize. Tradition
continues that he was blessed by holy vision of Lord Vishnu with his consort Shri
Lakshmi seated on his celestial vehicle (Garuda) while he was taken on the royal elephant
through the streets as a mark of royal admiration. Upon the vision, he burst into joy and
sang the famous hymns which later known as Pallandu205 and are being recited nowadays
in all most Vaishnava temples.206
Periyalvar penned down two main pomes; Tiruppallandu consisting 12 verses
and Tirumoli consisted of 461 verses. Tiruppallandu was sung as a prayer for eternal
existence of the lord while Tirumoli depicts the glory of Krishna incarnation of the God.
He illustrates his love of God as mother’s love to her child. Besides, he also sings for
Rama incarnation and Arca deities in different religious centers. The other significance
of Periayalvar is that he nurtured another Alvar too as Andal was adopted by him and
brought up as divine gift after he found her in his garden abandoned.207
1.2.1.6. Andal
Andal the only one women poet saint of Alvars, was adopted by Periyalvar when
he found her as an infant lying in one of flowers in his garden. She is believed to be born
in Srivilliputtur and also known as Goda which means ‘giver of light and revelation.’208
She was used to make up herself with flower garland that was prepared by her foster
father Periyalvar to be offered to deity. Realizing the situation, Periyavalar did not offer
the same garland but he dreamt of lord expressing his dissent for not offering the same
garland that used by her and wishing to accept the same from now on. Realizing her divine
205 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 23.
206 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 127.
207 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 23.
208 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 133.
60
affection, he called her ‘Uddikodutta-Nacciyar’ (the Goddess who offered the garland
worn by her).209
Andal devoted herself with intense love towards Krishna and desired to marry
him alone. She prepared herself for the marriage with Krishna and had penned down a
poem consisted of 30 hymns describing her preparation to get him as husband. The work
is titled as ‘Tiruppavai’ and it contains a refrain at the end of each hymn that call for the
help of Katyayani the divine mother. According to religious customs, young unmarried
women used to observe a special religious rite (Vrata) offered to Katyayani aiming to get
her wished one as her husband. When they observe this Vrata in autumn season, they get
up early and go to temple after bath singing hymns. While normal girls were used to
observe this Vrata to get normal human being, Andal did it to get lord as her beloved
husband. She transformed the desire for physical union with beloved one to the desire of
mystical union with God.210 As she refuted marriage with normal human beings in order
to get married with her beloved God Krishna, it caused a headache for her foster father
Periyalvar. But he dreamt divine command of lord Ranganatha to take her to his temple
in Srirangam and present her to him in order to get married. Obeying the command, he
took her to the temple and presented her to lord Ranganatha. Myth continues that she was
absorbed as deity as soon as she entered the sanctum sanctorum of deity.211
In her work of Tiruppavai, she details her experiences of love towards Krishna
and efforts to marry him. In the first five hymns, she notes down conditions that enables
one for divine attainment and explains that one must devote to mental and physical purity
for divine attainment. In next verses, she sketches the essence of bridal mysticism that
getting God as husband is important than any other.212 Another work of Andal is known
as ‘Nacciyar Tirumoli’, comprised of about140 hymns in fourteen sections. The work
209 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 24.
210 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 133-134.
211 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 24-25.
212 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 134.
61
deals with various stages of her love towards Krishna including her mental conditions of
love, desperations and anger in different situations. She reiterates the prominence of total
surrender towards loved ones, thus, her ideal of total surrender made significant impacts
in Bhakti tradition.213 In later centuries, her image was consecrated as incarnation of
Bhudevi (Goddess of earth) or Nila devi a wife of Vishnu and is being worshipped in
temples dedicated to her.214
1.2.1.7. Tirumangai
Tirumangai was born in Tanjavaur for a couple of Kalla caste who named him
as Kaliyan and had been a brigade in his young ages.215 He was also known as Parakalan
(beyond time) and Kalidamin (destroyer of Kali).216 Due to his mastery in archery, he was
appointed as chieftain under Chola king with Tirumnagai as its headquarters and was
given the title of Tirumangaimannan (the chief of Tirumangai). Even though he was
turned to poet saint, he retained his name as Tirumangai. His story differs from other
Alvars for his transformation from brigadier to a saint due to his romance. Tradition
narrates that he came to know Kumudavalli, a beautiful adopted girl of Vaishnava doctor,
and wanted to marry her but she refused unless he becomes a true Vaishnavi and feeds
1008 Bhagavata all day for a year. Unfortunately, he was forced to engage in robbery to
carry out these conditions. In one occasion, he tried to rob the ornament worn by a newly
married bride but he realized that the couple are lord Narayana and his wife. In turn, lord
Narayana decided to turn him as a saint and bestowed him with spiritual knowledge.217
When he became staunch Vaishnava devotee after the incident, he gave up his
administrational duties and departed for pilgrimage throughout the country including
Himalayas. It is said that he had visited 86 of 108 sacred temples of Vaishnavas and had
213 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 25.
214 Narayanan, Krishna: A Source Book, p. 189.
215 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 185.
216 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 109.
217 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 9-30.
62
sung for deities of each. As a man of wealth sometime through robbery, he spent a large
amount to build fourth wall of Srirangam temple which has been known nowadays a
Tirumangai mannan tirumatil (sacred all of Tirumangi chieftain).218
Tirumangai is said to be most learned of Alvars even among Vaishnava saints as
he composed 6 poems which consist 1361 verses and are included in Divyaprabandham.
Some scholars believe that 4 works of 6 poems are supplements to Nammalvar’s four
poems, therefore these 4 poems are considered as Vedangas (tail of Vedas) while
Nammalvar’s work are regarded as Veda. He composed his poems in 4 different kinds of
poetry namely Chitra, Matura, Achu and Vitara, thus he also called as Narkavipperumal
(Master of four kinds of poetry).219 His 6 works are;
1) Periya Tirumoli with 1084 hymns,
2) Tiruneduntadakam with 30 verses,
3) Tirukkuruntadakam with 20 verses,
4) Siriya Tirumadal of 155 lines,
5) Tiruvelukurrirukal with 47 lines,
6) Periya Tirumudal with 97 lines.220
In these 6 poetical works, Periya Tirumoli is most important of them as first ten
hymns describe his transformation from a thief to saint after learning the meaning of
Narayana mantra, a mantra considered sacred by Vaishnava Acharyas as they believe it
encompasses the quintessence of Veda. The work includes glorification of deities in 86
sacred temples and depict the pains of human beings because of bondage and God’s
attributes experienced by him.221 Other two works namely Tiruneduntadakam and
Tirukkuruntadakam fall under the category of Tandakam poetry in which God is regarded
as source of support as term ‘Tandakam’ literally means a long stick that used for
218 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 185.
219 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 186.
220 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 30.
221 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 30.
63
climbing hill. Kuru and Nedu indicate the lengths of poems based on number of verses or
meter. Tirukkuruntadakam establishes that importance of need and support of God for
salvation and can be achieved through worship and prayers to him while
Tiruneduntadakam sketches the mystical experiences of saint with God. He also shares
his distress caused by God separation through the tongue of Nayaki (consort) who is
separated from his Nayaka (lord). Another poem Tiruvelukurrirukai describes about the
importance of total surrender of soul to God, path of attaining of moksha and nature of
God.222 Other works namely Siriya Tirumudal and Periya Tirumudal are two poems
penned down in relation with traditional custom of Madal. Madal is a custom in which
any lover man or women want to secure that loved person, therefore they openly
demonstrate his or her love to the concerned person in public. Then person has to take a
ride in public street on palmyra stem using it as a horse, so the person is subjected for a
public scandal. Then the person has to resort to his lover showing that lover is his or her
resort in bad situations. Here in these poems, Tirumangai used this custom of Madal to
portray his intensive love and devotion to God, so he can experience mystical union with
him, and express his mystical feelings. This mood (bhava) of Bhakti is represented as of
a maiden towards his lover.223
1.2.1.8. Tiruppan
Tiruppanalvar was born to a low caste family in Tiruchirappali, therefore he was
forbidden from entering the premises of temple in Srirangam. For he was great devotee
of Sri Ranganatha, the deity of the temple, he used to sing the praises of him in bank of
Kaveri facing the temple. Realizing his devotion, lord Ranganatha ordered the temple
priest named as Lokasarangamuni to bring him to the temple on his shoulders, so he was
also named as Munivahana (one who carried by Muni). Tradition describes that he
vanished into divinity after he was taken to the temple. When he had witnessed lord
Ranganatha, he sang ten verses praising the lord, the verses are also included in
222 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 31.
223 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 31.
64
Divyaprabandham with a title of Amalanadipiran and this is only one poem of
Tiruppan.224 The lord Amalan, which was used in the end of poem and got title from,
means one who hasn’t any blemishes and denotes the God. Tiruppan describes the beauty
of divine body from the feet to head, with ecstasy in his verses.225 He also called as
Kavishwara (lord of poets) for his excellent sweet hymns.226 Highlighting feature of
Tiruppanalvar is his inclusion in Alvar poet saints and even his vanishing as deity is
questioning the varna dharma.
1.2.1.9. Nammalvar
Nammalvar is may be the most significant poet saint in Alvars for his enormous
contributions in Bhakti and its thoughts. He was born to Udayanangaiyar and Kariyar,
who were Vishnu devotees, in Vallala family located in Tirukkuruhur. They named him
as Maran while he was also known as Parankusa and Shatakopan the name he used in
identify himself in his hymns. Besides, tradition fondly calls him as Nammalvar (our
saint) and Kulapati (the founder of Vaishnava community).227
Tradition explains that he had entered to yogic meditation from his infancy itself
and regarded as divine incarnation. When he was taken to local Vishnu temple due to his
abnormality as infant, he sat under a tamarind tree in the premise of the temple and
remained there in meditation for sixteen years.228 Tradition continues that when
Madhurakavi who was on a pilgrimage in north India noticed an effulgence coming from
south and followed it, thus he reached the temple and realized that it was originated from
a man under tamarind tree. When he realized his spiritual supremacy and woke him up
asking “If soul is born of matter what does it eat and where does rests.” Upon question he
woke up replying “It eats That and There it rests” and spontaneously recited hymns which
224 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 186.
225 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 19.
226 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 105.
227 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 19.
228 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 19.
65
are known as Tiruvaymoli (divine utterance). Here Madhurakavi discovered that the
person is an emancipated soul and had taken birth in mortal body but they dwell in God
and He is all for them from food to wisdom. It means that he is a liberated soul, cut the
samsara cycle with union with God, thus he enjoying him all ways, moving, living and
having his being in God.229 His claim in Tiruvayamoli that lord speaks through him and
Vaishnavas showcases the verse as evidence of being revealed. He also glorified Arca
deities of 33 shrines. The poem is recited by Vaishnava followers irrespective of their
caste unlike Vedas, therefore the poem is very popular as devotional songs diffused from
south to north of India.
The devotion sprouted in Tiruvayamoli was transmitted to Sanskrit hymns and
oral traditions influencing teachings and cult of Vallabha, Chaitanya, Kabir and guru
Nanak.230 Tiruvayamoli had subjected for numerous commentaries by Vaishnava
Acharya and those are; Tirukkurukai Piran (1068), Nanjiyar (1113), Vadakkutiruvidi Pilla
(1167), Periyavachan Pilla (1168), Alakiyamanvala Jivar (1242), Vedanta Deshika
(1268), Rangaramanuja (1650), Periya Paraklasvami (1676) and Shaktaswami (1700).231
Tiruvaymoli is divided to ten divisions of 100 verses known as Pattu which is
subdivided into Pasuram that consists eleven verses. Tiruvaymoli deals with glory of the
God and his experiences of direct communication with God while central theme of the
work is understood as explaining and proving that God as Para tattva (ultimate reality)
is the aim of all human endeavors and God himself is the mean of salvation. The Pattu
discusses a specific matter related to this central theme and Pasuram support Pattu in its
discussions. Thus, the work presents a detailed discussion of five principles of
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta viz., Prapya (God to be attained), Prapta (the seeker),
229 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 141-142.
230 Narayanan, Krishna: A Source Book, p. 189.
231 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 23.
66
Praptyupaya (means of attainment) Praptivirodhi (obstacles of attainment) and Phala
(goals to be attained).232
Four works of Nammalvar namely Tiruvasiriyam with 7 stanzas, Tiruviruttam
with 100 verses, Periya Tiruvantadi with 87 verses and large one Tiruvaymoli with 1102
verses clearly speak about Vaishnava theology, theistic mysticism and Vishishtadvaita
Vedanta.233 In Tiruviruttam, Nammalvar considers himself as Nayaki (consort) separated
from Nayaka (God) and describes his psychological and physical states of desperations
caused by separation and ambition for a direct union with him.234 The title correspond to
both Viruttam, a poetry style and Vrtattanta the concept of divine realization by saint. He
wrote Periya Tiruvantadi to express his intense love of God in Atandi poetry style but
differentiated from Antadi of first three by calling it Periya Tiruvantadi (big Antadi).235
He confirms in the poem that God is only one rescuer of all and we must worship him in
all possible ways with sincere devotional services. Another work Tiruvasiriyam explains,
in Asiriyappa poetry style and named after this, about God, his glories, and paths of
attaining him. These Four works are dealt with high admiration within Vaishnava
community even comparing these our works with four Vedas. Some Vaishnava Acharyas
like Nathamuni consider Tiruvayamoli as Dravida Veda for its inclusion of Vedic
teachings, while some others like Vedanta Deshika (d.1369) regard it as Dravida
Upanishad.236 Many traditionalists correspond Tiruviruttam to Rigveda, Tiruvasiriyam to
Yajurveda, Tiruvaymoli to Sama Veda, and Periya Tiruvantadi to Atharva Veda. In later
years, Nammalvar was elevated to divine status portraying him as the feet of God and his
icon was placed in every temple of Vaishnavas.237
232 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 21.
233 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 20.
234 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 20.
235 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 143-172.
236 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 20.
237 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 143.
67
1.2.1.10. Madhurakavi
Madhurakavi, who was a contemporary of Nammalvar, was born in a brahmin
family in Tirkkolur. As we mentioned him in Nammalvar’s story, he had requested
mentorship of Nammalvar and was accepted by Nammalvar. Madhurakavi represent as
the clear example of Acharya Bhakti (deep devotion of a disciple to his guru), an
important concept among Vaishnavas. His devotion to his guru Nammalvar is considered
as devotion to God for he was an incarnation of God. His contribution of 11 verses under
the title of Kanninum Siruttambu talks much about his devotion to his guru, thus the poem
serves as a doctrine of Acharya Bhakti and was included in Divya Prabandham too.238
His name Madhurakavi means sweet tongued poet and was named after his sweet lines
about his master.239
1.2.1.11. Nalayira Divya Prabandham
As we mentioned earlier, Nathamuni collected, in the last of 9th century or first
of 10th century, different poems sung by Alvars in a period ranging from 7th to 8th centuries
and the collection is named as Nalayira Divya Prabandham. Even though the poets of the
collection were not high intellectuals or well versed with philosophy of religions, they
shared one common feature in their poems; the Bhakti. Their mystical experiences with
God and enjoyments through union with God are depicted in these hymns. In their poems,
intense devotion and love to their God either Vishnu or his incarnations were highlighted,
leading to daily recitations of mass in Tamil region. Later the collection was translated to
Sanskrit and other vernacular languages leading to a pan Indian influence of the
collection.240
Nathamuni was born in Kattumunnar koyil and had led a pious life devoting to
local deity but considered as first Acharya of Vaishnavas. Nathamuni, the collector of
238 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 22.
239 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 193.
240 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 197.
68
Divya Prabandham, along with Ramanuja the fifth Acharya but prominent because of his
theological and philosophical contributions, are regarded high within Vaishnava tradition
often to the level of Alvars itself. The context of codifying is described that Nathamuni
came to hear some worshippers reciting ten verses from Tiruvaymoli of Nammalvar and
he was attracted. He inquired about these verses, its author and about other thousand
verses that hinted in the end of last verse as Ayirattil ippattum (these ten verses from out
of the one thousand verses). The worshippers suggested him to visit Kurukar the birth
place of Nammalavar and from where he collected Divya Prabandham. Different stories
are narrated in the tradition on how he could collect all these poems but most rational of
them is that he met Mathurakavi Alvar who was disciple of Nammalvar. He learnt from
him that Nammalvar had attained salvation after he composed a big book of hymns in
Tamil but the local people had thrown the book to Tampraparani a river nearby since
they feared that the book will damage Vedic religion. The only one page with
Mathurakavi’s poem Kanninum Siruttampu was saved while all others lost. To his quest,
he recited the poem 12000 times in order to get complete book to be revealed but only
purport of the book was revealed to him by Nammalvar. Yet he was suggested to approach
a local artisan from whom the entire book was received by Nathamuni.241
Another tradition narrates that Nathamuni went to the spot under tamarind tree
where Nammalvar had meditated wishing to meet the spirit of Nammalvar. When he
couldn’t attain the wish, he recited Kanninum Siruttampu that was taught by
Parankusadasa (d.9th century) a disciple of Madhurakavi, in front of the tree where an idol
of Nammalvar was installed. Tradition continues that Nammalvar appeared to him with
his disciple Madhurakavi and recited for him all his four Prabandhams with meaning.
Some story describes all four thousand verses were taught to Nathamuni during this
meeting. Later, Nathamuni codified these poems and tried to popularize it even with
organizing festivals in which the collection was recited by trained choir.242
241 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 199.
242 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 200-201.
69
Nalayira Divaya Prabandham is a collection that includes 24 poems of 12
Alvars, Vaishnava Acharyas holds different views when they organize these 4000 verses.
Manavalamamuni (d.1450) and his followers organize Nalayira Divya Prabandham
chronologically as follows;
1. Poygai : Mudal Tiruvantadi 100 verses
2. Puttatar : Irandam Tiruvantadi 100 verses
3. Pey : Munram Tiruvantadi 100 verses
4. Tirumalisai : Nanmukam Tiruvantadi 96 verses
: Tiruccanda Viruttam 120 verses
5. Nammalvar : Tiruviruttam 100 verses
: Tiruvasiriyam 7 verses
: Periya Tiruvantadi 87 verses
: Periya Tiruvamoli 1102 verses
6. Madhurakavi : Kanninum Siruttambu 11 verses
7. Kulasekara : Perumal Tirumoli 105 verses
8. Periyalvar : Tiruppallandu 12 verses
: Periyalvar Tirumoli 461 verses
9. Andal : Tiruppavai 30 verses
: Nacciyar Tirumoli 143 verses
10. Tondaradippodi: Tiruppalli-ellucci 10 verses
: Tirumalai 45 verses
11. Tiruppan : Amalanadipiran 10 verses
12. Tirumangai : Periya Tirumoli 1084 verses
: Tirukkuruntadakam 20 verses
: Tirunedutadakam 30 verses
: Tiruvelukurrirukal 1 verses
: Siriya Tirumudal 77.5 verses
70
: Periya Tirumudal 148.5 verses.243
But Tiruppallandu of Periyalvar is not recognized by Vedanta Deshika and his
followers, instead they consider Ramanuja-nurrantadi composed by
Tiruvarangattamudanar (n.d.) as sacred and include it in Divya Prabandham. The work
that praises Ramanuja, most prominent Acharya of Vaishnavas, consists 108 hymns and
was accommodated in Divya Prabandham after slashing hymns of Siriya Tirumudal and
Periya Tirumudal of Tirumangai to 40 and 78 from 77.5 and 148.5 respectively. They
justify their inclusion of the work that praises a later Acharya, showing Kanninun-
Siruttambu of Madhurakavi praising his guru Nammalvar as an example.244 When
Ramanuja-nurrantadi, which was composed by his ardent devotee
Tiruvarangattamudanar, was released in the presence of Ranganatha the deity of
Srirangam, he ordered it to include the work in Nalayira Divya Prabandham. But the
instruction was rejected by those who don’t include it in Divya Prabandham pointing that
poem praising a human being shouldn’t accommodate with poems praising Gods. The
inclusion is rejected by later masters also pointing inclusion is later addition as Nathamuni
didn’t codify so and he was lived before Ramanuja. It said that Vedanta Deshika, who
lived in later period, was one who determined the number of poems for each Alvar and
number of total hymns, moreover he was the first to fix the number of hymns to four
thousand and to name it as Nalayira Divay Prabandham.245
Nathamuni codified Divya Prabandham in order to present a Tamil
scripture that is equal to Veda, so he reshuffled the poems on the basis of its recitations
in temples ignoring chronological, personal or religious topography. Nalayira Divya
Prabandham is divided into four parts according to 24 Prabandhams and first part which
243 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 233
244 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 233.
245 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 206-209.
71
known as Mutalayiram (the first thousand) constitutes Tirumoli of Periyalvar, Tiruppavai
and Nacciyar Tirumoli of Andal, Perumal Tirumoli of Kulasekara, Tiruccanta Viruttam
of Tirumalisai, Tirumalai and Tiruppalliyelucci of Tondaradippodi, Amalanatipiran of
Tiruppan and Kunninun Siruttampu of Madhurakavi. Periya Tirumoli (1084 verses),
Tirukkuruntadakam (20 verses) and Tiruneduntadakam (30 verses) of Tirumangai form
second part that is known as Periya Tirumoli while third part which known as Tiruvaymoli
constitutes Tiruvaymoli of Nammalvar with 1102 verses. Other poems are included in
fourth part and known as Ivarpa whereas first three also known as Icaipa. The basis of
division is that Icaipa part are recited with fine music tunings unlike Ivarpa without any
musical form, in the festivals organized by Nathamuni to recite Divya Prabandham.246
Tradition states that these Prabandhams are exposing the essence of Vaishnavism which
is contained in its three mantras namely Astksara Shloka, Dvaya Shloka and
Charamashloka, and the division of Divya Prabandham into four divisions is based on
the order of these esoteric doctrines.247
Nathamuni has composed four introductory verses, known as ‘Taniyan’,
that expose the greatness of addressed Alvars. First one, which is in Sanskrit, is dedicated
to Periyalvar and is recited before the recitation of Periyalvar’s Tiruvaymoli. The verse
showcases the importance of Periyalvar as he was father-in-law of lord Ranganatha,
according to the tradition, and his establishment of Vishnu’s superiority over other Gods
through Vedas. Two verses are dedicated to Mathurakavi both in Tamil and Sanskrit and
are recited before his poem of Kanninum Siruttampu. In the first verse, he states that
Mathurakavi is the only savior of him and through Mathurakavi only he could collect the
Divya Parabandham. In another verse, he describes the attachment and relation between
Mathurakavi and Nammmalvar. The last one in Sanskrit again, is dedicated to Nammalvar
246 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 202-204.
247 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 233.
72
and is recited before his Tiruvaymoli. The verse talks about the importance of Tiruvaymoli
and its author Nammalvar along with its equality to Sama Veda.248
Two Acharyas of Vaishnavism namely Periya Parakalaswami and
Periyavaccan Pillai had commented on all 24 Prabandhams of the collection in
Manipravala. Tiruvaymoli of Nammalavar was commented by many including
Tirukkurukaipiran Pillan (1068) a disciple of Ramanuja and was directed by Ramanuja
to write. The work titled as Arayirappadi (six thousand units) is really a masterpiece as it
precisely explains philosophical and theological aspects of hymns and reliable one.249
Even though Nalayira Divya Prabandham was considered as Veda within
Vaishnava tradition, it is not accepted within the framework of Hinduism. Term Veda
refers, as orthodox schools particularly Mimamsa and Vedanta describe, to revealed
scriptures in Sanskrit, which are eternal (nitya) and beginningless (anadi) and are not
attributed to a human being (apaurusheya). Therefore, the work shouldn’t be considered
as Veda based on this benchmark but there are some Vaishnavas who argue Divya
Prabandham is Anadi, Nitya and Apuarusheya.250 However, these poems which project
Bhakti above all other forms of worships flourished throughout Tamil region in first
phase, then to central India and North India, thus the collection is more popular than Veda
itself. The collection served as doctrinal support for popular cult that sprouted in the name
of Bhakti.
When the authority and sanctity of Nalayira Divya Prabandham was
established within Vaishnava tradition and questioned within Hinduism, it needed for
some learned scholars who can prove the authority of Divya Prabandham based on sacred
scriptures of Hinduism like Vedas and Smriti collections, thus Acharya cult was
established within the tradition. Therefore, Acharyas are also important as Alvars within
248 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 701-702.
249 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 234.
250 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 222-223.
73
the tradition and the most prominent Acharya Ramanuja is considered no lesser than
Alvars. As we mentioned earlier, Ramanuja nurrantadi, a work praising Ramanuja, was
included even in Divya Prabandham by some followers. Let us briefly look into
Ramanuja and his contributions.
Ramanuja
Ramanuja is considered as great theologian of Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism),
he is also founding father of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta (qualified non-dualism). Even
though Ramanuja is fifth Acharya in the tradition of Shri Vaishnava, he was the first one
to describe devotional theology of Shri Vaishnavas through interpretation of Sanskrit
texts. He tried to reconcile intense devotional theism of Alvars with Vedantic tradition of
ritualism and this led him to mold a new model of Advaita i.e., Vishishtadvaita.251
Ramanuja’s enormous contributions to Bhakti had led to statements like first one to
introduce Bhakti.
Ramanuja was born in Vadama subcaste of brahmins who had strong
Vedic scholarship, at Sriperumbudur in 1017. After losing his father in his age of sixteen,
he moved to Kanchi to learn under renowned Advaitan (follower of Advaita) Yadava
Prakasha (11th century) but he leaves him because of arguments on Advaita.252 After
leaving Yadava Prakasha, he accepts Vaishnavism and mastered in Vaishnava texts. He
became fifth Acharya of Shri Vaishnavas after his predecessor Yamuna (d.1036) but they
were not met each other in their lifetimes. According to tradition, Yamuna had summoned
Ramanuja through his disciple after he left his teacher Yadava Prakasha. Unfortunately,
Ramanuja couldn’t meet him as Yamuna died before their meeting but he could attend
funeral ceremonies of him. Ramanuja noticed three closed fingers of Yamuna and he
learnt that Yamunacharya had three wishes; to write a commentary on Nammalvar’s
251 Sydnor, “Jaimini, Shankara and the Alvars; Ramanuja’s Enduring Synthesis.”, p. 6.
252 Srinivasa Aiyengar, The Life and Teachings of Sri Ramanujacharya (Madras: R. Venkateshwar Rao,
1908), p. 45-50.
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Tiruvaymoli to preach Bhakti, to write commentary on Vedantasutra of Badrayana
according to Vishishtadvatia, and to nurture a great Vaishnava.253 Then Ramanuja
promised to fulfill his three wishes and three fingers had straightened up with divine help.
Witnessing the incident disciples of Yamuna proclaimed him as next Acharya (master).254
Ramanuja opted for proper instructions under Periya Nambi (11th century)
refusing the successorship. Ramanuja and his wife lived together with Periya Nambi and
his wife, but an insult from Ramanuja’s wife to Periya Nambi’s wife led him to divorce
her and become as Sannyasi (ascetic) and established a small monastic house in Kanchi.
According to tradition, Yamuna’s disciples a message from lord Ranganatha, an
incarnation of Vishnu, to lord Varda another Vishnu incarnation whom Ramanuja used
to worship, to make him presider of lord Ranganatha’s temple in Srirangam. Eventually
Ramanuja designated as Acharya at Srirangam where he learnt Alvar hymns and mastered
it in quick time.255
Another story describes that he revealed, to a number of Shri Vaishnava
devotees, the secret of ‘Om Nama Narayana’ mantra which was taught by Tirukottiyur
Nambiar (11th century) after swearing strict secrecy. Upon betrayal, Nambiar commanded
for an explanation and Ramanuja acknowledged that disobeying guru (teacher) is hell
causing sin but he affirmed that it was worthful to do so as it helped for salvation of
others. Hearing Ramanuja’a response Nambiar realized Ramanuja’s spiritual superiority
and called him as Emberumanar (Our Lord). After his instruction at Srirangam, he
travelled across India debating Saivites and non-theistic Advaitins, which helped him to
sharpen his own thoughts on Advaita and led him to present a new form of Vedanta in the
name of Vishishtadvaita.256
253 Swami Tapsasyananda, Bhakti schools of Vedanta (Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Math, 2010), p. 7-9.
254 Sydnor, “Jaimini, Shankara and the Alvars; Ramanuja’s Enduring Synthesis.”, p. 6.
255 Swami Ramakrishnananda, Life of Sri Ramanuja (Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1959), p. 85-113.
256 Sydnor, “Jaimini, Shankara and the Alvars; Ramanuja’s Enduring Synthesis.” p. 6-7.
75
Since he was well-attracted by hymns of Alvars especially Tiruvaymoli of
Nammalvar, Ramanuja, in turn, promoted those works. So, it is said that if Nammalvar is
mother of Tiruvaymoli, then Ramanuja is foster-mother. He also uses, in his works like
Gitabhashya, the same rhetoric delivered by Alvars when he describes the ultimate God,
Parama Purusha. Throughout his commentary on Gita and Sutras, an imprint of
excessive influence of Divya Prabandham is seen.257
Ramanuja states that most distinguished attributes of God are power, knowledge
and love or mercy (Karuna). His creation of world and his help to those who seek
salvation is because of his mercy.258 He proposes, through his ideology of Vishistadvaita,
that these attributes are also real and identical with God. He continues that these glorious
qualities make His transcendence and greatness over all-else. He was also convinced that
Saguna lord (God with qualities) of devotees is supreme as Nirguna (God without
attributes) lord of Jnanins (one who follows Jnana Marga).259
Since Alvars preached the doctrine of devotion to personal God and salvation by
his grace, the succeeding Acharyas of Vaishnavism made efforts to establish
philosophical and theological basis of Alvars’ doctrines. While Nathamuni collected
hymns of Alvars and canonized into ‘Nalayira Divya Prabandham’, Yamunacharya had
also strived to defend theology of Alvars through his books. Ramanuja’s efforts to
reconcile theistic ideas of Vedas, Upanishads and puranas with faith and belief of Alvars,
were immense to be considered as first one present Bhakti philosophically and
theologically. Ramanuja presented the doctrine of moksha through Bhakti as central
257 K.A Manavalan, “The İnfluence of Divya Prabandha on Ramanuja” (All India Seminar on Ramanuja
and his Social Philosophy, Madras: Sri Ramanuja Vedanta Center,1980), p. 159-163.
258 S. Radakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, p. 683.
259 Eric J. Lott, “Sri Ramanuja’s Sarira-Sariri-Bhava: a Conceptual Analysis” (All India Seminar on
Ramanuja and his Social Philosophy, Madras: Sri Ramanuja Vedanta Center, 1980), p. 32.
76
teachings of Upanishads and Bhagavad-Gita.260 So he says in the beginning of his
magnum opus Gitabhashya:
“In the scripture known as the Bhagavad Gita, Naryana, the Supreme Brahman, is
declared. He is attainable by Bhakti alone, which is to be brought about by the observance of
one’s own Dharma, acquisition of knowledge and renunciation of attachment (RjGtBh 1/1).”261
As we witness here, Ramanuja proposes Bhakti as sole path of salvation without
rejecting other two paths namely Karma and Jnana but incorporating both with Bhakti.
Because of his large contributions to Bhakti, he is often mentioned as first proponent of
Bhakti. According to Ramanuja, Bhakti is the essence of eleventh, twelfth and eighteenthwhich
is last chapters of Bhagavat-Gita are and says:
“In the eleventh chapter, it is stated that the divine eye which can give an immediate
vision of Him as He is, was given to Arjuna, and accordingly it is stated that Bhakti is the only
means of knowing and attaining him in the way described. In the twelfth chapter, are taught the
superiority of Bhakti Yoga, the means thereto, to the direction for the one unqualified to meditate
on the self, the details of the qualities to be acquired and modes of Sadhana to be practiced for
that end, and the immense love of the Lord for the devotees. The last chapter present the mental
state required for ascribing the agency to the Lord, the necessity of cultivating the Sattvic quality,
the spiritual culmination of discharging one’s duties, and Bhakti Yoga which form the essence of
the Gita Sastra (RjGtBh 1/15,16,22).”262
After describing Karma yoga as resorting to acts like sacrifices and pilgrimage,
and Jnana yoga as abiding of those who controlled their minds, in the purified self,263
Ramanuja says defining Bhakti yoga “Bhakti Yoga is abidance in meditation and other
260 S. Radakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, (New York: Macmillan Company, 1929), v. II, p. 668-669.
261 Rāmānuja, Śrī Rāmānuja Gītā bhāṣya, trans. Adi Adidevananda (Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Math, 2009),
p. 1.
262 Rāmānuja, Śrī Rāmānuja Gītā bhāṣya, trans. Adi Adidevananda, p. 4-6.
263 Rāmānuja, Śrī Rāmānuja Gītā bhāṣya, trans. Adi Adidevananda, p. 6.
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forms of adoration with one-pointed love for the supreme Being (RjGtBh 1/15,16,24).”264
He places ‘Brahman’, who is very lovely, is object of contemplation, so Bhakti is
continuous loving meditation of the beloved. Bhakti is nature of bliss since deep
meditation, in which devotee experience vision of God, of soul devoted to God brings
immense joy and pleasure in devotional services.265 Ramanuja explains how to attin
supreme Bhakti, the last of three stages of Bhakti and says:
“When one’s nescience is removed and one percieves the self as subservient to the
Supeme, one attains supreme devotion and through it alone reaches His realms. There is Vaidhi-
Bhakti or discipline-bound devotion, next Para-Bhakti (higher devotion of love) and then the final
stage Param-Bhakti or pre-eminently supreme love (RjGtBh 1/26).”266
In the first stage of Vaidhi Bhakti, which also known as Sadhana Bhakti, devotee
must have strong fatith in God as the highest value and a sense of utter transitoriness of
wordly achievements. Meantime, he also perform religious duties along with
understanding one’s self, nature and God. Ramanuja didn’t reject other two paths as he
instructs to practise them together becuase they are complimentary, yet he will perform
these without any attachement to wordly pleasure but for the sake of God.267 He enlists
seven stages to from Sadhana Bhakti to Para Bhakti and these are;
1. Viveka: Practice to discriminate all things taken through senses
especially foods, so eat only pure foods prepared by pure persons.
2. Vimoka: Resisting impulses of passions like sex, anger, jealousy etc.
3. Abhyasa: Practising worships, reciting glorified-names of God,
pilgrimage to holy places, etc.
264 Rāmānuja, Śrī Rāmānuja Gītā bhāṣya, trans. Adi Adidevananda, p. 6.
265 Krishna Datta Bharadwaj, The philosophy of Ramanuja (New Delhi: Shri Shankar Lal Charitable Trust
Society, 1958), p. 169-170.
266 Rāmānuja, Śrī Rāmānuja Gītā bhāṣya, trans. Adi Adidevananda, p. 7.
267 Swami Tapsasyananda, Bhakti schools of Vedanta, p.77.
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4. Kriya: performing five-fold duties of life which are duties to divine
spirits, great seers, ancestors, society and brute creations like animals and
plants
5. Kalyana: to practice good virtues like truth (satya), kindness (daya), nonviolence
(ahimsa) straightforwardness (arjava) and benevolance (dana).
6. Anavasada: freedom from negative traits like pessimism and
preservation of positives like optimism.
7. Anuddharsa: keeping coolness and calmness in the situations of
excitements and depressions.268
Ramanuja also introduces Prapatti (special acquirement or reaching (of God)269
along with Bhakti in the path of attaining salvation, which are very close but different.
Bhakti means practicing various steps of devotional services and love to God with a belief
of that if one takes these steps, he can attain God. But Prapatti is to accept one’s
helplessness to redeem it by any means resigning oneself to God and accepting him as
both as means and the end. This difference is explained through two illustrations;
Markata-Kisoranyaya and Marjara-Kisoranyaya. Markata is an infant monkey who
holds on tightly to the mother for the safety and chance to reach the destination with
strength of mother. The metaphor is identical with Bhakti in which is active and agile.
Second one Marjara is kitten who remains placed in the mouth of cat and he is carried to
destination along with mother without any effort. Prapatti is this kind of absolute
resignation in which devotee remains passive making God both as means and end.270
Ramanuja had attributed God as most merciful, refuge of all, protector of people
irrespective of differences of caste, creed or any other, so he expressed that Bhakti is open
for all even women and sinners. Ramanuja asserts the universality of Bhakti as he thinks
268 Swami Tapsasyananda, Bhakti schools of Vedanta, p.77-78.
269 J. Parthasarathi, “The Prappatti-Marga” (All India Seminar on Ramanuja and his Social Philosophy,
Madras: Sri Ramanuja Vedanta Center, 1980), p. 87.
270 Rāmānuja, Śrī Rāmānuja Gītā bhāṣya, trans. Adi Adidevananda, p. 33-34.
79
worship of God will destroy sins and devotion to God is that matters.271 In short,
Ramanuja’s contributions to systematically present Bhakti as a path of salvation were
enormous enough to be misconceived as first one to introduce Bhakti.
1.2.2 Nayanmars
As aforementioned, Nayanmars were also saint poets who preached Bhakti in
their poems but were ardent devotees of Siva unlike Alvars who were devotees of Vishnu
or his incarnations. Historical background of Nayanmars is also almost identical with
Alvars as both traditions sprouted in almost same region and same period. While Alvars
constitute 12 saint poets, Nayanmars are consisted of 63 poet saints who are also known
as ‘Nayanars’ which means ‘servitors of the God’ and the God here is Siva.272
Among 63 Nayanmars, some saints have special importance in the tradition
rather than others like Sundarar (8th century), Appar (7th century), and Sambandar (7th
century). Sundarar was first one to enlist these 63 Nayanmars through his poem of “Tiru
Tondar Togai Pathikam (assembly of the sacred slaves)” that was sung in the premise of
Tiruvarur temple inspired by his lord Siva. He enlisted them spontaneously but the listing
was sanctified as it was believed to be commanded by lord Siva himself but the list was
elaborated by Nambi Andar Nambi (10th century) and the history of these 63 Nayanmars
was described in Periya Purana (the great epic) compiled by Sekkizhar (11th) century.
Sundarar enlisted these 63 saints as follows;
1. Tiru-Nilkantar
2. Iyarpagai
3. Marar
4. Meyporul
5. Viramindar
271 Krishna Datta Bharadwaj, The philosophy of Ramanuja, p.176-177.
272 B. Sreenivas, Sanskrit Words in Tevaram (Unpublished PhD Thesis, Bharatidasan University, 2013), p.
13.
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6. Amarnithi
7. Eripathar
8. Enathi
9. Kanappar
10. Kalayar
11. Manakanjarar
12. Ariyavatar
13. Anayar
14. Murthi
15. Muruga
16. Rudra-Pasupathi
17. Tirunalaipovar
18. Tirukuripputhondar
19. Chandesar Perumaan
20. Appar
21. Kulachirai
22. Kurumbar
23. Karaikkal Ammaiyar
24. Apputhi Adigal
25. Thirunilanakkar
26. Naminandi Adigal
27. Tirunjnana Sampandar
28. Kalikamar
29. Tirumular
30. Dandi Adigal
31. Murkhar
32. Somasi Marar
33. Sakkiyar
34. Sirappuli
35. Siruthondar
36. Cheraman perumal
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37. Gananathar
38. Kutuvar
39. Pugal cholar
40. Narasinga Munaiyar
41. Athipathar
42. Kalikambar
43. Kaliyar
44. Sathi
45. Aiyadigal Kadavarkon
46. Kanampullar
47. Kariyar
48. Nedumaran
49. Vayilar
50. Munai Aduvar
51. Kalar singar
52. Idankaliyar
53. Seruthunaiyar
54. Pugalthunaiyar
55. Kotupuliyar
56. Pusalar
57. Mangaiyarakarasi
58. Nesar
59. Senganar
60. Tiru Nilakantha Yalpannar
61. Sadaiyar
62. Isaijnani
63. Sundarar.273
273 B. Sreenivas, Sanskrit Words in Tevaram, p. 13.
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Devotional hymns of these 63 Nayanmars were celebrated by Tamil region and
these hymns were collected in twelve works that are known as Shaiva Tirumurais (sacred
methods or works).274 These twelve Tirumurais are also known as Panniru Tirumurai
which means ‘twelve holy books.’275 These twelve Tirumurais are believed to be
compiled within a period of six centuries starting from 7th century and ending by 11th
century.276
The first seven Tirumurais are constituted by Tevaram of three Nayanmars
namely Sambandar, Appar and Sundarar 277 who were probably lived between 6th and 8th
centuries278 and the collection of these seven Tiumurais are also known as Atankanmurai
(complete canon).279 Among these seven Tirumurais, first three are compositions of
Sambandar, followed by works of Appar as next three and of Sundarar as seventh. While
Tevaram of Sambandar is made up of his work ‘Tirukkadaikaappu’, Sundarar’s Tevaram
is represented by his poem Tiruppattu. Eighth Tirumurai is represented by Tiruvachakam
and Tirukkovaiyar of Manikavacakar while ninth Tirumurai is by Tiruppallantu and
Tiruvicaippa that are composed by 9 poets namely Chendhanar, Tirumaligaithevar,
Punturutti Kadanambi, Karuvurthevar, Venattadikal, Kandaradittar, Purudottama Nambi,
Tiruvaliyamudanar and Chedhirayar. Tenth Tirumurai is Tirumantiram of Tirumular and
eleventh Tirumurai is a collection of 41 Prabandhams (poems) that are authored by
twelve poets namely Karaikkal Ammaiyar, Tiru Alvayudaiyar, Cheraman Perumal,
Aiyadikal Kadavarkon, Kalladar, Nakkirar, Paranar, Kapilar, Adiravadikal, Ilamperuman
Adikal, Nambi Andar Nambi and Pattinattup Pillaiyar. The last and twelfth Tirumurai is
274 V.C. Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais (Madras: International Institute of Tamil Studies,
1995), p. X.
275 B. Sreenivas, Sanskrit Words in Tevaram, p.15.
276 A.M Paramasivanandan, The Historical Study of Tevaram Hymns (Madras: Tamilkalai Publishing
House, 1982) , p. 22.
277 Sri Swami Sivananda, SixtyThree Nayanar Saints (Uttar Pradesh: Divine Life Society Publications,
1999), p. 12.
278 Kingsbury - Philips, Hymns of Tamil Saivite Saints, p. 2.
279 Paramasivanandan, The Historical Study of Tevaram Hymns, p. 22.
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Periya Puranam authored by Sekkizhar, which describes stories of 63 Nayanmars.280
Considering subject matter, Tirumurais are classified into four;
I. Sthothram-praising hymns- Tirumurais from1 to 9
II. Shastram- philosophical discourse -10th Tirumurai
III. Prabandhams – different poems- 11th Tirumurai
IV. Purana (history)- historical descriptions.
As we noticed here, not all of these 63 saints are attributed with poems that
included in Tirumurai but 27 or 28 saints from Sambandar to Sekkizhar authored these
Tirumurais.281 Therefore, we discuss elaborately about Nayanmars on the basis of
Tirumurais not on the basis of common enlisting as in the tradition, thus we discuss
Nayanmars on the basis of their prominence in the tradition.
1.2.2.1 Tevaram
Among Panniru Tirumurai, Tevarams are sublime works that considered as
equal to Veda by Shaivites,282 therefore the importance of Tevarams in the tradition is
immense. Tevarams serve as primary scripture (marai) of Shaiva philosophy and were
subjected to many commentaries. Based on its’ importance, authors of Tevarams, namely
Sambandar, Appar and Sundarar are regarded special among Nayanamars and known as
Muvar Mutalikal in the tradition (first three saints). Surprisingly, these three saint poets
recount the saints before them, yet the tradition titles them as first three saints and as
pioneers of the tradition.283 Let us go through these Muvar Mutalikal poets.
280 B. Sreenivas, Sanskrit Words in Tevaram, p. 16.
281 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. X.
282 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 33.
283 Indira Viswanathan Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas Publishers,
2007), p. 15.
84
As some scholars suggest, the word ‘Tevaram’ may be originated from word
‘Varam’ that used to denote songs which are addressed to deity.284 Some other studies
suggest Tevaram means ‘garland of God’ as the term is combined two terms; ‘teva’ that
means God and ‘aram’ which means garland. As mentioned earlier, Tevaram which
consisted by works of three Nayanmars constitutes first seven Tirumurais.
Tirukkadaikkappu of Sambandar constitutes his Tevaram which is also first three
Tirumurais, while Tevaram of Appar constitutes next three Tirumurais. The last Tevaram
is Tiruppattu of Sundarar. Even though Tevaram is title for works of each one, the term
denotes these seven Tirumurais and are considered as single work in the tradition.285
Tevaram consists a total of 796 hymns; 383 hymns of Sambandar, 313 hymns of Appar
and 100 hymns of Sundarar and each hymn is made up of ten or eleven verses. Thus,
number of total verses is about eight thousand and each of the verses is formed by four
lines and a refrain.286
Most distinguished aspect of Tevaram is that most of its hymns are dedicated to
Siva temple where the poet had reached amid his wandering. Muvar Mutalikal had sang
for 274 Siva shrines and 269 of them are in South India while rest belongs to North India.
Out of 269 shrines in south India, 190 belongs to Tamil region and rest are divided
between Tontainatu (32), Natunatu (22), Pantinatu (14), Konkanatu (7) and Malainatu (1)
which are adjacent to Tamil region. These places constitute sacred Siva geography which
turned as pilgrimage centers for later followers. When local kings like Cholas welcomed
Shaivism, they renovated Siva shrines and built stone temples in the places visited by
Nayanmars which are later known as patal perra talam ‘a place sung by the saints.’ A
prefix of ‘Tiru’ that means ‘sacred’ was affixed to shrines’ names like Tiru-Varur.287
284 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 22.
285 B. Sreenivas, Sanskrit Words in Tevaram, p. 45.
286 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 22.
287 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 12-14.
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While Tevaram was transmitted orally in earlier centuries, it was collected in
written form along with other parts of Tirumurais by Nampi Antar Nampi (11th century).
Tirumuraikanta Puranam (the story of Tirumurai’s discovery) which was written by
Shaiva teacher Umapati Sivan (d.1313), narrates a story regarding its discovery.
According to narration, Nampi Antar Nampi was directed by Chola king of the time,
Apayakulashekaran (11th century), to expose Nayanmars, their lives and hymns to the
world. He was guided by lord Ganesha, son of Siva, in his efforts to collect and was able
to find manuscript of Tirumurai in the golden hall of Siva temple in Chidambaram. The
manuscript was half eaten by white ants, so he could get only the hymns of Tevaram that
constitutes first seven books of Panniru Tirumurai. But he managed to collect the lost
part with help of musician who accompanied him and of his daughter.288
Songs of Tirumurai especially of Tevaram turned very popular in the
region and being sung everywhere in the Shaiva tradition from homes to temples. During
the times of Pallavas and Cholas, special persons called as ‘Otuvar’ were employed only
to sing selected parts from Tirumurai and the custom continues till the day in major Siva
temples.289
Sambandar
Among different available dating of birth of Muvar Mutalikal, dating that
supposes the life period of Sambandar the first one and of Appar between 570 and 670
seems closer to reality. According to this dating, Sundarar lived a century later in eighth
century. Sambandar’s full name is Tirunjana Sambandar or Nanasambandar (“one who
attached to God through divine wisdom”).290
Sambandar was born in Siyali or Piramapuram in Tanjaore to the couple
of Ivapata Virutayar (7th century) and his wife Pakavatiyar (7th century), who were
288 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 14-16.
289 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 51.
290 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 19-20.
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staunch Brahmin Saivites.291 Tradition narrates a story regarding his birth that his father,
an ardent Saivite, prayed to Siva to bestow him a son who can win people to Shaivism292
as the region was filled with Jainism under the royal patronage. Tradition continues that
when he was taken to the local temple by his parents at the age of three and was left on
the top of a tank as they went for bath. Upon his cry on missing parents, lord Siva and his
wife Uma appeared before him to console and fed him milk mingled with divine wisdom.
By drinking the divine milk, he turned to great saint with miracles and divine wisdom, so
he named as Tirunjana Sambandar (the one connected with divine wisdom)293 and also
as Aludaiya Pillayar (one who enjoys the protection of the lord).294 When father inquired
him, seeing milk drops in his lips, on from where he got milk, he pointed to sky and
starting reciting Todudaya viyan, the first verse of his Tevaram.295 In the next day, he
went to Tirukkolakka and recited poem for Siva clapping his hands in accordance with
hymns, the act had pleased Siva who gifted him a pair of golden cymbals to not get his
palms get sored due to continuous clapping, then Sambandar continued to sing with help
of cymbals.296 In the iconography, Sambandar is portrayed as a child holding the cymbals
that are believed to be gifted by lord Siva himself.297 He continued his praiseful verses
dedicated to Siva and is said to be expounded the Veda at least by age of seven.298 From
young ages , he roamed Siva temples in the region reciting devotional hymns to Siva there
along with other Nayanar Tirunavukkarar, popularly known as Appar.299 He was
accompanied, in his pilgrimages to various temples, by Panar, a low caste untouchable
whose original name is Tirunelakantayalppanar (7th century) and whenever Sambandar
291 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 33.
292 Kingsbury - Philips, Hymns of Tamil Saivite Saints, p. 10.
293 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 34.
294 Sivananda, Sixty-Three Nayanar Saints, p. 40.
295 B. Sreenivas, Sanskrit Words in Tevaram, p. 17.
296 Sivananda, Sixty-Three Nayanar Saints, p. 41.
297 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 20.
298 B. Sreenivas, Sanskrit Words in Tevaram, p. 17.
299 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 34.
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recited the hymns, Panar was used to play his musical instrument Veena300 according to
lines.301 He had paid pilgrimages to many Siva shrines in the region and reciting poems
there including shrines of Chidambaram, Tiru Pachilasramam, Senkunurur and
Dharmapuram which are later turned as pilgrimage centers of Siva worshippers. A lots of
miracle stories of Sambandar and often with his contemporary Nayanar Appar, are
connected with these shrines.302
A traditional story depicts that he had converted Kun Pandiyan (7th
century) the Pandiyan king of Madurai who was a Jain and was opposing Shaivism. It
was when he was invited by his wife Mangayarkarasi (7th century) after the king fell ill,
then he recited song which cured the disease, thus it led to his embracement of
Shaivism.303 But another story narrates that king embraced Jain religion with his subjects
while queen and her loyal ones remained in Shaivism and invited Sambandar to royal
court to establish Shaivism. Even though he faced large crowd of Jains in royal presence,
he could reconvert him to Shaivism again. Tradition presents the same kind of stories like
converting a crowd of Buddhists also to Shaivism. However, it may be historically true
that he was fighting with Jains and Buddhas in the region during the period and history
shows the diminishing of both from the region in same period. Considering his efforts
against them, he adored in the tradition as Shivacaryar (Saivite preceptor).304
Another miracle is recorded in the tradition that his marriage was arranged
in the temple of Tirunallurpperumanam but Siva appeared as a blaze and invited them to
join with him during the wedding. Here Sambandar attained mystic union with God (Siva
300 An Indian musical instrument, with four main and three auxiliary strings.
301 Paramasivanandan, The Historical Study of Tevaram Hymns, p. 26-27.
302 Sivananda, Sixty-Three Nayanar Saints, p. 41-46.
303 B. Sreenivas, p. 18.
304 Kingsbury - Philips, Hymns of Tamil Saivite Saints, p. 11.
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Jyothi) who also included attendees of marriage too in his union while Sambandar was
vanished,305 and all this was happened in his sixteenth age.306
Appar
Appar was born to Pukalanar (7th century) and Matiniyar (7th century) a pious
Shaiva couple from Vellala caste in Tiruvamur but he was named by them as
Marulnikkiyar (the remover of darkness or ignorance).307 He had a sister named as
Tilakavatiar who was engaged with Kalaipahayar a military commander of Pallava army
but was killed in a battle before marriage. Meantime, his father had died, so his mother
performed Sati308 which made him an orphan. His sister also tried to perform Sati but was
obstructed by him, so she lived an ascetic life to bring him up and acted as mother for
him.309
In the period he lived, Jainism was popular religion and was under royal
patronage. Marulnikkiyar was attracted to Jainism after he learnt its doctrines especially
Ahimsa (nonviolence) and had embraced Jainism. He stayed in Pataliputra the religious
center of Jainism often preaching Jainism and was nick named as Dharmasena for his
contributions. Hearing the conversion of her brother, Tilakavatiar recurred her prays to
Siva for his return to Shaivism and she was promised so by the lord through dream. During
his time in Pataliputra, he fell ill due to stomach pain called as ‘Culai’ and was subjected
to many medical and spiritual efforts by Jains to cure the illness but all were in failure.
Then he returned to his sister who brought him to the temple and smeared him with sacred
ashes (Tirunuru).310 When he started to pray there for cure and forgiveness, he was
305 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 21.
306 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 34.
307 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 35.
308 A custom practiced by Hindus in which widows are jumping to the pyre of husband and committing
death with husband.
309 Sivananda, Sixty-Three Nayanar Saints, p. 30.
310 Paramasivanandan, The Historical Study of Tevaram Hymns, p. 27-28.
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blessed with divine hymns and he started to recite the lines. When he finished first ten
verses, his pain was removed and cured and voice naming him as Tirunavukkaracu (king
of divine speech) echoed in the ear, thus he earned the name.311
Appar’s conversion created panic among Jains as they feared the loss of
Jain supremacy in the region and even conversion of king himself, so they influenced
king to proclaim him as deceitful. He ordered to summon Appar before court but he
disobeyed the order. Later, he decided to surrender before the court under divine
command but he faced many trials from Jains but he escaped from all miraculously.312 In
one of these disturbances, he was thrown to burning kiln and was tied in for seven days
but he continued to devote his mind in God repeating his name, thus the heat was
transformed into cool breeze.313 In the end, he was thrown to sea but he managed to get
shore, the incident influenced Pallava king Gunapara (7th century), so he embraced the
Shaivism. Upon his embracement, he ordered to destroy all Jain temples in Pataliputra
and to build a Siva temple that named as Gunaparavicharam.314 He also wandered the
Siva temples in the region reciting devotional songs there, and it is said that he had visited
about 15 Siva temples. Moreover, he cleaned the temple and premises even smaller
ones,315 so he is portrayed, in iconography, as one holding a hoe that was used for
cleaning. The symbol also represents his farming family’s -Vellala- attachment to the
land and Saivite doctrine of humble service (tontu). In pilgrimages to Siva temples, he
was also accompanied by his contemporary Nayanar Sambandar who fondly addressed
him as Appar (my father) by which he is more famous.316 He had died in his age of 81 in
Tirupugalur.317
311 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 35.
312 Paramasivanandan, The Historical Study of Tevaram Hymns, p. 28-29.
313 Sivananda, Sixty-Three Nayanar Saints, p. 31.
314 Paramasivanandan, The Historical Study of Tevaram Hymns, p. 29.
315 B. Sreenivas, Sanskrit Words in Tevaram, p. 19.
316 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 21.
317 B. Sreenivas, Sanskrit Words in Tevaram, p.19.
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Sundarar
Sundarar is a unique Nayanar as he was born to a Nayanmar couple; Sadayanar
and Isaignani in Tirunavalur an epicenter of Saivites and had lived around 8th century.
Even though he was named as Nambi Arurar (prince of Arur), he is popularly known as
Sundarar (the handsome one) for his charming beauty. Attracted by his beauty,
Narasingamunairayar (8th century) the local chieftain of Tirumunaipadunadu adopted him
with parent’s consent and brough up him as his own.318 One other noticeable point in his
life is that he neglected Varna dharma as he married two non-brahmin girls even though
he was a brahmin whose parents were temple priests. He married a dancing girl in Siva
temple and a Vellala women but his polygamous life was not smoother as he troubled
even for food, yet he was very pleased with God and praised him.319 In iconography, he
is sketched as well dressed young handsome prince often with his wives.320
Legend describes that when the marriage ceremony of Sundarar was about
to begin, an old man approached there claiming Sundarar’s slavery to him according to
his grandfather’s agreement. Sundarar opposed him even using harsh words but local
body found that old man was correct as he produced document too, thus Sundarar was
forced to go with him. But he realized that old man was none other than lord Siva himself
and attained vision of Siva with his wife seated on the sacred bull.321 Lord called him as
Vanthodan (the devotee who used harsh word) as he had quarreled him earlier using harsh
words. Siva instructed him to compose a poem praising him and starting with word Pithan
(mad) the word used by Sundarar when he addressed the old man, so he sang the poem
of ‘Pitha Pirai Soodi’.322 Like other authors of Tevaram, he also wandered Siva shrines
318 B. Sreenivas, Sanskrit Words in Tevaram, p.20.
319 Kingsbury - Philips, Hymns of Tamil Saivite Saints, p. 71.
320 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 21.
321 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 35.
322 Sivananda, Sixty-Three Nayanar Saints, p. 3.
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in the region, often with his contemporary Nayanar Cheraman Perumal (8th century) a
Chera ruler and with other contemporary Nayanmars.323
Sundarar is the first one to mention 63 Nayanamars enlisting them in his
poem ‘Tiru Tondar Togai’ which serves as basis of Periya Puranam that recount the
historical details of 63 Nayanmars.324 His hymns also describe his autobiography
especially his life with his two wives. He is believed to ascend to heaven on white
elephant with his contemporary Nayanar Cheraman Perumal.325
1.2.2.2 Tiruvachakam
The eighth Tirumurai consists both Tiruvacakam and Tirukkovaiyar that are
attributed to Manikkavachakar. His poems Tiruvachakam and Tirukkovaiyar clearly
depict his devotional experience with God, the reason behind the inclusion in Tirumurai
collection. For his excellent services to Shaivism, Manikkavachakar along with Muvar
Mutalikal are known as Samayakuravar (preceptors of faith)326 or simply Nalvar.327 He
was born in Tiruvatavarur and he was called by his father as Vatavarur, connecting to his
native place. His excellency in learning of scriptures along with his superb personality
made him famous even in royal circles. Heard of his attributes, Arimardana Pandyan the
king of Madurai appointed him as his prime minister. He performed his duties brilliantly,
thus he won the title of ‘Tennavan Paramarayar’ the highest honor from kingdom.328
Tradition narrates his story of conversion to a saint that he was given the
duty of purchasing new horses and was handed over with great sum of money. He set out
for journey to buy these horses and also with hope to meet his real mentor as he was got
323 Paramasivanandan, The Historical Study of Tevaram Hymns, p. 32.
324 B. Sreenivas, Sanskrit Words in Tevaram, p. 19.
325 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 21.
326 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 51.
327 B. Sreenivas, Sanskrit Words in Tevaram, p. 16.
328 Sivananda, Sixty-Three Nayanar Saints, p. 64.
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fed up with administration and wanted to enjoy eternal bliss. Amid this journey, he was
blessed with divine vision at Perunturai temple and he started to sing praising lines
dedicated to God. Pleased with his devotional poems, he called him as Manikavachakar
(one who has sentences like gems).329 With money he had, Manikavachakar built a temple
which is an architectural marvel in Tiruperunturai.330 It is said that he had composed a
spiritual work named as Tirukkovaiayar of hundred hymns along with his famous
Tiruvachakam which has 50 hymns.331 He wandered shrine to shrine forgetting his duty
as prime minister till he reached Chidambaram where he sang his famous poem
‘Tiruvachakam’.332
Manikavachakar’s irresponsible actions infuriated king as horses were not
delivered and no information was passed. Even though horses were delivered by God
himself as tradition describes, he was punished and tortured but nothing couldn’t hurt
him. Realizing Manikavachakar’s sainthood, he begged pardon and offered him the
rulership but Manikavachakar refused and set out for pilgrimages.333 He was wandering
in Tamil region till he reached Chidambaram where he merged with lord according to
tradition.334
Manikavacakar speaks about his full-hearted devotion to Siva in his hymns
of Tiruvacakam along with talking about the supremacy of Siva and doctrines in
Shaivism, thus he is one, among four Samayakuravar, who speaks most on the principles
in the Shaivism. As in some lines of Tevaram too, Manikavachakar imagines himself as
maiden and calls other maids to sing the songs of love towards Siva and these songs
constitute the songs of love in Tiruvachakam. Moreover, Manikavachakar highlights
329 Sivananda, Sixty-Three Nayanar Saints, p. 64.
330 B. Sreenivas, Sanskrit Words in Tevaram, p. 20.
331 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 52
332 Sivananda, Sixty-Three Nayanar Saints, p. 67
333 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 52
334 B. Sreenivas, Sanskrit Words in Tevaram, p. 21.
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philosophical ideas through his mystic language of love. But his next work
‘Tirukkovaiyar’ is dedicated to explain the growth and progress of his love towards
Siva.335
As we found in the case of Alvar Andal who composed a poem regarding
a Vrata custom to get his wished one as companion, Manikavachakar also composed a
poem for the custom of ‘Pavai nompu’ and is titled as ‘Tiruvempavai’. In the poem,
different aspects of maidens who observe Pavai nompu to get their desired ones as
bridegrooms are depicted. He composed this maiden’s song in the praise of Siva at
Tiruvannamalai. Another poem composed by Manikavachakar in the name of
Tiruammanai express his love through a popular play known as ‘Ammanai’ in which
young girl also take part in the game along with hero who must shower his grace on these
girls. As in Ammanai, Manikavachakar portrays himself as young girl engaged in
Ammanai game singing hero’s virtues and expecting blessings of hero who is Siva here
in the poem.336
1.2.2.3 Tiruvicaippa and Tiruppallantu
Ninth Tirumurai is made up from Tiruvicaippa and Tiruppallantu. Tiruvicaippa
is composed by nine saints namely Karuvurttevar, Centanar, Tirumalikaittevar,
Venattikal, Kantraratittar, Nampikatava Nampi, Cetirayar, Purtottaman Nampi and
Tiruvaliyamutanar and means songs that can be set to music.337 Contributions of each
author in the collection are as follows;
1. Karuvurttevar 10 hymns (patikam)
2. Tirumalikaittevar 4 hymns
3. Tiruvaliyamutanar 4 hymns
4. Centanar 3 hymns
335 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 55-56.
336 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 56-59.
337 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 111.
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5. Punturutti Nampi 2 hymns
6. Purutottama Nampi 2 hymns
7. Kantaratittar 1 hymn
8. Venattatikal 1 hymn
9. Cetiriyar 1 hymn, Tiruppallantu.338
Out of 28 hymns in Tiruvicaippa and Tiruppallantu, ten of them completely
dedicated to express love that found in ladies towards expressing Siva as their lover.339
Karuvurttevar, born in Karuvur, had composed ten hymns out of 27 hymns in
Tiruvicaippa and his hymn that called as Tirailokkiya Cuntaram patikam, expresses his
love towards God. Tirumalikaittevar was lived in Tiruvavatuturai and was contemporary
of other two authors of Tiruvicaiappa namely Karuvurttevar and Centarar. His available
four hymns are dedicated to express his love but through the tongue of lover’s mother.
Three hymns of Tiruvicaippa are attributed to Centanar a poet who lived in Tiruvilamilai
and two of these three are in the form of love lyrics; Tiruvitaikkali patikam and
Tiruvavaturai patikam. Tiruvaliyamutanar was born in Tirvalinatu and contributed four
hymns in Tiruvicaippa. Cetiriyar was ruler of Ceti land and one hymn in love form is
connected with him.340
1.2.2.4 Tirumantiram
Tenth Tirumurai is represented by Tirumantiram of Tirumular or Tirumula
Nayanar who was considered as key figure in molding Shaivism and its philosophy.
Tirumantiram is a term combined from ‘Tiru’ which means ‘sacred’ and ‘Mantiram’
(mantra or hymns) giving a meaning of ‘sacred hymns.’ As his name was mentioned by
Sundarar, who lived in 8th century, in his ‘Tiru Tondar Togai’, it is assumed that
338 Kamil Veith Zvelebil, Tamil Literature; a History of Indian Literature, ed. Jan Gonda (Germany: Otto
Harrassowitz, 1974), p. 92.
339 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 111.
340 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 113-127.
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Tirumular must had lived before 8th century.341 Some scholars like Venakataraman,
suggest there were two different Tirumular, one of them is among 63 Nayanmars and
supposed to be lived before 8th century while other is one who lived in tenth or eleventh
century and wrote this Tirumantiram.342
Tradition narrates a miraculous story of Tirumular connecting to his composition
of Tirumantiram that he was a brahmin Yogi and was travelling from Kailasa, which is
believed to be in north east of Kashmir, to south India till he reached the banks of Kaveri
where he found a dead body of cowherd and his cow bemoans on the death. Tradition
continues that he himself transmitted to the body of cowherd in order to drive cattle to
home but refused to be approached by his wife when he reached home. She was informed
by those who saw him that he is one of great yogis and it’s the reason for not having any
relation with you. Here he meditated upon God and a work with three thousand stanzas
was penned down by him but at rate of one stanza per year, so it is believed in the tradition
that he lived for three thousand years. The work mainly focused on philosophical aspects
of Shaivism but includes devotional aspects too and he returned to the world of Siva after
compilation.343
Tirumantiram is divided into nine Tantras (chapters) and introduction or
Payiram, which contain three thousand stanzas344 and 232 adhikarams (sections).345
While first Tantra starts with Upadesha (advice) and deals with rules of morality and
ethics, the second Tantra describes about Siva and his glories appealing for spiritual
endurance in the end. Third Tantra discusses about Ashtanga Yoga (eightfold yoga) that
proposed by him and about 16 Kalas, the wheel of time. Guidelines and methods of
341 C.V. Narayanan Ayyar, Origin and Early History of Saivism in South India (Madras: University of
Madras, 1974), p. 204.
342 Carlos Neya Mena, The Hermeneutics of The Tirumantiram (University of California), p. 11.
343 Ayyar, Origin and Early History of Saivism in South India, p. 204-206.
344 Ayyar, Origin and Early History of Saivism in South India, p. 229.
345 Mena, The Hermeneutics of The Tirumantiram, p. 15.
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practicing meditation (Upasana Marga) are detailed in fourth Tantra of Tirumantiram.
Fifth Tantra of Tirumantiram is special as it describes four kinds of Shaivism namely
Shudha Shaivism (pure Shaivism), Ashudha Shaivism (impure Shaivism), Marga
Shaivism (medium Shaivism) and Kadum Shudha Shaivism (extremely pure Shaivism)
and identifies true path. True path (SanMarga), according to Tirumular, is divided to three
versions and are; Dasa Marga in which God is regarded as master and devotee as his
slave, Satputra Marga in which God is considered as parent and Sakha Margam in which
God is perceived as friend. The Tantra also describes the four realizations of devotees
with God, starting from Saloka the state of living in the world of God, passing through
Samipya the state of proximity and Sarupya the state of attaining equality with God and
ending in Sayujya the state of union with God.346
While sixth Tantra of Tirumantiram talks on Siva guru Darshana in which
knowledge has an edge as it means ‘the sight of Siva as teacher or guru’, the next Tantra
deals with many philosophical doctrines in Shaivism along with illumination he had.
Eighth Tantra tries to establish the supremacy of Siva over Vishnu and Brahma with
philosophical ideas that supports it. The last and ninth Tantra discusses about divine bliss
through devotion, mystic union with God and divine dance at sacred temple of
Chidambaram. In nutshell, it may conceive that Tirumulur had penned down
Tirumantiram to establish theoretically and philosophically Shaivism as right path of
Mukti,347 and to integrate three paths of salvation referred by him as Arivu (knowledge),
Adakkam (Yoga) and Anbu (Bhakti). But in the introduction or Payiram which include
fifty verses he prefers the Bhakti and importance of Bhakti and God’s grace in attainment
of Mukti.348
346 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 229-234.
347 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 234-236.
348 Mena, The Hermeneutics of The Tirumantiram, p. 15.
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1.2.2.5 Prabandhams
Forty-one works of twelve poets with love towards God as central theme are
collected in the eleventh Tirumurai. These poems are composed in different poetic forms
of Antadi, Nanmanimalai, Mummanikkovai, Kalampakam and Ula. As we discussed
earlier, Antadi is a prosody in which last word of the last line is the opening word of next
line. Twenty-four poems out of 41 works in eleventh Tirumurai are composed in Antadi
style and 8 of them bear the name Antadi. In these 8 poems, 6 works deal with subjective
themes and these are;
1. Ponvannattantadi of Cheraman Perumal Nayanar
2. Tiruvekampamutaiyar Tiruvantadi of Pattinattu Pillaiyar
3. Kayilaipati kalattipati Antadi of Nakkirateva Nayanar
4. Sivaperuman Tiruvantadi of Kapilateva Nayanar
5. Sivaperuman Tiruvantadi of Paranateva Nayanar
6. Alutaiya Pillaiyar Tiruvantadi of Nampi Antar Nampi.349
Kayilaipati Kalattipati Antadi is consisted of 150 verses and one hundred of
them are connected with Kayilayam temple. Alutaiya Pillaiyar Tiruvantadi is an Antadi
poem written in the praise of Sambandar by Nampi Antar Nampi and it follows the
various stages of life prescribed in Tirukkovaiyar the eighth Tirumurai.350
Nanmanimalai is a kind of poem in which forty stanzas of four different kind of
verse namely Venpa, Viruttam, Akval and Kattalaikaliturai are found. Pattinattar’s
composition of Koyil Nanmanimalai is an example of this kind of poetry and the
composition also deals with mystic love with God. Mummanikkovai is a kind of poem
with thirty stanzas in which Venpa, Akval and Kattalaikkaliturai forms of verses occur
349 Mena, The Hermeneutics of The Tirumantiram, p. 128.
350 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 137.
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serially one after one. There are six Mummanikkovai poems that deal with love, out of
seven Mummanikovai poems included in eleventh Tirumurai and are;
1. Tiruvalaculi Mummanikkovai of Nakkirateva Nayanmar
2. Tiruvarur Mummanikkovai of Cheraman Perumal Nayanmar
3. Alutaiya Pillaiyar Tirumummanikkovai of Nampi Antar Nampi
4. Sivaperuman Tirumummanikkovai of Ilamperuman Atikal
5. Tirukkalumala Mummanikkovai of Pattinattup Pillaiyar
6. Tiruvitaimarutur Mummanikkovai of Pattinattup Pillaiyar.351
While in all of these Mummanikkovai poems Siva is praised and worshipped with
devotion projecting him as lover, Alutaiya Pillaiyar Tirumummanikovai of of Nampi
Antar Nampi praises Sambandar but he had penned one praising Siva also with title of
Sivaperuman Tiumummaninkkovai.352
Kalampakam is one of 96 kinds of Prabandhams that consist different
kinds of stanzas with different meters. In Kalampakam poems, names of praised Gods are
referred by names of their abodes, but Kalampakams referring the names of men are also
seen like Alutaiya Pillaiyar Tiukalampakam composed by Nampi Antar Nampi praising
Sambandar. Ula is a kind of poem in which a story of hero or deity who go in procession
through streets and young women are expressing their loves towards him, is depicted.
Cheraman Perumal’s Tirukkayilaya Nanaula, named after Tirukkayilayapati the
background of story, is an example of Ula poem in which women are falling in love with
God Siva. The work is considered as most ancient and marvelous work in Ula kind of
poetry; thus, it is named as Atiula (the first Ula). It also named as ‘Teyvika Ula’ (divine
Ula) as it composed in devotional atmosphere depicting mystic love with God. Nampi
351 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 140.
352 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 140-150.
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Antar Nampi had also composed one in Ula style with title of Alutaiya Pillayiyar
Tiruvulamali praising Sambandar.353
In Ula kind of devotional poetry, the mystic love felt by soul of devotees
towards God is identified and classified in seven stages and these are;
1. Petai (wish) : desiring to see the God
2. Petumpai (meditation) : meditating about the deeds of God
3. Mankai (contemplation) : continuous contemplation about God
4. Matantai (desire) : an intense desire to experience the God
5. Arivai (taste) : aiming to be blessed with God
6. Terivai (devotion) : seeing God in all worldy things
7. Perilampen (highest devotion): surrendering one’s soul to God.354
As we witnessed in most of Tirumurai collection, devotion to God in the form
of love is expressed by many Nayanmars and other poet saints of Shaivism. This kind of
devotion is denoted as Madhura Bhava (mood of sweet or love) in Bhakti tradition.
Karaikkal Ammaiyar
Karaikkal Ammaiyar is a unique Nayanar for she was a woman poet saint among
63 Nayanmars as Andal among Alvars. The story of Karaikkal Ammaiyar is famous
within tradition as she had considerable attention in Periya Puranam of Sekkizhar with
64 stanzas narrating her while other Nayanmars were described in one or two stanzas.
Among 63 Nayanmars, women saints are two including Karaikkal Ammaiyar namely
Mangaiyarkkarasiyar and Isaignaniyar, the mother of Sundarar, but received less attention
in Periya Puranam, may be because of scarcity of available details. Sekkizhar had
delineated Mangaiyarakkarasiyar who was considered as foster mother of Sambandar and
had tried to convert king back to Shaivism with help of Sambandar, in two and half
353 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 154-167.
354 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 169.
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stanzas. Mangaiyarakkarasiyar as a virtuous queen of Chola dynasty often referred and
equated with Goddess Lakshmi. Even though Isaignaniar was mother of great Nayanar
Sundarar, she was described with only one stanza in Periya Puranam while Sundarar
himself narrated her in a couple of lines. As a Siva devotee, she kept hostility towards
non-Saivites and even she shattered three citadels of enemies. While Sundarar narrates
her as a devotee who desired for one who rescues the world of evil filled with non Saivites,
Nampi Antar Nampi venerates her as a queen.355
In Tiru Tondar Togai of Sundarar which lists 62 Nayanmars, Karaikkal
Ammaiyar is referred as Peyar (the revered one who is demon) but Nampi Antar Nampi
doesn’t call her as Pey.356 This referance comes from her own identification in her four
works as a demon or ghoul (Pey).357 Karaikkal Ammaiyar’s intense devotion is the reason
behind her prominence in the tradition unlike Mangaiyarakkarasiyar and Isaignaniar
whose motherhood or maternity are more highlighted. She renounces the world
neglecting her charming beauty to get gruesome look that is presented as her proof of
devotion; thus, she attains blessed feet of Siva.358
Sekkizhar narrates that Karaikkal Ammaiyar was born as a daughter of
Danatattan a virtuous and wealthy merchant of Karaikkal town and was named as
Punitavati by her parents. As a gorgeous girl, she was married to Paramatattan who was
also merchant but was requested to stay in the house nearby that was constructed by
Danatattan since she was his one and only child. While they were leading an austere life
there, one day Paramatattan sent two mangoes home that he received from his business
clients. Before he reached his home in afternoon, one of the mangoes was given along
355 Thallam, “Cekkilar’s Periya Puranam and The Story of Karaikkal Ammayi.”, Journal of South Asian
Studies, 2013, p. 84.
356 Thallam., p. 83.
357 Elaine Craddock, Women Lives, Women Rituals in The Hindu Tradition, ed. Tracy Pintchman (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 134.
358 Thallam, “Cekkilar’s Periya Puranam and The Story of Karaikkal Ammayi.”, p. 83-85.
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with rice to Siva devotee who came their house. Paramatattan, uninformed about the
situation, asked for second one too when he had lunch and struck by unusual sweetness
of mango that served to him. When she prayed to Siva, he miraculously dropped mangoes
but Paramatattan realized second one was even sweeter. When he realized the truth upon
enquiry, he insisted her to produce new one too and she did it for him. Bewildered on
divinity immersed within his wife, he abandoned nuptial ties with her and left for another
town on the excuse of business. When his business flourished there also, he married and
had a daughter who was named as Punitavati. She was unaware of the situation as she
was leading an austere life with divine bliss but when her parent discovered truth brought
him to her. Realizing the situation, she renounced her life as house holder (grihastini) to
a devoted life seeking eternal liberation at the feet of Siva.359
When Karaikkal Ammaiyar decided to give up grihastini life, she begged Siva
to transform her beautiful body to a ghoulish one in order to present it as a proof of
devotion and she was granted. As her devotion outpoured, she composed Tirvirettai
Manimalai (sacred double garland of verses) and Arputa Tiruvantadi (sacred linked
verses of wonder) dedicated to Siva. She is said to be the first Nayanar to compose Antadi
kind of poem even before Sundarar and Sambandar.360 Some scholars argue that she was
first poet among Nayanmar to recite hymns dedicated to Şiva and that was in mid-eighth
century.361 Then she made pilgrimage to Kailasa to see Siva with his consort Parvati she
had walked to Kailasa which is abode of Siva on her hand to not impure the abode with
her dirty foot. When she reached the abode, Siva welcomed her as Ammai (mother) and
she was named after that. Her house at Karaikkal turned to a temple dedicated to her while
temples dedicated to her also seen in Karnataka and she is known a Karaikkal matha
(mother) in Kerala.362
359 Thallam., p. 85.
360 Thallam., p. 85.
361 Craddock, Women Lives, Women Rituals in The Hindu Tradition, p. 131.
362 Thallam, “Cekkilar’s Periya Puranam and The Story of Karaikkal Ammayi.”, p. 85.
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To be greeted as mother by Siva is indeed a great blessing since all devotional
songs including Tevaram glorify him as father and mother of universe. She was also
invited to watch his cosmic dance and had witnessed Siva oorthuva tandava (thunderous
dance). Here she sang Tiruvalankattu Muta Tirupatikangal (sacred senior songs of
Tiruvalankattu) and led her rest of live as his devoted servant. Here, she descended from
Kailasa to sing praising songs of Siva when he performed the dance in cremation ground
of Tiruvalankatu. In iconography, she had been shown as a singer playing cymbals at feet
of Siva. Her tomb is in the premises of this temple and some of her verses are seen
engraved in the temple.363
Cheraman Perumal
Cheraman Perumal (8th century) was born in royal family of Kothayars who
ruled Malainadu the present-day Kerala headquartered at Kodunkolur. While his original
name is Perumamakothayar, Cheraman is denoted who belong to Chera kingdom and he
adopted name of Perumal after his coronation. Not interested in administration, he
renounced the world and set out to Tiru Anchaikalam for devoted worship of lord there.
But when current ruler Sengol Porayan abdicated the throne and Perumamakothayar was
requested to ascend the throne, he accepted under the divine command on the condition
that he should continue his daily worship without any interruption. It is believed that he
knows many languages including language of birds and had ruled the country with
prosperity.364
Perumal’s devotion to God was very intense and this was exposed when he fell
from royal elephant to the feet of washerman whose body was smeared with white and
mud and looked like Siva. In return, lord Siva sent a Saivite devotee and musician to
Cheraman with his own song praising Cheraman who rolled on the ground when he heard
the song. He had devoted himself to Nataraja, a cosmic dancer form of Siva and was used
363 Craddock, Women Lives, Women Rituals in The Hindu Tradition., p. 136.
364 Sivananda, Sixty-Three Nayanar Saints, p. 53.
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to worship him daily. During his daily prayers, he was bestowed with hearing of musical
sound that produced from lord’s anklets while dancing. But when he couldn’t hear the
sound one day, he tried to kill himself with sword thinking that he didn’t hear the voice
because of great sin. Suddenly, he heard a sound from sky explaining that lord was
absorbed in the sweet song of Sundarar and he gave up from the suicide. God also praised
so much about Sundarar in order to get both of them befriended, thus Perumal set out to
Chidambaram to worship Nataraja and to meet Sundarar there. When he reached
Chidambaram, he was bestowed with lord vision and he burst to joy singing his song
Ponvannattantadi. But he couldn’t meet Sundarar there as he left to Tiruvarur, therefore
he went to Tiruvarur where they met each other. Here, he composed his famous ‘Tiru
Mummanikovi’ dedicated to lord Tyagaraja. From there, they together made pilgrimages
to many shrines like Vedaranyma where he composed Tiruantadi dedicating to deity of
the temple. He returned back to Kodunkalur again with Sundarar, and attained the
liberation there and he became the servant of Siva in Kailasa as tradition narrates.
Cheraman Perumal is considered as one of 63 Nayanmars and his poems are included in
Tirumurai.365
1.2.2.6 Periya Puranam
Periya Puranam of Sekkizhar is the last and twelfth Tirumurai and it presents
the historical details of 63 Nayanmars enlisted firstly by Sambandar. Sekkizhar was prime
minister of Kulothunga Chola (d.1150) who ruled some parts of Tamil region. Periya
Puranam is also known as Tiru Tondar Puranam, and is based on Tiruthondar
Tiruvantadi of Nampi Antar Nampi and ‘Tiru Tondar Togai’ of Sundarar. For its
enormous historical details with Bhakti poets as underlying theme, the work is considered
next to Tevaram and Tiruvacakam in the tradition.366 The work that consisted of 4286367
365 Sivananda, Sixty-Three Nayanar Saints, p. 54.
366 N. Mahalingam, Edited and Condensed English Version of Periya Puranam by Sekkizhar (Madras: Sri
Ramakrishna Math, n.d.), p. V-VI.
367 B. Sreenivas, Sanskrit Words in Tevaram, p. 16.
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verses depict the life style, devotional method and devotional poems of sixty-three
Naynamars who are from different casts including low one, classes and professions but
united in their unending intense devotional worship to God Siva. Based on their poetic
contributions in the tradition, 26 Nayanmars whose composed poems are found are called
as vocal devotees whereas other devotees are called as dumb devotees.368
Sekkizhar was a minister and poet’s chief of Kulothunga Chola II who ruled
between 1133 and 1150 for kingdom of Cholas who are known for their Siva Bhakti and
for their enmity against Buddhism, Jainism and Vaishnavism. Even though he was
devotee of Siva in the form of Nataraja and propagated it as his ancestors, he was
influenced with Jivaka Cihntamani a Jain Tamil text that composed as a poem of love.
Disturbed by king’s captivation, he induced king, hoping to reverse his religious interests,
to read the works of Sundarar and Nampi Antar Nampi which depict the lives of
Nayanmars. For the same reason, he imitated to compose a poem that comprehensively
depicts the lives of all Nayanmars and he was successful to produce a complete
hagiography of Nayanmars which later named as Periya Puranam (big story). He
composed his poem in thousand pillared hall of famous Chidambaram temple using his
advantages as minister and the composition brought back the king to Shaivism. King
organized a massive festival for the release of book dedicating to Siva at golden hall of
Nataraja at Ponnambalam and the work was presented to public through a year by
Sekkizhar at Chidambaram. This magnum opus of Shaiva tradition considered by some
followers as fifth Veda and was included in Tirumurai collection as twelfth volume.369
1.2.3 MAJOR BHAKTI SAINTS
Originating from Alvars and Nayanmars in Tamil region, Bhakti as a movement
moved further influencing adjacent geographies in south India and developed to its
maximum in succeeding centuries mainly in north India. It is not exaggerated if we say
368 Mahalingam, Edited and Condensed English Version of Periya Puranam by Sekkizhar, p. 1.
369 Sarada Thallam, “Cekkilar’s Periya Puranam and The Story of Karaikkal Ammayi,” p. 83-84.
105
Bhakti tradition diffused all over India from south to north and from west to east with
sprouting of different varieties of saints, groups and Bhakti philosophies. Surely, it is hard
to comprehend it in a work itself, so here we go through only major Bhakti saints to get
an overall outlook of Bhakti’s development and it is out of our work’s scope to discuss
deeply about all Bhakti saints and groups since problem of our research around Bhakti
movement’s emergence only.
1.2.3.1 Basavanna
Basavanna (d.1196), as popularly known, is the founding father of Lingayats or
Veerashaivas a poetic bhakta group mainly centered in Kalyana, in modern Karnataka
state in south India. Some historians mark his life between 1105 and 1167 while some
others mark between 1134-1196. He proposed a different way of Bhakti that compromises
devotion with social life and political consciousness conveying his philosophies on
poetry.370
Basavanna was born to Shaiva brahmin couples namely Madarasa (12th century)
and Madalambike (12th century) in 1134 in Karnataka a southern state of India. His sister
Nagamma (12th century) had influenced him greatly in his revolutionary and reformative
ideas, so she is regarded as first Guru (religious teacher) of Basava. As an intelligent child
and very aware about society and practices, he refused to undergo Upanayana (religious
initiation) ceremony which marks the beginning of Vedic studies for brahmin boys
pointing that he only accepts the ceremony only when his sister also undergoes the same.
Even in his early ages, he was condemning unjust practices in the society like casteism,
untouchability and bad treatment towards women.371 Then he moved to Kudala to join
the Gurukula (religious school) headed by Eashanaya (12th century) guru and stayed there
for 8 years. It is said that he had married two girls Neelambike (12th century) the foster
370 Harish Harsoor - Muslim Yadgir, Basava Philosophy and Islam, First edition (New Delhi: White Dot
Publishers, 2014), p. 10.
371 Harsoor - Yadgir, Basava Philosophy and Islam, p. 10-11.
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sister of king Bijjala of Mangalwad (12th century) and Gangambike (12th century) the
daughter of Baladev (12th century) who was minister of king Bijjala. He worked as a clerk
in the court of Bijjala and when Bijjala became the ruler of Chalukya kingdom, he moved
to Kalyana in 1155. It is reported that he could read the script in copper plate found in
Bijjala and king could discover huge treasure buried under the throne. Impressed by
intelligence and honesty of Basava, king appointed him as Mahamantri (chief of
ministers). In Kalyana, he relentlessly worked for social reformations based on devotional
worship of Siva and could attract a vast number of followers who later known as Lingayat.
They consider themselves as a separate religion from Hinduism based on Vachanas
(utterances) of Basavanna as they admired him.372 Vachanas, which are short and concise
sayings that include deep meaning and thoughts, of Basavanna and other fellow Lingayats
have decisive impact in the Lingayat traditon. These Vachanas constitute a great portion
of Kannada literature and are famous within the region since these Vachanas often
repeated by non-Lingayats even illiterates.373
Basavanna fought against priest centric worship of God in which priest was no
less than God and all worships and offerings to God were incomplete without priests.
Worship of God was limited to temples where majority of society hadn’t access.
Opposing this culture, he advocated for devotional worship of God open for all sections
of the society including women and untouchables. In his Vachanas, he advises to keep
one’s mind and body submissive to God and his commandments and to be satisfied with
all acts of whether it is an honor or dishonor to him.374
Basavanna established Anubhava mantapa a center for religious learning where
all people can join irrespective of their caste and gender and discuss religious matters
often in poetic style. The center in Kalyana attracted Hindus from different parts of the
372 Harsoor - Yadgir, Basava Philosophy and Islam, p. 11-12.
373 S.M. Hunashal, The Lingayat Movement; a Social Revolution in Karnataka (Karnataka Sahitya Mandir
Dharwar: Dharwar, 1947), p. XVI.
374 Harsoor - Yadgir, Basava Philosophy and Islam, p. 15-18.
107
region and it turned epicenter of followers later known as Lingayats, Veerashaivas, or
Sharanas. As Basavanna rejected monk life neglecting society and family, he proposed to
take up a task and make a living. Contrary to many spiritual entities, Basavanna strongly
opposed ascetic life without fulfilling needs of the society and family, so he was very
sensitive in political issues too. He laid down the complete surrender and intense devotion
as basis of God worship and salvation opposing the unjust and divisive customs prevailed
in the society. Therefore, the center turned as a meeting point for devotees from different
sects, professions and genders like Basavanna a minister, Akkamahadevi (1160) a woman
ascetic, Machayya (12th century) a washerman, Ramayye (12th century) a weaver and
Ramideva (12th century) a constable but all considered same while devotion is only
parameter of merit.375
Most distinguishing feature of Basavanna is that he preached pure monotheism
rejecting polytheism as he said in one of his Vachanas that there is only one God, to speak
about two Gods is false and Kudalasangamahadeva is the only God. They were devotees
of Siva whom they called as Kudalasangamahadeva but they were strict in Saivite
monotheism. As the followers of Basavanna were ardent and fanatic Siva devotees, they
were called as Veerashaivas (strong devotees of Siva). For them, Sarvanga Lingasthala
is ultimate ideal where mysterious eternal life is existed and life is divinized completely.
They also discouraged image worship as much as possible while they encouraged worship
of Siva in one’s own Ishtalinga which was kept by them all time wherever they go. The
Linga was given by Guru in the time of initiation; thus, it rejects the worship of
Sthavaralinga which placed in temples. In the tradition of Lingayats, a dictum which
states that a hand touched Linga is pure while the body that wear Linga is temple itself.
Even though they accepted Vedas, they examined it in the light of Vichara and Anubhava
(reason and experience). They used to discuss all religious matters in Anubhava mantapa
in Kalyana and attendees normally express their ideas in Vachanas which are recorded
by a Lingayat named as Shantaras and later compiled into a book called as Shunya
375 Harsoor - Yadgir, Basava Philosophy and Islam, p. 33-36.
108
Sampadana (attainment of the void).376 Basava insisted through his poems that all persons
should be evaluated on the basis of their depth in devotion not by their wealth, lineage or
other measures. He was also empathic towards socially oppressed classes and furious to
undeserved supremacy of brahmins in religion, so he supported participation of women
in devotional life as he praised Mahadeviayakka in the presence of his companions even
though they were confused about her good-looking naked position. While he condemns
ritualistic religious activities, Basavanna values honest worldly occupations with feeling
of devotion.377
Basava’s Vachanas flourish today in devotional songs and many other media
since these remain as his best contribution. His Vachanas stand for themes like simple
individual devotion with social conscience with empathy towards socially backward
classes especially women, focus on personal and social morality with frustration against
rituals and forms of established religion, contempt against undeserved privileges of
brahmins the hereditary priestly group, and fanatic adoration and devotion to Lord
Siva.378
In nutshell, Basava’s personality as social and religious reformer, his antiritualism,
vernacularism, social egalitarianism and devotional individualism continue to
inspire the community nowadays as contemporary Lingayats proclaims their distinction
from Hinduism and their autonomy as a religion. He was very successful in his mission
of Bhakti; thus, it attracted large mass especially in the region known today as Karnataka.
It is notable that they proclaim their own identity as a separate religion from Hinduism
and it is more sensitive issue in current India where Hindutva right wing want to transform
democratic India to Hindu nation oppressing religious minorities like Muslims.
376 S.M. Hunashal, The Lingayat Movement; a Social Revolution in Karnataka (Karnataka Sahitya Mandir
Dharwar: Dharwar, 1947), p. 41-82.
377 S.M. Hunashal, The Lingayat Movement; a Social Revolution in Karnataka, p. 90-93.
378 S.S. Basawanal - K.R. Srinivasa Iyengar, Musings of Basava (Manglore: Basel Mission Press, 1940), p.
17-19.
109
1.2.3.2 Akkamahadevi
Female poet saint Akkamahadevi is a key figure in Bhakti tradition as she proved
Bhakti’s inclusive policy that proposes the devotion as key factor of sainthood
irrespective of gender and she is one of few female religious figures in the history of
Bhakti itself.
Akkamahadevi is said to had born in Shimoga, Karnataka and was married to
local chieftain, Kausika (12th century) who was Jain. She was forced to be married with
him for her beauty but she was not satisfied with him, thus it eventually led to her fleeing
from his home as naked.379 Her inclination to spirituality led her way to Kalyana where
Veerashaivas or Lingayats the Siva devotees gathered. She was not welcomed warmly in
the community as she was naked the Digambara style, yet they sheltered her due to their
respect for wandering ascetics. Basava, the Lingayat community leader, advocated for
practicing spirituality through leading normal life but Akkamahadevi’s absolute ascetism
was not coping with fellow bhakta sisters, therefore she left Kalyana and continued her
wandering.380 She reached Srisailam where temple of Mallikarjuna, her favorite God,
situated and she stayed there till her death in early twenties. Tradition says that she
attained the ultimate mystical experience through a complete union with her divine
God.381
Even though Akkamahadevi left the Lingayats, she is one of foremost saints in
community for her exceptional poetry and community’s special focus on poetry. Poetry
had a special role in the community as they were communicating with each other through
379 S.S. Basawanal - K.R. Srinivasa Iyengar, Musings of Basava, p. 34-35.
380 Jan Peter Schouten, edi. Knut A. Jacobsen, Brill’s encyclopedia of Hinduism, BRILL, Leiden, 2012, p.
150.
381 Chandra Y Mudaliar, “Religious Experiences of Hindu Women: A Study of Akka Mahadevi,” Mystics
Quarterly 17/3 (1991), p. 137.
110
small poetic lines which later called as Vachanas in the tradition.382 Basavanna used to
organize a meeting for religious discussions but was communicated through small poems
and the aim was to encourage each devotee for personal contribution to the development
of religious tradition, thus it also encouraged vernacular religious literature of Kannada
instead of dominant Sanskrit. The contribution later named as Vachana literature in which
she is one of most prominent Vachanakaras (authors of Vachanas) for her qualified 430
Vachanas that composed in different situations of her life.383
Along with 430 Vachanas, she also compiled small collections of the poetry in
which Yogangatrividhi with 67 verses is famous one. But her Vachanas are masterpiece
which made her famous as Cannabasava the successor of Basavanna said that her one
poem is enough for ten poems of Basavanna himself. When Vachanas normally are
poems free from forms, short, simple and easy to memorize manner but her verses were
highly poetic with imagery and good use of Kannada language.384 In the last lines of
Vachanas, certain remarking of his/her personal deity is done which is called as Ankita
or Mudrike. In the case of AkkaMahadevi, it was Mallikarjuna whom she fondly mentions
as her husband. As Mallikarjuna was the deity worshipped in the temple of Srisailam
which is one of 12 places (Jyotirlinga) where God Siva is said to have appeared, she was
always felt attracted to the place, therefore she stayed there till her death.385
Akkamahadevi’s poetry is considered as part of Bhakti literature as her verses
express love and devotion to her personal God the Siva in his Mallikarjuna form and as a
continuation of Nayanmar for its resemblance with Siva devout poetries of former
century. As in many Bhakti poets, she also begs God for liberation from desires and can
join with him as she believed liberation cannot be achieved with human, but only divine
382 Susie J. Tharu - Ke Lalita, eds., Women writing in India: 600 B.C. to the present (New York: Feminist
Press at the City University of New York: Distributed by Talman Co, 1991), p. 78.
383 Jan Peter Schouten, edi. Knut A. Jacobsen, Brill’s encyclopedia of Hinduism, p. 150.
384 Jan Peter Schouten, edi. Knut A. Jacobsen, Brill’s encyclopedia of Hinduism, p. 150.
385 Susie J. Tharu - Ke Lalita, eds., Women writing in India: 600 B.C. to the present, p. 78-79.
111
powers can bestow it. Her poetry also constitutes SatipatiBhakti the devotion as the love
of a women for her husband since she expresses her relationship with God as her husband
through erotic verses. In this type of Bhakti, the mystical union with personal God is
narrated as marital experiences with him. Other than Akkamahadevi, there are many
female bhakta poets had expressed SatipatiBhakti like Mira Bai (d.1547) as well as some
male poets who designate female Gods as their personal Gods. As a result of these works’
extolling her mystical achievements, a large statue of her built in Uduthadi where she was
born and had turned into a pilgrimage center. Along with her image is worshipped in the
local temple and places she visited like Kalyana and Srisailam turned to sacred places, a
cave in the name of Akkamahadevi is turned as pilgrimage center.386
1.2.3.3 Ramanand
Known as fifth master of Sri Vaishnava tradition, Ramanand (d.1475) who was
religious scholar and well-educated philosopher, had created his own space in the history
of Bhakti. Born in Brahmin family to the couple of Punyasadan (15th century) and Suseela
(15th century), he set off to Benaras to finish his religious education. After his wandering
throughout India, he established his own sect in Sri Vaishnava tradition rejecting the
caste-based discriminations. As per Sri Vaishnava tradition, the master should be
brahmin, must obey and follow caste-based purity and rules.387 He declared emancipation
through knowledge for all of his disciple whom he called as Avadhuta (liberated) and will
be treated equal without any basis. It may be noted that Ramanand’s rejection of image
worship had influenced his most famous disciple Kabir who was proponent of Nirguna
Bhakti. His teachings had continued to influence Bhakti saints of next generations too
like Raidas (d.1520), Guru Nanak (d.1539) and Tulsidas, so his teachings were also
included in Adi Granth the sacred text of Sikhs. Since his teachings were open to all, he
386 Jan Peter Schouten, edi. Knut A. Jacobsen, Brill’s encyclopedia of Hinduism, p. 150.
387 G.A Natesan, Ramanad to Ram Tirth; Lives of The Saints of Northern India Including Sikh Gurus
(Madras, n.d.), p. 2-3.
112
had disciples from various sects, castes and even from non-Hindus too like Kabir
(d.1518).388
Ramanand’s Bhakti teachings mainly emphasis on two principles that perfect
Bhakti is perfect love directed towards God and all devotees are brothers. His most known
12 disciples come from various castes, religions and backgrounds as Kabir a weaver, Pipa
a soldier, Sena (15th century) a barber, Rai Dasa (15th century) a leather worker from low
caste, Sukhanand (15th century) and Anantanand (15th century) who were brahmins and
Dhana (15th century) from low caste while Surasari (15th century) and Padmavati (15th
century) were women disciples. It must be noted that Ramanand had also taught Vedas
for low castes too along with offering them the salvation through Jnana itself. He hadn’t
left notable poems or textual works other than some lines in Adi Granth in his long 111
years starting from 1299 to 1410 but his fame and influence had passed through his
disciples.389
1.2.3.4 Kabir
Kabir, one of key figures in Bhakti tradition of medieval period, was a proponent
of formless Bhakti (Nirguna Bhakti) in which Bhakti was not expressed to a deity or idol,
unlike Alvars and Nayanmars who were Saguna bhaktas (devotees of God with forms)
and their devotion was expressed to their deities. He influenced large mass in central and
northern India since many founders of different sects acknowledge their reverence to
Kabir. Among these founders, Guru Nanak the founder of Sikhism is prominent one and
he had met his master at his age of 7. In Adi Granth the sacred text of Sikhism, devotional
lines of Kabir are placed. Dadu (d.1603) the founder of Panth, Jag Jivan Das (d.1760) the
388 Lala Sita Ram, Selections from Hindi Literature; Book IV Saints (Allahabad: University of Culcutta,
1921), p. I-A - I-E.
389 Sita Ram, Selections from Hindi Literature; Book IV Saints, p. 5-16.
113
founder of at Nami sect and Birbhan (16th century) the founder of Sadh community, are
among influenced by Kabir.390
Historians had enlisted various birth dates of Kabir but almost of them agree that
he was lived in fifteenth century, yet a prominent historian, Dr. Govind Trigunayat, had
identified 1398 as birth year of Kabir after comparing available records. Among different
birth places attributed to him, Megahar village of Azamgarh is most dependable one.391
There are different legends on his birth but it is agreed that he was brought up in a Muslim
house whose profession was weaving and he had grown up with both Muslim and Hindu
friends. It is said that he practiced Hindu lifestyle reciting the name of Hindu Gods like
Rama and Narayana while accepting the studentship of Ramanand a Hindu scholar. Some
other accounts describe that he married Loi (14th century) and had two children; Kamal
(14th century) and Kamali (14th century). Meantime, he accompanied the shaykh Taqqi
(14th century) and his father Shabanul Millat (d.1359) who were Sufi Peers. He roamed
and lived around Banaras searching Peers and accompanying them but it is reported that
Shaykh Taqqi had complained the Muslim ruler of the time on divinity claiming of Kabir
and, therefore, must be punished with death. Upon his explanation, emperor let him free.
Paradoxically, he was accused by Hindu brahmin too to cross the limit of Hindu religion.
All account agree that he died in Gorakhpur in his old age, yet tradition describe that
Hindus wanted to cremate him while Muslims to bury him. Legend continues that when
the clothes that covered the dead body of Kabir were removed, they found heap of flowers
and half of them burnt in Benaras while another half was buried in Megahar.392
To put an endnote to understand Kabir’s syncretic religious practices, his poem
stating himself as neither Hindu or Muslim is considerable one. He continues in the poem
that Hindus chant the name of Rama while Muslims of One God but the lord of Kabir
pervades everything. As in the case of birth year too, historians had placed his death year
390 G.H Wetcott, Kabir and The Kabir Panth (Varanasi: Bharatiya Publishing House, 1907), p. 1.
391 Prabhakar Machwe, Kabir (New Delhi: Sahitya Academy, 1968), p. 10.
392 Wetcott, Kabir and The Kabir Panth, p. 4-24.
114
as 1447, 1511, 1517 and 1518, according most of these dating he is believed to be lived
long for 120 years. In nutshell, he left behind great poetic Hindi literature on Bhakti with
strict monotheism and abhorrence of idolatry based on teachings of Upanishads.393
Since Kabir perceived his God as impersonal and immanent, his Bhakti was
monotheistic in nature. Instead of indulging in scholastic discussions to establish Nirguna
or non-dual nature of God, he spread his understandings of God in his poems. Kabir was
reluctant in naming his God without shape and form as Krishna or any other since he
couldn’t be grasped by identifying as a person or through philosophical expositions but
only through personal encounter and experience of him with utter devotion (Bhakti). But,
his recurring mentions of Rama a Vishnu-avatar, had prompted historian to regard him a
Vaishnava. His usage of Rama is only in symbolic to point an undefinable God which is
found within himself, so Rama as incarnation or personal deity has no significance for
Kabir. His Rama was not person who was described in Puranas or Itihasas. He moves
much closer to Islam as he said that the eternal God shouldn’t be worshipped in the form
of a person because he must be free from human parentages.394
According to Kabir, knowledge or Jnana is integral part for enlightenment and
spiritual awakening because He must be known properly to be worshipped and to be
devoted. He relates it that knowledge has no meaning without Bhakti and true Bhakti is
not existent without knowledge, so the real Guru must impart both Jnana and Bhakti to
his disciples. But Kabir reiterates that this knowledge is not taken from books but from
his spiritual experience, yet he almost neglected those who are well versed with scriptures
but with little spiritual experience. Moreover, he believed that essence of religion may be
lost within increased writings and continuous verbal expositions. For him, one can be
man of true knowledge through his spiritual experiences even he hadn’t scholastic
393 Machwe, Kabir, p. 11-16.
394 Krishna Sharma, Early Indian Bhakti with Special Reference to Kabir; a Historical Analysis and Re-
Interpretation (Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of London, 1964), p. 227.
115
learnings. He states that one’s own intellect is source of knowledge and it can discriminate
truth and false through thinking, so he is not in need to external sources.395
Kabir perceived his God as one reality permeated the entire universe and
whatever he sees is the truth nothing else. As this reality is existent within one’s self,
searching it outside is futile, so he regarded religious practices as worthless without this
consciousness. Thus, realizing his great self is realizing the God as He abides bodiless
within him, so he disregarded searching him through forms they created and established
outside of their Atman. Here, it is very clear that he proposed Nirguna Bhakti (devotion
to a formless God) and dismissed the Saguna Bhakti. His teachings of one must give up
sense of duality and recognize the oneness of things to experience God, points to his
monistic views. He moves further that Bhakti is also futile until he recognizes the God
who abides within him and whenever he realizes this highest knowledge he is merged
with God. In Nirguna Bhakti, God is devoted as higher self while devotee considers him
as lower self and God may be far from him in the absence of true devotion to him.396
1.2.3.5 Guru Nanak
May be the foremost figure of Bhakti in medieval period is Guru Nanak whose
religious philosophy enrooted in devotion turned to be formed as new religion itself
named as ‘Sikhism’, winning the large mass across northern India especially in Punjab.
As he was deeply influenced by Kabir, his religious philosophy may be conceived as a
syncretic religion synthesized from religious philosophies of Hinduism and Islam with
Bhakti acting as catalyst.
395 Sharma, Early Indian Bhakti with Special Reference to Kabir; a Historical Analysis and Re-
Interpretation, p. 227-233.
396 Sharma, Early Indian Bhakti with Special Referance to Kabir; a Historical Analysis and Re-
Interpretation, p. 233-238.
116
Born in 1469 in central Punjab (now in west Pakistan) as son of Mehta Kalu
(d.1522) an administration officer for a Pathan chief, and Tripta (15th century).397 Guru
Nanak had learned under Pandit Gopal (15th century), Sharma Nath (15th century) and
Qutubudheen (15th century) when he was 11 years old. In 1487, he had married Sulakhni
(15th century) and had two children; Baba Sri Tara Chand (d. 1629) and Baba Lakshmi
Das (16th century). Tradition says that, after Godly revelation in 1497, he had travelled
from south to North and from west to east to preach his thoughts and religion, and had
influenced many to his religion,398 Moreover, his travels hold importance in the religion
and are known in the tradition as Udasi.399 So he is known as Nanak Pir Wali Hind in
Arabian countries, Rimpoche of Amritsar in Tibet, Balagdheen in Afghanistan and as
Baba Nanak, Guru Nanak and Rishi Nanak in other places while Yogis of Hinduism try
to bring him to their fold.400 After his expeditions to different parts of the world, he settled
in Kartarpur leading a householder’s life but with total devotion to the God. Giving up
ascetic life, he started his new life with farming and lecturing to local people about God
and devotion to him and about comprehensive method of life often accompanied with
Kirtan the songs with melodies. His life in Kartarpur attracted many to the region, thus
new religion, Sikhism, gradually evolved around the teachings of Guru Nanak centered
at Kartarpur.401
Guru Nanak’s magnum opus Adi Granth, which is also considered as sacred
scripture of Sikhism, is collection his poems that he sung throughout his life since he
identifies himself as Nanak Shair which means Nanak the poet. He selected Punjabi,
Sahaskriti and colloquial Persian to convey his messages regarding the language of
397 Sarjit Singh Bal, Life of Guru Nanak (Chandigarh: Publishing Bureau of Punjab University, 1984), p.
17.
398 Surinder Singh Kohli, Philosophy of Guru Nanak (Chandigarh: Publishing Bureau of Punjab University,
1980), p. 1-7.
399 Bal, Life of Guru Nanak, p. 48.
400 Kohli, Philosophy of Guru Nanak, p. vi.
401 Bal, Life of Guru Nanak, p. 113-119.
117
audience and he had understood selecting a foreign language as slavery. Besides Adi
Granth, his major works include Asa ki var, Japji, Majh ki var, Sidh Ghoshta, Dakhni
Oamkar and Malar ki var.402
While accepting mystic ideas of Bhakti, Guru Nanak, like his master Kabir, had
rejected theological aspects of Vaishnavism or Shaivism like avatar doctrine and idol
worship, following Nirguna Sampradaya of Bhakti.403 Although there are different
evaluation of Guru Nanak’s teachings proposed by many historians, the common point in
most of these conclusions is syncretism of Hinduism and Islam in his mystic or devotional
ideas.404 Guru Nanak describes his God as Nirguna Brahma and asserts eternal oneness
of God without subjecting to any change or duality, where his concept of God is almost
identical with monotheism in Islam. He identifies him with negative affirmations like
Nirguna (without attributes), Niranakar (formless) and adrisht (unseen) and with positive
statements like Ek-oankar (The one all pervading), Satnam (his name is true) and Kartapurkh
(Creator-immanent one).405 He reiterates further that he is attributed with all
auspicious qualities while he is free from all defects and he has no beginnings (Anadi) or
ends (Amar).406 Therefore, it may easily concluded that his idea of God was largely
influenced by Tauhid in Islam or almost identical with it. He had emphasized to dedicate
one’ contemplation and devotion to a Nirankar (formless), Niranjan (Immaculate) and
Nirguna (without attributes) God.407 Guru Nanak described Bhakti as intense devotion
and complete surrender towards God in which knowledge and actions are necessary and
must be proceed with faith and love but rejects different modes of worship and rituals.408
402 Kohli, Philosophy of Guru Nanak, p. 7-9.
403 Dewan Singh, Mysticism of Guru Nanak (Punjab University, 1973), p. 122.
404 Singh, Mysticism of Guru Nanak, p. 132-139.
405 Singh, Mysticism of Guru Nanak, p. 184-186.
406 Kohli, Philosophy of Guru Nanak, p. 28-29.
407 Singh, Mysticism of Guru Nanak, p. 186-191.
408 Kohli, Philosophy of Guru Nanak, p. 143.
118
In nutshell, Guru Nanak as most important figure of Bhakti in Nirguna
sampradaya, had initiated a new life style imbued in Bhakti, which later transformed to
a new religion Sikhism. As his philosophy on God, religion and salvation was much
indebted to both Hinduism and Islam, he may be the most explicit example of Bhakti’s
interconnections with both religions. From its origin, Bhakti movement had
interconnected and engaged with and within religions and its different cults, thus it
prompted to a syncretic religion; Sikhism.
1.2.3.6 Vallaba
Another notable figure in Bhakti tradition is Vallaba (d.1531) who lived in
sixteenth century and propounded Shuddadvaita (pure non-dualism) school of Vedanta
that harmonized with Bhakti towards God Krishna. While he accepts doctrine of pure
(Shudda) in Upanishad to put forward his Shuddadvaita, he accepts Jnana Marga as a
method of salvation but affirms superiority of Bhakti Marga as the path of salvation. To
present his religious philosophy, he had penned down ‘Anubhasya’ a partial commentary
on Brahma sutra and ‘Subodhini’ a commentary on Bhagavat Purana, moreover it is said
that he had commented on Upanishads and Bhagavad-Gita too.409 As his teachings
attracted large mass, a new Bhakti cult under the guideship of Vallaba was evolved.
There are two available birth dates of Vallabacharya; 1473410 and 1479 but the
former seems to be historically valid. Born in a family of Krishna devotees, Vallabha
started his learning at his age of six under the instruction of Narayan Bhatt (16th century)
and it is said in the tradition that he learned Vedas, Upanishads and six Astika schools
within four months. When he lost his father at his age of 11, he left his mother and native
place Gokul to the banks of Yamuna and for pilgrimage throughout India. He wandered
all over India for nine years till he settled in Banaras411 leading a life of Acharya (teacher)
409 G.H Bhatt, Sri Vallabhacharya and his Doctrines (Baroda: Sri Vallabha Publications, 1984), p. 8.
410 Bhatt, Sri Vallabhacharya and His Doctrines, p. 7.
411 karsandas Mulji, History of the Sect of Maharajas, Or Vallabhacharyas, in Western India (London:
Trübner and Company, 1865), p. 35-43.
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the title honored by king of Vijayanagara, giving lectures and writing books till his death
in 1531.412
Vallabha put forward pure non-duality (Shuddadvaita) establishing cause and
effect being pure and one and rejecting Maya. He emphasized that divine grace (Pushti)
is most powerful instrument and unfailing mode towards salvation, therefore his path is
also known as PushtiMarga too, but he didn’t reject other paths of Jnana and Karma
(knowledge and ritual) as Kabir does. He proposes Maryada Marga in which one has to
follow instructions of Vedas and has to practice different modes of worship till he starts
his love to God but it is open only for males of three upper casts; Brahmanas, Kshatriyas
and Vaishyas whereas PushtiMarga is open for all irrespective of caste and gender. He
continues that his time is unfavorable for Maryada Marga as it excludes women, Sudras
and other outcast people. He describes the relation with God is found in eight sentiments
(rasa); love, fury, wonder, horror, heroism, humor, pathos and love (Srngara). In these
eight sentiments, love (Srngara) is most prominent that is enjoyed by the devotees in two
different stages of Viprayoga (separation) and Samyoga (union). Devotee enjoys the
happiness of union during Samyoga while he thinks about him only during the time of
Viprayoga. He understands that divine grace is recognized by many schools but they
follow Maryada Marga when they worship, so he strongly points to his followers that
their Bhakti should be Snehatmaka (consisted of love).413
Vallabacharya didn’t reject Varnashrama dharma completely but he disregards
it as it is unfavorable to time and he continues that whenever Varnashrama dharma
(service based on caste) conflicts with Bhagavata dharma (service of the lord), he must
prefer latter over the former. When one enters PushtiMarga, he must give up his
independent existence and all his properties dedicating it to lord, therefore he couldn’t
possess any material property. When he uses anything, he must dedicate it to God and
then use it with his prior permission. The form of lord in the tradition is popularly known
412 Bhatt, Sri Vallabhacharya and His Doctrines, p. 9.
413 Bhatt, Sri Vallabhacharya and His Doctrines, p. 9-19.
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as Srinathji whose shrine is situated in Mewar. While he sees it as Purna Purushottama
the highest form of the lord, he also accepts for other forms of God but inferior to Purna
Purushottama and these are Sankarasana, Vasudeva, Aniruddha and Pradyumna.414 As
his ideology was attracted many to follow him, it gradually developed to a cult. After his
death, his cult spread all over India especially in western India through his seven sons.415
In short, Vallabhacharya and his followers were among key faces of the Bhakti movement
in sixteenth century.
1.2.3.7 Chaitanya
With original name of Gauranga Mahaprabhu (d.1534), Sri Chaitanya has fueled
for a mass movement in eastern India especially in Bengal, Orissa and Assam, which later
known as Chaitanya movement.416 Chaitanya was born in the year of 1486 in Mayapore
a well-known Brahminic center in Bengal. His parents are Jagnnath Mishra (15th century)
and Sachi (15th century) who were well versed with Vedas and its traditions. Losing their
eight children, they were very fond of their child whom they named as Nimai while he
was fondly called as ‘Gauranga’ by colleagues and as ‘Viswambhara’ by the scholars of
the region.417 As his parents were pious Vaishnava devotees of Krishna, he grown up with
Bhakti tradition itself. In his age of 16, he was turned as renowned scholar in Vedas with
much knowledge in Sanskrit language. But in his age of 22, he became a devout bhakta
under the guideship of Isvara Puri (15th century) after his trip to Gaya a well-known
Buddhist center. After his transformation, he gave up all scholastic efforts and circle too
to join Vaishnava devotees in the region. His fervent devotion to Krishna and his wellestablished
fame made him the leader of Vaishnava community of the region. As he had
414 Bhatt, Sri Vallabhacharya and His Doctrines, p. 21-22.
415 Mulji, History of the Sect of Maharajas, Or Vallabhacharyas, in Western India, p. 43.
416 B.H Bon, Sree Chaitanya (Bombay: The Popular Book Depot, 1940), p. IX.
417 Bon, Sree Chaitanya, p. 7.
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sweet voice, he mastered Kirtans (religious songs) and his sweet songs attracted many to
him even Muslims as tradition claims.418
Chaitanya’s Kirtan was developed further to Nagarakirtan (songs of towns) in
which songs of devotion to Krishna are carried to the streets of town, thus the movement
was turned to much popular movement and Navadvip where he stayed then turned to a
Vaishnava center. Chaitanya sent two of his colleagues to neighboring towns to preach
the cult initiated by Chaitanya. Even though Bhakti revivalism of Chaitanya had attracted
large mass and became popular, the noble men of the region especially learned scholars
and pandits were reluctant to his movement, moreover they were opposing him whenever
they had a chance to intervene. When their opposition grew up, he decided to give up all
his relation with movement in order to be a true Sannyasin (ascetic). Main reason of the
decision was to win the hearts of Pandits too and for the reason, he set out as homeless
wanderer. As a Sannyasin, he wandered all over India including south India, Banaras and
Puri where he stayed till his death in 1534. During his pilgrimages and staying in Puri,
many pandits were embraced Chaitanya movement witnessing Bhakti of Chaitanya and
realizing its superiority towards salvation.419
Chaitanya put forward the idea of ‘Dvaitadvaitavad’ (non-dualism within
dualism) in which devotional aspect is stressed. He continues that human soul forgets his
own existence when he reaches the perfection in faith and devotion. It may be perceived
as refined form of dualism in the highest stage of devotion.420 Ascetic lines and control
of passions are main component of devotion preached by Chaitanya. While he proposed
his followers to keep abstinence, he also discouraged too much study. He attracted people
through highlighting the emotional side of religion as he used to forget himself in the
stages of Kirtan passing through trance. According to Chaitanya’s devotional principles,
418 Kennedy Melville T, The Chaithanya Movement; a Study of The Vaishnavism of Bengal (Culcutta:
Association Press, 1925), p. 14-24.
419 Melville T, The Chaithanya Movement; a Study of The Vaishnavism of Bengal, p. 24-51.
420 Dinesh Chandra Sen, Chaitanya and His Age (Culcutta: University of Culcutta, 1922), p. 322.
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five rasas namely Shanta, Dasya, Sakhya and Vatsalya and Madurya are expressed in
hierarchical stages. In the first stage of Shanta rasa (sentiment of quietness) devotee
should give up all his desires, while in the second stage of Dasya (service), he must create
a relation with God as the relation of a servant towards his master. In the next stage, he
must develop his relation to God in Sakhya (friendship) mood in which the distance with
God is minimized. Then he moves to the stage of Vatsalya (affection) in which devotee
perceives God as his child. Here his approach towards God filled with fondness and
affection. In the last stage, sentiment of devotee towards God is Madurya (love). Here his
love of God is as love of a man for women and his emotions are expressed at its fullest.421
Like most of Bhakti saints, Chaitanya had also fought against caste system and
he had conducted serious efforts to root out it from Hindu society, so he used to advice
his missionaries whom he sent to different regions, to make effort to eradicate it. His
public proclamation neglecting the caste and standing with untouchables were main
factors of attraction to his cult and of hate from upper castes too.422 Contrary to many
Bhakti Saints, he didn’t oppose rituals completely but rejected ritualism in which
salvation is only obtained through rituals only. He continues that devotion is important
whether he performed rituals or not and understood himself as one who don’t need rituals
since he approached the God through devotion only.423 As he was against the salvation
through knowledge, notable works on religious philosophy are not found other than
compilation of his followers about his lifestyle and religious views. His cult grew region
to region through his various colleagues whom he sent to different parts, so in the cult of
Chaitanya persons and personal experiences are important that texts. Among his
disciples.424 In nutshell, Chaitanya and his cult advocated Bhakti as the path of salvation
421 Chandra Sen, Chaitanya and His Age, p. 327-330.
422 Chandra Sen, Chaitanya and His Age, p. 281-283.
423 Chandra Sen, Chaitanya and His Age, p. 289.
424 Chandra Sen, Chaitanya and His Age, p. XVI-XIX.
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winning the large mass in eastern India. Contrary to other Bhakti cults, empirical Bhakti
is emphasized in which Bhakti poems or texts have no space.
1.2.3.8 Mira Bai
Mira Bai is among key figures of Bhakti tradition since she was one of women
presence in the tradition and her poems in three different languages namely Rajasthani,
Gujarati and Hindi attracted many to the tradition. As she lived in Rajasthan in first half
of her life and later moved to Vrindavan in the east and Dwaraka in the west, her name
was quiet famous within contemporary Bhakti circles.425 Mira Bai’s Bhakti was immersed
in Prema Lakshna (romantic approach) and Madura bhava (sweet mood).426
Among different documents stating birth duration of Mira’s life, scholars came
to a consensus that she was born in 1498. Mira bai felt herself as devoted and wedded to
Krishna idol that was gifted by a Sadhu.427 She had earned a love with Sri Krishna in her
early childhood itself since her mother replied Giridhara Gopala pointing to Krishna idol
for her childish question to identify her bridegroom.428 Getting fed up with the situation
in the palace and with atrocities from younger brothers of her deceased husband who
hated her ascetic life as queen, she left to Vrindavan the holy pilgrimage center of Krishna
devotees of the time. After staying there for a period of time with devotion and seeking
blessings from Krishna, she moved to Dwaraka where Sri Krishna had chosen as his
capital and it is said she had died there in her old ages. Some hagiographic accounts
describe that she had returned to Mewad the birth place and died there.429
425 Anantrai Raval, “Mira,” in Devotional Poets and Mystics (New Delhi: Publication Division; Ministry
of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1991), II, p. 17-20.
426 S.S Mehta, A Monograph on Mirabai the Saint of Mewad (Bombay, n.d.), p. 15.
427 Raval, “Mira.”, p. 17-18.
428 Bankey Behari, The Story of Mira Bai (Gorakhpur: Gita Press, 2009) , p. 5.
429 Raval, “Mira.” p. 17-20.
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Mira Bai was a Vaishnava devotee with Krishna as personal God naming him as
Giridhar whom she regards as play mate in first stage known as Vilasa and continues
devotion in different stages till she identifies herself as Radha the lover of Krishna in
Vaishnava mythology.430 Mira Bai’s intense devotion in the form of love to Krishna was
highlighted in her poems which attracted many. In her early days she spent in Rajasthan,
she had expressed her solitude and desperation of separation from him and her prayers to
join with him too. But in later days after her time spending in Vrindavan, she expresses
her bliss and joy to join with him, therefore she understands that her prayers were
granted.431
1.2.3.9 Surdas
Even though he was blind by birth, Surdas’s devotional poems had crossed the
boundaries influencing the bhaktas all over the region. His fame as a great singer of his
devotional poems attracted many towards him especially Vallabhacharya, a renowned
bhakta of the time, who listened him and requested to sing for Bhagavat lila (lord’s
creative play). He left behind 3 massive poetic compositions namely Sur-Saravali,
Sahitya-Lahari and Sur-sagar.432 He had also translated Bhagavat Purana to
Brajbhasha433 a vernacular language and two works namely Naladamayanti and Byahlo
are also ascribed to him.434 In the tradition, Surdas along with Tulsidas are considered as
translators; Tulsidas translating Sanskrit texts into Avadhi while Surdas to Brajbhasa.435
430 Ananth Nath Basu, Mirabai Saint And Singer of India (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1934),
p. 8.
431Raval, “Mira.” p. 20-23.
432 J.R Verma, “Surdas,” in Devotional Poets and Mystics (New Delhi: Publication Division; Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1991), II, p. 3.
433John Stratton Hawley, Three Bhakti Voices; Mirabai, Surdas and Kabir in Thier Time and Ours (Oxford;
New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 194.
434 Lala Sita Ram, Selections from Hindi Literature Book II; Krishna Cult of Vraja (Allahabad: University
of Culcutta, 1921) , p. 9.
435 Hawley, Three Bhakti Voices; Mirabai, Surdas and Kabir in Thier Time and Ours, p. 194.
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Evaluating different accounts on his mysterious life, it may safe to conclude that
he had born in 1483 in Siri Village in Delhi. As a blind, he wandered seeking truth and
illumination till he reached Vishram Ghat in Mathura in his age of 18. After Shifting from
there to Gau Ghat on the banks of Yamuna, he permanently settled in Vraj the famous
place which is believed as playground of child Krishna. He stayed there singing
devotional pomes that was spontaneously composed by him dedicating to Krishna, till he
dies there in 1584.436 Some historians report that Akbar (1605) had summoned him to his
court after hearing his poems and requested to sing for him too but Surdas had rejected
it.437 His famous work Sur Saravali which is said to be consisted of one lakh verses, was
composed based on analogy of Holi festival. In the work, he speaks about Krishna’s
creative play (Bhagavat lila) and his ecstasy connecting him with different incarnations
of God. Sahitya-Lahari, which consisted of 118 verses, is full of emotional contents
expressed in good merits of literature with Bhakti as main core of discussion. Sur-Sagar,
his masterpiece work, is an epitome of his life in Vraj and depicts the life of Krishna along
with explaining the methods of devotion to him with spirituality. He portrayed Krishna
in Sur-Sagar as sport loving friend saving his devotees from demons. His depiction of
Radha the love of Krishna is also noteworthy as he expressed her deep affection and
devotion even in the time of separation, in marvelous poetic form that attracted thousands
toward his poetry imbued with Bhakti.438
1.2.3.10 Tulsidas
Since he authored Ramcharitha manas as a great devotee of God Rama, his fame
in Bhakti tradition is unique. He had translated Ramayana the Sanskrit text to local
vernacular language of Awadhi, so he was hailed as reincarnation of Valmiki by many
traditionalists. Within two centuries after the death of Tulsidas, his text ‘Ramcharitha
436 Verma, “Surdas.” p. 2-3.
437 Hawley, Three Bhakti Voices; Mirabai, Surdas and Kabir in Thier Time and Ours, p. 183.
438 Verma, “Surdas.” p. 3-7.
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manas’ may had turned as holy scripture of Sanatins, in which devotional egalitarianism
was preached while maintaining the core of Sanatana Dharma.439
Based on researches and comparing different accounts, it may be concluded that
he was born to Brahmin couples in 1532 in Tari on the banks of Yamuna. Orphaned in
early ages, he was brought up through public charity and had married Ratnawali but their
son was also died in his infancy. Although he was settled in Banaras where he died in
1623, he had made some journeys to Lucknow, Chitrakut and Ayodhya where he finished
his magnum opus; Ramacharita manas. Beside Ramcharitha manas which is also known
as Tulsikrit Ramayana, there are many works attributed to him but very few of them are
historically valid. Contrary to what is popularly believed, Ramcharita manas is not exact
translation of Ramayana of Valmiki, but an independent work based on Ramayana of
Valmiki but also from other sources like Adhyatma Ramayana, Prasanna Raghava,
Bushundi Ramayana and Vasishta Samhita.440 Banaras rulers of the time promoted the
work in many methods supporting scholarships on the work and popularizing it. The
period from 1835 to 1839 is termed as golden age of Ramcharitha manas.441
Kavittawali text that glorifies again Rama and his powers to encourage devotees,
is another major work of Tulsidas. The language of the text is Awadhi but mixed with
Brajabhasha also. He had penned down lovely songs of God in Brajabhasha in another
book named as Gitavali. Another work in which author requests God’s protection by
expressing devotee’s intimate feelings and reverence, is named as Vinaya-pattrika which
means ‘petition’. Ramalalanahachu, composed by Tulsidas, is short poem that deals with
nail pairing ceremony of Rama. Vairagya Sandipini, Janki Mangal, Parvati Mangal,
439 Philp Lutgendorf, According to Tradition; Hagiographical Writing in India, ed. M. Callewart - Rupert
Snell (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1994), p. 79
440 Lala Sita Ram, Selections from Hindi Literature Book III Tulsidas (Allahabad: University of Culcutta,
1921), p. II-XII.
441 Lutgendorf, According to Tradition; Hagiographical Writing in India, p. 76.
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Ramajna, Krishna Gitawali and Dohawalli are some other historically proven works of
Tulsidas.442
1.2.3.11 Tukaram
Born in low caste and illiterate, Tukaram (d.1650) had attracted mass especially
in Maratha region through his marvelous devotional poems. In his poems with more than
thousand lines, Bhakti was highlighted.443 Even though historians suggest his birth date
in different years like 1568, 1577, 1608 and 1598, they had agreed 1650 as his death year.
Born in Puna in a poor family of Bolhoba and Janaki, his early life was miserable. He had
lost his parents, first wife and son before his age of 21 but in 1619, as tradition describes,
he was illuminated by Babaji Chaitanya.444 Then he memorized the poems of Bhakti
saints including Kabir.445 After illumination, he gave up his trade and started to sing
Kirtans in different temples in Puna and nearby regions. His devotional lines were
dedicated to his personal God; Vithoba of Pandharpur. His simple and sincere lines of
devotion spread throughout Maratha region inspiring all sects and classes of the society.
He inspired many poets and disciples from different corner of the society, so he is
considered as an all-time key figure of Bhakti in Maratha region. The great contribution
of Tukaram is his Gatha the collection of poems.446
Concentration of mind and heart on God, personal self-examination and selfsurrender
were three main highlighted points of Tukaram’s Bhakti. One different aspect
of Tukarm is his emphasis on practicing meditation together with other saints, moreover,
he had tried to place the obedience to saints as obedience to God itself.447 He used to
442 Sita Ram, Selections from Hindi Literature Book III Tulsidas, p. VIII-XIX.
443 Prabhakar Machwe, “Tukaram,” in Devotional Poets and Mystics Part II (New Delhi: Publication
Division; Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1921), II, p. 82.
444 Machwe. p. 83.
445 Nelson Fraser - J.F Edwards, The Life and Teaching of Tukaram (London: Probsthain, 1922) , p. 86
446 Machwe, “Tukaram.” p. 83-84.
447 Fraser - Edwards, The Life and Teaching of Tukaram, p. 227.
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criticize the paradoxical nature of some religious orators who don’t lead a pious life and
professional Kirtan singers.448 He rejected Advaita Vedanta as he thought that Advaita is
a form of pantheism in which human souls are also attributed with powers of God like
creation,449 but he believes that God is really present in the idols that worshipped. In spite
of these, he says that images or idols of God are not necessary and the true image of God
is his faithful people and hates mere idolatry with rituals and without spirituality. So, he
had rejected rituals that offer a medium between human and God since he believed he can
attain it through Bhakti. Surprisingly, his stand against caste system was mild and hadn’t
made any effective steps to oppose it, moreover he used to show much respect to
brahmins. 450
Tukaram proposes a path for salvation starting from repentance which will create
goodwill towards all creatures, with firm belief in God that he will save him. For him,
faith in God is all that enables him to reach God, enlightens from ignorance, makes him
sufficed and that controls God himself. The basis for this faith is Dan (Charity), Daman
(self-restraint) and Dharma (self-reverence). Desires for worldly life as well as learning
and philosophical discussions are the hindrances to the salvation, but he was against
complete renunciation in which duties are neglected, moreover he states that one can
enjoy the pleasures that comes from duties. Relegating the Jnana Marga, he states that
great recognition of religion is to hear God from heart. Starting from treating God as his
master, he develops as our friend then he starts to serve the servant till their
companionship turns to unity in which devotee feels God only in all of his actions. 451
To be precise, Tukaram had been considered as key figure in the history of
Bhakti in Maratha region as he had influenced large mass through his devotional poems.
448 Fraser - Edwards, The Life and Teaching of Tukaram, p. 144.
449 Fraser - Edwards, The Life and Teaching of Tukaram, p. 103.
450 Fraser - Edwards, The Life and Teaching of Tukaram, p. 151-160.
451 Fraser - Edwards, The Life and Teaching of Tukaram, p. 196-228.
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Even though he was illiterate, his fame and considering him as a respected saint shows
that how Bhakti had deeply influenced idea of religiosity itself.
1.3. Major Impacts of Bhakti
Bhakti period may roughly end in 18th century with advent of British to Indian
subcontinent as socio, cultural areas were deeply affected by British method of rule.
Before advent of them, Indian society were harmonious in nature, occasionally leading to
syncretic religion like Sikhism. Bhakti and Sufi traditions were well established in the
society and were mixed together especially with Kabir’s contributions. To keep their
foothold in India and establish their smooth administration, British evaluated these
cooperation and unity of both Muslims and Hindu a possible threat to them, so they
implemented divide and rule policy in India. Thus, they resorted to dividing method and
they were successful. It may be notable that even the term Hinduism was firstly used to
denote Sanadhana dharma in this epoch only. Even though development of Bhakti was
stopped in 18th century, its influence in Hinduism was much visible and explicit since it
transformed the religion from ritualistic one to a devotional one. It may be stated without
any hesitation that Bhakti had great role in eradicating Buddhism and Jainism from Indian
subcontinent. But Bhakti had engaged much with Islam influencing each other and
leading to the formation of a new syncretic religion; Sikhism. Another major impact of
Bhakti in Indian religious scenario is emergence of Lingayat as a new religion opposing
its classification as a sect within Hinduism. The highlighting aspect of these new religions
is evolvement from Bhakti saints namely Basavanna in the case of Lingayats and Guru
Nanak in the case of Sikhism.
1.3.1. Lingayat; a new religion within religion
Lingayats are ardent Siva devotees following the teachings of its founding father
Basavanna a Bhakti saint lived in twelfth century. The term ‘Lingayat’ means that one
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who wears Linga the sacred symbol of Shaivism,452 therefore each and every Lingayat
usually wear Linga in their necks. Since Basava and his colleagues were stubborn
opponents of brahmins and their ritualistic religion with social injustice, they tended to
proclaim their community as distinct and separate religion from Hinduism itself. But, in
general perspective, no one can identify them as a separate religion as they are ardent
devotees of Siva the God in Hinduism, yet they are also known as ‘Veerashaivas’ for their
intense devotion to Siva. Contrary to Hindu beliefs, they discouraged idol worship and
pantheism promoting Nirguna Bhakti and monotheism. Considering all these aspects, it
is better to identify Lingayts as a religion within religion. Nowadays, their strong
opposition against Hindutva political parties had brought enough attention to their
identity as a separate and distinct religion from Hinduism.
Even though Lingayat sect was historically regarded as followers of Basavanna,
tradition argues that the religion was founded by five prophets namely Ekoramaradhya,
Panditaradhya, Revanaradhya, Marularadhya and Vishwaradhya.453 When we trace
history we find that Basava had established Sivanubhava Mantapa where Siva devotees
from different parts of the region irrespective caste, profession or gender gathered there,
thus it gradually evolved to sect which later proclaimed as a distinct religion itself. Along
with Basava the founder, Allama Prabhu (12th century) is also notable figure in the
community and he was presided Sivanubhava Mantapa for a long time. They had
advocated for Siva monotheism based on rationalism and empiricism which is Bhakti the
salvation with experience (anubhava).454 Along with their opposition to brahmins and
inclusion of oppressed in their religious fold based on Bhakti, they also regarded women
saints too to their community and it is reported there were about 60 women saints in 300
hundred saints in its early stage, out of whom Akka Mahadevi was most famous. Sayings
of these saints after deep meditation expressing their experience of Bhakti and salvation
452 M.R Sakhare, History and Philosophy of Lingayat Religion (Belgaum: Mahavir, 1942), p. 6.
453 Sakhare, History and Philosophy of Lingayat Religion, p. 361.
454 Hunashal, The Lingayat Movement; a Social Revolution in Karnataka, p. 73-76.
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have great importance in the tradition since they are collected in ‘Vachanashastra’ and
regarded as sacred scripture of community.455
Even though Bhagavad-Gita is considered as basis of Bhakti in Hinduism,
Basava rejects Bhagavad-Gita as it is an orthodox Brahminic script which accepts
Varnashrama dharma.456 From monotheism to Bhakti as the basis of salvation, Lingayat
philosophy is analogous with Islamic principles in many aspects.457 Like almost religions
originated in Indian sub-continent had put forward their own theory of salvation,
identified as moksha in Hinduism or nirvana in Buddhism, Lingayats also explained their
perspective on salvation but these theories almost parallel flexing it to lines of their
religious philosophy. For Lingayats, the self-realization and salvation are attained through
Sathsthalas or six stages starting from Bhaktasthala (stage of devotion) and ending in
Aikyasthala (stage of union). These six stages are;
I. Bhaktasthala: the stage is marked by intense devotion but he always
follows his profession sincerely and offers his earnings to Guru-Linga-
Jangama (master, self and fellow creatures). Keeping this function
properly in this stage, he can develop his mind, virtues like affection and
tolerance, and enrich himself with experience (anubhava). Here he
should not discriminate people on the basis of caste, profession and color
and must attend inter-caste marriage and dinner.
II. Maheshasthala: The stage advocates devotee to firm his devotion on
Guru-Linga-Jangama in which he serves the society through writing,
teaching and preaching. He shouldn’t slaughter the goat for sacrifice, he
shouldn’t go on pilgrimages, he shouldn’t touch other’s property and
look lustfully at women.
455 Kumaraswamiji, Kumaraswamiji, The Veerashaiva Philosophy and Mysticism (Dharwar: V.R. Koppal,
1949), p. 1-2.
456 Hunashal, The Lingayat Movement; a Social Revolution in Karnataka, p. 174.
457 Hunashal, The Lingayat Movement; a Social Revolution in Karnataka, p. 192.
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III. Prasadisthala: Prasada is leftover of his presentation to Guru-Linga-
Jangama and he will eat it to attain the purity of mind.
IV. Pranalingasthala: If he was indulged in external affairs during previous
stages, here in this stage his mind must be devoted in internal affairs.
Here he attains Pranalinga through inner vision and it, when he
concentrates on Pranalinga, leads to peace, non-violence and truth. He
will also realize the Godhood in the lives of all creatures.
V. Sharanasthala: In the stage, Sharana (devotee) considers himself as wife
to Linga, thus he is very near to God and attains the bliss in the devotion
to Linga. Here he is unaware of his material existence.
VI. Aikyasthala: It is the stage where he unites and merges with God Siva
himself. His individual soul (Linga) is merges with universal soul
(Jungam) which is identical with Siva. Here he feels the omnipresence
of God and blissful silence free from all disturbances.458
Keeping their dynamic presence in social, cultural and economic spheres in
Karnataka, Lingayats continue to influence the people in Karnataka and they constitute
22 percent of Karnataka’s population.459 From its origin in 12th century, Lingayats had
engaged with different political powers and Hindu religious bodies in the region showing
vivid attitudes in the long stretch of history, often leading to formation of divisions within
the community like a group who called themselves as Veerashaivas and assimilated to
Hindu religion accepting Brahminic hegemony. Because of their antagonism towards
Brahmanism, Lingayats had kept their fight against brahmins of the region in educational,
political, religious and cultural scenarios throughout their history. In 1988, Lingayats
turned to organized body by arranging a large general meeting of followers called as
Sharanasammelana and fixed six points of religion: the Guru is Basava, collection of
Vachana is sacred literature, Istalinga is symbol of the religion, Kudalasangama is sacred
458 Hunashal, The Lingayat Movement; a Social Revolution in Karnataka, p. 82-85.
459 Di Tiziana Ripepi, The Feet of Jangam; Identity and Ritual Issues Among the Virasaivas of Karnataka
(N.6-Luglio: Kervan-Rivista Internationle di Studi Afroasiatici, 2007), p. 69.
133
place to where pilgrimages are offered, Basava flag with six pointed triangle is religious
flag and aim of the religion is edification of kingdom of Kalyana which is religious state
free from class and caste.460 Right from the date, Lingayats continue their efforts in much
organized way to establish their identity as an indigenous religion based on Basava’s and
colleagues’ teachings which are imbued with Bhakti tradition.
1.3.2. Sikhism
Sikhism is another major output of Bhakti tradition since the religion also
evolved around the teachings of another Bhakti saints; Guru Nanak. As Sikhism is a
religion based on Guru Nanak’s teachings who was influenced by Kabir, the religion is
syncretic which contains elements from both Islam and Hinduism. The term ‘Sikh’ means
‘learner’ and implies to the significance of learning from the teacher and ten Gurus
(religious teacher) in the tradition.461 Guru Nanak had established a tradition which
known as Sikh Dharma or Gurumat (path of Gurus) named after its spiritual teachers. In
the tradition, there are ten most important Gurus starting from Guru Nanak and ending
with Guru Gobind Singh who organized the religion in a systematic way. Other Gurus
are Angad (d.1552), Amardas (d.1574), Ramdas (d.1581), Arjundev (d.1606), Hargobind
(d.1644), Hari Rai (d.1661), Harikrishnan (d.1664) and Teg Bahadur (d.1675).462 All
sayings of Guru Nanak were collected by fifth Guru Arjundev in the collection known as
Shri Guru Granth Sahib which turned as sacred text of Sikhs. The collection includes
poems of other prominent Bhakti saints too like Kabir and Ravidas. In addition, the
collection also includes sayings (banis) of first five Gurus. Later, tenth and last Guru
Gobid singh (d.1708) added sayings of his previous Guru Teg Bahadur to the collection.
460 Ripepi, The Feet of Jangam; Identity and Ritual Issues Among the Virasaivas of Karnataka, p. 89.
461 Eleanor Nesbitt, A Guide to Sikhism (Oxford: University of Leeds, 2007), p. 2.
462 Maharishi Santsevi Ji Maharaj, Harmony of all Religions, trans. Veena Rani Howard (New Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidas Publishers, 2006), p. 265.
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Hymns of Granth Sahib which is in Gurmukhi language, are chanted daily in Gurdwaras
the place for worship of Sikhs, especially in Golden temple of Amritsar.463
Guru Nanak had propagated monotheism in which God is omniscient, timeless
and truth and had rejected polytheism since he was advocating for Nirguna Bhakti. He
urged his followers to keep brotherhood with all human beings following true path, to
serve the country and to be vigilant against enemies, and to chant name to true God by
meditation.464 Even though Guru Nanak had two sons, he didn’t regard them as
successors, instead he appointed his capable disciple Lehna, whom he named as Angad,
as successor. When Guru Nanak came to know the enmity of his sons towards Angad, he
prohibited them from the post of Guru whenever his disciples are alive, therefore Angad
chose his disciple Amardas as next Guru. Ramdas had succeeded as Guru after Amardas
and he was first one to appoint son as successor. But his son Arjundev, the fifth Guru,
was great saint and had collected Adi Granth the popular name of Sikhs’ sacred text.
During his tenure as Guru, Sikhism flourished in the Punjab region and Amritsar turned
as center of Sikhs465 since he established a Gurudwara there and installed volume of
scriptures there.466 The next Gurus like Hargobind, Hari Rai, Harikrishnan and Teg
Bahadur were members of same family either sons or first level kins.467
Guru Gobind Singh, the last guru, organized the community under the name of
Khalsa panth (pure path) and insisted followers to keep five sacred symbols of Sikhs
which are most visible identities of a Sikh nowadays. These five sacred symbols are; Kesh
the uncut hair and unshaven beard resembling ancient sages, Kangha the comb to groom
the hair and beard, Kacha a long underwear to represent energy, Kara a bracelet that
463 Santsevi Ji Maharaj, Harmony of All Religions, p. 290.
464 Santsevi Ji Maharaj, Harmony of All Religions, p. 291.
465 W.L M’gregor, The History of Sikhs (London: James Madden, 1846), p. 48-60.
466 Nesbitt, A Guide to Sikhism, p. 4.
467 M’gregor, The History of Sikhs, p. 60-68.
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symbolizes discipline and Kripan the sword for protection and self-defense.468 Along with
these symbols, he urged them to renounce four tenets; Brahminic authority, belief of
transmigration of souls, distinction on the basis of castes and trades. To be ideal for the
community, he took oath tying up his hair and changed his name to Singh, so he known
afterwards as Govid Singh. The title of ‘Guru’ was ceased with his death in 1708.469
Those who strictly follow these symbols are known as Khalsa Sikhs and they start their
religious initiation with sweet water (Amrit) like in baptism. According to Sikh tradition,
everyone is given end name of ‘Singh’, therefore they are identified with their names
itself. From their names to their dress including hair, Sikhs are vigilant in their identity
and expressing themselves in public. Due to their rigorous attention to their identities
they always tried to create their own nation, thus they had fought against Muslims, British
and even modern Indian government. Sikhs had established their own sovereign kingdom
which continued for 40 years from 1799 to 1839 under Maharaja Ranjit Singh (d.1839),
the period often termed as golden ages of Sikhs. Yet, they were successful to keep their
religious identity as it is and continue their presence in India especially in Punjab region
and in foreign countries too through their migrants.470
As Sikhism is centered around religious philosophy of Guru Nanak, it’s not a
surprise that crux of Sikh theology is Bhakti. According to Guru Nanak, highest aim of a
human being is God-realization which is achieved through experience only, so he rejected
rituals. He continues that one couldn’t achieve salvation with his efforts only but with the
grace of God too, yet his self-discipline with self-surrender to God and meditations he
can pave way for the grace. He was against customary rituals as well as self-torturing
asceticism, instead he advocated to lead normal life keeping his mind meditated in God
without indulging in material gains. While his monotheistic ideas are clear example of
Islam’s influence, his belief in Karma is indebted to Hinduism. When it comes to Bhakti,
he also advocated for Anuraga Bhakti in which devotee is dedicated to God as a lover.
468 Santsevi Ji Maharaj, Harmony of All Religions, p. 291-292.
469 M’gregor, The History of Sikhs, p. 75-104.
470 Nesbitt, A Guide to Sikhism, p. 4-7.
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His emotional dedication has close resemblance with Bhakti of Alvar poets. Another main
aspect of his Bhakti is his strong stand on Nirguna Bhakti in which one should devote to
attribute-less, unborn and un-incarnated God.471 In short, it is understood that Sikhism as
is a syncretic religion influenced from both Hinduism and Islam with Bhakti acting as
catalyst.
With advent of British, diminishing of Bhakti tradition is witnessed because
focus of Indian society gradually turned against British and their despotic rule exploiting
Indian people. Indian society engaged in agitations, rebellions and political movements;
therefore, development of religious traditions and philosophies came into halt. From its
origin in about 7th century through Alvars and Nayanmars the saint poets lived in south
India, Bhakti developed through Lingayats in Karnataka in twelfth century and other
devotional saints in different parts of the country, thus it reached to its zenith in Northern
India through Kabir, Tulsidas and other many saints. Bhakti’s engagements with Muslims
especially in northern India paved way for many syncretic religious traditions and
philosophies like Sikhism which later developed to Indigenous religion. Lingayats,
though they were ardent devotees of Siva, one of three major Gods in Hinduism, claims
as an independent religion as Sikhism. To a religion centered around philosophical
discussions about the nature and attributes of God and human beings that paved way for
6 accepted school with supremacy of Advaita Vedanta school due to the efforts of
Shankara, Bhakti enhanced mass appeal but with radical changes in the religion itself.
Right from Bhakti’s origin, philosophical discussions in Hinduism gave way to
devotional themes, thus it dominated Hindu religious course. With great impacts from
one millennia-long history of Bhakti, two new religions were emerged; Sikhism and
Lingayats.
Within religious scholars of Hinduism, different perspectives on Bhakti’s
relation with Hinduism are put forward with accommodating to Brahminic religious fold
of Hinduism and presenting as a radical religious movement. Historically speaking,
471 Gopal Singh, History of the Sikh People (New Delhi: World Book Center, 1939), p. 135-140.
137
Bhakti movement emerged in much visible way only through devotional poems of Alvars
and Nayanmars as we understood here. Yet we can also witness some reference about
Bhakti in Vedic scriptures of Hinduism but very minimal compared to its mammoth
collection of religious texts. As we discussed here historical origin and development of
Bhakti, let us discuss, in next chapter, its emergence in Hindu theology from sacred
scriptures to other major texts and poems that focus only on Bhakti.
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CHAPTER TWO
BHAKTI IN HINDU SCRIPTURES
In the last chapter, we had discussed extensively about historical emergence of
Bhakti movement and briefly about its historical development. We depicted pre-Bhakti
Hindu society as well as major impacts of Bhakti in the community paving way to two
new religions. In order to decode our research’s problem, the emergence of Bhakti
movement, we must also understand the origin or emergence of Bhakti in sacred texts of
Hinduism inspecting its mammoth collection of sacred scriptures and other works that
project Bhakti.
Even though sacred texts of Hinduism are constituted of vast literature, Bhakti
was mentioned hardly mentioned. Even though Bhakti was seldom mentioned In Veda
texts the basic sacred texts of Hinduism, some theologians had shown predetermined
attempts to refer Bhakti from these texts. S. Radhakrishnan (d.1975), most famous
modern Hindu theologian, had tried to trace back Bhakti-emphasized theism of
Vaishnavas and Bhagavatas to worship of Vedic God Varuna because of his
consciousness on sin and trust in forgiveness of Gods, so he lists some hymns from Vedas
that talk on sin and repentance472 but there is no mention of Bhakti in those hymns.
Hiriyanna (d.1950), a modern Hindu theologian, also feels that there is Bhakti in God
Varuna’s inspiration of worship.473 Besides, Radhakrishnan identifies Vedic God Indra
with Vasudeva of Bhagavatas and Vishnu of Vaishnavas, still there is no mention of
Bhakti regarding Indra also.474 He also tries to link Bhakti and its origin to doctrine of
Upasana (worshipping God by sitting) found in Brahmanas, Aranyakas and
Upanishads.475 Even there is a kind of contemplation in Upasana, but there is no
472 S. Radakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, (New York: Macmillan Company, 1929), p. 77-78.
473 Hiriyanna M.A, Outlines of Indian Philosophy (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1932), p. 112.
474 S. Radakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, p. 87.
475 S. Radakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, p. 559, 525.
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emotional approach or scope of love like in Bhakti. The attempt also may be percieved
as deliberate strive to bring back Bhakti to Vedic texts. Hiriyanna sees some sort of Bhakti
in emotional expression of ‘father’ in “Be to us easy of approach, even as a father to his
son: Agni, be with us for our weal (RgV. 1/1)”476 the very first hymn of Rigveda.477 These
kind of scholars notice the emotional part, which is very rare in vast hymns of Vedas, in
those Bhakti-linking verses.
In Upanishads, Shvetasvatara Upanishad is the text to mention it.478 It talks about
necessity of devotion not only to God but also to one’s Guru and says in the last hymn of
the text:
“These truths, when taught, shine forth only in that high-souled one who has supreme
devotion to God, and an equal degree of devotion to the spiritual teacher. They shine forth in that
high-souled one only (ShVt. 6/23).479
Even though ‘Bhakti’ term is found in the hymn, most of commentators
understands it only as a synonym of ‘belief’ without any appeal of love or devotion.
Hiriyanna sees devotion in Katha Upanishad as it reminds worshipper about need of
divine help to be saved, a doctrine found in Bhakti.480 In short, we hardly find Bhakti in
Vedas other than deliberate attempts made by some theologians. Likewise, there is only
one mention of Bhakti in Upanishads but not in full scope of ‘Bhakti’ that we discuss
here. But Bhagavad-Gita is the text that referred Bhakti very often and projected Bhakti
as a new way of salvation.
476 Ralph T.H Griffith, trans., Rig Veda (Benares: E.J Lazarus and Co., 1889), p. 2.
477 Hiriyanna M.A, Outlines of Indian Philosophy (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1932), p. 112.
478 Cemil Kutluturk, Hint Düşüncesinde İslam Algısı (Istanbul: Dergah Yayınları, 2019), p. 129, Sharma, A
Sourcebook of Classical Hindu Thought, p. 142.
479 Swami Tyagisananda, trans., Svetasvataropanishad (Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1949), p. 133.
480 Hiriyanna M.A, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, p. 112.
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2.1. Bhagavad-Gita
To apprehend the Bhakti’s position in Hinduism according to scriptures, we must
first understand the position of Bhagavad-Gita in Hindu doctrines as the text is first source
where Bhakti was comprehensively explained. Bhakti was not found very much in ancient
doctrines of Hinduism, though it was put forward in later texts and gained great
momentum throughout the common Hindus, and this makes research on Bhakti even
worthier. Sacred texts of Hinduism are large collection of Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranykas
and Upanishads that fall under the category of Shruti which means ‘revealed.’481 When it
comes to second category Smriti that are believed to be written by humans unlike Shruti,
it includes epics, legendries, stories and law books like Mahabharata and Ramayana,
Puranas, Dharmashastras and Manusmriti respectively. Even though Smritis are
subsidiary to Shrutis in terms of doctrinal authority in Hinduism, Smritis are more popular
and widely used than Shrutis because of easily memorable fluent expressions and, more
importantly, accessible by any sect of the Hindus unlike Vedas that are restricted to only
some casts. Ramayana and Mahabharata epics are some of the popular texts among
Hindus, which are thought to be written in first or second century after verbally
transferred in previous times.482
Mahabharata that presents enormous details stretching from beliefs to worship,
myths to philosophy of Hinduism, is seven time larger than Iliad and Odyssey of Homers.
It had enhanced to assimilate the metaphysical ideology and philosophy to public,
portraying it as a legendary especially the Bhagavad-Gita part had presented extensive
features of soul and its methods of salvation through Karma, Jnana and Bhakti yoga, thus
it had secured strong base among normal Hindus and it’s like most referred and depended
sacred text of Hinduism because of its popularity.483 Bhagavad-Gita constitutes of 18
chapters from 25 to 42 of Bhishmaparvan, the sixth part of Mahabharata and consists 7
481 Yıtık, Doğu Dinleri (Eastern Religions), p. 49.
482 Yıtık, Doğu Dinleri (Eastern Religions), p. 63.
483 Yıtık, Doğu Dinleri (Eastern Religions), p. 64.
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hundred verses484 and later it was turned to an independent text. Arguments on the
author/s of Bhagavad-Gita is varied, from those who argue that it was penned down by
different authors or one author named Vyasa, but the view that at least the core of text
was written by a single author namely Vyasa485 a Hindu scholar, had widely accepted.486
There are different opinions on the period of Bhagavat-Gita’s compilation while some
argue the text is pre-Buddhist while others like K.M. Sen (d.1960) defend that it is much
later and it was compiled between 400 and 200 BCE.487 Another famous Indologist Axel
Michaels place it as a text that completed in the second century CE.488 In short, even
though traditionalists argue its primitivity as long as 8th century BCE, historians place it a
later period between 4th century BCE at earliest and second century at latest.
Bhagavad-Gita is poetic expressions of dialogue between the epic hero Arjuna
and his charioteer, the God Krishna, which takes place before the disastrous 18-day battle
narrated in Mahabharata epic to be begun. The dialogue between these two heroes Arjuna
and Krishna, is embedded in a framed dialogue, in which the patriarch of the two opposed
branches of Bharata clan fight each other. The blind king Dhrtarastra and his bard
Samajya, are the interlocutors.489 The main theme of Mahabharata revolves around the
throne battle between Kauravas and Pandavas, while lots of Hindu philosophical details,
moral teachings and myths that related to theme directly or indirectly had recorded in the
484 Korhan Kaya, trans., Bhagavatgita; Hinduların kutsal kitabı (Ankara: Dost Kitabevi yayınları, 2001),
p. 10.
485 According to Hindu philosophy, Vyasa is a generic term given to human forms who were selected by
God to compose scriptures. For more details, refer R. Rangachari, “Veda Vyasa,” in Valmiki and Vyasa
(New Delhi: Publication Division; Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 2012),
p. 33.
486 Ömer Cemal Güngören, trans., Bhagavatgita; Tanrının Şarkısı (Istanbul: Yol yayınları, 2001), p. 12.
487 K.M. Sen, Hinduism (New York: Penguin Books, 1976), p. 146.
488 Axel Michaels, Hinduism Past and Present (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2004),
p. 59.
489 Angelika Malinar, “Bhagavatgita,” Brill’s Encylopedia of Hinduism, ed. Knut. A Jacobson, (Leiden,
BRILL, 2010), p. 95.
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text.490 Arjuna, one of five Pandava brothers who represent the right and Dharma
(righteousness) as per Hindu philosophy, refuses to fight against Kauravas who are
relatives of Pandava, pointing that no sense to secure the throne by shedding the blood of
his kin and thinks to live a mendicant’s life. As Bhagavad-Gita literally means ‘song of
the venerated one’, the term ‘gita’ gained significance as a song or recitation instructed
by a divine being, a God or Goddess, thus the Bhagavad-Gita prototyped so called Gita
literature.491
The Bhagavad-Gita begins with the deployment of two families Pandavas and
Kauravas but from same clan in the battlefield of Kurukshetra, often termed as
Dharmakshetra (field of Dharma) in Hindu philosophy and it continues as king
Dhrtarashtra asks his bard what happened next. Then it focuses on Arjuna, one of Pandava
brothers, and his conversation with his charioteer Krishna, the incarnation of God as
believed by Hindus especially followers of Bhakti, since he was in dilemma to fight with
his family as Kuladharma (law of family) and Kshatriyadharma (law of warrior)
confronted. Chapter one ends by portraying Arjuna sitting on his chariot with the verse
“his heart immersed in grief”.492
Second chapter starts with Arjuna’s request to Krishna to solve the dilemma and
discussion on the reasons for this dilemma of Arjuna, and Krishna identifies desire and
attachment as reasons. Second- and third-chapters’ discussion revolves around the
attitude toward action and duty that was exhibited by Arjuna as a follower of Veda and
these chapters try to demonstrate the necessity of change in the attitude. While the
chapters 4 and 5 deal with explaining Karma Marga the doctrine of ritual and social
duties, chapters 6 along with 5, discuss more technical exposition of Karma Marga as a
pathway to moksha. Sixth chapter begins with teaching that those who are practicing
Karma Marga are entered the preparatory step to attain the liberation and it ends with
490 Güngören, Bhagavatgita; Tanrının Şarkısı, p. 14.
491 Malinar, “Bhagavatgita.”, p. 96.
492 Malinar., p. 96.
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demonstrating the omnipresent divinity of Krishna the God in the verse “He who is
devoted to me as abiding in all beings (BhG. 6.30-31)”493 which seen as doorstep to
unfold Bhakti the quintessence of chapters 7 to 12.494 In broad evaluation of contents in
Bhagavat-Gita, 1 to 6 chapters are discussed on Karma Marga, 7 to 12 are dedicated to
Bhakti Marga, on which we will discuss later deeply, and 12-18 are focused on Jnana
Marga (method of knowledge).495 Even though chapters 12 to 18 are loosely connected
with each other, it clarify the ideas and doubts that mentioned in previous chapters
strengthening it with philosophical approach such as concepts of Samkhya philosophy
(ch.13), the relationship between Krishna and Brahman (ch.14), the depiction of Krishna
as ‘supreme divine person’ (ch.15), the nature and punishment of demonic creatures
(ch.16), correct ritual method (ch.17), relationship between renunciation and
relinquishment (ch.18).496 Some theologians argue that, despite the fact that Bhagavad-
Gita had mentioned each of three methods namely Karma, Bhakti and Jnana, it may be
understood that the core teaching of the text is Bhakti Marga as the text concludes with
verses:
“Abandon all varieties of religion, surrender unto Me. I will liberate you from all kinds
of sins, so do not despair, one who recounts the glories of this most hidden of all hidden treasures
to My devotees – such a person, attaining supreme devotion for Me, will reach Me without a
doubt (BhG. 18/ 66, 68).” 497 that endorses Bhakti itself.
As it was necessary to learn the sacred texts for attaining moksha through the
paths of Karma and Jnana, women and the lower castes couldn’t attain the liberation since
these texts were forbidden to be studied and recited by them, thus those people were
493 Swami Prabhupada, trans., Bhagavad-gita as it is: complete edition: with original Sanskrit text, Roman
transliteration and elaborate purports. (New York: Collier Books, 1973), p. 338-340.
494 Malinar, “Bhagavatgita.” p. 96-98.
495 Bhagavatgita; Tanrının şarkısı, tr. Ömer Cemal Güngören, p. 212.
496 Malinar, “Bhagavatgita.”p. 96-98.
497 Swami Prabhupada, trans., Srimad Bhagavad-Gita Güzel Tanrı’nın gizli hazinesi = The Hidden treasure
of the sweet absolute. (Batı Bengal: Saraswata Yayınları, 2005), p. 491-493.
144
marginalized from attaining moksha. In this context, the teachings of Bhagavat-Gita were
much worthful when it put forward Bhakti Marga the path of devotion, to attain the
liberation. Understanding the importance of Bhagavad-Gita and its influence throughout
the Hindus, most of Hindu scholars had commented on Bhagavad-Gita but in order to
rectify or endorse the ideas or visions that they already struck with, which led to different
perspectives about the teachings of Bhagavad-Gita. Citing Bhagavad-Gita, many of these
commentators have argued that three Margas namely Karma, Jnana and Bhakti are
interconnected while some others defended that all three are distinct ways to reach
moksha, thus, those who advocate Bhakti as distinct path towards moksha had valorized
Bhagavad-Gita and backed the idea that Bhakti is complete and comprehensive in itself,
even without necessary knowledge, asceticism or prescribed rituals.498 Bhagavad-Gita’s
teachings are so inclusive since it offers moksha through Bhakti even for those who are
sin as cited in “even if one commits the most abominable actions, if he is engaged in
devotional service, he is to be considered saintly because he is properly situated” (BhG.
9/30),499 and when Krishna, God in Bhagavad-Gita, made his promise to Arjuna that if
anyone surrenders to him, he will forgive that person of all sins.500 In order to perceive
the ideas and teachings of Bhagavad-Gita regarding Bhakti clearly, important clauses in
Bhagavad-Gita is given down with explanation where needed.
The verse “If one offers Me with love and devotion a leaf, a flower, fruit or water,
I will accept it (BhG. 9/26)”501 which teaches that any kind of offering, be it silly as a
leaf, will be accepted because of devotion and love, is a clear example on how teachings
of Bhagavat-Gita or Bhakti is different from the concept and practices prevalent in Vedic
society of Hinduism which applied lots of harsh conditions to present an offering. In early
periods of Hinduism, or Veda religion as suggested by some researchers, there were hard
conditions that needed more resources like animal, rice and milk etc. in the presence of
498 Narayanan, “Bhakti.” p. 711.
499 Prabhupada, Bhagavad-gita as it is, p. 483.
500 Narayanan, “Bhakti.” p. 711.
501 Prabhupada, Bhagavad-gita as it is, p. 478.
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numerous priests, to complete Yajna the Hindu tradition of presenting an offering to God,
which made poor and low cast people unable to offer it, thus they were restricted from
attaining moksha the liberation. Yajna turned to a ritual that may long from two days to
12 years as in some cases, to be organized as instructed in Brahmana, reciting the mantras
in particular accent assigned to that specific ritual without giving any chance of minute
faults as it may spoil the deed itself, thus, Karma Marga of liberation turned to a ritualistic
path.502 It may be perceived that condition of offering should be in considerable size is
abolished by acceptance of even a leaf or flower as offering, while the condition of to be
arranged by priests is rejected by acceptance of offerings that presented by love and
devotion. This clause also proves that Bhagavad-Gita keeps Bhakti Marga parallel to
Karma and Jnana Marga not as interconnected.
As the verse “O son of Kunti, all that you do, all that you eat, all that you offer
and give away, as well as all austerities that you may perform, should be done as an
offering to me (BhG. 9/27)”503 explained that even things that anyone eat or acts that
performed, may be considered as an offering, it brings Yajna even more easily accessible
for each and everyone. In other words, the clause underlines the importance of Bhakti
since anything that offered with devotion and love from the deep heart will be considered
as a Yajna without looking to its size or material value. The next verse “In this way you
will be freed from all reactions to good and evil deeds, and by this principle of
renunciation you will be liberated and come to me (BhG. 9/28)”504 explicitly offers
moksha if you follow the way prescribed in earlier clauses that validates Bhakti the path
of dedication and love as an authentic way for the liberation.
The very next teaching of Bhagavad-Gita brings a decisive change in notion that
may be perceived as turning point in theology of Hindu religion itself as Bhagavad-Gita
says “I am the same to all beings, and my love is ever the same; but those who worship
502 S.N. Dasgupta, Hindu Mysticism (New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1959), p. 4-7.
503 Prabhupada, Bhagavad-gita as it is, p. 480.
504 Prabhupada, Bhagavad-gita as it is, p. 481.
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me with devotion, they are in me and I am in them (BhG. 9/29).”505 Vedic period
Hinduism was struck to the idea of Varnashrama dharma in which all the believers were
divided into hierarchical four casts namely Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra
where upper cast were enjoying most while low classes were oppressed and even
prohibited to liberation, and those who comes against the Varnashrama dharma were
considered as lowest category. When we come to comparative religion studies,
Varnashrama dharma may be the most apparent characteristic of Hinduism as it clearly
lacks the vision and mission put forward normally by the religions. But Bhagavad-Gita
clearly rejects the idea of Varnashrama dharma through the verse and it may be the reason
for its widespread acceptance regardless of its low hierarchical position among the sacred
texts of Hinduism. Teachings of Bhagavad-Gita that God is equal to all and he is not
partial to anyone, counter the idea of Varnashrama dharma that restricts liberation, sacred
texts and many more to some casts only and the clause also suggest Bhakti as path of
liberation for all while Karma and Jnana Marga were limited to some casts only.
The clause “O son of partha, those who take shelter in Me, though they be of
lower birth –women, Vaishyas as well as Shudras can approach the supreme destination
(BhG. 9/32)”506 clearly and evidently offers liberation to Vaishyas, Shudras and women,
the classes who were unable and prohibited to attain moksha the liberation if they seek
refuge in him. Counting Vaishyas and Shudras soon after declaring that all are equal to
God, Bhagavad-Gita puts forward a new and challenging vision in Hinduism destroying
the Varnashrama law. Mentioning women along with low cast people directs us to think
that women also barred from attaining the liberation and it may be the reason for women
poets’ active presence in diffusion of Bhakti.
Another clause in Bhagavad-Gita offers the liberation even for culprits through
Bhakti, the teaching that was strange to Hindu belief system prevailed in Vedic period
which considers evils as blockade towards liberation and Bhagavad-Gita says “Even if
505 Juan Mascaro, trans., The Bhagavad Gita (London: Rider and Company, 1970), p. 88.
506 Prabhupada, Bhagavad-gita as it is, p. 486.
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one committed the most abominable actions, if he is engaged in devotional service, he is
to be considered saintly because he is properly situated (BhG. 9/30).”507 In the clause
also, Bhakti is the reason for considering even the culprits as the saints, thus Bhakti
enlarges the liberation to each and every one of believers regardless of caste, creed and
status, and it may be the one of key points that made Bhakti tradition accepted throughout
the Hindu believers. The next clause “And he shall soon become pure and reach
everlasting peace. For this is my word of promise, that he who loves me shall not perish
(BhG. 9/31)”508 describes how a culprit becomes saint. The clause also challenges the
notion in Vedic period that who commits any evil must go with lots of ritual to combat
that sin including offerings but Bhakti offers the same through only devotion.
With these teachings of Bhagavad-Gita, there happened a drastic change in
beliefs about liberation since it put forward the Bhakti as path to liberation along with
Karma and Jnana Margas. While liberation through both Karma and Jnana were
accessible for upper castes only as it was believed in Vedic period, Bhagavat-Gita made
the liberation open for all through Bhakti that teaches it could be attained through
devotion and pure love towards God. The transition in the ideology encourages the
research on origin of Bhakti and any possible inner or outer influence behind this
transition.
Soon after denoting low casts, the next clause talks on upper casts Brahman and
Kshatriya as in “How much greater are Brahmanas the righteous, the devotees and saintly
kings who in this temporary miserable world engage in loving service unto me (BhG.
9/33).”509 Here in the clause, Bhagavad-Gita teaches that upper caste people are also
working to be with me through love and devotion. Another attracting point in the verse is
507 Prabhupada, Bhagavad-gita as it is, p. 483.
508 Mascaro, The Bhagavad Gita, p. 89.
509 Prabhupada, Bhagavad-gita as it is, p. 488.
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counting devotees along with Brahmanas the upper caste and saintly kings, thus it lifts
the position of devotees to the status of other two.
After suggesting Bhakti as a path for liberation and open to all, Bhagavad-Gita
describes how to perform Bhakti and speaks
“Give me your heart, be dedicated to me in devotional service, and be absorbed in my
worship. Offer prostrate obeisance unto Me alone. In this way, with mind and body dedicated in
My service, taking full refuge in Me, you will certainly reach Me (BhG. 9/34).”510
Keeping mind always in God with worshiping him will lead him to absorb in
God, thus the devotee is liberated from Samsara circle. The clauses in next chapter of
Bhagavat-Gita,
“The thoughts of my pure devotee dwell in Me, their lives are surrendered to Me, and
they derive great satisfaction and bliss enlightening one another and conversing about me. To
those who are constantly devoted and worship me with love, I give the understanding by which
they can come to me (BhG. 10/9,10)”511
offer the realization or knowing God as in Jnana Marga through Bhakti itself,
thus Bhakti also replaces the Jnana Marga that requires the deep knowledge gained from
sacred texts mainly from Vedas and Upanishads. The last clauses of eleventh chapter
summarizes the teachings of the chapter and speaks:
“My dear Arjuna, only by undivided devotional service can I be understood as I am,
standing before you, and can thus be seen directly. Only in this way can you enter into the
mysteries of My understanding. My dear Arjuna, one who is engaged in My pure devotional
510 Prabhupada, Srimad Bhagavad-Gita Güzel Tanrı’nın gizli hazinesi = The Hidden treasure of the sweet
absolute, p. 263.
511 Prabhupada, Bhagavad-gita as it is, p. 505-507.
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service, free from the contaminations of previous activities and from mental speculation, who is
friendly of every living entity, certainly comes to Me (BhG. 10/54,55).”512
Here in these verses, Bhakti is promoted as sole path to understand him and his
mysteries, thus it neglects Jnana Marga that was mainly attributed to know the God and
get liberated, and mentioning “who is friendly to every living entity” as one of
characteristic of pure devotee, creates a new wave in Hindu theology that was imbued
with derogatory approach towards low class human beings.
When all teachings of Bhagavat-Gita are evaluated, it may be wrong to conclude
that the path of devotion (Bhakti) is sole path to salvation even it attributes so in the
portion where Bhakti was discussed. Saints and scholars had tried to prefer one over other
according to their religious philosophies but none of them can singly be regarded as
sufficient one nor can any one of them isolated permanently from other since these three
paths of Jnana, Karma and Bhakti are mutually dependent.513 Yet it is a truth that
Bhagavat-Gita is the first text to present Bhakti as an authentic path of salvation after
Karma and Jnana which are supported by Vedas and Upanishads respectively. The allembracing
teachings of Bhagavat-Gita that focused mainly on Bhakti the path of devotion
towards liberation, certainly acted as energy force to develop a new trend in in Hinduism
itself, therefore many theologists and scholars showcases Bhagavat-Gita as the source of
Bhakti. But, most importantly, Bhagavat-Gita hadn’t ignited a movement soon after the
emergence of the text and it existed as a part of great Purana or Itihasa among mammoth
collection of Hindu sacred scriptures. Philosophical discussions and debates continued
even after its emergence producing new Astika sects and texts. So, it may be not unfair
to understand that only after the emergence of Alvars and Nayanmars and their poetries
with Bhakti, Bhagavat-Gita could secure some importance since the text was first one to
present Bhakti as a path of moksha.
512 Prabhupada, Bhagavad-gita as it is, p. 588-591.
513 I.C. Sharma, Ethical Philosophies of India, ed. Stanley M. Daugert (New York and Evanston: Harper
Torchbooks, 1970), p. 266.
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2.2. Nalayira Divya Prabandham
As we already discussed in first chapter, Nalayira Divya Prabandham (divine
collection of four thousand hymns) was compiled by 12 poet saints known as Alvars
dedicating to God Vishnu and is considered as fifth Veda by some sect of Vaishnavas.
Since we had discussed elaborately in the first chapter about the collection, here we try
to trace the Bhakti in their hymns.
As famous historian Hooper (d.1947) rightly said, the position of Alvar’s work
lies in between Bhagavat-Gita and Ramanuja as Bhagavat-Gita is textual source of Bhakti
and Ramanuja is first one to philosophically present Bhakti as a path of salvation.514
Therefore some historians mention him as first one to introduce Bhakti. Historians who
studied the collection had agreed on the contribution of the text in the historical origin of
Bhakti movement.515 K.C. Varadachari (d.1971), another historian to research Alvars,
holds the view that Alvars along with Nayanmars gave impetus to Bhakti tradition in
south, thus it moved upward to North India where it flourished through various sects. He
continues that deep devotion through love of personal God is explicit in whole text of
Alvars expressed in awe, wonder and faith through songs and poems.516 Another famous
historian, S.M.S Chari to research about Vaishnava saints of South India, also accepts
that Alvars heralded the significant movement of devotion i.e. Bhakti movement and
propounded a tradition which later systematically developed by Acharyas like
Nathamuni, Yamuna and Ramanuja.517 N. Subbu Reddiar (d.2006), who did an extensive
research on Nalayira Divya Prabandham, states that Alvars introduced God-experiencing
spirituality through devotion in which intellect is overwhelmed by emotions and they are
514 J.S.M Hooper, Hymns of Alvars (Culcutta: Association Press, 1929), p. 6.
515 Hooper, Hymns of Alvars, p.18.
516 K.C Varadachari, Alvars of South India (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1966), p. IX-XIII.
517 S. M. Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and theistic mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, 1st ed (Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, 1997), p. IX.
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either originators or premier proponents of devotional spirituality.518 In light of these
scholars’ works, we understand Bhakti movement had been emerged through Alvars
along with Nayanmars and the fact is accepted by almost authors researched on subject
since they couldn’t trace any movements or works that propose Bhakti solely before them.
Yet, it may be wrong if we didn’t recognize that origin of Bhakti as an ideology is owed
to Bhagavat-Gita but it hadn’t ignited or gave impetus to any movement that proposes
Bhakti only soon after its emergence.
Nalayira Divya Prabandham (four thousand divine treatise), which was codified
by Nathamuni in ninth or tenth century, was a continuance of anthological tradition of
Sangam poets who were nomad poets in south India. When earlier poets gave a little
attention to subject matters while giving importance on accuracy and literature of
language, Nalayira Prabandham along with Tirumurai focused only on subject which
was primary while language was secondary. Talking only around the Bhakti, the subject
matter of these two collections, was paramount in these two collections. Moreover, these
two collections were regarded as equivalent to Vedas by their followers, later these
anthologies turned to book of daily ‘Parayanam’ (holy recitations) in temples and homes
across the region.519
First three Alvars namely Poygai, Puttatalvar and Peyalvar in their Mutal
Tiruvantadi, Irantam Tiruvantadi and Munram Tiruvantadi respectively, start their poems
glorifying their Gods and projecting him as the savior of all beings with his mercy.
Tirumalsai goes further by speaking the greatness of the devotees of devotees and stating
that their devotion is greater than the devotion to God. With his intense Bhakti and
518 N. Subbu Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with special reference to Nammalvar
(Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara University, 1977), p. 198.
519 N. Subbu Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with special reference to Nammalvar
(Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara University, 1977), p. 195-197.
152
preaching of Vishnu-Bhakti in the region he was known as Bhaktisara (essence of
Bhakti).520
Thiruppallandu of Periyalvar is first work of Nalayira Divya Prabandham which
starts with praising God in its first hymns and vowing to be never apart from him and his
devotees. Along with Thiruppallandu, Periyalvar’s Thirumozhi that succeeds the former
combine first 473 hymns of Divya Prabandham. In the third hymn, Periyalvar addresses
worshippers as devotees and instruct them to carry flowers for festivals of God while
threatening them that they will not consider as devotee if their concern is food. In fourth
hymn itself, he reminds that devotee doesn’t need to think Him or go searching Him if he
realizes that his soul itself is God. By this statement, he undermines the necessity of
knowledge (Jnana) and rituals (Karma) to understand or reach God but the realization by
placing Him in the heart is enough to be with him. Since the recitation of His names
continuously is method to develop Bhakti, he calls others to give up other ways and to
recite his name thousand times. He repeats this call at the end of every sub-section of the
work promising moksha, prosperity and rescue from troubles. In the end of section named
as Sengeeraip Parvam, he offers closeness with God for the devotees who recite the ten
hymns of Tiruppallandu and says:
“Those devotees who think that this is the auspicious time to recite this work of
Visnhuchittar of Sri Villiputtur-composed with great love and devotion- wishing many, many
years to the Lord of Paramapada, who weilds the bow called Charnga, will always be close to the
Lord, chanting ‘salutations to Lord Narayana’ and will sing aloud that may Lord be blessed with
many, many years (NlDvPb. 1/1/12).”521
The work is dedicated in glorifying Vishnu and his avatar Rama by describing
his greatness and his fond of his devotee rescuing them from hazards and Asurans (evil
devils). He is so close to devotees as devotees call him, he comes in front of them. In
520 Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nalayiram with Special Reference to Nammalvar, p. 215-221.
521 Periyalvar, Tiruppallandu, ed. N.S. Iyengar, trans. M.A.N. Prasad (Bangalore: Palahalli Narayana
Iyengar, 2002), p. 39.
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nutshell, the work, as whole Nalayira Prabandham, sings the glories of God and his
relation with devotees, and inspires everyone to recite these hymns in order to develop
Bhakti towards him.522
In a sub-section of work titled as ‘Devotees search God’, poet instructs to those
devotees who search God, to go to the people who already saw him. Thus, he points out
the importance of devotees and devotion to those devotees too. In every hymn of the
section, God’s greatness and glory as the savior of humankind were highlighted. In the
last hymn of the section, he assures that each one recites the ten hymns of the section and
praise him within their hearts, he will reach the feet of highest God. Therefore, a fullhearted
Bhakti to God with reciting hymns of his glories will lead to God. In another subsection
titled as ‘Advising the people to worship God before the time of their death’, he
offers liberation to one makes his heart as temple, places his God there and sprinkles his
love as flowers. The hymn is clear evidence of proposing Bhakti as a path of moksha
without any need of Karma or Jnana, where a whole-hearted devotion is enough for
liberation. Likewise, he also offers rescue and liberation with one mantra praising the
God and with full devotion before their death. Similarly, anyone who is near to his death,
thinks in his heart about God can achieve anything he wants. In the next hymn, it states
that the one who is trapped with evil devils can reach heaven if he recites in his heart
faultlessly ‘O Madhusudana (God), you are my king and I am your slave.’ It is also the
case of one who thinks himself as the devotee of God and perceives God as his relative.
In the end of the section, he summarizes that each one who ask refuge in God and becomes
his devotee before evil devils come and take him in the end of life, can reach God and if
anyone learn and recite these hymns, surely, he becomes his devotee who thinks only
him, thus reciting these hymns with devotion is enough for liberation.523
522 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand (Chennai: Divya Prabandha Pahshala,
2000), p. 2-3.
523 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 3-5.
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The bond and fond of God towards his devotees are described in a hymn that
even if Lakshmi the consort of God complains about his devotees, he will answer that his
devotees will not do wrong and even if they do there must be a good reason. The mutual
bond and fondness are great and impressive in the path of devotion unlike others. In the
next section, devotee describes how to protect his body from diseases and says his heart
and body is abode of God too, therefore he calls disease to stay away from him. Devotee
made God enter his mind and kept him there with love, so there is nothing in his mind
other than God and his body is divine temple. Because of these reasons, he instructs
disease to go away from him. In the succeeding section, as God himself entered his heart
and he was released from sufferings, he requests God to not leave his heart, and says he
will not allow Him to leave. Since he was freed from sufferings, he wants God stayed in
his heart forever, thus he can be free from sickness of birth or Samsara and liberated
forever. In the last section of second work in Divya Prabandham, poet says that God’s
entrance in his heart made him alive and his heart melts down and tears fill his eyes when
he thinks him. And only thinking him is enough for him for his sorrows to get
disappeared. As we witnessed in the first two works, attributed to Periyalvar, the path of
Bhakti which is developed by reciting these God-praising hymns, was highlighted and set
as path towards liberation.524
After two works of Periyalvar that comprised first 473 hymns, Tiruppavai of
Andal with 30 hymns comes next. Dubbed as ‘(spiritual) song of songs’, Tiruppavai is
held in high esteem by Vaishnava bhaktas especially for those women who follows
religious rite of Vrata to secure their desired husbands. While normal women observe the
rite for normal human beings as husbands, Andal observed it to secure Krishna as
husband, therefore she refused to be married to anyone. To express her utmost love with
God and her vows to mystically unite with God, she penned down this short poem which
carries deeper spiritual characters as explained by Vaishnava Acharyas.525 She notes
524 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 5-92.
525 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 24-25.
155
down her preparations to gain Krishna as husband with seeking help from divine mother
Katyayani for whom the religious rite was observed, at the end of the work.526 By
choosing a mystical union with God instead of normal marriages, Andal intends to attain
moksha but with a path of love and devotion, therefore her heart and mind are fully
concentrated only on Krishna. In the sixteenth hymn, she insists for absolute surrender in
which one should depend and seek refuge and enjoyment in him only. This true physical,
mental and spiritual surrender of virgin girls to God leads to bridal mysticism which was
introduced by Andal through the hymns of Tiruppavai.527
Nacciyar Tirumoli of Andal again succeeds Tiruppavai, yet the content of
Nacciyar Tirumoli is similiar or enlarged version of Tiruppavai with 143 hymns. Andal
expresses her various stages of experience with God like love, desperation, anxiety and
even anger against God in the case of no-response from Krishna, and her soul’s absolute
surrender to God to earn his grace.528 Her journey from a noraml girl untill she becomes
Andal, one who has attained God as her husband, through love and devotion is described
in the work.529 She says in one of the hymns in the work that she survives only by singing
praising and devotional songs of God since she lost her beauty, wealth, mind and sleep
due to desperation caused by no-response from God. She also assures that anyone who
learns these hymns and keeps in mind will become God’s devotees.530
After Nacciyar Thirumoli, Perumal Thirumozhi of Kulasekara with 105 hymns
comes next in Divya Prabandham. Even though he was king he abdicated throne and lived
a life of Vishnu bhakta as he witnessed the happiness of true devotees around him whom
he describes as those people who call, sing, dance and only think the God. He also
526 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 92-102.
527 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p.134-137.
528 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p.25.
529 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p.139.
530 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 102-128.
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advocates for service to God’s devotees (Bhagavata-Kainkarya)531 and he adds the
worshipping the dust of God’s devotees’ feet along with singing and thinking God. He
continues that he is ready to put the dust beneath their feet on his head as he sees the tears
of devotee flow thinking only God. Kulasekara thinks him as a wife, patient, father and
slave of God and only submitted to him whom he seeks refuge. He states that his heart
melts for God’s endless grace and looks only for him. After expressing his efforts to unite
and see God, he finally describes his joy when he met and united with him. As in the case
of other works of Divya Prabandham, he assures, in the end of every section with ten or
eleven hymns, heaven and escape from hell and troubles for anyone who recites theses
ten hymns.532 In short, Kulasekara had expressed, in the work, his mystical experience
with God through devotion to him and his devotees.
Thiruchanda Virutham of Tirumalsai, which considered as one of main
philosophical poem of the work, comes after Perumal Tirumozhi and deals with cosmic
categories, therefore, it needs to a commentary to be understood completely.533 In second
hymn itself, he mentions three kinds of devotion; devotion for God, devotion that gives
knowledge to know God and highest devotion that gives moksha. In the beginning of the
work, God is praised in all ways as he is absolute power, creator, source of energy,
strength and knowledge. Tirumalsai says that he hadn’t forgotten him since he was born
because God stands, sits and rests in his heart. He asserts in one hymn that only those
people who do good meditation thinking only God and contemplates continuously about
the nature of God, will go to heaven. Yet, they should control feelings, melt their bones
and hearts for him, and love him along with reciting mantra of his name. He continues
that no one can attain the moksha except those devotees. Another notable point in his
hymn is that he seeks refuge in the God after saying that he was not born in any of Varnas
and doesn’t recite Vedas. He asks for his grace and to make him His devotee, so he can
devote only Him forever. In the end of work, he describes his joy of Moksha as the God
531 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 27.
532 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 128-151.
533 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p.47.
157
entered his heart and his soul was released from all pains because of his uninterrupted
devotion night and day, morning and evening.534
Tirumalai of Tondaradippodi Alvar with 45 hymns comes next in Divya
Prabandham, in which he describes character of humans towards worldly pleasure and
ways to overcome these obstacles in the path of attaining God. He also explains the
importance of reciting God’s names to wipe out the sins and of service to God and his
devotees along with his personal experiences of getting trapped in sins surrendering to
emotions of his organs.535 He starts his poem determining to not repeat sins, learn God’s
names of God and recite them. He recalls his story of sinner in hymns from 23 to 40 and
states in one of hymns that God stays in the heart of faultless devotees.536 He says that
one sinner’s praising God doesn’t make sense but he can repent by offering food to his
devotees, thus he become pure and eligible to praise God. Moreover, he also advocates
for the service to devotees too as a part of repentance and he was first to introduce it. He
continues that even high caste men who recite four Vedas and six Upanishad will become
under-casted if they disgrace the devotees. Tiruppalli Yelluchi, another work of
Tondaradippodi only with 10 hymns, comes next in which God is praised and his grace
was asked by poet in the end.537
Tiruppan Alvar who was an untouchable had composed ten hymns in the awe of
witnessing deity when he entered sanctum sanctorum of the temple, the composition was
named as ‘Amalan Aadipiran’ and comes next to Tiruppalli Yelluchi.538 In the first hymn
itself, he praises God who made him, with his grace, his devotee and entered his sight.
He is also very thankful to God who entered his heart, made him his dear devotee and
removed bad karma and burdens of life. Another 11 verses of Madhurakavi praising
534 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, P. 152-175.
535 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 27.
536 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 85.
537 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 175-186.
538 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 105.
158
Nammalvar with a title of ‘Kanninutchiruthambu’ also included in Divya Prabdandham
after ‘Amalan Aadipiran’.539
The second part of Divya Prabandham starts with 1084 hymns-long Periya
Tirumoli of Tirumangai that comprises various devotional, God-praising hymns. The
composition also provides deep insight on spirituality, reasons of human sufferings and
means to overcome it.540 In the first section of the work, he accepts that he was sinner
following emotions of five organs but later his life was saved because of Narayana, one
of Vishnu’s avatars, so he calls everyone to devote to him in order to escape from troubles
and to get moksha. He says if devotees recite God’s names, think him only in their minds
and God’s grace given to them, then God will protect them and remove karma. Hymns
with same content of devotion and moksha comes frequently in the composition and in
the end of every section. Tirumangai, like other poets, offers happiness and Moksha to
those who learn and recite these hymns. But he enlists all the sins he had done in the
lifetime in the beginning of hymn, then he claims that he realized the real God and asks
to protect him from Samsara circle. In the eleventh section of the work, he addresses his
heart and convince it to focus only on God and devote to him only. In twenty second
section, he addresses devotees and states that they don’t need to do tapas or starve,
undergo various types of sacrifices with fire as in Karma Marga but recite Vedas and just
keep the God in his heart.541
In 39th section, he acknowledges that he had plunged into the ocean of devotion
only to see him but was exhausted when he couldn’t see God and seemed as mad for
others, the lines show us how they were very devoted to God. He also expresses his
desperation since God had entered the heart of other devotees but not his heart.
Addressing himself as devotee throughout the composition, he says in forty second
section that God in Thirukkudalur temple had entered the heart of him a devotee. The ten
539 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 186-193.
540 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 30.
541 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 193-250.
159
hymns of 59th section begin with instruction to his heart to go and worship holy feet of
God whom he glorifies in next lines of hymns and the section ends with promise of living
with Gods in the sky for everyone who learn and recite the hymns of the section. In the
79th section, he says that he had found the God through devotion in Thirukkkanappuram
where Veda scholars make sacrificial fires, thus with the hymn, he projects Bhakti as a
path to union with God rather than Karma Marga. 108th section of the composition he
glorifies and praises Gods at different temples in the region asking their grace through
devotion. Moreover, in the end of each section, he makes promises like moksha,
happiness and rescue from hell and troubles for anyone who learns and recites that
section. In the last section titles as ‘Bhakti; born again’ he expresses his concern to be
born again through Samsara and requests for his grace like any other devotee.542
Tirukkuruntandakam of Tirumangai with only 20 hymns comes after long Periya
Tirumoli of Tirumangai. Tandakam literally means supporting staff while climbing a hill
and refers God who is supporter in the path to moksha and source of sustenance for the
soul. While the word ‘kuru’ refers to a short poem, the word ‘Nedu’ in Tiruneduntadakm,
points to a lengthier one. He states, in the first hymn itself, that he is devotee543 and God
has entered his heart since God gives moksha to his devotees. After praising the God, he
instructs his heart to think the nature of God, contemplate and praise him. He continues
that he had seen the God in his dreams as he worships him with words, praises him with
devotion and think only him with love and care in his mind. He finishes his 20 hymnslong
poem with a promise that anyone learn and recite these 20 hymns he will go to the
bright sky and rule there.544 In succeeding poem of Tirumangai, Tiruneduntadakm, he
expresses his mental anguish caused by the separation from God but in the guise of both
consort who lost his lover and her mother.545
542 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 250-422.
543 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 30.
544 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 422-426.
545 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 30.
160
Third part of Divya Prabandham starts with Tiruvantadi of Poygai which is
chronologically first work among Divya Prabandham collections and 100 hymns long.
When first three contemporary Alvars gathered in a narrow room, they realized the
presence of fourth one the God and Poygai was first to express the feeling with his
Tiruvantadi. Other two Alvars, Puttatar and Peyalvar, followed him with their Tiruvantadi
with 100 hymns while Tirumangai composed Nanmuhan Tiruvantadi with almost 200
hymns.546 Poygai elucidates his devotion God as he says that his mouth will not praise
any other but him, his hands will not worship except him, his eyes will not see except him
and his hears will not hear any other names except his name. He assures to devotees that
if they remove all faults from their mind, meditate without blinking eyes and embrace
only God in his hearts, they will reach the heave of the God. He finishes his Tiruvantadi
addressing his heart and saying that if devotees meditate on God, He enters their hearts
and they will understand God is in their hearts not anywhere, thus if they keep Him in his
heart, they will attain moksha.547
Puttatar starts his Tiruvantadi depicting his love of God in good-poetry and says
that he composes his Tiruvantadi in divine Tamil. Selecting Tamil instead of Sanskrit for
theological compositions and divinizing it is clear evidence on Alvars’ rejection of
Sanskrit’s supremacy. Like Poygai, Puttatar also makes same promise of seeing God if
goodhearted devotees control their senses, do tapas with love and recite his names. He
also breaks barriers of caste system when he says if any devotee worship God they will
reach him without exception as he treats everyone equally contradicting to the mainstream
belief of the period that some castes have priorities than others and some casts hadn’t
right to worship him in temples. He says that he will make his heart as God’s temple and
worship him there asking to not leave his heart. After delineating that God had entered
his heart and he could see him, he says that even sages who do true tapas couldn’t see
him and shows his deep Bhakti thinking only him is the divine path to see God. He
546 Balasubramanian, The Mysticism of Poygai Alvar, p. IX-XI.
547 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 621-637.
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finishes his Tiruvantadi illustrating that the God stays in his heart. Tiruvantadi of Peyalvar
succeeds Tiruvantadi of Puttatar and describes the importance of praising God and
devoting to him only to get moksha and not to be born again.548
After third Tiruvantadi, Nanmukham Tiruvantadi of Tirumalsai with 96 hymns
comes next. The text was composed establishing the supremacy of God Vishnu over
others after a debate with Pey Alvar. He diminishes other religions of the period like
Jainism and Buddhism, and other Gods in Hinduism itself. Tirumalsai says that God
Vishnu is in his heart and God had removed all his troubles, so everyone must praise and
devote to him not any other. He continues that he spends all his time for God hearing
about him, writing about him, understanding, praising and worshipping him. He finishes
his composition praising him and assuring that he knows him and he will not worship
other than him.549
Then comes Tiruviruttam of greatest among Alvars, Nammalvar, with 100
hymns and describing psychological and physical conditions of a consort separated from
her beloved God. Here Nammalvar considers himself as consort who was separated from
God and yearns for re-union with him through his grace.550 Tiruviruttam enjoys special
status in the collection as the poem presents the hymns of spiritual love (Daiva Rasa) and
God-experience (Brahmananubhava) and the work is considered as equal to Rigveda by
followers.551 In the first hymn itself, Nammalvar seeks to hear the request of his devotee
and grand him his grace, thus he will be free from rebirth. He continues to express his
infinite love towards him but presents him as a consort who separated from his husband.
Her mother describes that she had tears like a river for his lover and her beauty faded
away thinking her lover. She asks swans and been around her to convey her message to
avatar of God and help her. She also soothes her anxious heart to be calm and live
548 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 637-667.
549 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 667-682.
550 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 20.
551 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 142-147.
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worshipping him pointing that bond with God is forever and they will have no trouble.
She reiterates that she loves the divine presence, thinks him constantly without stopping
and she had lost her sleeps for many days. He finishes his composition with a hymn that
offers moksha for anyone devotee who learn and recite the hundred hymns in the poem.552
After Tiruviruttam, Tiruvaciriyam of Nammalvar again, with 7 stanzas only,
comes describing God, his glory, personality and ways of attaining him.553 As the title
indicates an observance of God with due form of worship, the work adores and glorifies
God pointing that adoration is the highest form of worship not any other yajnas (rites). It
teaches nature (Tattva), good (Hita), goal of an ideal man (Purushartha) and the obstacles
in the path of moksha.554 While first hymn praises God with good poetry, second hymn
points to the necessity of moksha rather than any other pleasure in the world and of
dependence on devotion to God for attaining moksha. In third and fourth hymn, he
identifies himself as a devotee with love and devotion of heart to him, and vows for
service of God and his devotees too. In next hymns, he glorifies the supreme God and
asserts the necessity of worshipping him only not any others.555
Periya Tiruvantadi of Nammalavar, with 87 hymns, follows Tiruvaciriyam. The
work is a fourth Tiruvantadi after three of Moovar (first three) Poets and addresses his
heart conveying his ardent love for direct experience with God. This work is called Periya
(great) Tiruvantadi as it manifests deep love and emphasizes the greatness of God. It also
asserts God as sole savior and as easily accessible one with devotion and love while
advocating to worship him in all possible ways.556 In the first hymn, he invites his heart
to praise the God with good words if it wants to see the God and in second hymn, he seeks
God’s grace to escape from bad karma. In one of the hymns in the work, he expresses his
552 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 682-702.
553 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 20.
554 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 161.
555 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 702-704.
556 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 20.
163
joy as he entered his heart and, therefore, karma left him. yet, he advices his heart to think
only God and to not lose him as he is sole refuge. He praises and glorifies God in next
hymns and tells him that he is the only one companion he has, so he never leaves him. In
one of hymns in the end, he assures escape from their bad karma for low caste people too
if they become devotees of the God. He finishes his composition inviting himself to
constantly praise him.557 After Periya Tiruvantadi, Tiruvelukurukkai of Tirumangai with
only one hymn but with 47 lines comes next. The hymn explains the absolute surrender
of soul to God, his nature and means of attaining him.558 He starts the composition
praising him, continues describing his nature and finishes with prayer to remove his bad
karma and troubles.559
Siriya Tirumadal of Tirumangai is the next composition in Divya Prabandham
after Tiruvelukurukkai. The composition is also expressing his love towards God through
the consort who separated from husband. The term ‘madal’ refers to custom in which
lover vows to secure his or her lover by open demonstration in public. According to
tradition, lover has to take a ride in public on a palmyra stem using it as a horse, here the
lover is exposed to public scandal, then he or she reralizes his mistake and runs to the
person whom he or she wants to secure.560 In same manner, he portrays God as his lover
and runs towards him after realizing his mistakes and understanding him as the only
savior. In first hymns of the text, he portrays himself as a consort who weakened and
became pale due to her love towards separated husband the God. Glorifying him in next
hymns, she finishes saying that she will marry God for the custom of Madal and openly
proclaim her love with God.
After Siriya Tirumadal (small Tirumadal), Periya Tirumadal of Tirumangai
comes and starts with glorifying hymns. Then she expresses her unending love towards
557 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 704-718.
558 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 31.
559 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 718-720.
560 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 31.
164
God and says that she faints day by day because of the love she had. After a series of
glorifying hymns, she finishes the work with a call for Madal.561
Periya Tirumudal is succeeded by Tiruvaymoli of Nammalvar with 1102 hymns
which is also known as Bhagavad Vishaya for its glorious attributes of God (Bhagavan).
The work is considered as most important work of both Nammalvar and Divya
Prabandham, and also Tamil Veda (Dramida-Veda). Since the work was subjected many
commentaries, commentors and Acharyas of the community held the work in high
position. While Nathamuni described it as ocean of Tamil Veda (Dravid-Vedasagar),
Vedanta Desika considers it as Tamil Upanishad and had written two Sanskrit works
based on Tiruvaymoli. Manavalamuni says that Nammalvar contributed Vedas to Tamil
with Tiruvaymoli.562 The greatest Acharya of Bhakti, Ramanuja, had also had written the
commentary on the work. Hymns in the work that enjoys the bliss of God-experience,
have been sung in temples and by devotees for continuous meditation.563
Glorifying thousand hymns of Tiruvaymoli are well organized as the work is
divided into ten sections and each section again to ten sub-sections. The central theme of
the work is that God, as an ultimate reality, is ultimate goal of human endeavors and is
also mean of attainment. Sections and sub-sections deal with subjects that supports this
central theme, thus Tirvaymoli presents five important doctrines of Vishishtadvaita viz.,
God to be attained (Prapya), the aspirant seeking God (Prapta), means of attainment
(Praptyupaya), the goal to be attained (Phala) and obstacles in the way of its attainment
(Prapti-virodhi).564 He starts his composition addressing his heart and praising him as he
removed poet’s ignorance. Glorifying God, he says that God is mighty one, has only one
nature and he wants to join Him. In second sub-section of ten hymns, he invites his heart
to give up all his desires to attain moksha and says in the next sub-section that he is easy
561 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 720-741
562 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 21-22.
563 Varadachari, Alvars of South India, p. 177-178.
564 Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs, p. 21.
165
for devotees while hard for others. He continues that eternal God has no births, removes
illusion (maya) of his devotees, grace with moksha, stays in their hearts and he is
everywhere. He repeats in the end of almost hymns after glorifying him that God is in his
heart.565
When the God entered his heart and he experienced the God, all things he sees
is God whether it is ocean, fire, sky, sun and moon. He continues that God is all things
and all creatures and he is in their feelings, then asserts that if anyone understands his
own soul, he will join him as the God himself is the soul. He also advocates for the service
of devotees of God when he said that he worships the devotees who praise God’s
devotees. Moreover, he says that even those who were born lower than four varnas are
Gods to him if they are devotees of his devotees. The lines clearly reject Varnashrama
dharma and promote lower castes to high positions even the position of God.566
Nammalvar expresses his deep love and devotion to God in various poetical
expressions. Sometimes he portrays him as a girl who tired and gone mad because of love
towards God. In the poems, her mother narrates the pitiful situation of the girl and
complains but the girl says that nothing to worry except she is in love with God. Then he
tries to establish Vishnu as most powerful God who can grace his moksha to other Gods
too. He says that God is the one who made him compose these sweet Tamil hymns after
making a devotee. He continues that he entered his tongue and God himself composed
these sweet hymns for his devotees. Moreover, God had turned heart as his temples, so
He stays in his heart forever. He rejects the worship without devotion as it couldn’t lead
to the reality. He finishes his one thousand plus hymns-long composition with a subsection
that describes his oneness with God and his existence only with after he entered
his heart. It is also notable he makes, in the end of every ten verses, various offers like
moksha, heaven and escape from bad-karma for anyone who learns and recites those ten
hymns. In short, the composition is full of glorifying hymns and God-experiencing hymns
565Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 437-512.
566Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 512-556.
166
in which his bliss is expressed in many poetic ways.567 The last 100 hymns of Nalayira
Divya Prabandham is Ramanujanutrandadi which praises Ramanuja, the most important
master in Bhakti movement. The poem was composed in a period later than Alvars as he
mentions and praises every Alvars for their contributions. He designates the works of Pey,
Triuppan, Thondaradippodi and Nammalvar as Tamil Vedas which are equal to Vedas of
the religion.568 Like in other parts of the collection, poet says that Ramanuja destroyed
fame of the six religions pointing to six Astika sects. Excessive philosophical discussions,
which may not bring satisfying conclusion, in six astika sects are rejected by Alvars while
they present devotion/Bhakti as an alternative to reach the God.
2.3. Panniru Tirumurai
As we described earlier, Tirumurai is a general name for the collection of 12
books (Panniru Tirumurai) compiled by 27 Nayanmars.569 Nayanmars expressed their
devotion and love towards their God Siva through poems in Tamil forming a large
collection of devotional songs with about eleven thousand hymns. The poems of different
Nayanmars lived before eleventh century were collected but history of some Nayanmars
is still obscure and dubious. While eleven Tirumurai constitute poems of different
Nayanmars, last and twelfth Tirumurai Periya Puranam is description of 63 Nayanmars’
lives, so it doesn’t include any devotional poems but the historical authenticity of the text
is questioned.
2.3.1. Tevaram
First 7 Tirumurais, named as Tevaram, hold special significance in the tradition
and known as Atankamurai (Complete canon), moreover, it is considered as equal to
Vedas. Among seven Tirumurais of Tevaram, first three are composed by Sambandar,
the next three by Appar and last one by Sundarar. Tevaram includes 384 hymns of
567 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 551-621.
568 Srirama Bharati, trans., The Sacred Book of Four Thousand, p. 741-760.
569 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. X.
167
Sambandar, 312 of Appar and 100 of Sundarar.570 Since their lives and poems of Tevaram
are very important in the tradition, they are called as ‘Muvar Mutalikal (three great lords
of Saivism).’571 Tevaram hymns are widely recited throughout Tamil region especially in
religious ceremonies and even a specialist called Otuvar (one who chants) is designated
only to sing the poems. In religious rituals in the region, hymns of Tevaram also sung
simultaneously with Veda and also in the end of ritual as final and important one. When
Vedas are studied orally in religious school, Tirumurai is also taught there, affirming the
equality of Tirumurais with Vedas. There are also special school in the name of ‘Tevaram
Patasalai’ where Tevaram hymns along with Tiruvachakam and some selections from
other Tirumurais are taught and memorized.572
Tevaram etymologically related with term ‘varam’ which was used to denote the
song addressed to a deity in the classical poems and hymns that are referred as Patikams
in the tradition. Each hymn includes ten or eleven verses and one verse is four-line stanzas
with a refrain. The last verses of Sambandar and Sundarar’s hymns include their names
and speak about themselves, nature of their songs and benefits of singing and listening
their songs. Sambandar devotes his ninth verse of each Patikams to talk about Linga
whereas tenth one is devoted to denunciate Jains and Buddhists. Sambandar describes in
eighth verse of his hymns a myth of demon-devotee Ravana while Appar uses it in the
end of his hymns.573
Sambandar and Appar had advocated for no distinction on the basis of caste and
called high class people to worship along with common people too to attain salvation.
Sambandar, like Appar, ensures in his hymns that everyone irrespective of their caste
attain salvation through meditation. While Appar was staunch advocate of abolition of
570 Paramasivanandan, The Historical Study of Tevaram Hymns, p. 7-22.
571 Dorai Rangaswamy, The Religion and Philosophy of Tevarm with special reference to Nampi Arurar
(Sundarar) (Madras: University of Madras, 1958), p. 1.
572 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 50-60.
573 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 22.
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caste system, Sundarar himself had married two women from other castes. In short, all
three authors of Tevaram had advocated continuously for the salvation through
meditation throughout their poems while rejecting the caste-system that offers salvation
only high-caste Hindus.574 Like all Saiva saints, these three poets also stood for the
equality as the fundamental principle of religion. Appar, like Sambandar, states in his
Tirumurai that God would protect those who worshipped with devotion and whole
heartedly without any distinction. He continues that God will be the in the hearts of true
devotees and will help them in the way they want.575 In Tevaram as well as other Shaiva
Bhakti texts, a devotee is a servant, Atiyar; ‘one who is at the feet’ of God.576
The three poets speak about their states of mind with devotion to God connecting
it with different stances and moods of bhaktas that range from ardent love with God,
powerful desire for union with him to absolute faith in him as the grantor of grace and
salvation. While these expressions are less in Sambandar’s poems, Appar gives some
powerful expressions of this emotional devotion and Sundarar champions in expressing
these various moods of devotee. Another noticeable aspect is that Appar speaks in a mood
of self-abasement because of his sense of being guilty over his past as a Jain monk while
Sundarar, nicknamed as ‘rude devotee’, speaks rude as he mocks and reproaches Siva.
Even though they project senses and body as obstacles to the devotion, they also confirm
the necessity of these organs in expressing Bhakti through services. They extol the singing
and reciting continuously God’s glorified names as these are major part of
devotionalism.577
When it come to the method of worship, there are three methods; image worship
(Uruvam), non-image worship (Aruvam) and symbolical worship (Aruvuruvam). While
fist two forms are explicit, third one denotes the worship of Siva Linga. While most of
574 Paramasivanandan, The Historical Study of Tevaram Hymns, p. 81-83.
575 Paramasivanandan, The Historical Study of Tevaram Hymns, p. 144.
576 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 42-48.
577 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 206-208.
169
Tevaram hymns deal with image worship, it also mentions other two forms; Aruvurvam
as seen in Linga worship and Aruvam as Siva was portrayed above all without any shape,
form or color.578
The importance given to the image and temple worship in Tevaram hymns was
neglected by later Bhakti saints as they detached themselves from image and temple
worships. The poet-saints of Tevaram dedicated almost each one of their hymns to a Siva
temple forming a sacred geography including 274 shrines mostly in south India while
some are in Himalaya region. Theses shrines were enlarged by later rulers like Cholas
and called as Paral Perra Talam (a place sung by the saints).579 Promoting each temple
in those hymns and making it as center of religious and social activities had greatly
influenced to popularize Saivism in the region.580 But they emphasis on sincere devotion
to the God, which is most important in all modes of worship. Yet they enlisted some
devotional services such as presenting the flower to God and adorning Linga with same
in early morning, sweeping the temple courtyard and removing grass in pathways with
pick axe are some of them. It also includes serving the devotees of God, feeding and
arranging shelter for them with great devotion. While enlisting these services in Tevaram,
they also mention Manaspuja in which one prays to God silently with heart only and
advocate for worship of God with heart. Along with this sincere devotion, they should
recite and repeat the sacred mantra of Namasivaya. In Shaivism, painting the ashes, which
is called as Tiruniru (sacred ash), holds a special significance, so they had also mentioned
it in Tevaram.581
The three poets of Tevaram condemned the worship with mere outward forms
and rituals without devotion and real love in the heart. While Appar advised people to
578 Paramasivanandan, The Historical Study of Tevaram Hymns, p. 146.
579 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 11-14.
580 Rangaswamy, The Religion and Philosophy of Tevarm with Special Reference to Nampi Arurar
(Sundarar), p. 20.
581 Paramasivanandan, The Historical Study of Tevaram Hymns, p. 146-157.
170
worship Siva with a pure heart, Sundarar projected God as divine light shining in the heart
of virtuous people, thus, they put the goodness of heart and sincere devotion as essentials
in the attainment of salvation.582
Sundarar glorified their own local language Tamil instead of Sanskrit and said
that Tamil is ever truthful language and God would bless those who pray in Tamil
language. But Sambandar reminds God can hear all the languages of devotees without
any difference. Appar regarded both Tamil and Sanskrit as sacred languages and had
mentioned both of them in his hymns. Yet all three poet saints focused on Tamil language
to express their religious ideas giving an impetus to the development of Tamil
language.583 They promoted Tamil as sacred language like Sanskrit with expressions like
Tiruneriya Tamil (sacred Tamil) and Tamil Malai (garland of Tamil verse) and the texts
in Tamil as equal to Vedas.584 To be more precise, Tevaram hymns presented a powerful
new synthesis of Brahmanical Hinduism and Tamil civilization celebrating and
transforming both traditions.585
Appar and Sambandar promoted the oneness of God by worshipping lord Siva
only discouraging the worship of other minor Gods and other religions.586 Sambandar
presents a verse in each of his hymns to criticize Buddhist and Jain monks while Appar
protests against Jains who tried to get him away from Saivism.587 Convinced by strong
faith in devotional life, Sambandar neglected popular beliefs of auspicious days as he
started his tour to establish Saivism in an inauspicious day saying that nothing can harm
the devotees of Siva and all days are auspicious to them.588
582 Paramasivanandan, The Historical Study of Tevaram Hymns, p. 173-174.
583 Paramasivanandan, The Historical Study of Tevaram Hymns, p. 124-126.
584 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 40-41.
585 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 5.
586 Paramasivanandan, The Historical Study of Tevaram Hymns, p. 140.
587 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 10.
588 Paramasivanandan, The Historical Study of Tevaram Hymns, p. 140-141.
171
Saint poets of Tevaram express their personal relationship with God, praising
and glorifying him. They address some hymns to Siva as well as themselves, while some
others to their fellow devotes which are designed to encourage listeners to devotion of
Siva with love. In Teveram, they describe Siva’s appearance and his mythic deeds that
glorifies him along with his iconographic depictions that could see in Siva temples. The
cosmic dance of Siva in the form of Natarajan is another main subject that discussed
throughout Tevaram. Yet, Tevaram reminds the need of passionate love and personal
involvement, that constitute Bhakti, to perceive God by a poet, reader or listener. What
makes Tevaram as well as other Bhakti saint poets close to heart of reader or listener is
ability to successfully pass the personal feeling and devotional experience to them. Even
though it is very little, Tevaram hymns also address Siva the God as their lover or as
closest of kinship ties like father or mother.589 While all three poets portray God sweeter
than honey (ten) and sugar cane (karumpu), Appar calls him as his ‘eye’ (kan) due to their
fondness towards God and these expressions turned as popular metaphors for the beloved
in Tamil culture.590
Appar says in one of his hymns that he was an ignorant and wasn’t knowing
anything even pure Tamil to make poems but God bestowed him with these skills as a
loving mother and father after he sought refuge to God, and he was blessed only because
of his grace. Appar tries to establish here that one can be blessed by God without any
other pre-requisites because of God’s grace only.591 Like Appar, Sundarar also
acknowledges the importance of his grace to attain salvation and says that peerless God
gave him a head, heart and thoughts that know only to serve Him. He continues that he is
melting in a stream of love running to join him with services to Him and His devotees,
meditating on Him with devotion and singing God-praising hymns but he is still in the
589 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 24-36.
590 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 204.
591 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 236-237.
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search of his grace to get salvation.592 He expresses his bliss in one of hymns that God
came to him as everlasting bright lighting him and he never left him since then as He was
focus of all his thoughts, so he never sing for anyone other than Him.593 Sambandar also
begs his heart to think only God, eyes to always look upon the God and tongue to keep
daily prayers in order to get His grace and to be blessed (2.176 Piramapuram).594
All three saint poets also talk about the herd of devotees who gather and sing the
songs of praise and devotion together, therefore we can understand that there were groups
of devotees who gather sings together. Sambandar attributes devotees who know how to
weep and dance singing the hymns as worthy servants of the lord (1.35 Vilimilai). Appar
says that God keeps account of devotees who weep and cry out of their love to God and
of those who waste their days unaware of him (5.135 Innampar)595 whereas Sundarar
calls lovers of Siva to give up worldly life, gather together, dance, sing the hymns and
become devotees (7.22 Palamannippatikkarai).596 They also describes about devotees
that they are blameless, their karma had been destroyed (Sambandar 2.242 Valanculli),
they never reborn, enter highest state without losing their heart in earth and without
hunger and pain (Sambandar 2.177 Cayakkatu).597
Appar rejects in one of hymns (2.213 Pavancak Kuruntokai) all form of the
worship including pilgrimages to holy rivers like Ganga and bathing there, chanting
Vedas, learning Upanishads and law-books, performing rituals according rules and
sacrifices at fire altars, giving up meats, practicing penance and asceticism since all these
are in vain till one understands that lord is everywhere and loves him as dearest one. He
finishes the hymn saying that God, who dwells in those hearts melting in love of him, will
592 Sundarar, Pan̲n̲iru Tirumur̲ ai, ed. Kantacāmi et al., 1st ed (Chennai: Institute of Asian Studies, 2011),
p. 262-270.
593 Sundarar. P. 390-395.
594 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 255.
595 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 257-258.
596 Sundarar, Pan̲n̲iru Tirumur̲ ai. P. 404-405.
597 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 263-264.
173
laugh at flowers and water offered by false men in the rituals.598 The hymn in Tevaram is
a clear proof on how these Nayanar poets reject the ritualistic practices led by Brahmins
only and present devotion the Bhakti as authentic path to reach the God and attain the
salvation. Appar rejects Varnashrama dharma also as he says that if outcasted people even
Pulayan the lowest of lowest serves God are Gods to him and he will worship them (6.309
Tanit Tiruttantakam).599
The very first hymn of Sundarar expresses his joy as he was blessed with his
grace, so he addresses God as embodiment of grace in the first verse itself and he will
think only God without forgetting. Poet continues expressing his confidence in the God
and salvation from him since God placed Himself in the mind of the saint. Before he was
being bestowed by God’s grace, poet acknowledges that he wandered long as a dog or
ghost without thinking God in his mind, so he was fatigued (Tiruvennainallur 7.1).600 As
he was bestowed with his grace, he feels himself attained salvation and says that he will
not reborn and if born he will not be aged. Drowned in mystic relation with God, he
addresses God as his father, mother, master, beginning of everything and beautiful person,
moreover he sees God in everything and sings that he is flesh, life, body, space, land,
mountains, sea and the world. In another hymn (Tiruvatikai Virattanam 7.38), he
addresses the God not only in same way but also more precious than gold, rubies and
pearls and as a lover who is sweeter than sugarcane and candy. The refrain of the hymn
is “will I ever slight him for a moment” and intends with question that he will not slight
him for a moment after he realized Him and attained salvation.601 All these expressions
in his first hymn itself point on how devotional mysticism evolved in Nayanar poetries
598 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 261-263.
599 Peterson, The Hymns of Tamil Saints, p. 263-264.
600 Sundarar, Pan̲n̲iru Tirumur̲ ai. P. 42-45.
601 Rangaswamy, The Religion and Philosophy of Tevarm with Special Reference to Nampi Arurar
(Sundarar), p. 570-576.
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which ignited Bhakti movement, thus we can witness these kinds of expressions in later
mystics from different religions.
As Sundar experienced a mystic union with God, he sees God everywhere and
in everything, so he hails God and says in one of hymns (Tirukkalippalai 7.23) that God
he is the creation, destruction and sustenance, he is the word and meaning that people
speak, he is the tongue, the ear and the eye. He repeats in other hymn (7.62) that God has
become head, eyes, ears, nose, mouth and body of devotees and has removed the cruel
karma of devotees.602 These lines resemble to the mystic ideas of other religions
especially Islam. He feels that God is with him always as a savior comrade (7.51, 7.84)
especially he was support in the hard times (7.26), and as an envoy (7.84) who changes
other’s mind for the benefits of him.603
As Sivanjana Sittiyar text describes, there are four ways of attaining God; the
path of a friend, path of a good son, path of servant and path of truth and these four
equated with Yoga Marga (path of yoga), Karya Marga (path of services), Kriya Marga
(path of actions) and Jnana Marga (path of knowledge) respectively. The path of servant
consists sweeping temple, painting the ground with cow dung, looking after the garden
of temple, setting up and lighting lamps inside temples, singing glorifying hymns and
falling at the feet of Saivites. The path of good son includes performing purification of
God’s image with flowers, performing worship with pure love and conducting the
ceremonies in the sacrificial fire. The path of friend means to control sense organs with
breath management, performing eight parts of yoga contemplating on God whereas path
of truth intends to study all religious knowledges till all the doubts and illusions about
God fades away. Analyzing the life and poems of these saints, some historians say the
602 Rangaswamy, The Religion and Philosophy of Tevarm with Special Reference to Nampi Arurar
(Sundarar), p. 1155-1156.
603 Rangaswamy, The Religion and Philosophy of Tevarm with Special Reference to Nampi Arurar
(Sundarar), p. 1207-1208.
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path of servant is represented by Appar, path of good son by Sambandar, path of friend
by Sundarar and the path of truth by Manikkavachakar.604
Another highlighted aspect in hymns of Tevaram is their love towards God and
self- surrender to Him due to their intense love. Sundarar mentions his various stages love
and says “my mind, my heart melts in love” and “I am yours by right” (7.14). He
acknowledges that he had surrender totally to the God as he said “I have offered my head,
tongue and mind all to his service” (7.14). He continues that he is not pissed of nor
complaining if he suffers in the path of love and devotion but will accept everything as
he said “I shall not murmur that you have made me suffer, I accept everything” (7.15).
These kind of hymns in which God is approached with love and devotion were first of its
kind in Hinduism, thus these hymns ignited for a great tradition that changed the course
of religion itself. In another set of hymns, he describes about God’s reaction to his
devotees that God is also hungering to the soul that hungers for the God (7.77) and God
will run if devotee walk towards God (7.57). Poet continues that God is shining in the
minds that think Him (7.61), He never leaves from the mind of loving soul (7.67) and His
abode is the heart of one who taken refuge in Him (7.19).605 These expressions of love
and devotion shows great similarity to devotional or mystic expressions in other religions
especially Islam. These set of similarities forces a researcher to conduct in-depth research
about engagements of Bhakti with other religions especially with Islam.
2.3.2. Tiruvachakam
After Tevaram of Muvar Mutalikal poets, Tiruvachakam of Manikavachakar, the
fourth one in Nalvar poets along with three Tevaram-poets, comes next as eight one in
sacred collection of 12 Tirumurais. His name literally means that one whose utterances
are rubies and he was named so because of his masterpiece work Tiruvachakam which
604 Rangaswamy, The Religion and Philosophy of Tevarm with Special Reference to Nampi Arurar
(Sundarar), p. 63-64.
605 Rangaswamy, The Religion and Philosophy of Tevarm with Special Reference to Nampi Arurar
(Sundarar), p. 1202-1207.
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means ‘divine utterances’.606 Tiruvachakam is an excellent devotional text made up of 51
hymns that consist 659 verses, which is normally divided into 4 chapters regarding its
contents. Third chapter of the text that starts from seventh hymn (Thiruvemppavai) to the
twentieth hymn (Thiruppalliyelluchi) is an important chapter that portrays love of the poet
to Siva the God through bridal mysticism.607
Tiruvachakam is an exceptional text that depict mystic experiences of the poet
who wept and melted in love with God where he portrayed himself as a bride to the
husband-God Siva. He recurringly sought his grace with unintermittent love and devotion
towards God, to extricate from miserable birth-cycle. In return of his devotion, the poet
feels that he was granted grace as He entered his mind and enshrined his body, so his
thoughts and mind focused only on Him without any deviation.608 As he felt the bliss, his
triumph was expressed through his poems, so he starts with a call to hail God who not
quits his heart even for a moment. He continues to attribute Him as one who soothed his
soul’s disturbance, destroyed his birth-cycle and stood nearby him with love. Then he
explains the reason to get his old deeds wiped is his bowing to Siva’s feet thinking about
only Him which brought his grace.609
Manikavachakar acknowledges that reason of his salvation is path of devotion
as he said in one hymn (51.1) that he had joined and followed the people who don’t know
moksha but the God taught him the path of devotion, thus his bad karma was destroyed
too. The hymn is very notable in Bhakti tradition as the verse openly states devotion as a
path that can save one from Karma and Samsara circle. They realize that eternal bliss is
only achieved by his grace and to get his grace, they develop their reverence and love to
God following the path of devotion. When they follow the path of devotion, they
606 G.U Pope, The Tiruvacakam or “Sacred Utterances” (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1900), p. XVIII.
607 C Srinivasan, Thiruvaachakam by Saint Maanickavaachagar, ed. Tirumati S. Sivamani, 2 vol. (Madras:
Tirumati Mohanambal Srinivasan, 1991), p. VIII.
608 Srinivasan, Thiruvaachakam by Saint Maanickavaachagar, p. XIX-XX.
609 Pope, The Tiruvacakam or “Sacred Utterances.”, p. 1-3.
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understand their services and acts don’t compulsorily bring the moksha but his grace must
be granted by him out of his mercy, so they repeatedly ask for his grace. We witness that
same in the hymns of Manikavachakar also as he says in one of hymn “Do graciously
grant me unintermittent love unto You to take root in the core of my heart and melt it, oh
my Owner.” (5.11) The core of this path lies on depending only on Him for refuge
thinking only Him whether He tries to know him through other paths, thus
Manikavavachakar marvels in his devotion to God as he said in one hymn that he doesn’t
know the method of worshipping Him, he doesn’t know him at all and even the
knowledge to know him, but he seeks refuge only in Him (24.9) but he seeks God to
bestow him the love of devotees who are close to him have towards to him (32.8).610
Manikavachakar portrays his state of developing Bhakti with good rhetoric that
when he considered the direction towards God, he felt untired, his river of love overflown
its banks. He continues that his senses searched crying out only ‘Lord, Lord’, his body
shivered and his hands were folded but his heart bloomed in devotion for Him, and his
eyes felt the joy filling it with tears (4.78-85).611 He says in another hymn (21.10)
addressing God that he worships him chatting his name and thinking that God will surely
grant him grace. He continues that his eyes filled with tears, his mouth mumbled, his mind
thought only Him and melted. He finishes his hymn to have mercy on him and grant him
the grace since he realized all his efforts don’t endorse his grace but his mercy only612.
The transition from a ritualistic religion that teaches proper executing of rituals as
prescribed in Vedas, to a devotional religion in which God’s mercy is compulsory to
attain the salvation even after ardent devotion is thought provoking and inspires for deep
research.
Another highlighting point of Manikavachakar’s Tiruvachakam is bridal
mysticism in which one surrenders one’s own will, life and mind to God because of
610 Srinivasan, Thiruvaachakam by Saint Maanickavaachagar, p. 16-18.
611 Pope, The Tiruvacakam or “Sacred Utterances.”, p. 35.
612 Srinivasan, Thiruvaachakam by Saint Maanickavaachagar, p. 16-18.
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extreme love towards God portraying himself/herself as groom/bride of God. Here poet
portrays himself as mystic bride of God with overwhelming love to God expecting an
inseparable mystic union with God and stays in bliss forever. This bridal mysticism of
saint-poet is explained in 14 hymns from seventh to 20th hymn, starting from pre-mature
love to God till her union with him. To portray the scenario, poet uses and describes the
tradition of virgin girls waking up in early morning and going to temples with flowers in
order to get their desired one as husband. In seventh hymn, poet expresses his first love
towards God engrossed in deep meditation crying “oh my lord, lord.” While next two
hymns depict about local girls and their tradition, tenth hymn talks about sending dragon
fly as her messenger of love to God the lover. Next 6 hymns also deal with the tradition
whereas in seventh hymn, she discloses to mother about her love to God and how her
heart melted for Him. While next two hymns also deal with conveying her love to God
through various mediums like birds, the twentieth hymn expresses the descending of God
for a mystic union with her.613 The concept of bridal mysticism is used to express their
intensity of love to God as we witness the same in the poems of Alvars too.
2.3.3. Tirukkovaiyar
Tirukkovaiyar, another poem of Manikavachakar with 400 stanzas, forms
second part of Eighth Tirumurai. The theme of poem is love of soul to God in which God
was portrayed as hero and poet as heroin and vice versa.614 The poem starts with
expression of lover about first sight of loved one relating to some beautiful flowers in
their region. Even though he doubts about her identity in second verse, he realizes, in
third verse, that she is Goddess herself and starts to desire her in the fourth verse. Poet
uses anthropomorphic characteristics when God is portrayed as beautiful woman
expressing his sense of love and desires for union with her in next verses (Tirukkovaiyar
613 Srinivasan, Thiruvaachakam by Saint Maanickavaachagar, p. 31-36.
614 Māṇikkavācakar, Tirukkovaiyar, trans. T. N Ramachandran (Thanjavur: Tamil University, 1989), p.
XLV.
179
1.1-7).615 Next verses in poem continues to describe the nature, his feeling of love and
lust towards her. Yet he says that in one verse (2.14) that he is forever devoted to his God
and He is with His devotees accompanied in joy, and he adores God in proud elation (4.3).
He thinks, because of his unintermittent services and helps to devotees, that he was gifted
to His true devotees to serve them, thus he lived accompanied with them (4.5) with a heart
that melts and body that thrills to be with them (15.5).616 In another verse (16.39) he says
that God had put an end to his Samsara) because of praising and glorifying Him with
devotion. Poet Tirumular also explicitly put forward Bhakti Marga as an authoritative
way to salvation since he assures that God will grant the bliss to his devotees whoever
they are without looking their caste (18.32).617
2.3.4. Tiruvicaippa and Tiruppallandu
Tenth Tirumurai was composed by nine saints namely Centanar, Karuvurttevar,
Tirumalikaittever, Nampikatava Nampi, Purutottama Nampi, Tiruvaliyamutanar,
Venattatikal and Cetirayar whose compositions are collected in Tiruvicaippa and
Tiruppallantu. Out of 28 hymns in Tiruvicaippa, ten hymns completely deal with love of
a lady towards God. Among these 9 poets, six of them had expressed their love towards
God in their poems. Tirumalaikaittevar had composed four hymns dedicating one of them
to express his love of God portraying himself as a heroine who is in mad love with her
hero the God, and that’s through the words of her mother. She recalls her daughter as one
who seeks God to protect her praising and contemplating only Him. Centanar composes
two hymns which also express his love of God depicting him as heroine. In one of hymns,
she recurs her seek of His grace presenting her intense love with full heart and asks why
he is not bestowing grace to her while he fulfils the desires of other devotees. Another
hymn of Centanar also follows same pattern in expressing his love of God. Karuvurtevar,
whose composition constitutes major parts of Tiruvicaippa, also speaks in same method
615 Māṇikkavācakar, Tirukkovaiyar, p. 1-7.
616 Māṇikkavācakar, Tirukkovaiyar, p. 36-201.
617 Māṇikkavācakar, Tirukkovaiyar, p. 249.
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to express his devotion to God. He expounds his feelings that God had taken full
possession of his body and soul by entering his heart and his mind is completely
surrendered in Him. In his other hymns, he talks about his different feelings and situations
in the love of God comparing it to a girl fell in mad love with her hero. Tiruvaliyamutanar,
Purutottama nampi and Cetiriyar also follow same pattern for expressing love. In short,
ninth Tirumurai is full of love expressions towards God that is attributed as Prema Bhakti
(devotion of love) or Bhakti in Madhura Bhava (sweet mood).618
2.3.5. Tirumantiram
Ninth Tirumurai is Tirumantiram of Tirumular, which includes about 3 thousand
verses in nine Tantirams and a prologue. While the shortest, the sixth, Tantra includes
131 verses, the longest one, the fourth, includes 535 verses. The text starts with a prologue
that mentions about Siva, Saivism and its sects especially SanMarga Saivism that poet
personally belong to, and some account on the autobiography of the poet. First Tantra
begins with a section titled ‘Divine instruction’ that describes elaborately about the role
of Siva gurus in the attainment of liberation since SanMarga sect is a guru (master)
centered tradition. As the first step to Siddha-hood is to realize the true nature of worldly
life, the Tantra notes down the requisites to be observed by a fresher.
Second Tantra establishes the supremacy of Siva with his five cosmic functions
of creation, maintenance, destruction, obscuration and granting salvation, along with
Siva-glorifying hymns citing various myths. While third Tantra explains about Yoga, its
different kinds and techniques to perform it, the fourth Tantra is devoted to describe
various mantras, mode of reciting and benefits. The fifth Tantra exposes different sects
of Shaivism including SanMarga Shaivism but projecting the later as proper path,
whereas sixth Tantra talks about asceticism. The sixth one establishes the importance and
necessity of a Guru to attain the salvation and suggests the grace of Guru is worthful as
God’s grace. The discussion continues in seventh Tantra along with practical aspects of
618 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 111-127.
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SanMarga Saivism. The tantra ends with portraying the true Guru, his qualities and
attributes. Eighth Tantra, the second longest one, elucidates about liberation and nature
of human body while its final sections stress the importance of Bhakti as a path of
salvation. The last Tantra speaks about mystical vision of God and the bliss attained
through liberation.619 Thus, Tirumantiram is well-structured text dealing mostly on
philosophical aspects of Shaivism and its sects, so the text may be considered as doctrine
on Shaivism. While other texts of Tirumurai is personal expression of love, devotion and
bliss, Tirumantiram stands out as philosophical text oof Shaivism. SanMarga sect of
Shaivism that focus on Guru and his guidance to salvation is may compared with Sheik
and Mureed system in Islamic mysticism.
In the second verse of Tirumantiram’s introduction that termed as Payiram, poet
acknowledges that he seeks and meditate to God whom he praised in first two hymns.
Poet says that his love from heart’s central core that God is equal to all without any
difference and He seeks those who seeks Him; thus, poet rejects Varnashrama dharma
that divides people on the basis of birth. By chanting His name with humble heart, God
comes to the heart of devotee and He shines there, so the poet also chants His name
continuously and confirms that God had entered the center of his heart. While some
hymns of the poem acknowledge the greatness of Vedas, some other explains the
greatness of Guru (teachers). Poet also describes his personal journey of devotion which
started by bowing his head to the sacred feet of God and reciting his name in deepest core
of his heart. The mystic names of Siva were flashed in his head which was lost in the
devotion of the Shakti the consort of Siva. Thus, with ardent devotion, he experienced
great bliss and freed from birth but his heart revolves around holy hymns chanting his
glorious names (Payiram 2-6).620
619 Maithili Thayanithy, The Concept of Living Liberation in the Tirumantiram (PhD Thesis, University of
Toronto, 2010), p. 10-30.
620 Tirumūlar, The Tirumandiram, ed. T. N Ganapathy, trans. T. V Venkataraman (Saint Etienne de Bolton,
Quebec: Babaji’s Kriya Yoga and Publications, 2013), p. 20-26.
182
In those fifty Siva-invocating verses of Payiram, Tirumular describes Siva’s
greatness, transcendence, quality of his grace that frees everyone from bondage. He
portrays in those verses Siva as one with infinite compassion seated in the hearts of
devotees but different from them, He is close to those who understand and keep him in
their hearts, He listens the prayer of love and devotion, and His grace is enough to combat
all sufferings. So, he draws himself as an example who seek His grace but all he knows
is to praise the Siva, worship Him, keep Him always in his heart and seek His blessings.
The next 16 verses speak the greatness of Vedas but he says that part leading to union
with God is essence of Veda. In Payiram, poet Tirumular describes about the gurutradition
in which spirituality and wisdom are transmitted from masters who already
attained the salvation. For Tirumular, one should start one’s spiritual journey under
capable guru who is well-versed with knowledge of God and guide him in right path. He
continues to speak about his past and his experience under the Guru as a disciple.621 From
111th verse of Payiram to 112th verse, poet tries to establish oneness of three Gods
Brahma, Siva and Vishnu through doctrine of trinity. He states that they are one, coequals
and that one is Siva. It may not be wrong if a researcher shows the section that
could be titled as ‘The Trinity and the relationship’622 as a proof of influence of
Christianity in Bhakti tradition but it still needs in-depth research.
In the very first verse of Tirumantiram, Tirumular describes about the grace that
was granted by God to him as He descended to his heart, melting it with love and filling
it with great bliss. He continues in next verse that God has opened eyes of grace towards
him, so all impurities were vanished from him (1.2-3).623 Ten verses from 270 to 280 of
first Tantra (hymn), poet describes about love to Siva and how to love Him, and says that
Siva and love is one but someone feels they are two, so they should love Him till they
realize them as one. He compares the body as sacrificial fire-pod and body-parts as objects
to fires and calls to use his bones as fire-wood, and love God until his self-melts, only
621 Tirumūlar, The Tirumandiram, p. 1-2.
622 Tirumūlar, The Tirumandiram, p. 135-146.
623 Tirumūlar, The Tirumandiram, p. 147-151.
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then he can attain the God.624 These kind of analogies in poems of Nayanar in which
devotional acts are compared to Brahminic rituals, are shown as the proof of historians
who suggests the Bhakti is revival of Brahmanical religion with indigenous Tamil
elements intending to combat the influence of heterodox sects of Buddhists and Jains.625
But in 85th verse of second Tantra, poet openly rejects the rituals and says that God will
be only distant if one approaches him with rituals before fire while he establishes the
supremacy of devotional path saying in same verse that yearning love will bring him
closer and God will grant him the immortal body with bliss.626 To be more precise on the
issue, Tirumular says in 124th verse of fourth Tantra after explaining the importance of
Kriya Yoga in which rituals and sacrifices are performed neatly, that one who is love with
God doesn’t need Kriya at all.627
In the section of love in first Tantra, poet continues to call fellow devotees to
praise him as much as they can with pure love to God and their thoughts only wrapped in
love with him, then he assures that Lord Siva also will melt in love, in return, with them
because poet acknowledges that himself had experienced with it. The next 10 verses from
280 to 290, saint-poet explains about the love of Siva to devotees and the greatness of his
love as it leads to liberation.628
Ten verses in 41th section of 8th Tantra elucidate the significance of Bhakti
Marga. He acknowledges that he undertook the service of devotees to present the
significance of devotion through the significance of devotees. He also acknowledges that
God accepted him as a devotee because of devotees’ grace. He continues that devotee
easily find the God through devotion while he is distant for others because God also falls
624 Tirumūlar, The Tirumandiram, p. 331-335.
625 Judith G. Martin, The Function of Mythic Figures in the Tirumantiram (PhD Thesis, McMaster
University), p. 84.
626 Tirumūlar, The Tirumandiram, p. 512.
627 Tirumūlar, The Tirumandiram, p. 1177-1178.
628 Tirumūlar, The Tirumandiram, p. 335-351.
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in love with devotees (8.2623-2626).629 Poet also assures that devotees will get highest
reward than any other even celestial Gods like Indra (Tirumantiram 2990).630
In the last Tantra in which union and merging with Siva is described, poet says
if devotee unites with Siva in love, then he couldn’t know the separation and continues to
contemplate Siva only. He continues that if devotee thinks God, then God also thinks him
but devotee has to firm his devotion only to him (Tirumantiram 2665,2667).631 Tirumular
also describes the state of devotees who are in bliss that they will fear, sob, rejoice, fall
and prostrate, they will be overwhelmed in excitement and exhausted unaware of
themselves and lost in rapture (Tirumantiram 2744). He continues in another verse (T.
2942) that inexhaustible bliss of devotees is beyond description and immeasurable.
Tirumular expresses his state in devotion that he was melting with love weeping and
bewailing, he glorified God while his bones were melting, he was moaning and raving
day and night till he felt that he is eating, biting and chewing God (T. 2980).632
2.3.6. Eleventh Tirumurai
The eleventh Tirumurai is represented by collection of forty-one works, called
as Prabandhas, by 12 devotional poets. In the Tirumurai also, we also witness theme of
love depicted in Nayaka-Nayaki (hero-heroine) style as in ninth Tirumurai. Cheraman
Perumal Nayanar had composed some hymns, named as Ponvannattantadi and Tiruvarur
Mummanikkovai, in which his love of lord Siva is expressed through the words of heroin
and her mother. The same is expressed by Kapilateva, Paranateva in their hymns named
as ‘Siveperuman Tiruvanatadi’ in which Siva is glorified. Pattinattar also follows the
same method in his poem of forty stanzas that named as Nanmanimalai,
Tirukkalumalamummannkkovai and Tiruvitaimarutur Mummanikkovai. The other poets
of eleventh Tirumurai who expressed their love of God are Ilamperuman and Nakkirateva
629 Tirumūlar, The Tirumandiram, p. 2940-2943.
630 Tirumūlar, The Tirumandiram, p. 3396.
631 Tirumūlar, The Tirumandiram, p. 3005-3008.
632 Tirumūlar, The Tirumandiram, p. 3098-3386.
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Sivaperuman through their poems titled as Mummanikkovai and Tiruvalanculi
Mummanikovai.633
The major feature of this kind of Bhakti in which their reverence and devotion
is better expressed portraying as Nayaki-Nayaka (heroine-hero), is expressing different
stages of their devotion according to the age group of women. Likewise, seven stages of
a women are analogous to seven stages of soul and the transition from one stage to another
stage is described beautifully. First stage of women starts from Petai, with age from five
to seven, that resembles wish or desire of the soul to see the lord. In the stage, she is in
childhood without any instinct of to be in love with someone. But her desire to see the
God starts when she hears from mother that her father is a God without any beginning or
end. The Second stage is Petumpai in which age is from seven to eleven. In the stage, the
girl is aware of her beauty and starts wearing the dresses and ornaments that make her
beautiful. In the stage, she comes to notice figure of God and his belongings drawn by
her friends or another from close circle. Here her soul starts to constantly think God and
His belongings losing her ornaments, dress and even charm. In the next stage of Mankai,
she completely loses herself contemplating only God falling in love with him. The age of
this group is twelve to thirteen but she feels him everywhere. 634
In Matantai, the fourth stage representing age from fourteen to nineteen, she
wants to experience the God as she is completely mad in love with him. Here poets use
very emotional language often with expressions of lust. Being unable to control her
passion, she wants to embrace and experience God but she gets depressed as she couldn’t
experience him at fullest. The age from 20 to 26 is represented by Arivai stage where she
wants to taste him, and desire for his blessings is developed gradually. Here she sees and
tastes him irregularly and enjoys every moment of their meeting. In the next stage of
Terivai, she is in full devotion with God in which she only sees him in every object of the
nature even her body. The age of Terivai is normally between twenty-six and thirty-two.
633 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 129-150
634 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 160-164
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In the seventh and final stage of Perilampen, her highest devotion is witnessed
surrendering her soul completely to God.635 Here she experiences the union with him and
lives in bliss. The real motive of this projection of love is to unleash their great
contemplation and devotion of God in the best method, thus they constantly recite these
poems and invite others too in order to develop Bhakti.
2.4. Bhagavat-Purana
Bhagavat-Purana is another text which is considered normally as textual support
of Bhakti.636 Purana is a kind of sacred scriptures in Hinduism in which ancient events
are recorded but it contains myth more than history. Yet by the time of Chandogya
Upanishad, it was considered as fifth Veda. Even Mahabharata is Purana in its kind but
generally considered as Itihasa due to its length and influence among Hindus. There are
18 Mahapuranas (big puranas) with other numerous Upapuranas too and Bhagavat-
Purana considers itself as fifth among these 18 Mahapuranas. Even though different
opinions are put forward by Indologists on the writing period of the text from 1300 CE to
1200 BCE,637 G.V. Tagare, famous researcher and translator of Bhagavata Purana places
it in fourth century.638 But it may be assumed rightly that text was compiled after tenth
century because even Ramanuja (born in 1017) who is considered as first Hindu scholar
and thinker to work systematically on Bhakti, didn’t mention the text but by the time of
Madhava (13th century) the text was much popular.639 The composer of Bhagavat-Purana
is also unknown but the possibility of one from southern India is much higher since the
text refers to saints in South India only.640 In Bhagavat purana itself, it is said that text
635 Sasivali, Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais, p. 164-169.
636 Cemil Kutluturk, Hint Düşüncesinde İslam Algısı (Istanbul: Dergah Yayınları, 2019), p. 129.
637 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, The Bhagavata-Purana (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas Publishers, 2011), p.
XVII-XXXIV.
638 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. XLI.
639 Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian philosophy. Vol. 4: Indian Pluralism (London: Cambridge
Univ. Press, 2009), p. 1.
640 Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 4. p. 1.
187
was composed by great sage but name was not mentioned, so some scholars suggest sage
Narayana is the composer while some others proposes Vyasa as the composer.641 The
text was subjected for many commentaries like Bhagavata-tatparya of Madhava and for
summarizations too.642
Bhagavat Purana text starts with an invitation to meditate on supreme spirit who
is omniscient but it continues towards cosmology in its first clause itself discussing
Sattva, Rajas and Thamas the nub of Samkhya philosophy, therefore some commenters
had neglected the talk on Bhakti and its visions, instead they focused around the
discussions on nature and cosmology. The first chapter mainly discusses mainly about
nature and its relation with soul.643 In second chapter of first Skandha (part) in Purana,
author mentions Bhakti as a path to peace and says:
“That is certainly the sublime religion for men, (religion) from which is created the
devotion to Lord Vishnu- devotion which is without any (ulterior) motive, unobstructed (or
constant) and by which the soul becomes deeply pacified. Loyal devotion (applied) to Lord
Vasudeva immediately generates non-attachment which leads to causeless knowledge (BhP.
1/2/6,7).”644
Some commentators on the text had interpreted the word ‘causeless knowledge’
as unnecessary arguments intending Jnana Marga. But in next verses Bhagavatpurana
recalls the importance of knowledge as it says:
“The sages who have faith in it (Brahman) visualize their own soul in themselves,
through devotion which is combined with knowledge and non-attachment and which is developed
by listening to the Vedanta. Who will not love (listen to) His narratives by whose sword-like
641 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. XLI.
642 Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 4. p. 1-2.
643 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas Publishers, 2011),
p. 1-6.
644 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 17.
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meditation, the learned ones, becoming one with the Supreme Spirit cut asunder the knot-like acts
producing bondage (BhP. 1/2/12,15).”645
It continues that evils will be destroyed by continuous services of devotees;
therefore, wise men will always practice devotion to God in order to purify their hearts.646
But in order to get Bhakti developed quickly, one must follow dharma first.647 In many
places, the text discusses meditation but not in relation with Bhakti, rather as steps to
develop Yoga.648
Amid extensive discussions according to Samkhya philosophy, the mention
about Bhakti happens only in third chapter of Bhagavat Purana. Chapter 29 in third part
of Bhagavat Purana discusses about Bhakti and its types when the question ‘what is
Bhakti’ was raised in its second Shloka (hymn). From seventh hymn, it is replied that
there are different types of Bhakti but author talks here classification according to
Samkhya philosophy and says:
“Oh mother, the path of Bhakti is regarded as having many branches; for the objects of
men differ according to natural dispositions and attributes. He who becomes my devotee with the
intention of doing injury (to others) or out of hypocrisy and jealousy of under the influence of
anger or with an outlook full of differences, is called Tamasa type of devotee. He who, with a
desire of worldly pleasures or of fame or authoritative power, worships me in my images and
entertains notions of difference, is a devotee of Rajasa type. He who wishes to purge all (his)
karmas, or desires to dedicate them to the Supreme Lord or worships the Lord with the simple
645 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 18-19.
646 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 19-20.
647 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 156.
648 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 386-391.
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objective of worship (and expecting no return for it) but entertains the idea of difference, is called
a devotee of Sattvika type (BhP. 3/29/7-10).”649
After discussing these three types of Bhakti, composer explains about Nirguna
Bhakti and says:
“Just as waters of the Ganga continuously flow into the sea, similiarly by merely
listening to (the description of) my qualities the mind incessantly flows to me who reside in the
hearts of all (beings). This close and intimate devotion to the Lord (Puruşottama), without any
ulterior motive, is defnitley regarded as the charachteristic of the Nirguan type of Bhakti that mere
listening to the qualities of God enhances mind to flow towards God who resides in the heart of
all beings, thus this pure and close devotion to God without any other motives is main quality of
Nirguna Bhakti (BhP. 3/29/11,12).”650
Author continues that Even liberation, same powers and form like God, and unity
with God are offered to those Nirguna bhaktas, they will not accept anything without
devotion to God. There Nirguna bhakta transcends from trinity of three Gunas and
samsara circle attaining God’s state, this stage of Nirguna bhakta is described according
to Samkhya philosophy. But in order to get his mind purified, he needs to carry out
dharma and religious duties carefully with touching and worshipping his image, so it may
be perceived that Bhakti mentioned here is not same Nirguna Bhakti that witnessed in
Kabir and followers.651
Chapter thirty-two of third part also mentions Bhakti and some commentors
understood that objective of chapter is describing the excellence of Bhakti. Twenty third
hymn says that if devotion to God was practiced carefully it will generate knowledge that
leads to God-realization,652 so it may be wrong to assess the chapter describes the
excellence of Bhakti but the hymn derogates Bhakti only as a medium for knowledge that
649 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 392-393.
650 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 393.
651 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 391-394.
652 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 409-412.
190
leads to God-realization. Yet author describes in thirty second hymn that objective of both
Jnana and Bhakti which based on firm devotion to God are same, and in subsequent
verses, he counts Bhakti too along with Karma and Jnana.653 Nine forms of Bhakti are
described in twenty third hymn of fifth chapter in seventh part as the author says:
“There are nine forms of devotion to Lord Vishnu-19to hear the names, episodes etc. of
Vishnu, 2) to sing of his name and glories, 3) to remember him, 4) to render service unto him, 5)
to worship him, 6) to pay obeisance to him, 7) to dedicate all one’s actions to him, 8) to confide
him as a friend, and 9) to offer one’s body and belongings to his service and care. I regard it as
the highest type of learning, if one offers himself completely to the Lord and performs this ninefold
devotion (BhP. 7/5/23,24).”654
When we go through last verse which states that performing this nine-fold
devotion will regard as highest type of learning, we come to understand that Bhakti is
regarded as a medium to knowledge here in the verse too.
Author of Bhagavata purana explains how to develop Bhakti to God in eleventh
chapter of eleventh part and says that one must listen to glorious stories of God and
singing them through contemplation along with observing all duties of dharma, Artha
(making wealth) and Kama (enjoyment of pleasures). Here author points to observe the
duties which is Karma, so Bhakti is also dependent here. But with dedicating these
obligations to please the God and depending only on him, one can reach zenith of
devotion by which saintly persons are associated with God and attain to Vaikuntha (state
of bliss). In the next verse, author describes about the best of devotees:
“Realizing me or (if unrealized) contemplating on me as unlimited by time and space,
as the Inner Soul abiding in all and essentially characterized by ‘Is’-ness, (existence) knowledge
653 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 412-414.
654 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 912.
191
and bliss those who worship me exclusively, are definitely regarded by me as the best of devotees
(BhP. 11/11/33).”655
In following verses, different modes of devotion are described including
touching and embracing God’s idols as well as his devotees too with serving them, taking
pilgrimage to sacred places of God and offering flowers and foods to him. Installing his
images in temples, arranging gardens and constructing temples are also regarded as
expressions of Bhakti. In the last hymn of the chapter, author says:
“Generally, there is no other expedient (to God-realization) except the path of devotion
generated in association with saintly people, for I am the chief support and refuge of the pious
saints (BhP. 11/11/48).”656
With last hymn, it may understand rightly that Bhagavata purana considered
here Bhakti as a path of salvation without any dependance on Karma or Jnana, still it
requires the guideship of a saint.
Fourteenth hymn in fourteenth chapter of eleventh portion explains whoever
dedicates his heart to God without hankering anything even moksha is dearer to God than
his consort and even his soul. The most important verses in the text regarding Bhakti that
highlight Bhakti as independent path of salvation with relegating Karma and Jnana paths
and making those dependent on Bhakti, come down:
“Neither the path of Yoga nor the Samkhya or Dharma (righteous duties prescribed by
Veda) or the study of the Vedas or performance of austerities or renunciation lead a person attain
to me as does the intensive and well-advanced devotion. I, the very beloved soul of saints, am
realized through unswerving devotion and faith. Exclusive devotion established in me purifies
even outcastes like Chandalas from their low birth. Neither Dharma (righteousness even though)
655 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 1971.
656 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 1973.
192
coupled with truthfulness and mercy nor knowledge reinforced by austerities can thoroughly
purify of sins a person who is devoid of devotion (BhP. 11/14/20-22).”657
Another notable point is that he offers purification for low castes too here, so it
may be the sole portion where Bhakti had mentioned in its full scope of social aspect.
Then author continues to describe the states of devotee to teach method of practicing
devotion and says that his hairs stand out due to devotional love, heart melts down with
intense devotion, tears of joy trickle down on the cheek and he overwhelms with
devotional songs expressing emotions and dancing without considering the public.
Listening and repeating his glories and names is also another method of meditation while
keeping his mind only on God helps him to get absorbed in God. To get these methods
executed perfectly, he must avoid the association with women and sit in a comfortable
solitude contemplating only on God. But he again mentions path of Yoga when he
explains the techniques of contemplation.658 In nineteenth chapter of same portion, he
reiterates again Bhakti as most effective path repeating aforesaid method of practicing it
but he includes prostration to God and his devotees as those lead to devotion.659
Twentieth chapter of eleventh portion elucidates and evaluates three paths of
moksha namely Karma, Jnana and Bhakti. First six hymns of the chapter talk about the
authority of Vedas including its teaching of Varnashrama dharma as these are the
distinguisher of good and evil and if these teachings of Vedas are ignored, it causes
bewilderments. Author proposes the path of Karma who is behind desires and didn’t
disgust with rituals while path of Jnana is recommended for one who is disgusted with
rituals. The path of devotion is recommended only for one who luckily cherished a devout
faith in the stories of God and neither disgusted nor attached with Karma. Yet he must
continue to perform rituals observing Varnashrama dharma until he gets fed up with it. In
any conditions, everyone must follow path of Karma firstly before entering Jnana or
657 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 1992.
658 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 1993-1996.
659 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 2031.
193
Bhakti paths. He continues that if one leads a life observing Karma path without
committing sins, he naturally gains knowledge and if he is lucky, he finds devotion that
is superior to knowledge. Even though author explains that neither Karma nor Jnana are
general pre-conditions for one who continues devotional path after he luckily attains great
faith in God’s stories and names, he states that one couldn’t start devotional path directly
before Karma.660
As we witnessed in the evaluation of this long text, even though Bhakti was
counted as one of three paths, it is not proposed as independent path to salvation but an
optional path, if he was lucky to find it, after observing path of Karma and teachings of
Vedas. Repeating the necessity of following dharma including Varnashrama dharma is
clear evidence for one who rightly argues that text is not a source for origin of Bhakti but
only an effort to bring Bhakti to religious fold dominated by Vedas and path of Karma.
Moreover, discussing Yoga philosophy wherever Bhakti is mentioned points to text’s
allegiance Samkhya school of philosophy. Discussing Samkhya philosophy in relation
with its three gunas namely Sattva, Rajas and Tamas is enough proof on the text is a
philosophical text of Samkhya.
Even though some mentions on Bhakti are found in Bhagavat-Purana which is
a long text with almost 11000 Slokas (hymns),661 it may be wrong to evaluate Bhakti as
the key teaching of text. Sridhvara Swami (n.d.) in his work Bhavarthabodhini
commentary on the Bhagavat-Purana states Chathuslokibhagavata as essence of
Bhagavat-Purana. Chathuslokibhagavata is four hymns of Bhagavat-Purana starting from
32nd and ending in 35th hymns of 9th chapter in second Skandha (part) of Bhagavat-Purana.
But these four verses deal only with knowledge of Bhagavan (God), qualities of Bhagavan
and that Bhagavan is always accompanied with his eternal associates. Jiva Goswami
660 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, trans., The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 2035-2040.
661 Karsandas Mulji, History of the Sect of Maharajas, Or Vallabhacharyas, in Western India (London:
Trübner and Company, 1865), p. 14.
194
(d.1598) also expresses the same vision in his commentary Kramasandarbha.662
According to Vira Raghava (12th century), a Ramanuja follower, states in his commentary
Bhagavata Chandrika that main discussion of the text is Dharma.663 It is notable that G.V.
Tagare didn’t mention Bhakti in ten topics when he classified Skandhas (part) on the basis
of subject matter.664
2.5. Shandilya Bhaktisutra
Another major text that completely deals with Bhakti is Shandilya Bhaktisutra,665
named after Shandilya who was believed as a sage in ancient times. The author of
‘Shandilya Bhaktisutra’ is unknown and the date of text is also unknown.666 As in
traditional sources, he is believed to be lived in post-Krishna Gita period as the citations
to the philosophies of many scriptures like Srimad Bhagavat Mahapuran, Nrisingh puran,
Vishnupuran and Mahabharata as well as some Upanishads that existed in the period, are
found in the text.667 Since the definition of Shandilya is found in Narada Bhaktisutra, it
may be right to say that Shandilya Bhaktisutra was penned down before Narada
Bhaktisutra.
When compared to Narada Bhaktisutra, the texts differ in the approaches
towards Bhakti as Narada exposes it in an emotional level linked to the heart while
Shandilya describes it from philosophical and intellectual angle, yet both texts are most
referred to understand Bhakti comprehensively. The difference in exposition on Bhakti
662 Kiyokazu Okita, “The Bhagavata Purana in Four Verses: Jiva Gosvami’s Kramsandarbha,” in Caitanya
Vaiṣṇava philosophy: tradition, reason, and devotion, ed. Ravi M. Gupta (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Pub.
Company, 2014), p. 61-62.
663 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, The Bhagavata-Purana, p. 6.
664 Ganesh Vasudevo Tagare, The Bhagavata-Purana, p. XXIII.
665 Both Sandilya and Shandilya are seen and Shandilya was preferred here.
666 Nanda Lal Sinha, The SandilyaSutram with the commentary of Svapneswara (Allahabad: Sudhindhra
Nath Basu, 1918), p. III.
667 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him. (Faizabad: Pothi online publishers, 2018), p. 5-7.
195
ensues from their distinct attitudes in gaining Bhakti as Narada chose the way easy to be
follow and practical path of pure devotion and love towards Lord while Shandilya focused
firstly on understanding the logic and philosophy behind the supremacy of Bhakti path
over others and then on techniques to achieve it, thus the text revolved around
philosophical and intellectual issues related with Bhakti. So, Shandilya Bhaktisutra as a
text is based on logical reasoning and citing of instances from the scriptures to
demonstrate the effectiveness of Bhakti as a supreme path to gain mukti or moksha, thus,
Narada Bhaktisutra will attract those who are driven by the emotions of heart while
Shandilya Bhaktisutra would appeal to a person who needs intellectual basis to be
convinced.668 For Shandilya was sage pioneered in philosophies of Hinduism, well versed
scholar in Upanishad and other scriptures, his narratives and efforts in demonstrating
Bhakti as superior path with strong evidences from the scriptures itself has very
instrumental in filling the gaps that occurred between Jnana and Bhakti Margas as the
later often neglects the importance of knowledge i.e. the learning of Vedic and other texts,
the case that ignored by many Bhakti devotees due to its status of being prohibited to low
castes.
As we examine the content of Shandilya Bhaktisutra, we understand that the text
can be classified into four headings;
1) Pramaans; the proofs related with Bhakti as a superior path,
2) Prameya; the object that is known through these proofs, and Supreme
Lord is the ultimate object in Bhakti
3) Sadhanas; the practical means or ways to achieve this object and here it
is attainment of God-realization.
668 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 9.
196
4) Mukti; the final liberation where one’s personal atman (soul) is merged
with cosmic atman and freed from birth recycle.669
when coming to ‘Pramaans’, these are of three kinds
1. Proofs with one of five sense organs of perception such as eyes, ears,
skin, nose and tongue
2. Proofs that are imagined by applying the mind and logic and based on
inference
3. Proofs that are based on the words of scriptures. Shandilya thinks the last
one is authentic in nature and the best because it always speaks about the
Universal truth.670
The ‘Prameya’ also is of three (a) God or Supreme being, also known as
Brahman in the Upanishads (b) the Jiva or the living being and (c) the physical world,
both the animate and inanimate. For Shandilya, the knowledge of Brahman is the best
because it represents the cosmic consciousness that is eternal and only the spiritual truth
in this creation. Jiva and the world, the other two are manifestations of Brahman, hence
subsidiary to the Supreme being.671 Sadhana are the means to attain one’s objective, and
here it is to attain God-realization. There are different kinds of Sadhanas like meditation
(Yoga), contemplation (Dhyan), austerity (Tapa), religious sacrifices (Yagya) and so on,
but the best path is Bhakti the devotion to God and Shandilya proves it in the text by
citing the philosophies in the sacred texts and scriptures.672
669 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 10.
670 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 10.
671Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 10.
672 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 11.
197
Like Narada did in his Bhakti Sutra, Shandilya also categorized Bhakti into two;
(a) ‘Para Bhakti’ the supreme and primary form of Bhakti (b) ‘Gauna Bhakti’ the
secondary and subsidiary to primary Bhakti. The Para Bhakti is primarily connected with
inner self and directly concerned with the heart and soul which are sincerely and intensely
in love with God and he loses his consciousness in surroundings, whereas Gauna Bhakti
is external form of devotion that focuses on doing deeds such as chanting the Lord’s
name, singing the glories of Lord, doing Yoga and other religious and social activities.673
Even both categories lead to goal, Para Bhakti attain the God realization immediately but
Gauna Bhakti takes a long time as it grows step by step.674
Shandilya, in the text, has also categorized Bhakti into three according its ways
of correspondence: (a) Gyan Bhakti; in which one develops his devotion for the Supreme
Being when he becomes enlighten and wise, and when understands the truth and truthful
path to God realization, (b) Yoga Bhakti; meditative and contemplative path of
developing devotion (c) Gaun Bhakti; obtaining devotion in a subtle manner by practicing
different spiritual path. Gaun Bhakti is further classified into three again according to in
which situation devotee starts his devotion: (a) Artha Bhakti; when one has suffered, he
seeks refuge with God in order to overcome his difficulties, (b) Jigyasa Bhakti; when one
has heard about the Lord and wishes to explore more about him and follows it to examine
the feeling rather than pure sake of God (c) Arthaarthi Bhakti; when one expects material
rewards through devotion. Like most of Bhakti proponents advocated, Shandilya has also
advocated that all human beings have an equal right for moksha or Mukti through the
path of Bhakti irrespective of his caste and creed.675
673 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 11.
674 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 11.
675 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 11-12.
198
As Shandilya Bhaktisutra is an important text that penned to depict Bhakti only,
it is unavoidable to go through the aphorisms of the text at least in a summarizing mode.
The text - also called as Shandilya Bhakti Shatak676 denoting the hundred- starts with a
call to discuss Bhakti and Shandilya defines it as follows;
“That (Bhakti) is to have supreme, true, undiluted and untainted love and attachment
(para nurakti) for the Supreme Being, the Lord God of creation (risvare) (ShBhSr. 1/1/2).”677
Shandilya defines this form of Bhakti as primary and pure form of Bhakti citing
the reason in the next verse;
“It is because he who has established himself in ‘it’ (i.e., who has established his own
‘self’ in the supreme ‘Self’ known as Ishwar or Brahman, the Supreme Lord, by being one with
him; he who has attained God-realization by following the path of Bhakti) is deemed to have
found the eternal nectar of immortality and bliss unbound. Verily indeed, this is the universal and
unequivocal declaration of the scriptures (ShBhSr. 1/1/3).”678
Shandilya continues that this attachment is possible only by attainment of
wisdom and enlightenment about the self because the self of a devotee which is pure
consciousness known as the ‘Atman’, is also the same consciousness known as
‘Brahman’ and ‘Paramatma’ that operates the universal level of existence. As the
aphorism raises the question whether Bhakti is same with knowledge, next aphorism
answers the question;
676 Shatak means hundred
677 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him p. 17.
678 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 19.
199
“Besides this, it is also observed that with the rise of Bhakti in a person’s heart, Gyan
(knowledge) is proportionately reduced (till a time comes when Bhakti is at zenith and Gyan is
completely eliminated (ShBhSr. 1/1/5).”679
Shandilya’s answer to the question continues in later aphorisms too;
“Bhakti is not dependent upon any action to fructify or become effective (nakriya) as is
the case with Gyan which requires diligent efforts in order to mature and bear fruits (to yield the
desired result). This is why the spiritual rewards of Bhakti are profound and infinite (ShBhSr.
1/1/7,8).”680
Aphorisms from 1 to 9 deals mainly with Bhakti’s relation with Gyan
(knowledge) and concludes that even a person with Gyan can submit himself before the
God like a devotee but it doesn’t mean that he has Bhakti, these aphorisms form first part
of first chapter of the text.681
Second part of first chapter starts with stating the supremacy of Bhakti over other
spiritual practices and says “Bhakti is the fundamental and principal means and others
(karma-jnana etc.) are subordinate and depending upon her. Bhakti is the substratum
(ShBhSr. 1/2/1,2).”682 Shandilya claims that there are references in the scriptures regarding
this, contrary what it perceived that scriptures endorse mostly Karma or Jnana Marga,
then, Shandilya exposes objections against theory that ultimate reward of Bhakti is to ‘see
God’.683 He shows the attainment of liberation by Gopis (cowherd) with mere deep love
679 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 23.
680 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 24-25.
681 C Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 19-27.
682 Sri Shandilya, Sri Shandilya Bhaktisutras, trans. Tridandi Sri Prajnan Yati, p. 27-28.
683 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 29-32.
200
and affection towards Lord Krishna in spite of their non-access to knowledge of scriptures
and being unable to see the Lord in physical terms as an evidence for his claims done in
previous aphorisms.684 In fifth aphorism of the chapter, Shandilya states that Godrealization
is corresponded with the help of Bhakti as well as it also helps to get the
knowledge of God. He says that basic awareness about Bhakti and Gyan that both of them
have one single objective which is to bring God-realization, will remove all debates and
oppositions.685 Then he continues to talk about pure form of Bhakti and that is when
applied to Supreme being and all other Bhakti forms done towards sundry God, Goddess
or any other deity are degraded and not true form or purpose of Bhakti.686
Shandilya in next aphorism states that Bhakti is important in both Jnana and
Yoga and both are subservient to Bhakti as it is substratum to bring the final success.687
Then he continues with another secondary form of Bhakti which is Samadhi a trance-like
state of transcendental existence since it is natural accompaniment of success in Bhakti.688
In the next aphorism, Shandilya rejects the argument that Bhakti is an attachment to God
and attachment itself not a good virtue as it leads entanglement with the object of
adoration,689 because this is not attachment with material objects but with Supreme Soul.
Thus, Shandilya openly proclaims the superiority of Bhakti and bhaktas and says:
684 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 34.
685 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 36-39.
686 Sri Shandilya, Sri Shandilya Bhaktisutras, trans. Tridandi Sri Prajnan Yati, p. 42.
687 Sri Shandilya, Sri Shandilya Bhaktisutras, trans. Tridandi Sri Prajnan Yati, p. 43.
688 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 43.
689 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 44.
201
“Therefore, without any contradiction Bhakti indeed is the highest of al and a Bhakta is
superior to Karmi (one who seeks moksha with Karma), Jnani (one who seeks moksha with Jnana)
or a Yogi (one who seeks moksha with Yoga) (ShBhSr. 1/2/12).”690
To establish his view of Bhakti’s supremacy, Shandilya shows the conversation
between Arjuna and Lord Krishna in the form of question and answers, as evidence.691
In the next aphorisms, Shandilya explains about ‘Shradha’ and how it is related
with Bhakti and says ‘Shraddha’ is an excellent virtue but not considered as Bhakti in
ordinary form but its glorious from leads to self-realization and God-realization.692
‘Shraddha’ which means belief, conviction and reverence is an adamant chase of his
master and it cements Bhakti when it is executed towards Supreme being. Then he
proceeds again to scriptures and its role towards Bhakti and states that all ‘Brahma-
Kand’693 are meant to foster Bhakti towards Brahman the Supreme Lord not to mere gain
knowledge about Him, and if this fundament is lacked then the whole intention and
purpose of scriptures goes wasted and first chapter ends here.694
Second chapter of the text starts with pointing the necessity of keeping one’s
mind and intellect focused on the means and paths to gain the correct knowledge till the
emancipation is obtained, mentioning Sage Kashyap’s view that seeker is able to attain
moksha only when the mind and intellect are directed towards understanding of Supreme
Truth. Author also mentions sage Vyasa’s view also, though there is slight difference,
that the mind and the intellect that is focused on the Atman is the one that leads to final
690 Sri Shandilya, Sri Shandilya Bhaktisutras, trans. Tridandi Sri Prajnan Yati, p. 48.
691 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 46.
692 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 47-48.
693 Vedas, accoridng to its contents’ divided into two: Karma kand that deals with rituals and ‘Brahma
kand’ which is about the knowledge of ‘Brahm’ the Supreme Lord.
694 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 49.
202
attainment of bliss and beatitude.695 Shandilya reconciles the two views and states that
moksha can be attained by both the paths, i.e., by focusing on the ‘self’ as well as on the
‘Brahman’ because both represent the cosmic transcendental consciousness. Shandilya
continues that the notion of Jiva and Brahman are different is wrong because it represents
the same pure consciousness that exists at two levels of creation, the Jiva being at
microcosmic while Brahman is macrocosmic. Jiva is subject to worldly miseries as the
real nature of its own self is not understood, and infinite glories is integral quality of
Brahman as they are natural to it.696
The next aphorisms revolve around Atman, Maya and Brahman and its’
interconnections but explanations seem hard to be digested because of its complex
structure as it describes that Supreme being employs his delusion-creating powers known
as Maya to create Prakriti (nature) and since the origin of Maya as well as Prakriti can be
tracked to Brahman, there is no wrong in understanding that owe their origin ultimately
to Brahman. In the end, it is concluded that both Braham and Maya play role in the
creation and cause of the nature, and there is no third one other than the pure
consciousness and the revelation of this consciousness since Prakirti and Brahman have
coexisted ever since the time creation came into being.697
Shandilya proceeds that attainment of Bhakti’s true form and perfection is
revealed in visibly observable signs that are outlined in scriptures and in 44th aphorism,
ten signs are counted and these are:
 Sammana: to have great respect and reverence for the Lord God,
 Bahumana: respect to anything that has any relation with God,
695 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 51-54.
696 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 54-58.
697 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 60-64.
203
 Priti: feeling of exceptional happiness to see or meet a devotee of the
Lord as much as meeting the Lord himself.
 Viraha: feeling of intense pain of separation from the Lord.
 Etravichiktsa: not to be interested in the matters that is not directly
related to the Lord.
 Mahima Khyati: to remain engaged in glorifying Lord and his good
virtues.
 Tadarthapranasthana: to live for the sake of God and serve him alone.
 Tadiyata: firm conviction to Lord neglecting all other possessions.
 Sarvatadhbava: to see Lord in every creature, everything and everywhere
in the world.
 Apratikulyadini: not to act in any way that is against the wishes of
Lord.698
As an answer to question whether devotions towards different incarnations of
the Supreme Lord are considered as pure Bhakti form or not, next aphorisms are brought
to state that Bhakti directed towards the various manifestations of the Supreme Lord is
also deemed as authentic form of Bhakti, and to demonstrate that many scriptures had
endorsed this view but he also recognizes that is not equal to devotion to the Supreme
being himself.699 Not to serve Kings, not to engage in gambling and other deceitful
activities are also requirements to be in pure form of Bhakti as they are prohibited in
scriptures. Then, Shandilya rejects the argument raised from last two aphorisms that it
would be wrong to worship Lord Vasudeva and devote for him, because he had
manifested form of the Supreme Being with body like others and also ruled the earth.
Then he describes the reason of rejection that Lord Vasudeva is same as Supreme Lord
698 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 65-66.
699 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 68-73.
204
and it is endorsed by the scriptures.700 Shandilya says this is the case when Bhakti is
applied to other incarnations of Vishnu701 and the first part of second chapter of the text
ends here.
Second part of second chapter starts with means by which Bhakti can be
developed and it is Bhajan the act of worshipping God by remembering him and his
glories, reciting and repeating his holy name and keeping his mind focused exclusively
on the Lord is one of the primary means. Like Bhajan, Kirtan the act of worshipping the
Lord by singing his divine glories, chanting mantras either single or in a group with
enthusiasm is also another tool to practice Bhakti. Among different means to develop
Bhakti, repeating and chanting the Lord’s name holy name and listening with due
devotion and faith is the way to achieve Bhakti easily according to Sage Jaimini.702 The
deeds that are offered selflessly to the Lord is also tool for Bhakti since it don’t bring
entanglements and is free from the chain of cause and effect.703 Another important tool is
Dhyan the deep thought, contemplation and concentration of mind focused on an object
with attentive and constant remembrance of the Lord and it will help turn his mind away
from this material world and concentrate only on God-realization.704
After counting some means to develop Bhakti, Shandilya turns his focus on
Yajna which was interpreted often as the sacrifices in Vedas mainly fire sacrifices; the
ritual neglected by most Bhakti proponents but he claims the interpretation is wrong and
it actually refers the worship that offered selflessly to Supreme Being marking self-
700 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 73-79.
701 Sri Shandilya, Sri Shandilya Bhaktisutras, trans. Tridandi Sri Prajnan Yati, p. 101.
702 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 80-86.
703 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 88.
704 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 89.
205
surrender of performer in order fulfill his desires.705 Shandilya then disapproves the
tradition of ‘Padodak’ performed as a part of ritual, that is to wash the feet of deity being
worshipped and this water is being distributed by priests among the worshippers as holy
water which is said to have some sacred powers, and he demonstrates it is practically
impossible since Lord’s feet is not present before worshipper, therefore, any offering to
holy feet of the Lord is considered as ‘Padakok’ without any need of physical activities
like washing with water.706 Then he talks about errors committed during the offerings and
worships unintentionally that can be neutralized with certain methods which vary
according to the types of sin.707
In the next aphorism, Shandilya repeats what it was said in Bhagavad-Gita also
that any simple offering may be leaf or flower would be accepted as a special gift if it was
done with full love and devotion like the deeds that was done selfless and for the sake of
others. In next aphorisms, Shandilya terms this kind of Bhakti through means like Kirtan,
Bhajan, Dyaan, Japa as ‘Gauna Bhakti’ which are also remedy for sins committed
inadvertent and categorizes it into three namely Arta Bhakti, Jigyasa Bhakti and
Artharthita Bhakti which are discussed early in our work.708 Shandilya also ensures that
these easily practicable means can normalize the negative effects of sins, instead of heavy
and difficult penances that is described by Vedas and speaks:
“Even for the expiration of the gravest offences, there is absolutely no need for a devotee
to observe severe penance like Chandrayana Vrata etc. because when he has taken recourse to
constant chanting of Divine Name till the death does not befall upon him. For a devotee even a
little act of devotion destroys gravest sin, because Bhakti has got such an extra-ordinary power.
705 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 90.
706 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 91.
707 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 92.
708 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 92-97.
206
Because steadfast devotion makes the Lord stationed at heart therefore for the expiation of sins it
does not require any other assistance as Bhakti serves the self-some purpose, like the post of the
threshing floor (ShBhSr. 2/2/20-22).”709
Like he had done earlier to bring the ideas from Bhagavat-Gita, he also outlined
that everyone irrespective cast and creed has an equal right to have Bhakti, thus to attain
the eternal peace, liberated from Samsara circle. He reminds the followers of Bhakti to
learn its path and mature in it to attain Mukti and never give up in the half way because
scriptures endorse the view that those who attained perfection in Bhakti attain Mukti
easily and those who are not, attain it gradually.710 Shandilya understands Bhakti as true
purport of BhagavatGita, so he says:
“One who has understood the essence knows that the true purport of the Gita is exclusive
or unalloyed devotion to Godhead. Exclusive unalloyed devotion to Godhead is the sine qua non
of all the lessons: thus, spoke Srimad Bhagvat Gita (ShBhSr. 2/2/28,29).”711
In the third chapter of the text, Shandilya rejects the argument that argues Vedas
are too difficult to understand and their knowledge is complicated and esoteric for
ordinary Jiva (living being) thus it may be not created by Supreme being, because he
believes that Vedas include knowledge that suits all categories of Jiva.712 In the end of
first part of the chapter, Shandilya talks a little about cosmology in Hindu philosophy that
elements which constitute this universe follow the reverse order, thus they will merge
with their primary sources.713
709 Sri Shandilya, Sri Shandilya Bhaktisutras, trans. Tridandi Sri Prajnan Yati, p. 156-163.
710 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 100-102.
711 Sri Shandilya, Sri Shandilya Bhaktisutras, trans. Tridandi Sri Prajnan Yati, p. 170-171.
712 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 115.
713 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 116.
207
The very first aphorisms of second part of chapter deal with characteristics of
Supreme Being who is also known as Brahman that He is One and only, eternal, constant
and without parallel. Shandilya rejects the theory that since the characteristics of mortal
creature and immortal one are different, therefore Jiva must be different from Supreme
being, because he believes that these difference appears only at the superficial level where
Maya has hold but if one looks bit deeper he will understand the truth that it is the same
consciousness that lights both inner self and entire creation.714 He proceeds that Supreme
Being has no negatives or shortcomings that is normally seen in creations but these are
originated from him as he is the cause of everything.715 Towards the end of text, Shandilya
once again demonstrates the significance of Bhakti as a path of moksha especially Para
Bhakti and speaks:
“When one develops Para Bhakti for the lord God, one is able to overcome the
distraction and confusion caused by the mind and its inherent tendency to doubt and be sceptic
about everything. A self-realized and enlightened person who has attained Para Bhakti, i.e., who
has developed the supreme form of devotion and love to the Lord God, is destined to liberation
and deliverance from the cycle of birth and death in this mortal mundane world; he is destined to
attain emancipation and salvation of his soul; he is destined to attain oneness with the Supreme
Being as he is able to merge his atman with Parmatma, the Supreme Atman (ShBhSr. 3/2/4,5).”716
In the last aphorisms of the text, Shandilya describes about creature (Jiva) that it
has three tools to understand the truth and these are (a) Sabda the wise words of the
scripture that enlighten him about the truth (b) Linga the inference from available
knowledge (c) Pratksha the organs of perception, and Samsara circle the circle of birth
714 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 118-120.
715 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 121.
716 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 121-122.
208
and death is fallacious conception of Jiva who has not realized the truth.717 In short,
Shandilya Bhaktisutra elucidates the philosophical explanation of Bhakti especially its
role between devotee and devoted.
When we inspected four texts i.e., Bhagavat-Gita, Bhagavata Purana, Narada
Bhaktisutra and Shandilya Bhaktisutra which are normally attributed as foundational
texts of Bhakti, we realized that none of these are not in position to be considered as
foundational or original text of Bhakti movement because Bhagavatpurana, Narada
Bhaktisutra and Shandilya Bhaktisutra were compiled in a period after the emergence of
Alvars and Nayanmars in south India. Even though it is true that Bhagavat-Gita put
forward Bhakti as one of three interdependent paths to salvation, we understand from
history that it never ignited a movement soon after its compilation since we couldn’t
witness such a movement or emergence of Bhakti movement in first or second centuries
next to the completion of the text. Moreover, Bhagavat-Gita is not an important text in
hierarchical order of sacred texts of Hinduism but only a part of Purana which fall, with
other numerous texts, under the category Smriti which is behind Shruti in importance and
authenticity according to Hindu theology. Later, Bhagavat-Gita turned as most referred
and recited texts among Hindus but we couldn’t trace any evidence that proves text got
fame soon after its completion. These facts lead us that Bhakti movement was emerged
in Nalayira Divya Prabandham and Tirumurai which are considered as fifth Veda by
Alvars and Nayanmars respectively.
2.6. Narada Bhaktisutra
Along with Bhagavat-Gita and Bhagavata Purana, Narada and Shandilya
Bhaktisutras are some of notable works that are penned down to describe Bhakti ideology.
In both works, Bhakti with its definition, characteristics and other details are composed
717 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 126-127.
209
in Sutras (aphorisms) though these are simple and easily catchable in Narada Bhaktisutra
whereas in Shandilya Bhaktisutra these are complex, more philosophical and rational.
Even though ‘Narada Bhaktisutra is attributed to Narada, a sage in ancient times
according to tradition, the real author of the text is unknown and it was written around
1000 CE.718 The text is consisted of 84 simple aphorisms that focus on definitions of
Bhakti, characteristics needed to develop Bhakti, different phases of Bhakti and the
specialties of successful Bhakti devotees, and it is also basic text of Panjaratra version
of Bhakti.719 To examine the title ‘Narada Bhaktisutra’, the term ‘Sutra’ means a ‘key’,
a ‘formula’, a ‘code’, an ‘aphorism’ and when it is applied to any body of knowledge it
refers a basic formula or the key principle that help to grasp that body of knowledge
extensively,720 thus the title gives the meaning ‘aphorisms of Narada on Bhakti’.
Narada Bhaktisutra starts with defining what Bhakti is, and in second aphorism
it states that “Bhakti is of the nature of highest love for this one (God) (NrBhSr. 1/2).”721
Stating “And of the nature of immortal bliss (NrBhSr. 1/3)”722 in third aphorism, it
demonstrates that Bhakti is a path to attain moksha which liberates from samsara circle
enjoying eternal life because it clearly states the love is immortal. Narada, then, tries to
depict the state of one who attained Bhakti and says;
718 R. Raj Singh, Bhakti and philosophy (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2006), p. 76
719 Puri, The Ecstacy of Love divine (essence of Narada Bhaktisutra (Bangalore: Parvathamma C.P
Subbaraja Setty Charitable Trust, 2009), p. 15-16.
720 Ajai Kumar Chhawchharia, trans., Shandilya Bhaktisutra, Aphorisms for devotion to god and The
principles of the philosophy of love for Him, p. 7.
721 Y. Subrahmanya Sarma, Narada’s aphorisms on Bhakti (Mysore: The Adhyatma Prakasha Karyalaya,
1938), p .1.
722 Sarma, Narada’s Aphorisms on Bhakti, p. 2.
210
“On attaining which, a man becomes perfect, immortal, satisfied forever, on gaining
which one wants nothing, laments over nothing, hates nothing, delights in nothing, and is never
enthusiastic over anything earthly (NrBhSr. 1/5,6).”723
Even though Bhagavad-Gita endorsed Bhakti as path towards moksha along with
Karma and Jnana paths that prevailed in Vedic society, it hadn’t rejected them as paths
but Bhaktisutra apparently rejects Karma Marga the path of rituals and traditions, and it
states “such renunciation in devotional service means to give up all kinds of social
customs and religious rituals governed by Vedic injunction (NrBhSr. 1/8)”724 While it
teaches to give up all the social customs and religious rituals that put forward by Vedas
technically termed as ‘Nirodh’ as in previous aphorism, it also rejects Varnashrama and
other divisive policies of Vedic Hindu philosophy. Even though Bhakti is open for all
including upper casts and strict followers of Vedas also, the text demands to give up Vedic
instructions of social customs and religious rituals also. By the statement, it exhibits
Bhakti as a path that renounces Vedic teachings, contrary to what it was perceived earlier
as one of three different paths. When we compare three paths in the light of this aphorism,
acceptance of three paths as ways to moksha is questioned creating a confrontation
between Karma and Bhakti Margas. It may be perceived that the reason to denounce
Karma Marga as path of liberation is its dependence on material objects and restriction
only for upper casts whereas Bhakti is pure devotion and all embracing.
As the text is solely dedicated to Bhakti, we try to note down almost aphorisms
with purport where needed, as it will help to illustrate Bhakti from all dimensions. After
explaining one kind of ‘Nirodh’ in eighth aphorism, it describes another kind of ‘Nirodh’
in next aphorism and says “And exclusive devotion to Him and indifference to all things
that are obstacles to it (NrBhSr. 1/9).”725 While it states that “exclusive dedication to the
723 Sarma, Narada’s Aphorisms on Bhakti, p. 2.
724 Swami Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love (Los Angeles:
Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 1991), p. 23
725 Sarma, Narada’s Aphorisms on Bhakti, p. 3.
211
Lord means giving up all shelters (NrBhSr. 1/10)”726 in tenth aphorism, it explains, in
eleventh aphorism, the state of ‘being indifference’ mentioned in ninth aphorism and
says;
“Indifference toward what stands in the way of devotional service means to accept only
those activities of social custom and Vedic injunction that are favorable to devotional service
(NrBhSr. 1/11).”727
In the last aphorism, stance towards Vedic injunctions is simplified as it
advocates to accept Vedic injunctions along with social custom if it favors devotional
service whereas in the previous aphorism it instructed to ignore Vedic teachings
completely. Given that Narada teaches to accept Vedic instructions only when devotional
services favor it, it is clear that Vedas are not the foundation or principle to develop Hindu
beliefs any more but it is Bhakti the path of devotion. As an answer to a possible question
‘how to deal with sacred texts?’ after it demanded to take Bhakti as the foundation of
Hindu theology, it clarifies in next Sutra:
“One must continue to follow scriptural injunctions even after one is fixed up in
determined certainty that devotional service is the only mean for reaching the perfection of life
(NrBhSr. 1/12).”728
As it was warned in next aphorism that “otherwise there is every apprehension
of a fall (NrBhSr. 1/13),”729 it is understood that scriptural injunctions are to be followed
as long as it does not encounter Bhakti. Then it turns to depict the interference of a devotee
in social and political issues and says he can interfere minimal in these because these are
necessary to human life as eating and drinking.730 From the first to fourteenth aphorisms
of Narada Bhaktisutra, Bhakti’s characteristics, its stance towards Vedas and its
726 Sarma, Narada’s Aphorisms on Bhakti, p. 4.
727 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 34.
728 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 36.
729 Sarma, Narada’s Aphorisms on Bhakti, p. 5.
730 Sarma, Narada’s Aphorisms on Bhakti, p. 5.
212
injunctions are described in general, then it proceeds to describe the definition of Bhakti
along with definitions of prominent Hindu scholars.
Before defining Bhakti, Narada notes down the definitions of famous Bhakti
scholars and explain the definition of Bhakti by Srila Vyasadeva the son of Parashra
Muni, that “Bhakti is fond attachment for worshipping the Lord in various ways (NrBhSr.
1/16).”731 While Garga Muni defines Bhakti as fondness for narrations about the Lord,732
Shandilya who had also penned down aphorisms on Bhakti in the name of ‘Shandilya
Bhaktisutra’ says that “Bhakti results from one’s removing all obstructions to taking
pleasure in the Supreme self (NrBhSr. 1/18).”733 After describing these definitions, he
brings his own definition on Bhakti and states “Bhakti consists of offering one’s every act
to the supreme Lord and feeling extreme distress in forgetting him (NrBhSr. 1/19).”734
Contrary to comparing each one’s definitions against his definition, Narada justifies as
everyone’s descriptions are correct in their own viewpoints.735 As Narada points a
cowherd woman of Vraja as an ideal example of Bhakti, he tries to demonstrate a variety
of points. By choosing a woman bhakta (devotee) instead of a man bhakta, he proves that
Bhakti is open for all regardless of genders and a woman could be a best Bhakta whereas
women were denied to enter paths of Karma and Jnana. Among the devotees, Gopis who
are cowherd and devoted to God Krishna in Bhagavad-Gita are considered best bhakta
group according to Narada. The possibility of rising of one who deals with duties that
considered low in status, to highest position of closeness with God is also tried to be
proved through the exampling and when it compared with Varnashrama classification on
the basis of occupation, it matters most.
731 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 46.
732 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 49.
733 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 50.
734 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 54.
735 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 58.
213
After having described the top example among different forms of Bhakti, he
turns the attention to compare Bhakti with other paths and states that pure devotional
service is superior than performing of religious works and knowledge denoting Karma
and Jnana paths respectively.736 In coming aphorisms, Narada focuses on the relation of
Bhakti with knowledge describing someone’s opinion that knowledge is the means for
developing devotion while some others think both are interdependent.737 Then Narada
expresses his view that Bhakti itself is its own fruit and illustrates his view with two
examples of a royal palace and a meal. As king is not really satisfied just by seeing palace
nor someone can placate his hunger just by looking at a meal, Bhakti is also not attained
by knowledge itself, moreover seekers of liberation should take devotional service
alone.738 As this chapter ends with this teaching, it may conclude that those who are
seeking moksha must follow Bhakti as it invalidates Jnana and Karma as paths of moksha
with these examples.
Most of expounders on Narada Bhaktisutra had tried to classify the text
according to its contents, thus from 34th aphorism a new chapter is started that focus on
the means of achieving it. As Narada did in previous chapters to bring the opinions of
famous proponents before expressing his opinion, same is also followed here on the
means of achieving it. Some proponents say that one achieves Bhakti by giving up sense
gratification and mundane association to material objection while others think that one
achieves Bhakti by worshipping Lord ceaselessly.739 After describing other’s opinions,
Narada expresses his thoughts and says:
736 Sarma, Narada’s Aphorisms on Bhakti, p. 8.
737 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 76-77.
738 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 79-81.
739 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 87-90.
214
“One achieves Bhakti by hearing and chanting about the supreme Lord’s special
qualities, even while engaged in the ordinary activities. Primarly, however, one develops Bhakti
by the mercy of great souls, or by a small drop of the Lord’s mercy (NrBhSr. 1/37).”740
Here in the verses, counting mercy and grace of God as prime method of
developing Bhakti introduces a doctrine that was unfamiliar to pre-Bhakti Hindu theology
but very solid one in Bhakti. The last aphorism needs some attention as the mercy of great
souls is brought together with the mercy of Lord and it denotes to the souls of devotees
who already liberated; thus, their souls are combined together. Foreseeing the possibility
of questions to be raised against what it was said in last aphorism, the next two aphorisms
are composed in order to answer it, thus it states that the association of great souls is rarely
obtained, difficult to understand and infallible, and the association of great souls can be
attained only by lord’s mercy. The reason for the possibility of developing Bhakti with
the mercy of great souls is the indifference of Lord and his pure devotees who are
liberated. Considering all these reasons, Narada calls, in next aphorism, for striving
relentlessly for the association of pure devotees.741 When the history of Bhakti saints, the
call has special appealing because a lots devotees wants to be united with those liberated
Bhakti saints leading to Godship of those saints too. This is the reason of hagiolatry of
Alvar and Nayanmars saints in different temples in south India. Later the doctrine turned
popular one as we witness many man-Gods in contemporary India. Narada continues to
count other important step towards achieving Bhakti that is to give up all kinds of material
association because it creates lust, confusion, anger, forgetfulness, loss of intelligence and
total calamity.742
In Hinduism, Maya is the illusion that makes one associated with material
objects and is the main obstacle in achieving moksha, so Narada explains who can cross
Maya and says:
740 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 92-95.
741 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 97-102.
742 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 103-106.
215
“Who can cross beyond the illusion? One who abandons material association, serves the
sages, and becomes selfless, that person who stays in a secluded place, cuts off at the root his
attachment to mundane society, becomes free from the influence of three modes of nature and
gives up hankering for material gain and security, that person who renounces material duties, thus
transcending duality, that person who renounces even the Vedas obtain exclusive and
uninterrupted attraction for God (NrBhSr. 1/46-49).”743
Narada’s description in 49th aphorism that person who renounces even the Vedas
obtains exclusive and interrupted attraction for God, also consolidates its rejection of
Vedas as the foundation of Hinduism, that is seen in other parts of the text also. In the
context, Bhakti is being validated as a path that renounces Karma Marga, rather than
being suggested as one of three paths. Thus, the relation of Bhakti with Vedas had become
the core of the debates in the period after the emergence of Bhakti. While those devotees
who accept the supremacy of Vedas interprets ‘renounces even Vedas’ as renouncing the
injunctions that suggest Karma Marga as path of liberation, devotees who don’t accept
the supremacy understand the passage as it is. With this last aphorism, third chapter that
focused on the means of achieving Bhakti ends.
In fourth chapter, the comparison of different forms of Bhakti is done as different
forms of Bhakti was in existence like Saguna and Nirguna, devoting to a God with
characteristics and devoting to a God without it respectively. Nirguna that proposes
devotion to a God which has no visible existence and characteristics is considered best
according to Narada. Narada states that nature of pure love of God is not explainable as
a dumb’s effort to explain what he tastes, though the pure love of God is revealed to those
who are superbly qualified.744 Then he justifies the superiority of the pure love devotion
in next aphorism and says:
“Pure love of God manifests as the most subtle consciousness, devoid of material
qualities and material desires, increasing at every moment and never interrupted. Having obtained
743 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 111-117.
744 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 116-119.
216
pure love of God, one looks only at the Lord, hears only about Him, speaks only of Him, and
thinks only of Him (NrBhSr. 1/54,55).”745
Narada then openly states the validity and easiness of Bhakti as a path to moksha
and success and speaks:
“Success is easier to attain by devotional service than by any other process. The reason
devotional service is the easiest of all spiritual processes is that it does not depend on any other
authority for its validity, being itself the standard of authority. Furthermore, Bhakti is the
embodiment of peace and supreme ecstasy (NrBhSr. 1/58-60).”746
Then, he comes up with some instructions must be followed by a devotee to
develop Bhakti and he notes down that one should not abandon one’s responsibilities in
this world even after one has achieved devotional service, should not find entertainment
in news of women, money and atheists, should put aside false pride and hypocrisy.747
After keeping these instructions, Narada says:
“Offering all one’s activities to the Lord, one should fee desire, anger, and pride only
with regard to Him. After breaking through the aforementioned covering of the three modes of
nature, one should act only in pure love of God, remaining perpetually in the mood of a servant
serving his master, or a lover serving her beloved (NrBhSr. 1/65-66).”748
After giving instructions on how to develop Bhakti Narada comes up with
description on the nature and glory of greatest devotees of Bhakti and recites:
“Among the Lord’s devotees, the greatest are those who are dedicated to Him solely as
His intimate servants. Conversing among one another with throats choked, hair standing on end,
and tears flowing, the Lord’s intimate servants purify their own followers and the whole world.
745 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 122.
746 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 135-140.
747 Sarma, Narada’s Aphorisms on Bhakti, p. 19.
748 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 149-151.
217
Their association makes holy places holy, works auspicious, and the scriptures authoritative. The
intimate servants of the Supreme Lord are fully absorbed in loving Him (NrBhSr. 1/67-71).”749
As he glorified the greatness of Bhakti and bhaktas, Narada clearly denies the
classification based on birth or any other among devotees and says:
“There are no distinctions among pure devotees in terms of social class, education,
bodily beauty, family status, wealth, occupation, and so on. Pure devotees are not distinguished
by externals like social class, for they belong to the Lord (NrBhSr. 1/72,73).”750
The teaching easily rejects the classification of the society basing on these
criteria that supported often by Hindu religious texts.
Fifth chapter of text starts from 74th aphorism focusing on the matters to attain
the perfection in devotion and start with a first instruction that seems invalidating Jnana
Marga as he says “One should not indulge in argumentative. Such argumentation leads
to excessive entanglements and is never decisive (NrBhSr. 1/74,75).”751 Throughout the
text, there are a lot of aphorisms that deal with approach of a devotee towards Vedas and
it were a bit confusing as it rejects in some and accepts it in some others. To clear this
confusion, the next aphorism gives an apparent outline and it says “One should respect
the revealed scriptures and discharge the duties they prescribe (NrBhSr. 1/76).”752
Narada continues with his instructions to develop Bhakti and says:
“Those who are free of doubts should constantly worship the Supreme Lord with all
hearts. When He is glorified, the Lord swiftly reveals Himself to His devotees and allows them
to know Him as He is. Devotional service is the most precious possession of a person who
honestly uses his mind, body, and words (NrBhSr. 1/79-81).”753
749 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 151-159.
750 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 162-164.
751 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 167-168.
752 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 171.
753 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 176-181.
218
In these verses, Narada explicitly describes that worshipping God with heart and
glorifying him as viable means of developing Bhakti. In the next verses, Narada says that
even though devotional service is one, Bhakti manifest in eleven forms of attachment and
speaks:
“Although devotional service is one, it becomes manifested in eleven forms of
attachment: attachment to the Lord’s glorious qualities (mahatmyasakti), to His beauty
(rupasakti), to worshipping Him (Pujasakti), to remembering Him (Smaranasakti), to serving
Him (dasyasakti), to reciprocating with Him as a friend (sakhyasakti), to caring for Him as a
parent (vatsalyasakti), to dealing with Him as a lover (kantasakti), to surrendering one’s whole
self to Him (atmanivedana), to being absorbed in thought of Him (mayasakti), and to experiencing
separation from Him (parama-virahasakti). This last is the supreme attachment (NrBhSr.
1/82).”754
When we go through vast literature on Bhakti, we confront with may
classification of Bhakti other than general one; Saguna and Nirguna, regarding various
aspects of Bhakti. Afore mentioned eleven forms of attachment is also often presented as
different types of Bhakti.755 In the last aphorism of text, Narada offers endowment with
Bhakti and attainment of highest beatitude if anyone in this world believes in these
gracious instructions offered by Narada, pointing to him.756
Till now, we had discussed emergence of Bhakti and its movement in full detail
both in the history and doctrines of Hinduism. We had elaborately discussed the enormous
contributions of Alvar and Nayanmar poets and we had clear picture of the emergence.
Now we check different theories on the emergence of Bhakti including the theory of
Islamic influence in next chapter.
754 Prabhupada, Narada Bhaktisutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, p. 183.
755 Sarma, Narada’s Aphorisms on Bhakti, p. 26.
756 Sarma, Narada’s Aphorisms on Bhakti, p. 26.
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CHAPTER THREE
THEORIES ON EMERGENCE OF BHAKTI AND INFLUENCE OF
ISLAM
Even though Bhakti as a concept was explicitly found as early as Bhagavat-Gita
in Hinduism, it had only triggered mobility through Alvars and Nayanmars in south India
then expanding to other parts of India and touching its zenith in northern India through
various devotional poets from vivid backgrounds. By analyzing devotional contents in
the writings of Alvars and Nayanmars, we realize the emergence of Bhakti movement in
Hinduism but in its long history of thousand years almost, Bhakti had engaged with
different religions, communities and geographies thus it pushed various historiographies
on its emergence especially when each group read it relating it to their ideologies. Before
concluding the emergence of Bhakti through Alvars and Nayanmars, it is necessary to
understand various theories regarding the emergence of Bhakti.
3.1. Indigenous Emergence
As a response mainly against orientalists who tried to establish Christian
influence on Bhakti, some set of Indologists questioned this theory and made efforts to
prove Bhakti as an indigenous movement. R. G. Bhandarkar (d.1925), a great Indologist,
tried to present epigraphical and literary evidences to show the nativity of Bhakti
movement through antiquity of Vaishnavism and Krishna worship.757
R.C. Zaehner (d.1974) is another prominent historian who believe indigenous
origin of Bhakti and he brings the beginning of Bhakti from Bhagavad-Gita.758 Like the
757 Rekha Pande, “The Bhakti Movement- A Historiographical Critique,” Journal of Historical Research,
2000, p. 51.
758 R. C. Zaehner, Hindu and Muslim mysticism (London Oxford New York New Delhi Sydney:
Bloomsbury Academic, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2016), p. 11.
220
all historians of this theory, Radhakrishnan (d.1975) the great Indian philosopher and
historian, also traces origin of Bhakti in the text and says that the God in Bhakti was
portrayed as God of grace who inspires self-surrender, reverence, love and personal trust,
and whom heart and soul need and seek. He seeks the utter prostration of the self and
loves meekness from devotee.759 Kshitimohan Sen (d.1960) traces the origin of Bhakti in
incipient stage of Hinduism as he finds Bhakti in the hymns of Vedas that sang by seers
praising Indra, Varuna and other deities. Moreover, he believes the local Dravidians as
well as other pre-Aryan communities in India had kept abundant attitude of Bhakti. He
continues that Bhakti was increased in the heart of people through worshipping of village
deities and images and it further developed through Vaishnavas and Shaivas. But he
accepts that Bhakti was blossomed after political access of Muslims to the region but with
monotheistic appeal.760 George A. Grierson (d.1941), who had worked on Bhagavatas,
claims the origin of Bhakti in the religion of Bhagavatas who worships Krishna the eighth
avatar of Vishnu. He defends that the attribute of love to personal god found in Bhakti
was previously originated in the religion of Bhagavatas.761
Rekha Pande points out the emergence of Bhakti as a concept as very ancient
since it was firstly seen, according to her, in Svetesvatara and Katha Upanishads. While
these texts present the doctrine of self-surrender and grace, Bhagavad-Gita is first text to
expound in a systematic manner and presents as a legitimate path for salvation. She even
tries to bring back its origin in Vedic texts through Shraddha Bhakti, the genuine regard
of God, which is sought from sacrifice while he performs the rituals. She notices synthesis
of Vedic, Upanishadic and puranic influences in the emergence of Bhakti through poetries
of Alvars and Nayanmars. She describes their poems as synthetic point of northern
Sanskritic devotional themes with Sangam literature of the south. The sophisticated
759 S. Radakrishnan, The Bhagavadgita (Bombay: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1971), p. 61-62.
760 Kshithimohan Sen, Medievel Mysticism of India, trans. Manmohan Ghosh (London: Luzac & Co., 1935),
p. 3-6.
761 George A. Grierson, “Bhakti Marga,” Encylopedia of Religion and Ethics, ed. James Hastings
(Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1964), p. 539-549
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expressions of Bhakti were witnessed in their God-glorifying hymns seeking union with
absolute power. She totally rejects the influence of Islam in emergence of Bhakti
movement in south India as he cites the existence of practice singing emotional ecstatic
hymns in vernacular languages even before the birth of Muhammed prophet.762 Klaus
Witz also relates the Bhakti movement to Upanishadic teachings because he finds that
Upanishadic teachings either are basis or form an all-pervading substratum, in every
literature of Alvars and Nayanmars. For him, supreme wisdom, main theme of
Upanishads, appears fused with highest level of Bhakti in its ultimate devotion and
realization of God.763
3.2. Religion’s Influence on Bhakti Emergence
Apart from theory of indigenous emergence of Bhakti, theories that suggest the
influence from external religions like Budhism, Christianity and Islam are also put
forward by many historians. The common feature lied under these historical readings,
some exceptions are available, is a deliberate attempt to connect with religion of the
historian. In most cases, these readings with clear motive and prejudice are peripheral
without much notice on the great contributions of Alvars and Nayanmars the core point
of Bhakti’s emergence. But it is also noteworthy that few historians are evaluated in its
true sense and tried to present as it is. Here we examine theories regarding the influence
of other religions on the emergence of Bhakti.
3.2.1 Buddhist and Jain Influence
Another theory suggests Buddhist and Jain influence in emergence of Bhakti as
both concept and movement. As these religions are Nastika (heterodox) sects of
Hinduism, these two systems already pioneered what radical changes that Bhakti tried to
762 Rekha Pande, Divine sounds from the heart: singing unfettered in their own voices: The Bhakti
movement and its women saints (12th to 17th century) (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars, 2010), p. 19-25.
763 Klaus G. Witz, The supreme wisdom of the Upaniṣads: an introduction, 1st ed (Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers, 1998), p. 10.
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bring. Both religions had greater appeal of mysticism focusing on meditation and
presence of mind rather than mere rituals as it was in Brahminic religion. Most
importantly, their strong rejection of Varnashrama Dharma advocating equality and
fraternity is another great common factor with Bhakti movement. Simplicity of worships
to attain salvation ignoring rigid and complex sacrifices and rituals is also core of these
three systems. Karel Werner (d.2019) points out that concept of love and devotion are
certainly most important in both doctrinal context and religious practices of Buddhism
the system that focus on mind training and meditation. He continues that there is bhatti,
Buddhist expression of devotion, in Pali-Buddhist scripts as there in Sanskrit-Hindu
sources. Seeking refuge to a being of a higher order was also an existed practice in
Buddhism during the time of Buddha itself.764 John Cort, a Jain historian, states that
Vandan tradition of Jainism in which Supreme being is venerated, is important source of
Bhakti tradition in Hinduism.765
It is recognized that Alvar and Nayanar saint poets had taken over from Buddhist
devotionalism, its idea of asceticism and suppression of desires, and spiritual equality of
all followers while accepting ethical tone and respect for animal lives from Jains. South
Indian region was strong hold of Buddhism and Jainism during the period in which these
saint poets were in action. Their influence had diminished in the subsequent centuries of
Alvars’ and Nayanmars’ emergence.766 When we go through their poems, we had
witnessed that they mention only these two religions mostly to condemn them. They make
efforts to diminish these two religions and reject as a right path of salvation. Keeping
these reasons in mind, it may be not wrong to suggest that Bhakti movement was
assimilation of devotional and mystic ideas of Buddhists and Jains to Puranic Hindu-fold
in order to attract large mass of the region to Hinduism. Even though Alvars and
764 Karel Werner, ed., Love divine: studies in Bhakti and devotional mysticism (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon
Press, 1993), p. 36-42.
765 John E. Cort, Jains in the World, Religious Values and Ideology in India (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2001), p. 64.
766 Tara Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture (The Indian Press Ltd., 1936), p. 85-87.
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Nayanmars offer salvation to all, they don’t reject Varnashrama Dharma completely, so
it may perceive as an effort to keep low caste Hindus within their fold of religion blocking
outflux to Buddhism or Jainism. Yet, this is so eager to reach to this conclusion, therefore
it needs great in-depth comparative research scrutinizing all these theories to a larger
extent.
3.2.2 Christian Influence
Along with British conquest of Indian sub-continent, European scholars had
made extensive research from 18th century onwards on Indian society and its history but
analyzed it through European world view neglecting indigenous historiography.767 They
tried to depict Christian influence on Bhakti referring it as a meditative piety adorning
with God’s grace and love often summing up it with Krishna Bhakti of Vaishnavism that
portrayed as monotheistic religion.768
Many European Indologists like H.H. Wilson (d.1860), Monier Williams
(d.1899) and George A. Grierson followed the trend. While H.H. Wilson summed up
Vaishnavism in Bengal as monotheistic Bhakti religion,769 Monier Williams stated in his
book ‘Brahmanism and Hinduism’ that Vaishnavism is a monotheistic system with
Bhakti at its core and it is only Hindu tradition worth of being called religion. He
continues that it has more common grounds with Christianity rather than any other non-
Christian faiths.770 Even though George A. Grierson admits the Indigenous origin of
Bhakti, he believes that it had received immense impetus from Christian beliefs. He even
suggested that worship of infant Krishna is Indian adaptation of infant Christ and rituals
767 Romila Thapar, The Past and Prejudice (New Delhi: National Book Trust of India, 2007), p. 4.
768 A. Barth, The Religions of India, trans. Rev. J. Wood (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd,
1891), p. 221.
769 H.H. Wilson, Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus (Culcutta: Bishop’s College Press, 1846),
p.100.
770 Monier Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism (New York: Macmillan and Co., 1891), p. 96.
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regarding the birth of Krishna were borrowed from Christianity.771 M. F. Lorinser, who
had worked on similarity between Bhagavat-Gita and New Testament, argues that Bhakti
tradition is Indian rendition of Christianity but Krishna as the personal God.772
Brajendaranath Seal (d.1938) also closely examines a legend in Mahbaharatha about
Narada’s pilgrimage to Svetadvipa where he met Ekantins or monotheists. He continues
that some Indian Vaishnavas travelled to the coasts of Egypt or Asia minor where
Christians were living, and those Vaishnavas borrowed monotheism from them.773
Many orientalist scholars as well as missionaries celebrated Bhakti as Indian
version of Protestant Christianity glorifying Bhagavat-Gita as Indian Bible. While they
linked the religion of Bhagavat-Gita to Christianity, they also projected Bhakti as a
monotheistic religion centered around Vishnu whose nature was as a ‘God of love’.
Considering the reformative and radical nature of Bhakti like criticizing caste system,
they related it with Protestant Christianity.774 Tara Chand (d.1973), a famous Indian
historian, counts Burnell (d.1882), Weber (d.1901), Logan (d.1869), Caldwell (d.1891),
Hopkins (d.1932) and Pope (d.1936) as historians who defend Christian influence on
Bhakti.775
A. J. Appasamy (d.1975), another historian who extensively tried to draw
decisive influence of Christianity in Indian culture and Hinduism, expresses his thought
that Christianity is probably responsible for all Bhakti doctrines. He shows presence of
Christian church in Travancore in South India as early as Christian era as his proof. He
thinks that Christian ideas had largely influenced Bhakti thought from sixth century
onwards because Roman Catholic missionaries were actively spreading Christian
771 George A. Grierson, “Bhakti Marga,” Encylopedia of Religion and Ethics, ed. James Hastings, p. 550.
772 M. F. Lorinser, “Traces In The Bhagavad-Gita of Christian Writings And Ideas,” Education Society
Press, ed. Jas Burgess, The Indian Antiquary/II (1873), p. 285.
773 Branjendranath Seal, Comparitive studies in Vaishnavism and Christianity (Hare Press, 1899), p. 30;
S. Radakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, p. 499.
774 Pechilis, The Embodiment of Bhakti, p. 3.
775 Tara Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, p. 106-107.
225
doctrines. He continues that Hindus were very skillful to adapt these ideas and make it as
their own even they borrowed it from Christians.776 In his work titled as “The gospel and
India’s heritage”, he compares gospels with Bhakti teachings which are intended by
heritage of India, and tries to establish its influence on Bhakti. While he relates the
importance of solitude for prayer in both gospels and Bhakti, he equates the two types of
Samadhi (meditation) with two states of Jesus in relation with God and brings gospels
that portray these states. He compares Savikalpa Samadhi in which difference between
the object of worship and the devotee is recognized, to the state of Jesus being different
from God. Nirvikalpa Samadhi in which the soul merged with God to the state of Jesus
being identical with God.777 He also finds similarities between the doctrine Antaryamin
(God dwells in the heart) described by Ramanuja and the doctrine of indwelling God
taught by gospels. Both doctrines speak about the presence of God’s spirit everywhere
and the author emphasizes on the fact.778 Likewise, he brings forth the similarity of both
Gospels and Bhakti texts in the teachings on sanctification, sin, vision of God and barriers,
forgiveness and togetherness with God.779
William A. Dyrness notes in his dictionary of theology that Bhakti principles are
converging Christian gospels through its conception of God as loving, bestowing his
grace to his creatures and worshipped with deep love and personal devotion. In
Christianity, God Jesus is personal God who is being praised and his-glorifying gospels
recited with love and devotion same as in Bhakti.780 Sabapathy Kulandran (d.1992)
evaluates that both Bhakti and Christianity agree in carrying a whole-hearted trust to their
Gods as well as Bhakti’s nature to consider everyone equal. He continues that the
similarity in intensity of both Bhakti hymns and gospels of New Testament as well as
776 A. J. Appasamy, The Gospels and Indian Heritage (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1942), p. 13.
777 Appasamy, The Gospels and Indian Heritage, p. 28-36.
778 Appasamy, The Gospels and Indian Heritage, p. 74-81.
779 Appasamy, The Gospels and Indian Heritage, p. 86-172.
780 William A Dyrness - Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, eds., “Indian Theology,” Global Dictionary of Theology:
A Resource for the Worldwide Church (USA: InterVarsity Press, 2008), p. 422.
226
both Christianity and Bhakti rise above legalism and sacerdotalism.781 In short, the
Christians influence on Bhakti was depicted by many historians as well as theologians
especially in the period of British invasion of Indian sub-continent.
3.3. Islamic Influence
As we discussed in the introduction, the period and geography of Islam’s entrance
to Indian sub-continent are almost identical with period and geography of Bhakti’s
emergence as well. While Islam entered the Indian subcontinent by the beginning of
seventh century and had made little settlements by eighth century, Alvars’ as well as
Nayanmars’ period starts with beginning of eight century and finishes by the end of ninth
century. As we discussed earlier, Alvars and Nayanmars were poets who wandered
throughout Tamil mainland. Advent of Islam to Indian subcontinent was also through
coastal areas in south India including Tamil Nadu. These close resemblances in time and
geography are some of main factors that motivated to research the possible influence of
Islam on the emergence of Bhakti. Apart from these resemblances in time and geography,
there are also many close similarities with Islam in Bhakti’s religious ideas and principles,
social visions and much more. Here we proceed to learn how Islam entered to Indian
subcontinent.
3.3.1 Advent of Muslims to Indian Subcontinent
The advent of Islam to Indian subcontinent was mainly through three ways; the
first one is through Arab merchants and Muslim missionaries who sailed to south India.
The second one is through military expeditions by Muslim rulers starting from first
century of Islamic history to later periods. The third one is mass migration of Muslim
communities from central Asia in the wake of Mongolian invasion.782 Even before the
781 Sabapathy Kulandran, “Christian Faith and Hindu Bhakti,” Indian Journal of Theology, October-
December (1957), p. 118-121.
782 Aziz Ahmed, Hindistan’da İslâm Kültürü Çalışmaları (İstanbul: İnsan Yayınları, 1995), p. 110.
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first military advancement of Muslims under Muhammed bin Qasim in Eighth century,783
Islam has arrived to south India in the seventh century itself.
It is very evident in historical texts that there were active trade engagements
between Arabs and people of south India especially those in adjacent areas to the ports
along Arabian sea. Due to these engagements, it is said that Christianity had also arrived
to Kerala, a south Indian state with coastal areas of Arabian Sea, in the first century of
CE. There is a strong tradition among Kerala Christians that St. Thomas had come to
Kerala, preached Christianity and died at Mylapore near Chennai, the capital of Tamil
Nadu, another state in south India.784 Since Islam advocates its followers without any
exception to preach its monotheism and its principles to non-Muslims, it is much possible
to reach the idea of Islam in the prophet Muhammed’s period itself. But there is hot debate
whether Islam has arrived during the time of Prophet Muhammed itself or later soon after
the demise of prophet.
There are strong evidences that Cheraman Perumal who was a local ruler in
Kerala, had accepted Islam from Prophet Muhammed and was a companion. The strong
tradition continues that he witnessed the moon-split, the miracle of Prophet, and was
convinced about Islam after his inquest upon the incident. So, he set out to meet Prophet
Muhammed and embraced Islam receiving the name of Thajudheen (Crown of faith).
During his return to Kerala, he died at Dhofar, a place in modern Oman but he had
strongly instructed his companions to travel to Kerala and preach Islam there.785 Since
this tradition is supported by many evidences including non-Muslim text Keralolpathi, a
783 Annemerie Schimmel, Islam in the Indian Subcontinent (Leiden: Brill, 1980), p. 3-30.
784 Miller Roland Eric, The Mappila Muslims of Southwest India- A Study in Islamic Trends (USA:
University Microfilms International, 1973), p. 25-28
785 Miller Roland Eric, The Mappila Muslims of Southwest India- A Study in Islamic Trends, p. 25-28
228
Brahminical text, 786 However, this incident is very popular among Kerala Muslims since
this history is taught in primary Madrasas787 throughout Kerala.788
According to evidences that support this narration, the incident should be take
place between 622 and 632 CE, the possible period after the incident of moon-split.
Keralolpathi789 and Kerala Parama,790 two non-Muslim texts on the origin of Kerala, had
backed this narration. A note found in the library of Arakkal family, and ‘Tarih
Firishta’791wrote by Muhammed Qasim Firishtha, are also among the text that supports
this narration and describes that Islam reached Kerala during the time of Prophet
Muhammed itself.
Following the instruction of Cheraman Perumal, a missionary group under the
leadership of Malik bin Deenar had sailed to Kerala and built first masjid in India at
Kodungallur, the capital of Cheraman Perumal’s reign. The first masjid in India was
named after Cheraman the first Indian native Muslim. The notes in the masjid state that
the masjid was built on 629 CE. Since they were delegation sent by the ruler, they were
warmly welcomed and they could easily preach Islam. The group also included Malik bin
Habeeb and Sharaf bin Malik and they travelled throughout coastal areas of Kerala and
built masjids wherever possible. There are 12 Masjids built by Malik bin Deenar and the
786 The author of text is unknown but many historians ascribe the authorship to Ezuthachan. For more
information, pls refer Ezuthachan, Kerelolpathi (The Origin of Kerala).
787 Madrasa in Kerala are primary center of learning Islamic principles, values and history. Since Madrasa
is working every day before and after normal schooling, each and every Muslim child attends these
Madrasas. There are more than 15000 Madrasas throughout Kerala operated by various organizations in
the region. For further reading please refer Unais Koduyayakkal, “Indian Madrasas, Evolution and Growth
with Special Reference to Kerala Model,” Academic Platform Journal of Islamic Research/V/II (2021): p.
188–217.
788 Education Board Samasta, ed., Kitabu Tarih (Kerala: Samasta Kerala Education Board, 2018), p. 27.
789 For more information, pls refer Thunjath Ezuthachan, Kerelolpathi.
790 For more information, pls refer Gundert, Kerala Parama or History of Malabar.
791 Muhammed Qasim Firishtha, Tarih Firishtha, trans. Abdulhayy Khwaja (Lahore: Al Mizan, 2008), v.
1, p. 44-45.
229
group including the one at Kasargod where he is buried after death according to one of
different traditions. Some travelled to northern part of Kodungallur and established
masjids in Ezhimala, Bhatkal, Manglore, Shreekandapuram, Chaliyam, Dharmadam and
Panthalayani. It is notable that the architecture of these masjids closely resembled the
Hindu temples in the region. Citing this close resemblance, some historians argue that
some of these masjids were not built but converted from temple to masjids with the
permission and greetings from local rulers and people. The inscription at masjid at
Madayi, which is also one of these twelve masjids, shows that it was built on fifth year of
Hijra. All these evidences strongly show that Islam was reached in south India at the time
of Prophet Muhammed itself. It is also said that some of the group had travelled through
the coastal towns of Tamil Nadu and built masjids there as well.792
Like in the case of coastal areas of Arabian sea in Kerala, there were trade
relations between Arabs and Coromandel coast areas in Tamil Nadu even before Islam.
Arabs were regularly passing through Coromandel Coast on their trade expeditions
towards Ceylone the modern Sri Lanka.793 Among these coastal areas, Kayalpattinam
which lies on the shore of Bay Bengal in Thoothukudi district of Tamil Nadu,794 was
center point of Islamic settlements in early period.795 It is popularly believed that a group
of missionaries and traders especially from Mecca had arrived there in Kayalpattinam
during the Khilafath of Prophet Abubakir and that was in 12 Hijri; 633 CE.796 It is said
that they had built a masjid there near sea shore and was called ‘Kadal Karai’ masjid,
unfortunately the masjid was ruined hundred years ago but its remnants were there until
792 C K Faizy, “Dars, the traditional mode of religious education (Malayalam),” Samasta Malappuram,
2008, p. 329-341, Education Board Samasta, ed., Kitabu Tarih, p. 27-29.
793 Asadulla Khan, History of the Arab contact with Tamilagham from the beginning to 1400 A.D. (Chennai:
The New College, 2013), p. 17.
794 Abdul Latiff, The Concise History of Kayalpatnam (Kayalpattanam: Shamsudheen Appa, 2004), p. 21.
795 Bishop Caldwell, A History of Tinnevelly (New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1982), p. 37.
796 Abdul Latiff, The Concise History of Kayalpatnam, p. 22.
230
recently.797 It is possible that there was enough settlement by Muslims in Kayalpattinam
in Tamil Nadu by seventh century itself since coins of Arabs dated back Hijra 71 (693
CE) were excavated from the region.798
Another group under the leadership of Muhammed Khilji from Egypt had
arrived to Kayalpattinam around 875 CE and were welcomed by local Pandyan King. The
incident is verified as a copper plate in Tamil was discovered in which numbers of persons
and slaves including their tribe names were scripted.799 Moreover, all these Arab groups
who arrived in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, had engaged with local community in full manner
following local customs and trying to speak local language itself. They had also kept
marital relations with local community by marrying local girls and those children who
born to Arab-Indian couples were called as ‘Labbai’ in Tamil region, while those in
Kerala are called as Mappila. In Kerala, the term later used in general for all those
Muslims in the region without checking paternal relations with Arabs.800 As a progress
of these relations, adjacent areas near Kayalpattinam like Kilakkarai and Pulicat in Tamil
land had turned to major centres of Muslim settlements.801
In short, Muslim traders and missionary groups had arrived to coastal areas of
Arabian sea in Kerala and Coromandel coasts in Tamil Nadu in the first decade of Hijra
itself. They were warmly welcomed by local rulers and were given adequate facilities to
settle there, so they could easily propagate the Islam without much hindrances. Their
commercial, political and even marital relations with local people had paved way for
Muslim settlements in those coastal areas of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. By eighth century,
797 Abdul Latiff, The Concise History of Kayalpatnam, p. 60.
798 Bishop Caldwell, A History of Tinnevelly, p. 288.
799 Asadulla Khan, History of the Arab contact with Tamilagham from the beginning to 1400 A.D., p. 66.
800 Bishop Caldwell, A History of Tinnevelly, p. 36.
801 Susan Bayly, Saints, Goddesses, and Kings-Muslims and Chrisitians in South Indian Society,
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 74.
231
there were enough Muslim settlements around the masjids that were built in those coastal
towns.
Even though the advent of Muslims to Indian subcontinent in seventh century
and their settlement in the eighth century are clear in the history, their engagements with
Alvars or Nayanmars were not identified after the extensive research. This may be
because of these settlements were very small comparing to vast Tamil land from coastal
areas to western Ghats. When two large canons of Nalayira Divya Prabandham and
Panniru Tirumurai sung by different poets from different parts of Tamil land, were
inspected thoroughly, there was not even one mention about Muslims or Arabs. But
continuous mentioning and challenging Buddhists and Jains who were prevalent in the
region, shows that they were in polemic engagements with Buddhists and Jains not
Muslims or Christians.
When the military expeditions of Muslim rulers towards the Indian sub-continent
are traced, it is seen that Muhammed bin Qasim had entered Indian sub-continent through
the side of Indus River (Sind) in northern India and conquered two cities known as
Bahmanwa and Mulasthana which were named later as Al-Mansura and Al- Ma’mura.
He had marched through Kanauj, Gandhara and penetrated through the valleys in
Kashmir.802 These expeditions of Muhammed bin Qasim were between 710 and 711 (92-
93 of Hijri Calendar).803 After Muhammed bin Qasim, the next Muslim ruler to enter
India was Mahmud Gazni and his first invasion was in 1000 to Lamgan, a province in
north western India. After his succession to throne in 999, Mahmud Gazni had decided to
go with expeditions to Indian every year in order to preach Islam and to plunder the
wealthy treasures in Hindu temples. He continued his expeditions to Vayhand in 1002
and Bhatiya in 1004-1005. Because of these successful expeditions, he was given the title
of ‘Gazi’ that means ‘the warrior’. Then he started Islamizing the region by building
802 Muhammad al- Biruni, Kitabul Biruni fi Tahkiki malil Hind, (Dairathu Ma’riful Osmaniyya, Hyderabd,
1958), p. 16
803 Azmi Özcan, “Hindistan,” TDV Islam Anskilopedisi, (İstanbul, ISAM, 1998), v. XVIII, p. 95.
232
Masjids and sending Islamic scholars.804 He was keen to send Sufis as well to the region
in order to pave the way for Muslims and more expeditions.805 When he had captured
Multan, he had appointed Suhpal, the converted grandson of Indian king Rajpal, as the
governor. But he returned to Hinduism, the reason of Mahmud Gazni’s fifth expedition
in 1008. He continued his intrusions to Indian subcontinent through Punjab in 1008,
Nagarkot in 1009 and Narayanpur in 1010.806
In subsequent years, Mahmud Gazni had many expeditions to India and this
count reaches almost seventeen. He captured Nandana, Kashmir,Loharin, Agra and
Kannauj in 1010, 1014, 1015 and 1018 respectively. In his expedition to Agra, the King
Hordat along with ten thousand people, declared Islam and accepted the Sultanate of
Mahmud Gazni. His famous expedition was to Somnath where a famous temple of Hindus
was situated. In 1026, he captured the fort of Somnath and it is seen in the historical texts
that he demolished the Somnath temple. He sent four parts of gigantic door in the temple
to different parts of Sultanate including Mecca and Medina. It is also said that he had used
the parts for Ulucami in Gazne and for his palace there. His last expedition was in 1027
to Multan to punish the local kings who tried to attack him.807 Al Biruni feels that these
expeditions had infuriated strong antagonism towards Muslims in the hearts of local
Hindus.808
When these expeditions and possibility of Islamic influence are inspected, it is
understood that all these were happened in north-western India but Bhakti movement had
originated in Tamil land in southern India. Most importantly, by the end of 9th century,
most of Bhakti poets including all 12 Alvar poets had already dead and there was only
804 Erdoğan Merçil, “Gazneli Mahmud,” TDV Islam Anskilopedisi, (İstanbul, ISAM, 1998), v. XXVII, p.
363.
805 Azmi Özcan, “Hindistan,”, v. XVIII, p. 95
806 Erdoğan Merçil, “Gazneli Mahmud,” v. XXVII, p. 363.
807 Erdoğan Merçil, “Gazneli Mahmud,” v. XXVII, p. 363.
808 Muhammad al- Biruni, Kitabul Biruni fi Tahkiki malil Hind, trans. Edward S. Sachan (W.W. Norton &
Company, New York, 1971), p. 22.
233
expedition till the date and that was too in North western India. Other than a possibility,
any evidence of Muslim engagements with these poets were not traced. But there is a
great chance of influence after 10th century because of continuous successful expeditions
of Mahmud Gazni and this influence is clear it in the literatures of Basavanna and fellow
Lingayats. As stated earlier, the emergence period ends with Alvars and Nayanmars and
Basavanna is first major Bhakti saint in its development period.
Since Islam and Muslims were well established in the region by eighth century,
Tara Chand, one of major historians who asserts the Islamic influence on Bhakti, feels
that any development in Hinduism which couldn’t be accounted as natural development
of Hinduism, most probably, it should be ascribed as Influence of Islam.809 To justify his
theory of influence, he explains elaborately advent of Muslims in south India right from
seventh century and their engagements with local community. He continues his efforts to
state that Muslims had settled in large numbers as early as eighth century at the latest
building masjids and propagating Islam throughout south India including Tamil Nadu.
He proceeds, to counter the presence of Christians in the region, that Islam entered to the
region under the patronage of a king, thus they were treated well and held good positions
in the society as well as in the governance. Their formidable positions in society and
governance were in stage to influence local Hindus and Hinduism, unlike Christians.810
Even though he argues the influence of Islam, he didn’t mention any example of direct
relations or any other.
3.3.2. Similarities between Islam and Bhakti ideology
Starting from the salvation through reverence and love to God, there are many
similarities between Islam and Bhakti ideology. Religious as well as social visions in both
Islam and Bhakti have close resemblances. Salvation without much sacrifices and
motivation to keep the God in heart every time are some of similar religious ideas. The
809 Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, p. 43
810 Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, p. 29-49, p. 108.
234
equality of God’s followers without any discrimination based on birth is main social
vision prevailed both in Islam and Bhakti. We had already inspected all these similarities
in Bhakti poems sung by Alvars and Nayanmars as well as other scriptures, and had
highlighted on those parts. But these similarities also found in Christianity, another
semitic religion which had presence in the same time and the same region of Bhakti poets.
Moreover, many of the radical ideas that highlighted in Bhakti poems were also advocated
by Buddhists and Jains for a long time. So, asserting the influence of Islam on Bhakti
emergence because of these similarities only without any clear evidence that proves
exchanges and engagements of ideas between two, seems to be wrong assessment and
will drive to fallacies as happened in the case of many western Indologists who asserted
the Christian influence.
There are some historians who tried to portray Islamic influence of Islam on
Bhakti’s emergence. Tara Chand tries to establish this influence on Bhakti in the light of
principles like human equality and universal brotherhood that advocated by Bhakti saints
and shows that these principles had parallels in Islam and Sufism. He continues that even
though the idea of emotional worship and the great adoration of pupil to the teacher
(Guru-Bhakti) were found in ancient Hinduism, the increased focus and emphasis on
these matters especially during the emergence of Bhakti period after ninth century
onwards, should be influenced by Islam. Distancing from ritual sacrifices as well as
indifference to caste system in Bhakti movement are also pointed as the influence of
Islam.811 These assessments of Tara Chand are challenged since these ideas and principles
are found in Christianity and most importantly in Buddhism who were dominant both
socially and politically in the region.
Tara Chand continues that the idea of self-surrender to the god is one of
fundamental ideas in Islam and the word ‘Islam’ itself has a meaning of ‘surrender’, so
the idea of self-surrender in the Bhakti also points to the influence. He shows this
811 Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, p. 112-113
235
influence in the principles of Ramanuja and later Bhakti proponents like Madhava.812
Unfortunately, the idea of self-surrender was much highlighted in the great poems of
Alvars and Nayanmars and there are not enough evidences for these poets were influenced
by Islam, moreover they were engaging with Buddhists as we inspected it in their poems.
Tara Chand rejects the influence of Buddhism and Jainism stating that these two religions
were evolved to image worship and ritualistic religion by the period.813
Yusuf Husain (d.1979), another historian of this kind, divides Bhakti movement
into two periods; first one from the time of Bhagavad-Gita to thirteenth century and
second one from thirteenth century to sixteenth century. He believes that Bhakti
transformed into a cult after its contact with Islam in second period since Islamic
principles of universal brotherhood and human equality, the foundations of Islamic
society, exerted a considerable influence. According to him, Bhakti was only individual
sentiments of some till it converted into a cult and movement from thirteenth century and
that was only after its engagement with Islam. With all respect to the historian, it is
noticed that he ignores great tradition of Alvars and Nayanmars even though he mentions
them.814 He thinks the contact of lower-class Hindus who were debarred from religious
texts, temples and salvation, with Islam that manifests salvation for everyone through
absolute surrender to God, should have impacted largely, so he states that Bhakti
movement represents first firm impact of Islamic outlook and culture on Hindu society.
Even though he admits the genesis of Bhakti is indigenous, he defends the notion of
Islamic influence as he says that Bhakti had received a great impetus from the Muslims’
presence in the region.815
Yusuf Husain discusses possible influence of Islamic ideas in the principles of
Ramanuja who was wrongly misunderstood as the very first proponent of Bhakti
812 Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, p. 114
813 Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, p. 114
814 Yusuf Husain, Glimpses of Medievel Indian Culture (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1962), p. 1-15.
815 Husain, Glimpses of Medievel Indian Culture, p. 31.
236
tradition. During the time of Ramanuja in twelfth century, there were mass conversions
of local Hindus to Islam and active proselytizing in the region. So, he feels that it should
have attracted the Ramanuja’s attention as well as his idea of monism.816 Tara Chand also
feels same in the case of Ramanuja due to the presence of Muslims in Coromandel coast
of Tamil Nadu. Moreover, Ramanuja had presented a God with good attributes and called
to worship him with devotion and faith, which are parallel to Islam.817 Anthropologist F.
Fawcett had pointed out to a possible influence of Islam on monist ideas of Hindus. But
his assessment is through Sankara who was born in Kerala, and his ideas. He states that
by the birth time of Sankara, the Islam was gaining the momentum in the region especially
after the conversion of their own king and there was much need for revival of Brahmanism
or Hinduism.818
August Barth, a French orientalist, feels a possibility of Islamic influence than
Christianity in monotheism of some Saivite poets like Tiruvalluvar. The strict
monotheism in hymns of Tiruvalluvar reminded him the monotheism taught by followers
of Quran rather than modified monotheism preached by St. Thomas. Barth didn’t mention
any special hymns of Tiruvalluvar or narrated any exchange between poet and Muslims
but the severe monotheistic ideas, which was unfamiliar to Hindus, reminded him Islam
and its monotheism.819 He continues that Muslims, representing Khaleefa, in the form of
Arab merchants and missionaries had arrived in the shores of South India and established
enough relations with people of these lands. He also points out to possible influence of
Islam on the Hindu religious movements that sprouted in the region from ninth to twelve
centuries. He sees this possibility on the movements made by Sankara, Ramanuja and
816 Husain, Glimpses of Medievel Indian Culture, p. 11.
817 Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, p. 112.
818 Fawcett F, “Notes on Some of The People of Malabar,” ed. Edgar Thurston (Chennai: Madras Museum
Press, 1900), p. 73.
819 A. Barth, The Religions of India, trans. Rev. J. Wood (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd,
1891), p. 210.
237
Basava.820 Like all historians who hold this view, points out to same factor but not any
concrete proof was presented. Then he asserts that there is clear influence of Islamic ideas
in Bhakti literature from fourteenth century and so on.821
Tara Chand also finds clear and concrete influence of Islam on the Hindu
religious movements happened in south India from ninth to fourteenth century. He states
that Lingayats along with its founder Basavanna who was a great Bhakti leader, were
influenced by Islam since the region where they sprouted was center of major Muslim
settlements and Islamic Sufism had gained momentum in Indian subcontinent. Basavanna
had brought radical changes both in social and religious order of Hindus. Tara Chand
quotes C.P. Brown that even the initiation ceremony of joining the Basva’s community,
was analogous to Sufi tradition where the teacher called Murshid and disciple as
Mureed.822 Tara Chand continues to count numerous radical changes in society brought
by Basavanna which are very identical with Islam. Basavanna had strongly opposed caste
and declared that everyone is equal and no one is inferior to Brahmin. He treated women
very well stating equality of women and men while allowing widows to marry again with
dignity and respect. In existing Hindu system of the period, widows were not allowed to
remarry and they were forced to practice Sati, a ritual in which widows are instructed to
jump to cremating fire of her husband. Most notably, the dead, men or women, were not
cremated as Hindu culture but buried after a bath like in Muslims. He also rejected the
theory of transmigration of human souls as believed by Hindus.823 According to C.P.
Brown, all these were by the Influence of Christians lived in Kerala which is very close
to center of Lingayats.824 But Tara Chand rightly rejects the statement by pointing large
820 A. Barth, The Religions of India, trans. Rev. J. Wood, p. 211-212.
821 A. Barth, The Religions of India, trans. Rev. J. Wood, p. 211.
822 C. P. Brown, “Essay on the Creed, Customs and Literature of Jangams,” Madras Literary Society and
Royal Asiatic Society XI (June 1840), p. 150
823 Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, p. 118-119
824 C. P. Brown, “Essay on the Creed, Customs and Literature of Jangams,” p. 145.
238
settlements of Muslims in Konkan coasts, Arabian coasts and other adjacent areas around
the center of Lingayats.825
Tara Chand enumerates again analogous principles in both Lingayat and Islam
like the oneness of God and his universality, rejection of casteism and final absorption.826
He even suggests that connection with Islam even in ‘Allama’ one of the God’s names
called by Lingayats.827 Harish Harsoor and Muslim Yadgir in their book ‘Basava
Philsophy and Islam’, compare Basava’s philosophy with different principles of Islam.
They start with concept of God both in Islam and Basava philosophy and notes important
sayings of Basava that are parallel with Islam. Since Basava not reject the idea of heaven
and hell in hereafter world, they compare his sayings on hereafter life to same Ayat in the
Quran. They find many similarities in the teachings of Prophet Muhammed with
Vachanas (utterances) of Basava. They had found out similarities in the teachings of
Basava and Islam in wide range of topics including unity of human kind and end of
discrimination, moral teachings like charity modesty, sincerity and even repentance and
God’s mercy.828 Since the work focus only on the comparison, it didn’t go for any
historical attempts regarding Bhakti and its emergence. It is right to say that Basavanna
had greatly influenced by ideas of Islam and principles considering these very close
similarities and historical support. But the emergence period of Bhakti ends with
Ramanuja and before Basavanna’s period, so it is out of scope to state that Bhakti has
emerged on the influence of Islam.
Yusuf Hussain also focuses on Kabir and his religious ideas of monotheism, total
eradication of caste system and challenge to the authority of Vedas and states that his
religious ideas are syncretic and had incorporated basic principles of Islam. Then he
825 Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, p. 119.
826 Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, p. 116-129.
827 Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, p. 120.
828 For more readings, pls refer Harish Harsoor - Muslim Yadgir, Basava Philosophy and Islam, First
edition (New Delhi: White Dot Publishers, 2014).
239
proceeds with comparing the principles preached by Kabir and later saints who followed
him, with ideas of Islam and principles.829 Like in the case of Basavanna, the period of
Kabir is also very far from emergence period of Bhakti.
Meanwhile, Tara Chand diminishes the possible influence of Christians who
were also present in the same region in the same period pointing the smallness and
insignificance of Christian communities. He says that Christianity was prohibited in
Alexandria during Antonine period and the they were meeting in privacy only. When sea
trade was resumed between Indian and Egypt after it was ceased in the beginning of third
century, Christians from Egypt, Persia and Syria had sailed to south India and settled
there. By seventh century, Egypt, Persia and Syria were governed by Muslims after
conquering these places. So, he feels that Christians couldn’t exercise enough influence
on others especially Hindus since they were insignificant who were under Muslims in
some parts or lost their authority and prestige in other parts of the world.830 Like Thara
Chand, Yusuf Husain also rejects the possible influence of Christianity by neglecting the
presence of Christian monks around the Church in Mylapore where St. Thomas is
believed to be died. Even though he doesn’t reject their presence in the region, he neglects
them because they were insignificant enough to exert influence on Hindus and there were
not enough proofs that shows the engagements between Christians and Hindus.831 August
Barth, like other historians who defend Islamic influence, also presents Christian
churches of Malabar and Coromandel coast as poor and destitute against Muslims who
were Arab merchants backed by Muslim world.832
Yusuf Husain admits that Shaivite Nayanmars and Vaishnavaiate Alvars had
sung the poems of strong emotion of love and reverence presenting these as most viable
means of moksha. So, they could keep away the Hindus especially low-class from the
829 Husain, Glimpses of Medievel Indian Culture, p. 11-31
830 Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, p. 44.
831 Yusuf Husain, Glimpses of Medievel Indian Culture, p. 11.
832 A. Barth, The Religions of India, trans. Rev. J. Wood, p. 212.
240
attractions of Buddhism and Jainism, thus, they had revived the Hinduism in south
India.833 Even Tara Chand admits that all the evidences he submitted are circumstantial
and couldn’t be validated with any direct proof of philological or direct engagements.
Still, he defends the argument by stating that Hindus are great artists of incorporating
foreign elements without giving any scope to be detected since they were very proud
about themselves. Then he continues again to highlight the formidable positions and
settlements of Muslims in the region enough to influence indirectly at least. 834
Both Tara Chand and Yusuf Husain as well as other historians hold this view,
discuss largely about medieval Bhakti saints including Basava and Kabir and their ideas
on God, mysticism and devotion where they find formidable influence of Islam in Bhakti
cult.835 Most of historians who defend Islamic influence of Bhakti movement mainly
focus on Bhakti developments occurred in a period that roughly starts from twelfth
century and ends with eighteenth century.836 It may be not wrong to say that the
flourishing period of Bhakti movement had coincided with advent of political Islam
especially with advancement of Muslim rulers to northern parts of Indian sub-continent.
833 Husain, Glimpses of Medievel Indian Culture, p. 11.
834 Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, p. 107-108
835 Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, p. 143-16, Husain, Glimpses of Medievel Indian Culture,
p. 15-18.
836 As an example, Haider, “Relations of the Bhakti Saints With Muslim Sufis (16th and 17th Centuries).”
241
CONCLUSION
Even though Bhakti, that offers moksha through devotion and love to God in
Hinduism, was scarcley mentioned in Vedas and auxilary texts, had influenced a great
portion of Sanadhana Dharma followers. Till the compilation of Bhagavat-Gita, one of
most reffered Hindu sacred texts though its position is very low in hieararchial position
under the catogary of Purana, paths of moksha to end Samsara cycle were limited to
Karma; following duties and sacrifices as prescribed in Vedas and Jnana; realizing God
through knowledge. Meanwhile, Bhakti offers salvation through love and ardent devotion
to the god. While Karma Marga is clear since it is to execute the prescribed rituals in
Vedas, Jnana Marga paved way to different philosophical schools to realize God, soul
and nature. Among different schools, six schools of Nyaya-Vaisheshika, Samkhya-Yoga
and Mimamsa-Vedanta, were considered as Astika (orthodox) while other as Nasthika
(heterodox). But with Bhagavat-Gita, it proposed Bhakti as third path of salvation.. Even
though it is right that it was first authentic text to propose Bhakti, Bhagavat-Gita proposes
all three paths. Later, Bhakti turned as most important doctrine in Hinduism as it
infuriated a movement starting with saint poets of Alvars and Nayanmars and ending with
advancement of British army in 18th century. But when Bhakti is discussed, it normally
mentions the developments occured in central and northern India neglecting enormous
contributions done by Alvars and Nayanmars through their canonical text known as
Nalayira Divya-Prabandham and Tirumurai containing more than fifteen thousand
hymns. Morever, the genesis of Bhakti movement often misunderstandingly referred to
Ramanuja but he may be the first one to systematically present Bhakti. These scanario
leads to rightly explore the emergence of Bhakti movement especially the contributions
of Alvars and Nayanmars.
Bhakti movement emerges through Alvars and Nayanmars who were saint poets
wandering temple to temple in South India worshipping Vishnu and Siva respectively. In
their hymns, they expressed their love and ardent devotion to their Gods through their
attractive hymns that sung throughout their pilgrimage. They also invited fellow
Vaishnavas and Saivites to recite those God-glorifying poems in order to get salvation
242
even for low castes, out-castes and women without entering Karma or Jnana paths. Their
hymns in local language Tamil instead of Sanskrit, attracted large mass in the region,
pushing the phenomenon to turn as a popular movement. Nalayira Divya Prabandham
and Tirumurai, the canonized collection of hymns of Alvars and Nayanmars respectively,
were considered as fifth Veda by its followers.
Alvars are 12 saint poets who glorifies God Vishnu or his incarnations in their
four thousand hymns collected in Nalayira Divya Prabandham. First three of these poets;
Poygai, Puttatar and Pey, are known as Mudal Alvargal had composed 100 hymns each
in ‘Antadi’ style of poetry which are known as ‘Mutal Tiruvantadi, Irandam Tiruvantadi
and Munram Tiruvanatdi.’ Tirumalisai, who is known as ‘Bhaktisara’ for his great
devotion, had also penned ‘Antadi’-styled poetry comprising 96 verses known as
‘Nanmukan Tiruvantadi.’ ‘Tiruchandaviruttam’ is another poem of Tirumalsai
comprising 120 hymns. Tondaradippodi, who is famous for his devotional services to
devotees, penned two poems; Tirumalai and Tiruppalliyelucci comprising 45 and 10
hymns respectively. Seventh Alvar is Kulasekara who sang 105 hymns known as Perumal
Tirumoli. Periyalvar, one of famous Alvar, sang 12 verses known as Tirupallandu which
is first poem in canonized Nalayira Divya Prabandham. He also penned down another
long poem, named as Tirumoli, with 461 hymns.
Since Alvars proposed salvation for all irrespective of caste and gender, they
include low-castes and a woman; Andal. Andal, who loved and devoted to God as
husband, sang two poems; Tiruppavai with 30 hymns and Nacciyar Tirumoli with 140
hymns. Tirumangai, who is mentioned as most educated of Alvars, had composed 1361
verses in 6 poems. His poems include Periya Tirumoli with 1084 hymns,
Tirunedutadakam with 30 verses, Tirukkuruntadakam with 20 verses, Siriya Tirumadal
of 155 verses, Tiruvelukurrirukal with 47 verses and Periya Tirumudal with 97 verses.
Another Alvar, Tiruppan, was a low-caste and was forbidden to enter the templepremises.
Because of his immense devotion to God, he was also considered as Alvar with
his only one hymn titled as Amalanadipiran. Nammalvar, the most famous of Alvars, had
composed a master-piece Tiruvaymoli with 1102 hymns which was commented by many
243
Vaishnava Acharyas. Other poems of Nammalvar include Tiruvasiriyam with 7 hymns,
Tiruviruttam with 100 hymns and Periya Tiruvantadi with 87 verses. The last Alvar is
Madhurakavi who sang Kanninum Siruttambu with 11 hymns only. But his inclusion in
Alvars since his devotion was directed towards his guru, is debated among followers.
These Alvars made pilgrimage shrines to shrines mostly in south India counted as 106,
singing the hymns that glorify dieties there, thus it turned to popular culture to sing their
hymns in the region that continue even todays. Ramanuja, well influenced by Alvar’s
hymns, systematically presented Bhakti discussing its philosophy and doctrine of
salvation with help of other texts.
Nayanmars, another group of saint-poets with devotion and love, had also sang
more than fifteen thousand hymns glorifying their God Siva. Even though 63 saints are
counted as Nayanmars, devotional poems are attributed to 27 or 28 of them. While
Sundarar, one of prominent Nayanmar, names all these 63 saints in his poem of Tiru
Tondar Togai Pathikam, Sekkizhar describes their history in Periya Purana. These eleven
thousand devotional hymns of Alvars are collected in Shaiva Tirumuarai or Panniru
Tirumurai. In Tirumurai, as popularly called, there are twelve holy books or Tirumurais.
First seven books are collectively called as Tevaram and known as Atankamurai
(complete canon). In Tevaram, 3 poems of each Samabandhar and Appar, and
Tiukkadaikaappu of Sundarar are included. Eighth Tirumurai is consisted of
Tiruvachakam and Tirukkovaiyar of Manikavacakar while ninth one contains two peoms;
Tiruppallantu and Tiruvicaippa. These two poems were composed by 9 Nayanmars
namely Chendhanar, Tirumaligaithevar, Punturutti Kadanambi, Karuvurthevar,
Venattadikal, Kandaradittar, Purudottama Nambi, Tiruvaliyamudanar and Chedhirayar.
Tenth Tirumurai is Tirumantiram of Tirumualar. Eleventh Tiumurai is collection of 41
poems sang by twelve poets; Karaikkal Ammaiyar a woman, Tiru Alvayudaiyar,
Cheraman Perumal, Aivadikal Kadavarkon, Kalladar, Nakkirar, Paranar, Kapilar,
Adiravadikal, Ilamperuman Adikal, Nambi Andar Nambi and Pattinattup Pillaiyar. The
last Tirumurai is Periya Puranam that mainly discusses history of these 63 Nayanmars.
Like Alvars, these Nayanmars also wandered the region with their devotional hymns
244
attracting from Hinduism and out of Hinduism also, thus with contributions of these twosaint
group a popular movement of Bhakti is said to be emerged.
Emerging through wandering saints of Alvars and Nayanmars who lived roughly
between seventh and eleventh century in south India, Bhakti movement developed to
central, Northern and North-east India through popular figures of Bhakti like Basavanna
and Akkmahadevi in Karnataka, Ramanand, Kabir, Guru Nanak, Vallabha, Chaitanya,
Mira bai, Surdas, Tulsidas and Tukaram. With the influence of radical ideologies of
Basavanna and Akkamahadevi, a new religion within religion was evolved due to Bhakti.
Even they are ardent devotees of Siva, followers of Basavanna identify themselves as
Lingayats underlining that they are not Hindus. The engagement of Bhakti with Islam
also paved way to evolution of another new religion in the name of Sikhism the followers
of Guru Nanak who was well-influenced by Kabir.
Among sacred texts of Hinduism, Bhagavat-Gita, is most prominent and first
text to authorize Bhakti as a path of salvation. While there are many arguements about
prime teaching of the text, it may rightly said Bhagavat-Gita proposes all three paths since
its first six chapters discuss Karma, next six Bhakti and last six Jnana. But many
theoogians, mainly Bhakti propenents, argue Bhakti as the core teaching of Bhagavat-
Gita as it concludes with a verse that promote Bhakti as the path of devotion. However,
Bhagavat-Gita is the first text to authorize Bhakti as path of moksha if not the sole path.
It also offers moksha even for low-castes and out-caste as well as women who were not
favourable for salvation; an important doctrine of both Bhagavat-Gita and Bhakti to gain
the popularity. But, most importantly, it hadn’t ignite a movement soon after the
emergence of the text but it had continued as a part of great Purana.
As we cited in history earlier, we come across a popular movement with the
emergence of Nalayira Divya Prabandham and Shaiva Tirumurai. Nalayira Divya
Prabndham starts with Tiruppallandu of Periyalavar who calls devotees and fellow
humans to chant his hymns with reverence and devotion to attain moksha and closness
with God. Throughout the text, love and devotion from the bottom of heart to God,
seeking refuge in Him, only thinking and dedicating to Him, and loving Him as God and
245
lover are recurred. Poets often describes their situation of devotion, love and even bliss
in very good rhetoric. It is notable that some poets repeatedly attack Buddhism and
Jainism throughout their poems and reject its principles. Even though they strongly
advocate Bhakti for salvation, they not explicitly reject Varnashrama dharma as they
respect upper castes in some portions.
Bhagavat purana, a large text with eleven thousand hymns, is another major text
to discuss Bhakti, yet it doesn’t propse Bhakti as a sole path of salvation but as an optional
path after observing Karma and Jnana paths. Even though it proposes Bhakti as an
effective path of salvation in some hymns, it may not right to assess it as core teaching of
Bhakti. Main theme of discussion revolves around Samkhya and Yoga, therefore it can
be considered as a philosophical text.
Narada Bhaktisutra and Shandilya Bhaktisutra are main two text that completely
dedicated to discuss Bhakti. Narada bhatkisuta is consisted of easy memorable 84
aphorisms that simply defines Bhakti, characteristics needed to develop Bhakti, different
phases of Bhakti and attributes of a successful devotee. Narada define Bhakti that it
consists of offering one’s every act to the supreme Lord and feeling extreme distress in
forgetting him. He also encourages to ignore Vedic injuctions as well as Varnashrama
dharma if it condradicts devotional service and to practice Bhakti if anyone want to attain
Moksha.
Contrary to Narada Bhaktisutra, Shandilya elucidates Bhakti through
philosophical and intellectual angle. He tries to demonstrate philosophically, with help of
other texts, the efficancy of Bhakti as a path of salvation. He brings sensual, scriptual and
logical proofs to prove Bhakti as superior path. He catogarizes Bhakti as Para Bhakti
which is supreme form of Bhakti that directly connected with heart, and Gauna Bhakti
which is secondary that engages with external deeds like chanting. These collection of
six large texts are main texts that composed before or soon after the emergence of Bhakti
movement.
246
Because of one thousand-long history of Bhakti movement and its engagements
with various religions, communities and geographies, had pushed to various theories of
influence on the emergence of Bhakti movement. Many orientalist historians and
theologian argue that there is Christian influence on Bhakti since both advocates love and
devotion to personal Gods neglecting religious duties to be practised. They also points to
the presence of Christian missionaries in south India region as early as Christian era.
Another set of historians argue influence of Islam on Bhakti movement citing the
similiarity in the principles of human equality and universal brotherhood. They mainly
focus on developments occured in medivel period and figures like Kabir and Basavanna.
They also cites the advance of Muslims to south Indian cost in corresponding centuries
of Alvars and Nayanmars while they diminish the possibility of Christian influence
pointing their insignificance as a community in the time.
Some Indian historians and theologians argue the indegenous genesis of Bhakti
but they make deliberate attempts to link Bhakti and extract from Vedas and Upanishads.
They try to project Shraddha and Upasana as Vedic and Upanishadic forms of Bhakti and
its influence in hymns of Alvars and Nayanmars but the radical ideology of Bhakti that
neglects Vedic injuctions especially Varnshrama Dharma is a point of concern. Some
historians suggest influence of Buddhists and Jains on the emergence of Bhakti
movement. Similiarity in principles and dominance of these two heterodox sects in the
region during the emergence of Alvars and Nayanmars, are shown as the proof. When
large canon of Alvars’ and Nayanmars’ texts are traced, it contain many mentions of these
two sects while nothing is found about Christians and Muslims. It is noted that some poets
dedicate recurring hymns in their poems to attack Buddhism and Jainism, as well as to
reject these religions. Moreover, these religions lose influence in the centuries Alvars and
Nayanmars were emerged and these moved to other south Asian countries. Regarding
these reasons, it may be not wrong to suggest that Bhakti movement was assimilation of
devotional, mystic and humanitarian ideas of Buddhists and Jains to Puranic Hindu-fold
in order to attract large mass of the region to Hinduism. But it is eager to come to a
conclusion, therefore it calls for an in-depth comparitive research scrutinizing all these
theories.
247
In nutshell, we answered all the questions in our introduction and the answers
are here
A. Tha main teaching of Bhakti is offering of Moksha through love and
devotion to the God. It also rejects Varnashramadharma, so each and
everyone is capable of attaining Moksha irrespective of caste and gender.
Bhakti highlights the importance of love and devotion towards the God
rather than rituals and extensive religious philosophy.
B. Bhakti was scarcley mentioned in four Veda scriptures. Bhagavat-Gita is
the first text to discuss Bhakti. ‘Nalayira Divya Prabandham’ and
‘Panniru Tirumurai’, which are considered as sacred as Veda by its
followers, are main texts that highlights Bhakti everywhere. While there
are some mentions about Bhakti in Bhagavata-Pura, Shandilya
Bhaktisutra and Narada Bhaktisutra are dedicated to discuss Bhakti only.
Gitabhashya of Ramanuja is also one of the texts that were compiled in
the emergence period including twelfth century.
C. Even though mentions of Bhakti were found in Bhagavat-Gita, it’s hard
to say Bhakti emerged in Bhagavat-Gita since it didn’t infuriate a
movement soon after the emergence of the text. Moreover, Bhagavat-
Gita was a very small part of great legend ‘Mahabharatha.’ In the reality,
Bhakti was the core and essence in the poems of great canons of
‘Nalayira Divya Prabandham’ that sung by Alvars and ‘Panniru
Tirumurai’ which sung by Nayanmars. Bhakti and its teachings were
repeatedly highlighted in these peoms and these poems could bring the
radical changes in both Hindu belief and history. So it is not wrong to
assert that Bhakti was emerged in the poems of Alvars and Nayanmars.
D. Alvars and Nayanmars were wandering throughout Tamil region and
adjacent areas in South India singing their peoms, so Bhakti teachings
were also spread throughout the region bringing changes in Hindu
religion and culture. Considering their valiant efforts, Alvars and
248
Nayanmars were front runners of Bhakti and its movement and their role
in Bhakti tradition is inevitable.
E. Since Nalayira Divya Prabandham and Panniru Tirumurai are the
collection devotional peoms sung by 12 Alvars and 63 Nayanmars
respectively, these poems attracted the large mass in south India to
Bhakti ideology, thus these ideas infuriated for the emergence of great
Bhakti movement. Singing these songs in vernacular language of Tamil
instead of Sanskrit the language of Vedas and other sacred texts is clear
indicator of a radical change. The inclusion women’s peom in the canon
also challenged the existing hegemony of men in Hindu religious affairs.
F. From our extensive research, it’s easliy understood that Ramanuja was
not the first one to introduce Bhakti, so it may be wrong to attribute the
emergence of Bhakti to Ramanuja. But he was the first one
systematically present Bhakti and to write a commentary on Bhagavat-
Gita showing Bhakti as its main theme and teaching.
G. Regarding the time span and geography, there was a great possibility of
Islam’s influence on Bhakti, but our objective research clearly shows that
there were not any notable influences of Islam in the emergence of
Bhakti. Moreover, a deliberate linking of Bhakti to Islam will be a repeat
of fallacy of western scholars who argued the same influence based on
same hypothesis but without enough proofs and evidences.
H. Many theories are there on indigenous emergence and external influence
from Christianity, Islam, Jain and Budhism. From our research, it is not
wrong to understand that Budhism had influenced in the emergence of
Bhakti. The poems of Nalayira Divya Prabandham and Panniru
Tirumurai, often mention Budhism and its ideas and even attack them
recurringly. The dominance of Budhism in the region before Bhakti and
its vanishing with the emergence of Bhakti movement is another reason
for the influence and polemics with Budhism. But it’s too early to make
a judgement, so it requires an extensive research examining the existence
249
of each religions and its engagements with Hinduism to answer this
question properly.
250
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