411

 Taming Demography
Actors, D ynamics, and E vents in the T ransition in

“
“Taming Demography: Actors, dynamics, and events in the transition in Taming Demography: Actors, dynamics, and events in the transition in population policies of Turkey from Propopulation policies of Turkey from Pronnatalism to Antiatalism to Antinnatalism atalism between between 1950 and 1961950 and 1965…5…,” a dissertation prepared by ,” a dissertation prepared by Serdar FurtunaSerdar Furtuna in partial in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from the Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History at from the Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History at BoğaziçiBoğaziçi Uni-Uni-versity, versity, and and L’école L’école desdes Hautes ÉtudesHautes Études en Sciences Sociales en Sciences Sociales has been ap-has been ap-proved on proved on 2121 MarchMarch 20232023 by:by:__________________________________________________________________________________
y __________________________________________________________________________________
H
The intellectual content of this dissertationdissertation, which has been written by , which has been written by me and for which I take full responsibility, is my own, original work, and me and for which I take full responsibility, is my own, original work, and it has not been previously or concurrently submitted elsewhere for any it has not been previously or concurrently submitted elsewhere for any other examination or degree of higherother examination or degree of higher education. The sources of all par-education. The sources of all par-aphrased and quoted materials, concepts, and ideas are fully cited, and aphrased and quoted materials, concepts, and ideas are fully cited, and the admissible contributions and assistance of others with respect to the the admissible contributions and assistance of others with respect to the conception of the work as well as to linguistic expression are explicitly conception of the work as well as to linguistic expression are explicitly acacknowledged herein.knowledged herein.

This dissertation analyzesanalyzes the transition of Third World countries' population the transition of Third World countries' population policies from pronatalism to antinatalism in policies from pronatalism to antinatalism in the 1950s and 1960sthe 1950s and 1960s,, with a spe-with a spe-cial focus on the Turkish case. The emergence of the idea of population control cial focus on the Turkish case. The emergence of the idea of population control as part of global hegemonic interest, its dissemination and adaptation by the as part of global hegemonic interest, its dissemination and adaptation by the national government, and its internalization by women and the familnational government, and its internalization by women and the family are ex-y are ex-plored plored throughthrough three spheres: global, national, and individual.three spheres: global, national, and individual. The The aimaim of this of this dissertation, therefore, is to explore the key motivations, articulations, and re-dissertation, therefore, is to explore the key motivations, articulations, and re-inforcements of the global, national, and individual forces that intervene in an-inforcements of the global, national, and individual forces that intervene in an-tinataltinatalist politics, and to highlight the contradictions, resistances, and negotia-ist politics, and to highlight the contradictions, resistances, and negotia-tions in betweentions in between.. The The claimclaim of this dissertation, based on a detailed analysis of of this dissertation, based on a detailed analysis of primary and secondary sources, is that population control was not a unilateral primary and secondary sources, is that population control was not a unilateral hegemonic project, hegemonic project, bbut an implicit and fragile intersection of these three ut an implicit and fragile intersection of these three spheres, whose only interest was to improve their "quality" by maximizing spheres, whose only interest was to improve their "quality" by maximizing their own capabilities and functionings.their own capabilities and functionings. In this sense, this dissertation is the In this sense, this dissertation is the story of the ideology of population control thstory of the ideology of population control that became an instrument for im-at became an instrument for im-proving the quality of life in the 1950s and 1960s.proving the quality of life in the 1950s and 1960s.
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Özet
Özet
Demografiyi Ehlileştirmek: 1950 ve 1965 yılları arasında Türkiye’deki nüfus
Demografiyi Ehlileştirmek: 1950 ve 1965 yılları arasında Türkiye’deki nüfus politikasının pronatalizmden antinatalizme dönüş sürecindeki politikasının pronatalizmden antinatalizme dönüş sürecindeki aktörler, aktörler, dinamikler ve olaylar..dinamikler ve olaylar..
Serdar Furtuna
Serdar Furtuna, Doktora Adayı, , Doktora Adayı, 20232023
Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılap Tarihi Enstitüsü
Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılap Tarihi Enstitüsü
L’école Des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales
L’école Des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales
Doktor Öğretim Görevlisi
Doktor Öğretim Görevlisi Seda Altuğ, Seda Altuğ, Tez DanışmanıTez Danışmanı
Profes
Profesörör Blandine Blandine Destremau, Destremau, Tez DanışmanıTez Danışmanı
Bu tez, Üçüncü Dünya ülkelerinin
Bu tez, Üçüncü Dünya ülkelerinin nüfus politikalarının 1950 ve 1960’lı yıllar-nüfus politikalarının 1950 ve 1960’lı yıllar-daki prdaki prononatalizmatalizmden antinatalizme geçden antinatalizme geçiş sürecini Türkiye örneği üzerinden in-iş sürecini Türkiye örneği üzerinden in-celer. celer. Nüfus kontrolü fikrinin Nüfus kontrolü fikrinin global hegemonikglobal hegemonik çıkarların bir parçası olarak çıkarların bir parçası olarak ortaya çıkışı, yerel hükümetlere yayılışı ve benimsenmesi veortaya çıkışı, yerel hükümetlere yayılışı ve benimsenmesi ve kadın ile aile tara-kadın ile aile tara-fından içselleştirilmesi, global, yefından içselleştirilmesi, global, yerel ve bireysel olarak rel ve bireysel olarak üç katmaüç katmannda ele alına-da ele alına-caktıcaktır.r. Buna göre, bu tez global, yerel ve bireysel güçlerin Buna göre, bu tez global, yerel ve bireysel güçlerin antiantinatalist politika-natalist politika-lara geçiş sürecindeki temel motivasyonlarınılara geçiş sürecindeki temel motivasyonlarını, eklemlenmelerini, , eklemlenmelerini, pekiştirmelerinipekiştirmelerini araştıraraştırarak, arak, ilgili katmanlar ilgili katmanlar ararasındaki asındaki aykırılıkları, aykırılıkları, gegerilim-rilim-leri, pazarlıkları leri, pazarlıkları vurgulamaktvurgulamaktadadır.ır. BBirincil ve ikincil kaynakların detaylı analizi irincil ve ikincil kaynakların detaylı analizi ışığındaışığında bu tezin iddiası, nüfus kontrolünün bu tezin iddiası, nüfus kontrolünün tek yönlü bir hegemonik proje ol-tek yönlü bir hegemonik proje ol-mayıpmayıp, , sözü edilen sözü edilen üç küç katmanınatmanın,, “kalite“kalitelerinilerini” arttırmak üzere kendi kapasite ” arttırmak üzere kendi kapasite ve fonksiyonlarını maksimize etmesi ve fonksiyonlarını maksimize etmesi şeklinde özetlenebilecek öşeklinde özetlenebilecek özgüzgünn çıkarları-çıkarları-nın nın kesiştiği kesiştiği üstü kapalıüstü kapalı ve kırılgan bir koalisyonve kırılgan bir koalisyonun eseri olduğudur.un eseri olduğudur. Bu an-Bu an-lamda ilamda ilgili tez, nüfus kontrolününlgili tez, nüfus kontrolünün 1950 ve 1960’lı yıllarda1950 ve 1960’lı yıllarda yaşam kalitesini yaşam kalitesini arttırıcı bir araca arttırıcı bir araca dönüşümünün hikayesidir. dönüşümünün hikayesidir.
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R
Re sume
Apprivoiser la démographie
Apprivoiser la démographie: : Acteurs,Acteurs, dynamiques et événements de la dynamiques et événements de la politique démographique de la Turquie,politique démographique de la Turquie, du pronatalisme àl'antinalismeentre du pronatalisme àl'antinalismeentre 1950 et 19651950 et 1965……
Serdar Furtuna
Serdar Furtuna, , doctorandoctorant t àà l’l’Institut de Recherche Interdisciplinaire sur les Institut de Recherche Interdisciplinaire sur les EnjeuxSociaux (IRIS)EnjeuxSociaux (IRIS), de , de l’l’ Ecole des Hautes Ecole des Hautes Études en Sciences SocialesÉtudes en Sciences Sociales (EHESS) et (EHESS) et àà l'Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History de l'Université de l'Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History de l'Université de
Boğaziçi,
Boğaziçi, 22023023
Sous la direction de
Sous la direction de Blandine Destremau Blandine Destremau etet SedaSeda AltuğAltuğ
Cette thése analyse la transition des politiques démographiques dans les pays
Cette thése analyse la transition des politiques démographiques dans les pays du tiersdu tiers--monde, du pronatalisme à l'antimonde, du pronatalisme à l'anti--natalisme dans les années 1950 et natalisme dans les années 1950 et 1960, avec une attention particulière pour le cas de la Turquie. L'émergence de 1960, avec une attention particulière pour le cas de la Turquie. L'émergence de l'idée du contrôle de la population en tant qu'élément de l'intérêt hégémonique l'idée du contrôle de la population en tant qu'élément de l'intérêt hégémonique mondial, sa diffusiomondial, sa diffusion et son adaptation par le gouvernement national, et son n et son adaptation par le gouvernement national, et son internalisation par les femmes et la famille sont explorées à travers trois internalisation par les femmes et la famille sont explorées à travers trois sphères : mondiale, nationale et individuelle. L'objectif de cette thèse est donc sphères : mondiale, nationale et individuelle. L'objectif de cette thèse est donc d'explorer les motivations clés, les artid'explorer les motivations clés, les articulations et les renforcements des forces culations et les renforcements des forces mondiales, nationales et individuelles impliquées dans la politique antimondiales, nationales et individuelles impliquées dans la politique anti--nata-nata-liste, et de mettre en évidence les contradictions, les résistances et les négoci-liste, et de mettre en évidence les contradictions, les résistances et les négoci-ations entre elles. La thèse de ce travail, basée sur unations entre elles. La thèse de ce travail, basée sur une analyse détaillée des e analyse détaillée des sources primaires et secondaires, est que le contrôle de la population n'était sources primaires et secondaires, est que le contrôle de la population n'était pas un projet hégémonique unilatéral, mais une intersection implicite et fragile pas un projet hégémonique unilatéral, mais une intersection implicite et fragile de ces trois sphères, dont le seul intérêt était d'améliorer leur "qualide ces trois sphères, dont le seul intérêt était d'améliorer leur "qualité" en té" en maximisant leurs propres capacités et fonctionnement. En ce sens, cette thèse maximisant leurs propres capacités et fonctionnement. En ce sens, cette thèse est l'histoire de la façon dont l'idéologie du contrôle de la population est deve-est l'histoire de la façon dont l'idéologie du contrôle de la population est deve-nue un instrument d'amélioration de la qualité de vie dans les années 1950 et nue un instrument d'amélioration de la qualité de vie dans les années 1950 et 1960.1960.
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x
Curriculum Vitæ
Curriculum Vitæ
SERDAR FURTUNA
SERDAR FURTUNA
11.02.1977
11.02.1977
Istanbul, Turkey
Istanbul, Turkey
EDUCATION
EDUCATION
Ph.D.
Ph.D. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History
Boğaziçi UniversityBoğaziçi University
20232023
Ph.D.
Ph.D. Institut de Institut de RRecherche echerche IInterdisciplinaire sur les nterdisciplinaire sur les EEnjeux njeux SSociauxociaux (IRIS)(IRIS)
EEcole cole ddes Hautes Études en Sciences Socialeses Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales
20232023
M.A.
M.A. HistoryHistory
Bilgi University Bilgi University
20152015
B.A.
B.A. Business Administration (English)Business Administration (English)
Istanbul University Istanbul University
19981998
PRESENTATIONS
PRESENTATIONS, , CONFERENCES AND WORKSHOPSCONFERENCES AND WORKSHOPS
■ “The transition in the “The transition in the Population Policies of Turkey from ProPopulation Policies of Turkey from Pronnatalism to Anti-atalism to Anti-nnatalism between 1950 and 1965 and its interactions with the Turkish Fam-atalism between 1950 and 1965 and its interactions with the Turkish Fam-ily”, ily”, Gender and Family Politics in the Middle EastGender and Family Politics in the Middle East (19(19thth --2020thth century), century), Online Online Workshop, January 20, 2022Workshop, January 20, 2022..
■ “Changing Population“Changing Population Dynamics and Policies in Turkey. Dynamics and Policies in Turkey. A Historical Perspec-A Historical Perspec-tive”, tive”, Familles, Sociétés et États dans les pays Arabes, la Turquie et l’Iran Con-Familles, Sociétés et États dans les pays Arabes, la Turquie et l’Iran Con-temporainstemporains, IISMM Seminars, EHESS Campus Condorcet à Aubervilliers, Paris, , IISMM Seminars, EHESS Campus Condorcet à Aubervilliers, Paris, December 11December 11,, 20192019..
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■ “Barbers in the nineteenth“Barbers in the nineteenth Century Ottoman Empire in the Capital and Pro-Century Ottoman Empire in the Capital and Pro-vincial centersvincial centers,”,” Workshop on the History of Occupations: Occupations in the Workshop on the History of Occupations: Occupations in the Ottoman Empire and TurkeyOttoman Empire and Turkey, Istanbul Bilgi University Department of History, , Istanbul Bilgi University Department of History, Istanbul, May 2Istanbul, May 2ndnd -- 33rdrd , , 2015 2015
LANGUAGES
■ Turkish Turkish –– Native SpeakerNative Speaker
■ English English –– FluentFluent
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Tables xvixvi
List of Figures
List of Figures xviixvii
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements xxxx
1 INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION 11
1.1 Turkey Turning to Population ControlTurkey Turning to Population Control 22
1.2 Research QuestionResearch Question 66
1.3 Literature ReviewLiterature Review 88
1.4 Theoretical FrameworkTheoretical Framework 1616
1.5 MethodologyMethodology 2424
1.6 Outline of the DissertationOutline of the Dissertation 3030
2 GLOBAL POPULATION CONTROL IDEOLOGIES AND THEIR TRANSFER TO GLOBAL POPULATION CONTROL IDEOLOGIES AND THEIR TRANSFER TO THE THIRD WORLD IN THE 1950S AND 1960S.THE THIRD WORLD IN THE 1950S AND 1960S. 3333
2.1 Genealogy of the Population Control IdeologyGenealogy of the Population Control Ideology 3434
2.2 Population Control as a Global MovementPopulation Control as a Global Movement 5050
2.3 Population Control in National SpherePopulation Control in National Sphere 7979
3 THE POPULATION CONTROL IN TURKEY: ACTORS, DEBATES, DISCUSSIONS THE POPULATION CONTROL IN TURKEY: ACTORS, DEBATES, DISCUSSIONS AND TRANSITIONS…AND TRANSITIONS… 103103
3.1 Early Antinatalist Discussions before 1960Early Antinatalist Discussions before 1960 104104
3.2 Towards the Population Planning LawTowards the Population Planning Law 128128
3.3 The Population Control Policy ImplementationThe Population Control Policy Implementation 171171
4 THE NEW FAMILY AND WOMEN: BETWEEN CHANGES AND PRACTICES..THE NEW FAMILY AND WOMEN: BETWEEN CHANGES AND PRACTICES.. 195195
4.1 Women and the Family in Transition…Women and the Family in Transition… 196196
4.2 The Family and the ContraceptionThe Family and the Contraception 216216
4.3 Turkish Women and Family after 1965.Turkish Women and Family after 1965. 229229
5 55 CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION 247247
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APPENDICES
APPENDICES
A
A Population Planning Law (No.557)Population Planning Law (No.557) 255255
B
B Correspondences between John D. Rockefeller 3Correspondences between John D. Rockefeller 3rd rd and and Prime Minister Suleyman Demirel on International Family Prime Minister Suleyman Demirel on International Family PlanningPlanning 259259
C
C The FPC The FPC investmet investmet and and IUDIUD insertions per Provincial insertions per Provincial DistrictsDistricts 264264
D
D Fertility rate per Provincial Districts “1965”Fertility rate per Provincial Districts “1965” 266266
E
E Fertility rate per Provincial Districts “1985”Fertility rate per Provincial Districts “1985” 268268
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY 270270
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List of Tables
List of Tables
Table 2.1
Table 2.1 Change in population growth 1950Change in population growth 1950--19651965 8383
Table 2.2
Table 2.2 Change in urbanization 1950Change in urbanization 1950--19651965 8686
Table 2.3
Table 2.3 Population planning in the NDP.Population planning in the NDP. 9898
Table 2.4
Table 2.4 Key population issues per developing countryKey population issues per developing country 101101
Table 3.1
Table 3.1 Infant mortality rates 1935Infant mortality rates 1935--19751975 109109
Table 3.2
Table 3.2 State hospitals and beds 1935State hospitals and beds 1935--19701970 110110
Table 3.3
Table 3.3 Pregnancy cases in hospitals and nurseries 1955Pregnancy cases in hospitals and nurseries 1955--19591959 110110
Table 3.4
Table 3.4 Tractors and land cultivation 1948Tractors and land cultivation 1948--19561956 114114
Table 3.5 Transportation and communication 1935
Table 3.5 Transportation and communication 1935--19701970 116116
Table 3.6 Istanbul population by place of birth 1935
Table 3.6 Istanbul population by place of birth 1935--19701970 118118
Table 3.7
Table 3.7 Health services in Istanbul 1950Health services in Istanbul 1950--19591959 119119
Table 3.8
Table 3.8 Male employment in Istanbul 1935Male employment in Istanbul 1935--19701970 121121
Table 3.9
Table 3.9 Foreign loans and grants to Foreign loans and grants to Turkey 1946Turkey 1946--1962 (million $)1962 (million $) 132132
Table 3.10
Table 3.10 Some key responses in the Turkish KAP Survey of 19Some key responses in the Turkish KAP Survey of 1963. (%)63. (%) 158158
Table 3.11
Table 3.11 Discussion topics during the Population Planning LawDiscussion topics during the Population Planning Law 163163
Table 3.12
Table 3.12 Composition of votes in the Senate, March 23, 1965Composition of votes in the Senate, March 23, 1965 170170
Table 3.13
Table 3.13 Family planning clinics and IUD insertions 1965Family planning clinics and IUD insertions 1965--1971.1971. 178178
Table 3.14
Table 3.14 Promotional activities on population control 1966Promotional activities on population control 1966--1970.1970. 179179
Table 3.15
Table 3.15 Summary of variables, abbreviations, and definitionsSummary of variables, abbreviations, and definitions 187187
Table 3.16
Table 3.16 Key determinants of FPC Investment and IUD UseKey determinants of FPC Investment and IUD Use 190190
Table 4.1
Table 4.1 Turkish family structure based on 1968 survey. (%)Turkish family structure based on 1968 survey. (%) 198198
Table 4.2
Table 4.2 Family types and land ownership based on 1968 survey. (%)Family types and land ownership based on 1968 survey. (%) 199199
Table 4.3
Table 4.3 Sectoral distribution of female labor force 1950Sectoral distribution of female labor force 1950--1970 (%)1970 (%) 203203
Table 4.4
Table 4.4 Changing Female Agricultural Labor 1955Changing Female Agricultural Labor 1955--1970 1970 (%)(%) 205205
Table 4.5
Table 4.5 Advantage of having children, VOC survey results Advantage of having children, VOC survey results (%)(%) 208208
Table 4.6
Table 4.6 Disadvantage of having children, VOC survey results Disadvantage of having children, VOC survey results (%)(%) 210210
Table 4.7
Table 4.7 Marriage rate of women in different age groups 1950Marriage rate of women in different age groups 1950--1970 1970 212212
Table 4.8
Table 4.8 Female literacy rates 1950Female literacy rates 1950--1970. (%)1970. (%) 215215
Table 4.9 TFR by residency 1950
Table 4.9 TFR by residency 1950--19701970 217217
Table 4.10
Table 4.10 Contraceptive use by residency (%) 1963Contraceptive use by residency (%) 1963--19731973 219219
Table 4.11
Table 4.11 Contraceptive use by contraceptive methods (%)1963Contraceptive use by contraceptive methods (%)1963--19731973 220220
Table 4.12
Table 4.12 Abortion rates by residency 1968Abortion rates by residency 1968--1973 (per 100 live birth)1973 (per 100 live birth) 223223
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Table 4.13
Table 4.13 NDP projections vs actual population 1965NDP projections vs actual population 1965--1985 1985 (in ‘000)(in ‘000) 231231
Table 4.14
Table 4.14 Female literacy rates 1965Female literacy rates 1965--1985 (%)1985 (%) 237237
Table 4.15
Table 4.15 Sectoral distribution of female labor force 1965Sectoral distribution of female labor force 1965--1985 (%)1985 (%) 238238
Table 4.16
Table 4.16 Summary of variables, abbreviations, and definitionsSummary of variables, abbreviations, and definitions 240240
Table 4.17
Table 4.17 Individual determinants of TFR (1965 vs. 1985)Individual determinants of TFR (1965 vs. 1985) 241241
List of Figures
List of Figures
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.1 Countries acceptCountries accepteded ffamily amily pplanning until 1970lanning until 1970 8080
Figure
Figure 441.11.1 TFR per TFR per provincial district 1965provincial district 1965 232322
Figure
Figure 4.24.2 TFR per provincial district 1985TFR per provincial district 1985 232333
Figure
Figure 4.34.3 Traditional vs. modern contraception 1963Traditional vs. modern contraception 1963--1985 1985 232355
xviii
Abbreviations and Acronyms
Abbreviations and Acronyms
AKPAKP Ak PartyAk Party
AAPP Justice PartyJustice Party
CENTOCENTO Central Organization TreatyCentral Organization Treaty
CHPCHP Republican People PartyRepublican People Party
DPDP Democrat PartyDemocrat Party
FPPFPP Family Planning ProgramFamily Planning Program
FRUSFRUS Foreign Relations of the United States Foreign Relations of the United States
HUNEEHUNEE Hacettepe University Institute of Population StudiesHacettepe University Institute of Population Studies
IBRDIBRD International Bank for ReconstrucInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Developmenttion and Development
IMF IMF International Monetary FundInternational Monetary Fund
IPPFIPPF International Planned Parenthood FederationInternational Planned Parenthood Federation
ISI ISI Import SubstitutionImport Substitution--based based IndustrializationIndustrialization
KAPKAP KnowledgeKnowledge--AttitudeAttitude--PracticePractice
MBKMBK National Union CommitteeNational Union Committee
MHPMHP Nationalist Movement PartyNationalist Movement Party
NATONATO North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization
NDPNDP National National DDevelopmental evelopmental PPlanlan
NGONGO NonNon--Governmental OrganizationGovernmental Organization
OECDOECD Organization for Economic CoOrganization for Economic Co--operation and Developmentoperation and Development
OPROPR Princeton University’s Office of Population Research DivisionPrinceton University’s Office of Population Research Division
PAAPAA Population Association of America Population Association of America
RACRAC Rockefeller Archive CenterRockefeller Archive Center
SEESEE State Economic EnterpriseState Economic Enterprise
SMAMSMAM Singulate Mean of MarriageSingulate Mean of Marriage
SPOSPO State Planning OfficeState Planning Office
TAPDTAPD Turkish Family Planning AssociationTurkish Family Planning Association
TFRTFR Total Fertililty RateTotal Fertililty Rate
TLTL Turkish LiraTurkish Lira
IUDIUD IntraIntrauterine deviceuterine device
UK UK United KingdomUnited Kingdom
UNUN UnitUniteded NationsNations
USUS United State of AmericaUnited State of America
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VOCVOC Value of Value of the the ChildChild WHOWHO WorldWorld Health OrganizationHealth Organization
WWIIWWII World War IIWorld War II
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Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
The
The dissertation process was dissertation process was aa long and tough journey and could notlong and tough journey and could not have beenhave been realized without my realized without my supervisors. I would like to express my deepest gratitude supervisors. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to to Blandine Blandine Destremau, for Destremau, for her her trust, hospitality, trust, hospitality, eyeeye--openingopening comments,comments, and and endless guidance endless guidance that helpthat helped ed me stay on the me stay on the right track.right track. Also,Also, to Seda to Seda Altuğ, Altuğ, without her trust in mewithout her trust in me, , which which I will never forget, I will never forget, this dissertation could not this dissertation could not even even beginbegin.. II wouldwould also like to thank thealso like to thank the committee members, Umut committee members, Umut TüremTürem andand Ceylan Engin Ceylan Engin for for their invaluable their invaluable feedbackfeedback. .
I
I am also grateful tam also grateful to o many academiciansmany academicians for their for their supportsupport. . Ilhan Tekeli was Ilhan Tekeli was so kind toso kind to invite me to his hoinvite me to his homeme and and shareshare his endless experiences. his endless experiences. Ayşe AkınAyşe Akın was was just a just a phone phone call call away to send away to send me me her encouragement her encouragement and commentsand comments.. Zafer Zafer ÖztekÖztek almost almost gave gave me me a ca crash course onrash course on anatomanatomyy,, fertilifertilityty,, and and contraceptivecontraceptivess.. ŞevkaŞevkatt Bahar Özvarış, Bahar Özvarış, Fatih Fatih ArtvinliArtvinli andand Yeşim YasinYeşim Yasin alsoalso providedprovided illuminativeilluminative feedbackfeedback on on public health. public health. HUNEE academicians Ismet KHUNEE academicians Ismet Koç, Mehmet Ali Eryurt, oç, Mehmet Ali Eryurt, Alanur Çavlı and Alanur Çavlı and Faruk Keskin shareFaruk Keskin sharedd experiences experiences in the field of in the field of demographydemography..
The EHESS Summer School was a perfect venue to discuss my dissertation
The EHESS Summer School was a perfect venue to discuss my dissertation and I would like to express my sincere thanks to Antonella Romano, Rafael and I would like to express my sincere thanks to Antonella Romano, Rafael Mandressi, Alexis Mandressi, Alexis Lycas,Lycas, and the rest of the team and the rest of the team for their stimulatifor their stimulating com-ng com-ments and encouragement. ments and encouragement. Also,Also, to IRIS for funding that great experience. to IRIS for funding that great experience.
I
I also also would like to thank would like to thank to Okanto Okan BaşaranBaşaran fromfrom National Library of Turkey, National Library of Turkey, Muharrem Gök fromMuharrem Gök from Turkish Statistical InstituteTurkish Statistical Institute, , staff of staff of Istanbul Metropolitan Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality AtaturMunicipality Ataturk Library, Bogazici k Library, Bogazici University University Library,Library, and and especially especially tto o Medeniyet Medeniyet University University Library for providing a perfect working environment. Library for providing a perfect working environment.
My
My managersmanagers in the business environmentin the business environment,, Kemal Dinçer and Mert Yüce-Kemal Dinçer and Mert Yüce-san were so san were so generous generous in providingin providing me me withwith the timethe time I neI needededed. . Besides, Besides, I always I always felt the support of my mfelt the support of my mother,other, fatherfather,, and brotherand brother during the during the entire processentire process..
And above all, I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my
And above all, I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my belovedbeloved wifewife, , also my academic mentor Ozlemalso my academic mentor Ozlem,, and my and my pride and joypride and joy,, ZeynepZeynep, , aas Is I owe owe a a great great debt of gratitude debt of gratitude for their love and patiencefor their love and patience..
NOTE
NOTE:: The inThe in--house editor of the Atatürk Institute has made detailed rec-house editor of the Atatürk Institute has made detailed rec-ommendations with regard to the format, grammar, spelling, usage, syntax, and ommendations with regard to the format, grammar, spelling, usage, syntax, and style of thisstyle of this dissertationdissertation..
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1 IntroductionIntroduction
opulation thinking has a long and complex history in
opulation thinking has a long and complex history in the the govern-govern-mental corpus since antiquity, whmental corpus since antiquity, whileile the notion of populousness the notion of populousness ccontinued ontinued to be gto be generally accepted enerally accepted as an as an indication indication of strengthof strength and and wealth until wealth until the nineteenth the nineteenth centurycentury. . The organized idea of limiting the The organized idea of limiting the population has evolved in two main currents within the last two centu-population has evolved in two main currents within the last two centu-ries; Malthusian feries; Malthusian fear of population ar of population growthgrowth that would that would exhaust scarce exhaust scarce economic resourceseconomic resources,, and the eugenic anxiety of locals and the eugenic anxiety of locals being being outnum-outnum-bered by immigrants and the poor which pebered by immigrants and the poor which peaaked between two world ked between two world warswars. . Yet the attempts for population control rested on national, group Yet the attempts for population control rested on national, group and and individual interests and individual interests and were were far from being a global movement until far from being a global movement until the midthe mid--twentiethtwentieth century.century.
I
In the midn the mid--1960s, for the first time in world history, a global consen-1960s, for the first time in world history, a global consen-sus was reached on population policysus was reached on population policy.. The idea of reducing births The idea of reducing births through family planning was promoted primarily by international insti-through family planning was promoted primarily by international insti-tutions, tutions, the United States (the United States (USUS)) based private foundations, academics, and based private foundations, academics, and politicians as an essential tool for national development, poverty reduc-politicians as an essential tool for national development, poverty reduc-tion, and modtion, and modernizationernization.. Moreover, their intellectual, technological, and Moreover, their intellectual, technological, and financial assistance to achieve this goal has been well received or even financial assistance to achieve this goal has been well received or even
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solicited by most developing countries
solicited by most developing countries..1 Even the Cold War rivalry Even the Cold War rivalry seemed to have ceased to prioritize population controlseemed to have ceased to prioritize population control when Soviet Un-when Soviet Un-ion demographers abandoned their insistence on Marxist rhetoric that ion demographers abandoned their insistence on Marxist rhetoric that resisted the Malthusian idea of population controlresisted the Malthusian idea of population control..2
In Turkey, too, the long
In Turkey, too, the long--standing pronatalist tradition was trans-standing pronatalist tradition was trans-formed into an antinatalist approach, first mentionedformed into an antinatalist approach, first mentioned in 1963 in the first in 1963 in the first national fivenational five--year development plan. In the same year, the USyear development plan. In the same year, the US-- based Pop-based Pop-ulation Council was also asked to prepare a report ulation Council was also asked to prepare a report onon population plan-population plan-ning, and two years later, in 1965, the Population Planning Law was ning, and two years later, in 1965, the Population Planning Law was adoptedadopted.. 3
§ 1.1 Turkey TurninTurkey Turning to Population Controlg to Population Control
Antinatalist thinking in Turkey was unimaginable in the first half of the
Antinatalist thinking in Turkey was unimaginable in the first half of the twentiethtwentieth century. century. Based on the Based on the reverse projection estimationreverse projection estimationss,, the pop-the pop-ulation of the Anatolian peninsula in 1923 did not exceed 13 million ulation of the Anatolian peninsula in 1923 did not exceed 13 million in-in-habitants, which already meant a shortage of more than 2.1 million in-habitants, which already meant a shortage of more than 2.1 million in-habitants due to the excessive mortality and the failure to achieve fertility habitants due to the excessive mortality and the failure to achieve fertility during the ten years of war between 1912 and 1922during the ten years of war between 1912 and 1922..4 Not Not to to mention, mention, some 1some 1..2 to 1.5 million Anatolian Arme2 to 1.5 million Anatolian Armenians who had either perished or nians who had either perished or been been expelled by 1915, and the net outflow of 0expelled by 1915, and the net outflow of 0..7 million Anatolian 7 million Anatolian Greeks during the population exchange between Turkey and Greece in Greeks during the population exchange between Turkey and Greece in 1923.1923.5
The surviving population suffered severely from the infections, dis-
The surviving population suffered severely from the infections, dis-eases, and epeases, and epidemics. Half of the population had malaria idemics. Half of the population had malaria parasiteparasite,, one one
1 Turbay AyalTurbay Ayala and Lord Caradon, “Declaration on Population: The World Leaders State-a and Lord Caradon, “Declaration on Population: The World Leaders State-ment,” ment,” Studies in Family PlanningStudies in Family Planning 1, no. 26 (1968): 11, no. 26 (1968): 1––3.3.
2 Alfred J. Di MaiAlfred J. Di Maio, “The Soviet Union and Population,” o, “The Soviet Union and Population,” Comparative Political StudiesComparative Political Studies 13, 13, no. 1 (1980): 97no. 1 (1980): 97––136.136.
3 Population Council, Population Council, Population Council’in Türkiye’deki Nüfus Planlamasına Dair Raporu, Population Council’in Türkiye’deki Nüfus Planlamasına Dair Raporu, no. no. 295 295 (Ankara, Turkey: T.C Sağlık Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1963)(Ankara, Turkey: T.C Sağlık Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1963)..
4 Frederic C. Shorter, “The Population of TurkFrederic C. Shorter, “The Population of Turkey after the War of Independence,”ey after the War of Independence,” Interna-Interna-tional Journal of Middle East Studies tional Journal of Middle East Studies 17, no. 4 (1985): 41717, no. 4 (1985): 417––4141..
5 Onur Yıldırım, Onur Yıldırım, Diplomacy and Displacement: Reconsidering the TurcoDiplomacy and Displacement: Reconsidering the Turco--Greek Exchange of Greek Exchange of Populations 1922Populations 1922--19341934 (London: Routledge, 2012), 88(London: Routledge, 2012), 88––89.89.
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million were tuberculous, another 600,000 were syphilitic, and 250,000
million were tuberculous, another 600,000 were syphilitic, and 250,000 had active trachoma.had active trachoma.6 Therefore, the creation of a fertile and sanitary na-Therefore, the creation of a fertile and sanitary na-tion was a crucial part of the nationalization and mtion was a crucial part of the nationalization and modernization project odernization project of the nascent state in the 1920s and 1930sof the nascent state in the 1920s and 1930s..7
The 1940s represent
The 1940s represent aa political, economicpolitical, economic,, and demographic rupture and demographic rupture due to due to World War IIWorld War II (WWII)(WWII). Turkey was among the few . Turkey was among the few countries that countries that were not bwere not belligerent during the elligerent during the war butwar but waswas deeply wdeeply wounded by the ounded by the harsh conditions. harsh conditions. The mThe mobilization of a huge reserve army obilization of a huge reserve army of of about one about one million soldiers hamillion soldiers hadd displaced 25% of the labor forcedisplaced 25% of the labor force, especially , especially from ag-from ag-riculture.riculture.8 Besides, the increasing taxation to finance military mobiliza-Besides, the increasing taxation to finance military mobiliza-tion andtion and thethe black marketing due to the shrinkage in production black marketing due to the shrinkage in production had had led led to to malnutrition.malnutrition.9 As a result, infant mortality and diseases caused by fam-As a result, infant mortality and diseases caused by fam-ine and epidemics were at recordine and epidemics were at record--high levels during thhigh levels during the erae era..10
What, then, led Turkey to pursue an antinatalist policy a
What, then, led Turkey to pursue an antinatalist policy and undo all nd undo all efforts to repopulate the country within just 20 years after Wefforts to repopulate the country within just 20 years after WWIIWII? This ? This question was the starting point of the dissertation, which will be explored question was the starting point of the dissertation, which will be explored in detail in Chapter 3.in detail in Chapter 3.
The period between the mid
The period between the mid--1940s and the mid1940s and the mid--1960s represents a 1960s represents a series of dramatic changes in the world and in Turkey, which were also series of dramatic changes in the world and in Turkey, which were also related to changes in population policy. The country was forced to change related to changes in population policy. The country was forced to change its neutral and balanced position after the Soviet threat to the Bosphorus its neutral and balanced position after the Soviet threat to the Bosphorus and the Eastern Front at the end ofand the Eastern Front at the end of WWII and WWII and sided with the Usided with the USS and and joined global institutions such as joined global institutions such as the the UUnited Nations (UN)nited Nations (UN), , the the IInterna-nterna-tional Monetary Fund (Itional Monetary Fund (IMFMF)) and and the the North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization (N(NATOATO)). . In the meantime, the political system was democratized with In the meantime, the political system was democratized with multiparty electmultiparty elections and adapted more closely to Western standards.ions and adapted more closely to Western standards.
6 Ayhan Vergili, “Türkiye’de Modern Tıbbın Kurumsallaşması ve Cumhuriyet Dönemi Sağ-Ayhan Vergili, “Türkiye’de Modern Tıbbın Kurumsallaşması ve Cumhuriyet Dönemi Sağ-lık Politikaları” (PhD Thesis, Istanbul University, 2012), 311.lık Politikaları” (PhD Thesis, Istanbul University, 2012), 311.
7 David Lee Baylis, “Governmental Narratives of Health, Gender, and Place in The Early David Lee Baylis, “Governmental Narratives of Health, Gender, and Place in The Early Turkish RepTurkish Republic” (PhD Thesis, Michigan State University, 2015), 26.ublic” (PhD Thesis, Michigan State University, 2015), 26.
8 İlhan Tekeli and Selim İlkin, İlhan Tekeli and Selim İlkin, İkinci Dünya Savaşı Türkiyesi, vol. IIİkinci Dünya Savaşı Türkiyesi, vol. II. (. (IIstanbul: İletişim stanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2014), 173Yayınları, 2014), 173––78.78.
9 Ibid.,Ibid., 264264––72.72.
10 Frederic C Shorter and Miroslav Macura, Frederic C Shorter and Miroslav Macura, Trends in Fertility and Mortality in TurkeyTrends in Fertility and Mortality in Turkey, , 19351935--19751975 (Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 1982(Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 1982), 95.), 95.
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The
The elected elected ruling Democrat Party (DP), ruling Democrat Party (DP), that that governed between 1950 governed between 1950 and 1960, accelerated the change of trajectory from radical modernity and 1960, accelerated the change of trajectory from radical modernity to to populistpopulist modernity. Accordingly, modernity. Accordingly, the industrialthe industrial based planning based planning mmodel odel was replaced by the was replaced by the investments investments primarily inprimarily in road construction and ag-road construction and ag-ricultural mechanization guided by the foreign advisors and financed by ricultural mechanization guided by the foreign advisors and financed by Truman and Marshall aid, Truman and Marshall aid, national savingsnational savings,, and foreign debtand foreign debt..11
In the early 1950s, the country enjoyed
In the early 1950s, the country enjoyed relative prosperity as cultiva-relative prosperity as cultiva-tion increased and agricultural export revenues rose as a result of the Ko-tion increased and agricultural export revenues rose as a result of the Ko-rean Warrean War..12 Conversely, the results of the second half of the decade were Conversely, the results of the second half of the decade were economically and politically disastrous. The decline in agricultural pro-economically and politically disastrous. The decline in agricultural pro-ductioduction due to unfavorable weather conditions, falling n due to unfavorable weather conditions, falling agricultural agricultural prices prices in the postwar period, and unsustainable debt and trade deficits culmi-in the postwar period, and unsustainable debt and trade deficits culmi-nated in the largest devaluation of the young republic in 1958nated in the largest devaluation of the young republic in 1958..13 Yet, Yet, the the government had no intention of following fgovernment had no intention of following foreign advice on social and oreign advice on social and economic planning, including population control.economic planning, including population control.
As for the demographics of the era, annual population growth be-
As for the demographics of the era, annual population growth be-tween 1945 and 1950 initially reached prewar rates of 21.7%o and grad-tween 1945 and 1950 initially reached prewar rates of 21.7%o and grad-ually climbed to the historically highest rate ually climbed to the historically highest rate of 28.5%0 between 1955 of 28.5%0 between 1955 and 1960.and 1960.14 Moreover, the growing population, the mechanization of ag-Moreover, the growing population, the mechanization of ag-riculture, the facilitation of transportation and communication, and vari-riculture, the facilitation of transportation and communication, and vari-ous other factors have triggered a massive integral migration, while the ous other factors have triggered a massive integral migration, while the urbanization rate urbanization rate increased by a solid 27.5% between 1950 and 1960increased by a solid 27.5% between 1950 and 1960..15 NeverthelessNevertheless, , the leadership of the the leadership of the DP DP government government continued to continued to promote promote the the higher population as an integral part of higher population as an integral part of its its program.program.16
11 İlhan Tekeli and Selim İlkin, İlhan Tekeli and Selim İlkin, İkinci Dünya Savaşı Türkiyesi, vol. IIIİkinci Dünya Savaşı Türkiyesi, vol. III. (. (IIstanbul: İletişim stanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2014), 285Yayınları, 2014), 285––349.349.
12 Korkut Boratav, Korkut Boratav, Türkiye İktisat Tarihi 1908Türkiye İktisat Tarihi 1908--20092009, 2, 211stst ed. (Ankara: İmge kitabevi, 2015), ed. (Ankara: İmge kitabevi, 2015), 9595––108.108.
13 Ibid., 109Ibid., 109––19.19.
14 TTurkish Statistical Instituteurkish Statistical Institute,, İstİstatistiki Göstergeler Statistical Indicators 1927atistiki Göstergeler Statistical Indicators 1927--20092009, , (An-(An-kara: Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu, 2010), 8.kara: Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu, 2010), 8.
15 Ibid., 6Ibid., 6––10.10.
16 Adnan Güriz, “Türkiye’de Siyasi Partilerin Nüfus Politikası Konusunda Görüşleri,” Adnan Güriz, “Türkiye’de Siyasi Partilerin Nüfus Politikası Konusunda Görüşleri,” An-An-kara Üniversitesi Hukuk kara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi DergisiFakültesi Dergisi 28, no. 1 (1971): 1328, no. 1 (1971): 13––40.40.
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The rule of DP was ended by a
The rule of DP was ended by a ccoup d'état in May 1960, and the new oup d'état in May 1960, and the new militamilitary regime immediately changed direction to a developmentry regime immediately changed direction to a development--ori-ori-ented approach based on planning and forecasting. To this end, the State ented approach based on planning and forecasting. To this end, the State Planning Organization (SPO) was established shortly after the coup, with Planning Organization (SPO) was established shortly after the coup, with the mandate to prepare the first fivethe mandate to prepare the first five--year nationayear national developmentl development planplan (NDP(NDP))..17 TheThe conceptconcept of of population planning was first mentioned in thpopulation planning was first mentioned in thisis planplan in 1963in 1963 as a necessary tool to as a necessary tool to achieveachieve aggressive development aggressive development goalsgoals..18 After lengthy discussions and debates, After lengthy discussions and debates, tthe he Population Planning Population Planning LawLaw was promulgated in 1965.was promulgated in 1965.
The main focus of the Turkish government's family planning services
The main focus of the Turkish government's family planning services was the free insertion of intrauterine devices (was the free insertion of intrauterine devices (IUDsIUDs) by medical doc-) by medical doc-tors.tors.19
The official target in the Second Five
The official target in the Second Five--Year Development Plan was an Year Development Plan was an annual annual IUDIUD insertinsertionion rate of 5% of married women under age 45. How-rate of 5% of married women under age 45. How-ever, only 2.2 percent was achieved within three years.ever, only 2.2 percent was achieved within three years.20 Despite the Despite the weak implementation of family planning, the decline in the birth rate in weak implementation of family planning, the decline in the birth rate in both urban and rural areas had already begun in the late 1950sboth urban and rural areas had already begun in the late 1950s..21
Meanwhile, the longstanding policy of facilitating the immigration of
Meanwhile, the longstanding policy of facilitating the immigration of Turks and Muslims living abroad was replaced by the promotion of labor Turks and Muslims living abroad was replaced by the promotion of labor emigration to European countries in the early 1960s. Since the first bilat-emigration to European countries in the early 1960s. Since the first bilat-eral agreement with Germany in 1961, theral agreement with Germany in 1961, the number of legal emigrants in-e number of legal emigrants in-creased within fifteen years to as many as one millioncreased within fifteen years to as many as one million..22
17 Maxwell J. Fry, “Turkey’s First FiveMaxwell J. Fry, “Turkey’s First Five--Year Development Plan: An Assessment,Year Development Plan: An Assessment,” The Eco-” The Eco-nomic Journal nomic Journal 81, no. 322 (1971): 30681, no. 322 (1971): 306––26.26.
18 Prime Ministry and State Planning Organization, Prime Ministry and State Planning Organization, First FiveFirst Five--Year Development Plan Year Development Plan (1963(1963--1961967) 7) (Ankara, Turkey: State Planning Organization, 1963), 67(Ankara, Turkey: State Planning Organization, 1963), 67––73.73.
19 Ned Levine and Sunday Üner, Ned Levine and Sunday Üner, Population Policy Formation and Implementation in TurkeyPopulation Policy Formation and Implementation in Turkey (Ankara: Hacettepe University Publications, 1978), 68.(Ankara: Hacettepe University Publications, 1978), 68.
20 Ferhunde Ferhunde ÖÖzbay and Frederic C. Shorter, “zbay and Frederic C. Shorter, “TURKEY: Changes in Birth Control Practices, TURKEY: Changes in Birth Control Practices, 1963 to 1968,” 1963 to 1968,” Studies in Family PlanningStudies in Family Planning 1, no. 51 (March 1970): 1.1, no. 51 (March 1970): 1.
21 Nusret H. FiNusret H. Fişşek and Frederic C. Shorter, “Fertility Control in Turkey,” ek and Frederic C. Shorter, “Fertility Control in Turkey,” DemographyDemography 5, no. 5, no. 2 (1968): 5782 (1968): 578––89.89.
22 Ahmet İçduyguAhmet İçduygu and and Sema Erder, Sema Erder, “Türkiye’nin Uluslararası Göç Politikaları 1923: Ulus“Türkiye’nin Uluslararası Göç Politikaları 1923: Ulus--devlet Oluşumundan Ulusdevlet Oluşumundan Ulus--Ötesi Dönüşümlere,” TÜBİTAK 1001, (2014), Ötesi Dönüşümlere,” TÜBİTAK 1001, (2014), 181181––95.95.
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§ 1.2 Research QuestionResearch Question
What were the dynamics and processes of change in
What were the dynamics and processes of change in public policy in public policy in the the field of demography from pronatalism to antinatalism in Turkeyfield of demography from pronatalism to antinatalism in Turkey inin the the 1950s and1950s and 11960s? And how was the 960s? And how was the ideology of ideology of population control pro-population control pro-duced, interacted, interinfluenced and interrelated betweenduced, interacted, interinfluenced and interrelated between the lines of the lines of global hegemony, national global hegemony, national interest,interest, and individual claim? These are the and individual claim? These are the two main questions ttwo main questions this his dissertation dissertation seeks to answerseeks to answer..
A change in public policy requires a radical change in the definition of
A change in public policy requires a radical change in the definition of an issue or problem.an issue or problem. 23 In most cases, this change is triggered in the na-In most cases, this change is triggered in the na-tional or regional sphere, depending on changing local needs, demands, tional or regional sphere, depending on changing local needs, demands, or power struggles among ruling elitesor power struggles among ruling elites. However, international agree-. However, international agree-ments, global institutions, or global hegemonic powers can also have ments, global institutions, or global hegemonic powers can also have some influence on the definition of an issue, especially for policies that some influence on the definition of an issue, especially for policies that are closely related to universal norms, such as human rights, social pro-are closely related to universal norms, such as human rights, social pro-tection, dtection, democracy, and environmental concerns.emocracy, and environmental concerns.
In the field of demography, changes in public policy are usually pur-
In the field of demography, changes in public policy are usually pur-sued by two means: Changing the idea of what is desirable in terms of sued by two means: Changing the idea of what is desirable in terms of family size, oldfamily size, old--age security, motherhood for women, securing the future age security, motherhood for women, securing the future of of children, etc., and changing practice by promoting or restricting repro-children, etc., and changing practice by promoting or restricting repro-ductive ideas and tools such as induced abortion, forced sterilization, ductive ideas and tools such as induced abortion, forced sterilization, family planning, reproductive rights, and assisted reproductive technol-family planning, reproductive rights, and assisted reproductive technol-ogies by force or by nudge and conviction.ogies by force or by nudge and conviction.
As for the population control movement in the developing world in
As for the population control movement in the developing world in the 1950s and 1960s, when twenty developing countries representing the 1950s and 1960s, when twenty developing countries representing half of the world's population almost simultaneously introduced antina-half of the world's population almost simultaneously introduced antina-talist policies and programs to reduce fertilitytalist policies and programs to reduce fertility,,24 the potential effects of the potential effects of that global hegemonic that global hegemonic powerpower are highly discernableare highly discernable.. The academic liter-The academic liter-ature dealing with the population policies of the era, is also almost in ature dealing with the population policies of the era, is also almost in con-con-sensus on sensus on the the global initiation, which global initiation, which is is described as embedding the described as embedding the
23 Frank R. Baumgartner and Brian D. Jones, Frank R. Baumgartner and Brian D. Jones, Agendas and Instabilities in American Politics,Agendas and Instabilities in American Politics, 22ndnd ed.ed. (Chicago ; London: The University of Chicago Press, 2009), 1(Chicago ; London: The University of Chicago Press, 2009), 1––39.39.
24 W. Parker Mauldin, “Assessment of National Family Planning Programs in Developing W. Parker Mauldin, “Assessment of National Family Planning Programs in Developing Countries,” Countries,” Studies in Family PlanningStudies in Family Planning 6, no. 2 (1975): 306, no. 2 (1975): 30––36.36.
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antinatalist ide
antinatalist idea in developmental, environmental, and modernist dis-a in developmental, environmental, and modernist dis-courses and funding the movement for courses and funding the movement for the the developing world.developing world.
On the other hand, population
On the other hand, population size size and its and its continuedcontinued growth growth have have been been a national concern in most developing countries including Turkey. a national concern in most developing countries including Turkey. Many TurkMany Turkish politicians, journalists and academicish politicians, journalists and academics s of the late 1950s of the late 1950s were preoccupied with high population growth and the complex prob-were preoccupied with high population growth and the complex prob-lems it triggered, such as internal migration which was claimed to lems it triggered, such as internal migration which was claimed to limitlimit the governmental capacity the governmental capacity to to proprovide services for public vide services for public healthhealth, , educa-educa-tion, tion, housing and employment.housing and employment.25 Moreover, theMoreover, the traditional security value traditional security value attributed to the childattributed to the child, which is a strong incentive for parents to , which is a strong incentive for parents to have an-have an-otherother child, hachild, has beguns begun to dto diminish iminish due to rapid urbanization and trans-due to rapid urbanization and trans-formation of formation of societysociety in tin the 1960s.he 1960s.26
As a result,
As a result, the the population control phenomenon population control phenomenon of the of the 1960s was 1960s was seemingly a consensus between global, national forces and individual in-seemingly a consensus between global, national forces and individual in-terestterestss. However, like all the movements, it did not . However, like all the movements, it did not followfollow a clear path and a clear path and had its own contradictions, had its own contradictions, contcontestations,estations, and and oppositions at the oppositions at the global, global, national,national, and individual sphereand individual spheress. Such as the hesitation of the US govern-. Such as the hesitation of the US govern-ment and the UN Council to respond the requests ment and the UN Council to respond the requests fromfrom some developing some developing countries for countries for assistance with assistance with population control; long term resistance of population control; long term resistance of the DP government in Turkey against the foreign pressure to adopt the the DP government in Turkey against the foreign pressure to adopt the population control; and the Turkish citizens achieving fertility decline population control; and the Turkish citizens achieving fertility decline beyond the government projections but without favoring the state spon-beyond the government projections but without favoring the state spon-sored family planning methods adequately. sored family planning methods adequately.
Accordingly, the
Accordingly, the core theme of this dissertation is to explore the key core theme of this dissertation is to explore the key motivations, articulations,motivations, articulations, andand reinforcements of global, reinforcements of global, national,national, and in-and in-dividual forces in switching to antinatalist policiesdividual forces in switching to antinatalist policies,, and to highliand to highlight the ght the contradictions, resistancescontradictions, resistances,, and negotiations in between. Thus, and negotiations in between. Thus, contrib-contrib-uting touting to the ongoing literature the ongoing literature onon population policies in thpopulation policies in this regardis regard..
25 Şerif Mardin, “İstikbalimizdeki Şerif Mardin, “İstikbalimizdeki kkütle ütle pproblemleri roblemleri hhakkında,” akkında,” ForumForum, Au, August 1, 1957; gust 1, 1957; Haluk Cillov, “İktisat ve Haluk Cillov, “İktisat ve tticaret ‘Şehirlerimizde icaret ‘Şehirlerimizde nnüfus üfus hhızla ızla aartıyor,’” rtıyor,’” MilliyetMilliyet, May 7, 1958., May 7, 1958.
26 ÇiğÇiğdem Kadem Kağıtçıbaşığıtçıbaşı, “Old Age Security Value of Children and Development: Cross, “Old Age Security Value of Children and Development: Cross--Na-Na-tional Evidence,” tional Evidence,” Journal of Comparative Family StudiesJournal of Comparative Family Studies 13, no. 2 (1982): 13313, no. 2 (1982): 133––4242..
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§ 1.3 Literature ReviewLiterature Review
The literature review was organized to
The literature review was organized to pursue pursue the main research ques-the main research ques-tion of this disserttion of this dissertationation: the: the dynamics and processes of public policy dynamics and processes of public policy change in the field of demography from pronatalism to antinatalism, and change in the field of demography from pronatalism to antinatalism, and the waythe ways in which the ideology of s in which the ideology of population control population control wwas produced and as produced and diffused. The literature on diffused. The literature on the the dynamics of change was also scadynamics of change was also scanned innned intoto three headlines; the three headlines; the change in change in public policy overall, the public policy overall, the change in change in public public policy in the demography and policy in the demography and the the change from pronatalism to antinatal-change from pronatalism to antinatal-ism. And each headline was analyzed ism. And each headline was analyzed atat three layers; global, three layers; global, national,national, and and individual.individual.
Literary source
Literary sources suggest three core elements s suggest three core elements on which on which any any change in change in publicpublic policy policy ccan be an be basedbased: individual or group claim, national : individual or group claim, national interest,interest, and global and global hegemonyhegemony--security priorities. security priorities. CChange can be triggered by hange can be triggered by each each of theseof these elements individually or collectively. Yet, elements individually or collectively. Yet, whewhen a n a public policy public policy has some has some links to links to universal norms, universal norms, such as human rights and democracy, such as human rights and democracy, literary debates focus more on the priorities of literary debates focus more on the priorities of global global hegemonyhegemony--security security as a source of the changeas a source of the change..
Chandler et al
Chandler et al.. discussdiscuss casescases from all around the world on how human from all around the world on how human rights laws and aids rights laws and aids are politicized by Western governments are politicized by Western governments to create to create new regimes of control.new regimes of control.27 Evans adds that thEvans adds that theese human rightse human rightss discussions discussions are are also also an obstacle in investigating the can obstacle in investigating the causes auses ofof human rights viola-human rights viola-tiontions, many of which might be attributable to s, many of which might be attributable to the the market discipline.market discipline.28 Similarly, Similarly, Robinson aRobinson arguesrgues, , international cinternational calls to promote alls to promote democracy, are democracy, are notnothing hing more than a symbolic shift more than a symbolic shift inin US foreignUS foreign policy from straight policy from straight power concepts to persuasion.power concepts to persuasion.29 Cox and SinclCox and Sinclair assert that societal air assert that societal forces, international institutions, and civil society, through their forces, international institutions, and civil society, through their
27 David Chandler, “Introduction: Rethinking Human Rights,” in David Chandler, “Introduction: Rethinking Human Rights,” in Rethinking Human Rights: Rethinking Human Rights: Critical Approaches to International PoliticsCritical Approaches to International Politics, ed. David Chandler (New York: Palgrave , ed. David Chandler (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 1Macmillan, 2002), 1––18.18.
28 Tony Evans, “International Human Rights Law as Power/Knowledge,”Tony Evans, “International Human Rights Law as Power/Knowledge,” Human Rights Human Rights QuarterlyQuarterly 27, no. 3 (2005): 104627, no. 3 (2005): 1046––68.68.
29 William I. Robinson, William I. Robinson, Promoting Polyarchy: Globalization, US Intervention, and HegemonyPromoting Polyarchy: Globalization, US Intervention, and Hegemony (Cambr(Cambrigdeigde; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 1; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 1––13.13.
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cooperation with elites in the periphery, form a historical bloc for global
cooperation with elites in the periphery, form a historical bloc for global hegemonic penetration on a policy changehegemonic penetration on a policy change..30
In the literature on reveling the elements
In the literature on reveling the elements of public policy changeof public policy change that that go beyondgo beyond the global hegemonythe global hegemony--security narrative,security narrative, Baumgartner and Baumgartner and Leech, pLeech, placelace interest groups interest groups atat the the centercenter of the public policy changeof the public policy change, , foreseeing foreseeing these groups asthese groups as central to the process of representationcentral to the process of representation, both , both by by stimulatingstimulating the government the government toward toward policy change and policy change and by by disseminat-disseminat-ing ing iinformation from political elites to the mass public.nformation from political elites to the mass public.31 Furthermore, Furthermore, Meyer Meyer emphasizes that emphasizes that social movements asocial movements arere source of influence source of influence onon the the policy change by policy change by altering altering the composition of the relevant policy monop-the composition of the relevant policy monop-oly oly through through conversion, conversion, replacement, recreation, or reconfiguration.replacement, recreation, or reconfiguration.32
This dissertation
This dissertation taketakess a more balanced and nuanced approach a more balanced and nuanced approach onon the the dynamics of the policy change between the lines of global hegemony, na-dynamics of the policy change between the lines of global hegemony, na-titional interestonal interest,, and individual claim, but alsoand individual claim, but also itit considerconsiderss ideas, interestsideas, interests,, and institutions as and institutions as HHecloeclo diddid. In his attempt to . In his attempt to uncoveruncover the dynamics of the dynamics of American politics, he American politics, he tries totries to combine ideas, interestscombine ideas, interests,, and institutions to and institutions to explore public policy change explore public policy change and seeks to and seeks to connectconnect macromacro--level forces level forces with with the the micromicro--world of human action.world of human action.33 Moreover, in his Moreover, in his ““AAgenda genda SSetting etting FFrameworkramework,,” he addresses ” he addresses ““IssueIssue networks” as the main source of networks” as the main source of change, change, encompassingencompassing the informal alliances among interest groups, the informal alliances among interest groups, public and private organizations, highly active citizenspublic and private organizations, highly active citizens,, and especially and especially
30 Robert W. Cox and Timothy C. SinclairRobert W. Cox and Timothy C. Sinclair, , Approaches to World OrderApproaches to World Order (Cambridge (UK); (Cambridge (UK); New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 85New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 85––123.123.
31 Frank R. Baumgartner and Beth L. Leech, Frank R. Baumgartner and Beth L. Leech, Basic Interests: The Importance of Groups in Basic Interests: The Importance of Groups in Politics and in Political SciencePolitics and in Political Science (Princeton(Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1998), 168, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1998), 168––88.88.
32 David S. Meyer, “Social Movements and Public Policy: Eggs, Chicken and Theory,” in David S. Meyer, “Social Movements and Public Policy: Eggs, Chicken and Theory,” in Rout-Rout-ing the Opposition: Social Movements, Public Policy, and Democracy,ing the Opposition: Social Movements, Public Policy, and Democracy, ed. David S. Meyer, ed. David S. Meyer, Valerie Jenness, and Helen M. Ingram, v. 23 (MinValerie Jenness, and Helen M. Ingram, v. 23 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, neapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), 12005), 1––26.26.
33 Hugh Heclo, “Ideas, Interest, and Institutions,” in Hugh Heclo, “Ideas, Interest, and Institutions,” in The Dynamics of American Politics. Ap-The Dynamics of American Politics. Ap-proaches and Interpretationsproaches and Interpretations, ed. Lawrence C. Dodd and Calvin Jillson (New York: , ed. Lawrence C. Dodd and Calvin Jillson (New York: Routledge, 2018), 366Routledge, 2018), 366––92.92.
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“
“technopolestechnopoles” who specialized in technical knowledge and capable of ” who specialized in technical knowledge and capable of forgingforging thethe connection between policymakers and citizens.connection between policymakers and citizens.34
Regardin
Regardingg public policy changes in the field of demography by means public policy changes in the field of demography by means of influencing, promotingof influencing, promoting,, or restricting the reproductive ideas and toolsor restricting the reproductive ideas and tools,, the very same global, nationalthe very same global, national,, and individual lenses with and individual lenses with differentdifferent polit-polit-ical, ical, social, cultural, social, cultural, economic, economic, religious, religious, rracial, gender and acial, gender and healthhealth ration-ration-ales are evident in the literature.ales are evident in the literature.
For
For exampleexample, one of the most , one of the most sensitivesensitive demographic tools, right for demographic tools, right for abortion, which is currently a hot topic in US abortion, which is currently a hot topic in US withwith many states many states recently recently banningbanning abortion rightabortion rightss,,35 and and debated extensivedebated extensivelyly in in many many areas.areas. InIn thethe global politicalglobal political--scientific arena, it was praised scientific arena, it was praised by demographersby demographers at the at the 1954 World Population Conference in B1954 World Population Conference in Beelgradelgrade as as a significant tool a significant tool forfor birth control,birth control,36 but cursed but cursed inin 19941994’s ’s World Population Conference inWorld Population Conference in Cairo as aCairo as an obstacle ton obstacle to the right for lifethe right for life,, and states were urged not and states were urged not to to pro-pro-mote abortion as amote abortion as a method of method of ffamily planningamily planning..37 It was also discussed as It was also discussed as a dependent variable of national and individual elements. Binnet focuses a dependent variable of national and individual elements. Binnet focuses on national biopolitics in her inon national biopolitics in her interpretive analysis terpretive analysis ofof abortion in Tur-abortion in Tur-key.key.38 Grossman explores the activist groups in Weimar Germany that Grossman explores the activist groups in Weimar Germany that llaaunchedunched a movement for birth control and abortion.a movement for birth control and abortion.39 Furthermore, the Furthermore, the other aspects of abortion, including but not limited other aspects of abortion, including but not limited toto its interrelation its interrelation
34 Hugh Heclo, “Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment,” inHugh Heclo, “Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment,” in The New American The New American Political SystemPolitical System, ed. Anthony King (Washington D.C.: American Enterprise Institu, ed. Anthony King (Washington D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, te, 2018), 872018), 87––124.124.
35 Caroline Kitchener, “Abortion Caroline Kitchener, “Abortion iis s nnow ow bbanned in anned in tthese States. See hese States. See wwhere here llaws aws hhave ave cchanged,” hanged,” WashingtonWashington PostPost, Septembe, September 15, 2022, r 15, 2022,
36 United Nations, United Nations, “Proceedings of the World Population Conferenc“Proceedings of the World Population Conference, Belgrade 1965, Vol-e, Belgrade 1965, Vol-ume II: Fertility, Family Planning, Mortality, ‘Demographic Effects of Abortion Legisla-ume II: Fertility, Family Planning, Mortality, ‘Demographic Effects of Abortion Legisla-tion in Some European Socialist Countries’ by Andras Klinker,” E/CONF.41/3 (New York: tion in Some European Socialist Countries’ by Andras Klinker,” E/CONF.41/3 (New York: United Nations, 1967), 89United Nations, 1967), 89––93.93.
37 UUnited Nationsnited Nations, , “Report of the International Conference on Population and Develop-“Report of the International Conference on Population and Develop-ment: Cairo, 5ment: Cairo, 5--13 September 1994,” A/13 September 1994,” A/CONF.171/13/Rev.1. (New York: United Nations, CONF.171/13/Rev.1. (New York: United Nations, 1995), Article 8:25, 58.1995), Article 8:25, 58.
38 Pelin Azer Binnet, “My Wife, My Choice: Reproductive PolicymakPelin Azer Binnet, “My Wife, My Choice: Reproductive Policymaking and Social Control ing and Social Control in Turkey” (PhD Thesis, University of Minnesota, 2015).in Turkey” (PhD Thesis, University of Minnesota, 2015).
39 Atina Grossmann, Atina Grossmann, Reforming Sex: The German Movement for Birth Control and Abortion Reforming Sex: The German Movement for Birth Control and Abortion Reform, 1920Reform, 1920--19501950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).(New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
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with
with religious and moral views,religious and moral views,40 ethics,ethics,41 legal aspects,legal aspects, 42 medical and medical and health health perspectivesperspectives,,43 social and cultural dimensions,social and cultural dimensions,44 and historical and historical context,context,45 have been discussed and debated have been discussed and debated extensively throughout textensively throughout the he world world without anywithout any major consensus. major consensus.
Finally
Finally, , regarding regarding the population policy the population policy shift shift from pronatalism to an-from pronatalism to an-tinatalism tinatalism and the promotion ofand the promotion of population population planning lawplanning lawss in the 1950s in the 1950s and 1960sand 1960s throughout the throughout the developing worlddeveloping world, , to which to which this dissertation this dissertation aims to contribute, aims to contribute, the the scholarly debate scholarly debate on the globalon the global hegemonic config-hegemonic config-uration intensifies. uration intensifies. And Scott’s And Scott’s account that account that the nationthe nation--state state is the pri-is the pri-mary driver mary driver of all national policiesof all national policies,, including population policy,including population policy,46 has has been been refuted by many scholars. refuted by many scholars.
ThThese scholars, while acknowledging the historical roots of ese scholars, while acknowledging the historical roots of popula-popula-tion control in Malthusianism and Eugenic thought, agree that the global tion control in Malthusianism and Eugenic thought, agree that the global population control movement is a byproduct of the global hegemonic population control movement is a byproduct of the global hegemonic configuration of the postconfiguration of the post--WWII world, in which developing countries and WWII world, in which developing countries and their citizens had virtuallytheir citizens had virtually no agencyno agency. The differences in scholarly inter-. The differences in scholarly inter-pretation lie in the definition and scope of this hegemonic configuration.pretation lie in the definition and scope of this hegemonic configuration.
Connelly Connelly highlightshighlights the role of the role of aactivists, scientists and mostly ctivists, scientists and mostly nonnon--governmental organizationsgovernmental organizations,, (N(NGOGOss)) which hewhich he believes are the first and believes are the first and
40 Daniel C. Maguire, Daniel C. Maguire, Sacred Rights: The Case for Contraception and Abortion in World Reli-Sacred Rights: The Case for Contraception and Abortion in World Reli-gionsgions (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).(New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).
41 Christopher Kaczor, Christopher Kaczor, The Ethics of Abortion: Women’s Rights, Human Life, and the Ques-The Ethics of Abortion: Women’s Rights, Human Life, and the Ques-tion of Justicetion of Justice (New York: Routledge, 2011).(New York: Routledge, 2011).
42 Marge Berer, “Abortion Law and Policy Around the World,” Marge Berer, “Abortion Law and Policy Around the World,” Health and Human RightsHealth and Human Rights 19, 19, nno. 1 (2017): 13o. 1 (2017): 13––27.27.
43 Jane E. Hodgson, Jane E. Hodgson, Abortion and Sterilization: Medical and Social AspectsAbortion and Sterilization: Medical and Social Aspects (London: Aca-(London: Aca-demic Press, 1981).demic Press, 1981).
44 Vyacheslav Karpov and Kimmo Kääriäinen, “Abortion Culture in Russia: Its Origins, Vyacheslav Karpov and Kimmo Kääriäinen, “Abortion Culture in Russia: Its Origins, Scope, and Challenge to SScope, and Challenge to Social Development,” ocial Development,” Journal of Applied SociologyJournal of Applied Sociology 22, no. 2, 22, no. 2, ((20052005): 13): 13––33.33.
45 Angus McLaren, “Abortion in France: Women and the Regulation of Family Size 1800Angus McLaren, “Abortion in France: Women and the Regulation of Family Size 1800--1914,” 1914,” French Historical StudiesFrench Historical Studies 10, no. 3 (1978): 46110, no. 3 (1978): 461––85; Gülhan Balsoy, “Gender and 85; Gülhan Balsoy, “Gender and the Politics of the Female Body: Midwifery,the Politics of the Female Body: Midwifery, Abortion, and Pregnancy in Ottoman Society Abortion, and Pregnancy in Ottoman Society (1838(1838--1890s)” (PhD Thesis, The State University of New York at Binghamton, 1890s)” (PhD Thesis, The State University of New York at Binghamton, 20092009).).
46 James C. Scott, James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have FailedHave Failed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 91.(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 91.
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most
most persistent persistent championschampions of the population control movementof the population control movement,, as they as they lobblobbiedied through the US through the US ggovernment and overnment and iinternational institutions and nternational institutions and fundfundeded developing countries through transnational coalitions.developing countries through transnational coalitions.47 Hodg-Hodg-son prioritizes the political orientation of the son prioritizes the political orientation of the demographers’ demographers’ population population theories, wtheories, which hich were also funded by thwere also funded by theese NGOs, in legitimse NGOs, in legitimizingizing popula-popula-tion control.tion control.48 Escobar argues that population control Escobar argues that population control became partbecame part of the of the developmentalist discourse for the developing world to sustain developmentalist discourse for the developing world to sustain imperial imperial globality and gglobality and global coloniality after lobal coloniality after WWIIWWII..49 Szreter addsSzreter adds that globalthat global se-se-curity concerns due to the ideological threat of communism in contested curity concerns due to the ideological threat of communism in contested areas, where it was feared that the masses would evolve into organized areas, where it was feared that the masses would evolve into organized masses that would turn to the “dark side”, were a majomasses that would turn to the “dark side”, were a major driver in promot-r driver in promot-ing population controling population control..50
This dissertation acknowledges that, a
This dissertation acknowledges that, all ll of of these these global hegemonyglobal hegemony--se-se-curity curity claimsclaims on creating population control ideology that would become on creating population control ideology that would become a global movement, have some capacity to explore the a global movement, have some capacity to explore the simultaneous simultaneous emergeemergence and diffusion of the idea innce and diffusion of the idea in the developing world, the developing world, particularly particularly for those countries bordering Soviet Union, for those countries bordering Soviet Union, such assuch as Turkey, Iran, Turkey, Iran, Paki-Paki-stan,stan, and South Korea. and South Korea. In addition, In addition, it also helps to understand why the it also helps to understand why the population control coalition had gradually fadpopulation control coalition had gradually faded ed after tafter the end of the he end of the CCold old WWarar and finallyand finally ended at the ended at the World Population Conference held in Cairo World Population Conference held in Cairo in 1994in 1994..51 Although Although poverty, poverty, which which had seemed to had seemed to drivedrive developing coun-developing coun-tries to tries to shift shift to antinatalist policies a generation ago, remained to antinatalist policies a generation ago, remained unmiti-unmiti-gated, and the gated, and the Malthusian fears Malthusian fears about about the the population of the developing population of the developing
47 Matthew Connelly, “Seeing beyond the State: The Population Control Movement anMatthew Connelly, “Seeing beyond the State: The Population Control Movement and the d the Problem of Sovereignty,” Problem of Sovereignty,” Past & PresentPast & Present, no. 193 (2006): 197, no. 193 (2006): 197––233.233.
48 Dennis Hodgson, “Demography as Social Science and Policy Science,” Dennis Hodgson, “Demography as Social Science and Policy Science,” Population and De-Population and De-velopment Reviewvelopment Review 9, no. 1 (1983): 19, no. 1 (1983): 1––34.34.
49 Arturo Escobar, “Beyond the Third World: Imperial Globality, Global Coloniality and Arturo Escobar, “Beyond the Third World: Imperial Globality, Global Coloniality and AntiAnti--GlobalGlobalisation Social Movements,” isation Social Movements,” Third World QuarterlyThird World Quarterly 25, no. 1 (2004): 20725, no. 1 (2004): 207––30.30.
50 Nils Gilman, Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America, New Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America, New Studies in American Intellectual and Cultural HistoryStudies in American Intellectual and Cultural History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univer-(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univer-sity Press, 2003), 30sity Press, 2003), 30––47.47.
51 United Nations, United Nations, “Report of the International Conference on Population and Develop-“Report of the International Conference on Population and Develop-ment: Cairo, 5ment: Cairo, 5--13 September 199413 September 1994..""
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world almost doubled
world almost doubled inin 30 years30 years,,52 the US led global population control the US led global population control alliance lost their desire for alliance lost their desire for populationpopulation control since there was no rival control since there was no rival left to incite the masses of thleft to incite the masses of the developing world after the Soviet Unione developing world after the Soviet Union’s ’s collapsecollapse..
However, th
However, thisis global hegemonyglobal hegemony--security narrative security narrative ignoresignores or or even even contradicts many countrycontradicts many country--specific factsspecific facts:: How could How could delegates from the delegates from the Soviet Union who were believed to beSoviet Union who were believed to benefitnefit fromfrom pronatalist policiespronatalist policies, , ccoome to recognize the ideology of me to recognize the ideology of population control population control at the UN meetings at the UN meetings in the in the midmid--1960s? How could local concerns 1960s? How could local concerns aboutabout the the population in In-population in In-dia dia have have existexisteded long before the hegemonic enterpriselong before the hegemonic enterprise of the USof the US??53 Why Why were the constant pleas of were the constant pleas of India, PakistanIndia, Pakistan and Ceylon for and Ceylon for assistance in assistance in solvsolvinging their population problem their population problem repeatedly rejected in the Worldrepeatedly rejected in the World Health Health AssemblyAssembly in the 1950s?in the 1950s?54 Why Why were were US and UN legislationUS and UN legislationss on the popu-on the popu-lation control aid were so late in 1966lation control aid were so late in 1966,, when when many many countries countries including including Turkey Turkey had already legalized family planning had already legalized family planning at the local levelat the local level??55 How How could China acould China adoptdopt the population control law without major US involve-the population control law without major US involve-ment, and why ment, and why had had Mao switched poMao switched population policy pulation policy of China of China twice in twice in three years, just three years, just asas Nasser Nasser did indid in Egypt? How could Egypt? How could the Turkish govern-the Turkish govern-ment (ment (DPDP) refuse to adjust ) refuse to adjust population control population control throughout the throughout the 19501950s, s, even though the country was largely even though the country was largely inin debdebt t with USwith US loans? Why loans? Why did did Tur-Tur-key key not not sign tsign the World Leader’s he World Leader’s declaration to adopt declaration to adopt population control population control in 1966, even though the in 1966, even though the Population Planning LawPopulation Planning Law had been had been enacted a enacted a year year earlierearlier and theand the local government was under intense local government was under intense pressurepressure from from global interest groups?global interest groups?56
52 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “World Population Pro-United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “World Population Pro-spects 2019: Volume I: Comprehensive Tables,” ST/ESA/SER.A/426 (New York: Unispects 2019: Volume I: Comprehensive Tables,” ST/ESA/SER.A/426 (New York: United ted Nations Publications, 2019), 2.Nations Publications, 2019), 2.
53 MattheMatthew Connelly, “Population Control in India: Prologue to the Emergency Period,” w Connelly, “Population Control in India: Prologue to the Emergency Period,” Population and Development ReviewPopulation and Development Review 32, no. 4 (2006): 62932, no. 4 (2006): 629––67.67.
54 World Health OrganizationWorld Health Organization, , “Third World Health Assembly,” 28 (Geneva: World Health “Third World Health Assembly,” 28 (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1950), 233Organization, 1950), 233––34.34.
55 Ayala and CarAyala and Caradon, “Declaration on Population: The World Leaders Statement.”adon, “Declaration on Population: The World Leaders Statement.”
56 Prime MiniPrime Ministry, “Milletlerarası Aile Planlaması konusunda Başbakan Süleyman Demirel stry, “Milletlerarası Aile Planlaması konusunda Başbakan Süleyman Demirel ile John D. Rockefeller 3ile John D. Rockefeller 3rdrd Arasındaki Yazışmalar” (Republican Archives, Catalog no. Arasındaki Yazışmalar” (Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30.1.0.0/ 9.52.1, January 31, 1967).30.1.0.0/ 9.52.1, January 31, 1967).
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Undeniably, the global
Undeniably, the global hegemonyhegemony--security narrative on population security narrative on population control tends to ignorecontrol tends to ignore,, or underor underestimateestimate at least, at least, national,national, and local con-and local con-ditionditionss, , such assuch as public movements, cultural and religious values, political public movements, cultural and religious values, political interests, power struggles and local resinterests, power struggles and local resistanceistance thatthat should should alsoalso be taken be taken into into accountaccount. It also ignores the discussions and debates during the local . It also ignores the discussions and debates during the local legalization process. In Turkeylegalization process. In Turkey,, parliamentary discussions oparliamentary discussions onn the the ppopu-opu-lation lation pplanning lanning llaw aw lasted intermittently for almost five years lasted intermittently for almost five years andand global global pressures on accepting the law pressures on accepting the law played played little little role in the derole in the debatesbates, serving , serving mainly to support the pronatalist rhetoric that population control is a mainly to support the pronatalist rhetoric that population control is a hegemonic plot that must be resisted.hegemonic plot that must be resisted.
On the other haOn the other hand, the nd, the local dimensions are covered by the countrylocal dimensions are covered by the country--specific studiesspecific studies,, but but mostmost of them do not of them do not dialog with the dialog with the global global popula-popula-tion control tion control narrativenarrative and tend to describe the change and tend to describe the change inin population pol-population pol-icy as a pureicy as a purelyly local decision resulting from increasing localocal decision resulting from increasing local demographic, l demographic, political and socioeconomic problems. This less communicative nature of political and socioeconomic problems. This less communicative nature of the global and local the global and local population control litpopulation control literatureerature,, which can be described which can be described as aas a major major shortcoming, shortcoming, is is attempted to be attempted to be minimized iminimized in this dissertation, n this dissertation, by consolidating thby consolidating these global and local sources for ese global and local sources for the the specific Turkish specific Turkish case.case.
The literature The literature onon the dynamics of population policy change in Tur-the dynamics of population policy change in Tur-key also reflects the local agenda. key also reflects the local agenda. Nusret FiNusret Fişşekek,, a a public health profes-public health profes-sional and sional and underundersecretary secretary forfor the Ministry of Health the Ministry of Health who who authoredauthored the the first draft of the Population Planning Lawfirst draft of the Population Planning Law himself, himself, portraportraysys maternal and maternal and infant mortality as infant mortality as the main reason for the shift to antinatalistthe main reason for the shift to antinatalist policpoliciesies..57 ShorterShorter, a pioneering demographer,, a pioneering demographer, highlights highlights the the country’s country’s rapid popu-rapid popu-lationlation growth in thegrowth in the 1950s due to 1950s due to declining declining infant mortality ratesinfant mortality rates..58 And And scholars at the scholars at the Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies ((HUNEE) suggestHUNEE) suggest that that socioeconomic pressures due to population socioeconomic pressures due to population growth growth and rapid internal migration and rapid internal migration led led the the government tgovernment to control the o control the population either population either through through a a ppopulation opulation pplanning lanning llaw or aw or through labor ex-through labor ex-portsports in the early 1960s. in the early 1960s.
57 Turkish Medical Association, Turkish Medical Association, Nusret Fişek Nusret Fişek iile Söyleşile Söyleşi (Türk Tabipler Birliği Merkez Kon-(Türk Tabipler Birliği Merkez Kon-seyi, 1992).seyi, 1992).
58 Shorter and MacShorter and Macura, ura, Trends in Fertility and Mortality in Turkey, 1935Trends in Fertility and Mortality in Turkey, 1935--1975.1975., 56,95., 56,95.
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However,
However, the resistance of the DP government to the resistance of the DP government to stopstop pronatalist pol-pronatalist pol-icies in the 1950s and the reluctancicies in the 1950s and the reluctancee of of itsits political political successorsuccessor, , the the JusticJustice e Party (AP), to implement the Population Planning Law during Party (AP), to implement the Population Planning Law during its reign its reign bbetween 1965 and 1970 reveals other agendas and dynamics etween 1965 and 1970 reveals other agendas and dynamics that have that have not not been been adequately discussed in the literature. adequately discussed in the literature. Levine and Levine and ÜnÜner er provide provide some some insightsinsights inin their detailed analysis their detailed analysis ofof the the parliamentary discussions parliamentary discussions before, during and after the before, during and after the ppassage assage of the of the Population Planning Population Planning LawLaw, , withwith traditionalist, populist, religious and mercantilist views traditionalist, populist, religious and mercantilist views rejecting antina-rejecting antina-talism colliding talism colliding with the liberal, developmentalist and modernist viewswith the liberal, developmentalist and modernist views ssupporting the upporting the antinatalist approachantinatalist approach..59
This thesis attempt
This thesis attemptss to add to the debateto add to the debate onon the dynamics of popula-the dynamics of popula-tion policy change tion policy change other variables tother variables that hat have not been have not been mentioned in the mentioned in the local literature but local literature but are barely are barely visible in visible in thethe state archives, such as the fa-state archives, such as the fa-cicilitatilitating ng role of the military regimerole of the military regime inin population control and the grow-population control and the grow-ing security concerns ing security concerns related the 1958 Iraqi revolutionrelated the 1958 Iraqi revolution and and KKurdish au-urdish au-tonomy on tonomy on Turkey’s Turkey’s southern border. southern border.
Another
Another important goal of this important goal of this dissertation is to undissertation is to uncovercover the hidden the hidden voices ofvoices of individuals. individuals. Women and the family are at the center of the pop-Women and the family are at the center of the pop-ulation control debate, yetulation control debate, yet without a proper agency in Turkish context. without a proper agency in Turkish context. The vast lThe vast literatureiterature,, including monographs, surveys, including monographs, surveys, and and reportsreports on on changing fertility behavior, including the changing nachanging fertility behavior, including the changing nature of the family ture of the family structure from extended family to nuclearstructure from extended family to nuclear familyfamily,,60 the the changing value of changing value of children, children, 61 contracepticontraceptive use ve use before and after the law,before and after the law,62 and changing and changing gender rolesgender roles, is , is analyzed,analyzed, and and conceptualized as individual motivconceptualized as individual motivations ations and responses to thand responses to the population planning law.e population planning law.
As a result,
As a result, iin contrast to the separate and disconnected narratives of n contrast to the separate and disconnected narratives of global, national, and individual dynamics and processes related to popu-global, national, and individual dynamics and processes related to popu-lation change in the 1950s and 1960slation change in the 1950s and 1960s,, this thesis attempts to consolidate this thesis attempts to consolidate
59 Levine and Üner, Levine and Üner, Population Policy Formation and Implementation in Turkey.Population Policy Formation and Implementation in Turkey.
60 Ferhunde Özbay, Ferhunde Özbay, Dünden bugüne Aile, Kent ve NüfusDünden bugüne Aile, Kent ve Nüfus ((IIstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2015).stanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2015).
61 KaKağıtçıbaşığıtçıbaşı, “Old Age Security Value of Children and Development: Cross, “Old Age Security Value of Children and Development: Cross--National Evi-National Evi-dence.”dence.”
62 ÖÖzbay and Shorter, “TURKEY: Changes in Birth Control Practices, 1963 to 1968zbay and Shorter, “TURKEY: Changes in Birth Control Practices, 1963 to 1968."."
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these narrat
these narratiivesves and resources inand resources intoto a comprehensive theoretical frame-a comprehensive theoretical frame-work, work, that offersthat offers a more a more inclusiveinclusive perspective perspective onon the Turkish case. the Turkish case.
§ 1.4 Theoretical FrameworkTheoretical Framework
This dissertation
This dissertation seeksseeks to examine the power relations to examine the power relations amongamong global, global, na-na-tional,tional, and local actors and local actors inin population control. And it proposes a multidi-population control. And it proposes a multidi-mensional approach by combining and synthesizing several theoretical mensional approach by combining and synthesizing several theoretical frameworks, including but not limitedframeworks, including but not limited toto Foucault’s biopolitics, Agam-Foucault’s biopolitics, Agam-ben’s forms of lives, Bradley’s unbearable life and ben’s forms of lives, Bradley’s unbearable life and Sen’s capability ap-Sen’s capability ap-proach. proach.
The point of departure is Foucault and his
The point of departure is Foucault and his ““biopoliticsbiopolitics,”,” in which in which he he conceptualizes conceptualizes the relationship between the the relationship between the population population and the and the statstatee based on power and based on power and knowledgeknowledge andand exexamines amines the techniques of control. the techniques of control. Foucault defines bioFoucault defines biopolitics as political rationality operating through the politics as political rationality operating through the agency of individuals by means of quantification, categorization, and agency of individuals by means of quantification, categorization, and other formations.other formations. 63 It works in tandem with disciplinary powerIt works in tandem with disciplinary power,, which is which is the individualizing mode to create useful and docile bodthe individualizing mode to create useful and docile bodiesies,, while bi-while bi-opower aims to regulate the process of a living mass.opower aims to regulate the process of a living mass.64 In this In this context, context, the the population is the population is the crucialcrucial object of modern forms of government that re-object of modern forms of government that re-quires regulatory techniques. quires regulatory techniques. Therefore,Therefore, processes such as fertility and processes such as fertility and mormorttality rates are botality rates are both biopolitical objects of knowledge and targets to h biopolitical objects of knowledge and targets to seek to controlseek to control..65
F
For Foucault,or Foucault, population population represents an abstraction as a wholerepresents an abstraction as a whole, mean-, mean-ing ing that the that the individuals have no agencyindividuals have no agency, only , only a representation as a statis-a representation as a statis-tical unit,tical unit, so that the so that the population population polices of governmentspolices of governments,, including popu-including popu-lation control are applied to the entire population without any individual lation control are applied to the entire population without any individual
63 Michel Foucault, Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality Volume 1: An Introduction The History of Sexuality Volume 1: An Introduction (New York: Pantheon (New York: Pantheon BookBooks, 1978), 136s, 1978), 136––39.39.
64 Michel Foucault, Michel Foucault, Society Must Be Defended: Lectures at the Collège de FranceSociety Must Be Defended: Lectures at the Collège de France, , 19751975--76 76 (New York: Picador, 2003), 246.(New York: Picador, 2003), 246.
65 Ibid., 2Ibid., 24242––45.45.
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distinction.
distinction.66 HoweverHowever,, as as SchlosserSchlosser notes,notes, population population control discourse control discourse is is more about who reproducemore about who reproducess than how many reproducedthan how many reproduced..67 In other In other wordwordss,, it is more about quality than quantity, which requires it is more about quality than quantity, which requires a a more nu-more nu-anced approach than Foucault’s anced approach than Foucault’s abstractedabstracted population. population.
Thus, this dissertation claims that the defining characteristic of bio-politics on population lies not only in its totality, but also in its practices that distinguish and separate what is inside from what is outside, who is self and who is other. The creation of “otherness” is essential not only for establishing group formation, but also for the determination of “quality” in the population, which requires duality or multiplicity between individ-uals or groups. In addition, various forms of otherness are also critical for observing and contextualizing the interests, interactions, and contes-tations of global, national, group, and individual forces in population con-trol.
Agamben
Agamben conceptualizes thconceptualizes thisis duality between duality between the the self and self and the the other other in his in his “S“State of tate of EExceptionxception”” frameworkframework, , in which in which he defines the original he defines the original activity of sovereign power and the modern state as the activity of sovereign power and the modern state as the production of a production of a biopolitical bodybiopolitical body through inclusion and exclusion from sovereign space. through inclusion and exclusion from sovereign space. And he And he divides divides ththeese se political bodies into two categories: political bodies into two categories: the the “bare life” “bare life” as mere bioloas mere biological existence, and gical existence, and the the “good life” as politically qualified “good life” as politically qualified life.life. Moreover,Moreover, he adds thhe adds that theat the sovereign/government hasovereign/government hass the distin-the distin-guishing power to grant additional legal entitlements to those politically guishing power to grant additional legal entitlements to those politically qualified and qualified and to to let the others live only enough tolet the others live only enough to preserve biological ex-preserve biological ex-istence.istence.68 For For Agamben, wAgamben, what is excluded is not hat is excluded is not completelycompletely excluexcluded ded in in relation relation toto the the sovereign but is maintained in relation to the sovereignsovereign but is maintained in relation to the sovereign’s ’s rulerule in the form of in the form of suspensionsuspension,, which is the which is the inclusive exclusioninclusive exclusion..69
66 Richard Togman, “The Third Modulation: Foucault, Security and Population,”Richard Togman, “The Third Modulation: Foucault, Security and Population,” Foucault Foucault StudiesStudies, no. 25 (October 22, 2018): 228, no. 25 (October 22, 2018): 228––50.50.
67 Kolson Schlosser, “Malthus at MidKolson Schlosser, “Malthus at Mid--Century: NeoCentury: Neo--Malthusianism as BioMalthusianism as Bio--Political Govern-Political Govern-ance in the Postance in the Post--WWII United States,” WWII United States,” Cultural Geographies Cultural Geographies 16, no. 4 (2009): 46516, no. 4 (2009): 465––84.84.
68 Giorgio Agamben, Giorgio Agamben, Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare LifeHomo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life (Stanford, California: Me-(Stanford, California: Me-ridian, 1998), 6ridian, 1998), 6––7.7.
69 Richard Ek, “Giorgio Agamben and the Spatialities of the Camp: An Introduction,” Richard Ek, “Giorgio Agamben and the Spatialities of the Camp: An Introduction,” Geo-Geo-grafiska Annaler: Series B, grafiska Annaler: Series B, Human GeographyHuman Geography 88, no. 4 (2006): 36388, no. 4 (2006): 363––86.86.
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In addition
In addition toto Agamben’s Agamben’s distinction of distinction of self and other in biopolitical self and other in biopolitical ththoughtought, , Bradley adds aBradley adds a third category to third category to this framework,this framework, the the “unbeara-“unbeara-ble life.” It ble life.” It represents the represents the theological, theological, metaphysical, and political metaphysical, and political prohibi-prohibi-tion against being born because its bition against being born because its birth would pose a potential challerth would pose a potential challenge nge to theto the sovereign’s sovereign’s biopolitical command over what constitutes life and biopolitical command over what constitutes life and death.death.70 Moreover, Moreover, he mentions that unbearable life passes under many he mentions that unbearable life passes under many different names and assumes many different forms in political modernity, different names and assumes many different forms in political modernity, such such as states as enemies of as states as enemies of human beingshuman beings, missing or detached societies, , missing or detached societies, or black units in black sites located in all around the world.or black units in black sites located in all around the world.71
I
In this dissertationn this dissertation, , Bradley’s assumption on changing forms of un-Bradley’s assumption on changing forms of un-bearable life is also extended to Agamben’s good and barbearable life is also extended to Agamben’s good and bare life approach e life approach to utilize two main hypotheses of this studyto utilize two main hypotheses of this study: : First,First, governmentality is not governmentality is not a homogenized process to be decided for and implemented to the entire a homogenized process to be decided for and implemented to the entire population as Foucault statedpopulation as Foucault stated,, but but rather rather different political bodies/lidifferent political bodies/lifefe forms are considered during the process of policy making and/or policy forms are considered during the process of policy making and/or policy implementation. Simplementation. Schlosser adds that the distinction between thchlosser adds that the distinction between theese life se life forms, and the practices of inclusion, exclusionforms, and the practices of inclusion, exclusion,, and erasure often exist and erasure often exist along lines of class, race, and gender.along lines of class, race, and gender.72
This type of categorization was evident
This type of categorization was evident for the for the eugenic movement eugenic movement during the interwar pduring the interwar period, where immigrants eriod, where immigrants were deemedwere deemed inferiorinferior,, and and the the high birth high birth rate of therate of the lower classes and lower classes and the the low birth rate of the upper low birth rate of the upper classes were the major concern especially in the industrial world.classes were the major concern especially in the industrial world.73 Alt-Alt-hough the eugenic institutions disappeared after the hough the eugenic institutions disappeared after the WWIIWWII,, many schol-many schol-ars argue ars argue that the population control movement is not totally detached that the population control movement is not totally detached from eugenic worry, evidencing the first donors from eugenic worry, evidencing the first donors toto the movement hathe movement hadd
70 Arthur Bradley, “‘Untimely Ripp’d’: Arthur Bradley, “‘Untimely Ripp’d’: On Natality, Sovereignty and Unbearable Life,On Natality, Sovereignty and Unbearable Life,” Eng-” Eng-lish Studieslish Studies 94, no. 7 (November 2013): 78894, no. 7 (November 2013): 788––98.98.
71 Arthur Bradley, Arthur Bradley, Unbearable Life: A Genealogy of PolitiUnbearable Life: A Genealogy of Political Erasure, Insurrections: Critical cal Erasure, Insurrections: Critical Studies in Religion, Politics, and CultureStudies in Religion, Politics, and Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 2019), 3.(New York: Columbia University Press, 2019), 3.
72 Schlosser, “Malthus at MidSchlosser, “Malthus at Mid--Century: NeoCentury: Neo--Malthusianism as BioMalthusianism as Bio--Political Governance in Political Governance in the Postthe Post--WWII United States.”WWII United States.”
73 Dennis Hodgson, “The Ideological Origins of the PopulatiDennis Hodgson, “The Ideological Origins of the Population Association of America,” on Association of America,” Population and Development Review Population and Development Review 17, no. 1 (1991): 117, no. 1 (1991): 1––34.34.
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eugenic roots
eugenic roots,, and some prominent eugenic figures became population and some prominent eugenic figures became population control activistscontrol activists in the 1950s and 19in the 1950s and 1960s60s..74
The second hypothesis of the dissertation is
The second hypothesis of the dissertation is that that the the three forms of three forms of lilifefe, based on self and otherness , based on self and otherness exist notexist not only as a political body in a gov-only as a political body in a gov-ernment, but also in micro and macro level relationships. ernment, but also in micro and macro level relationships. PoPopulation pol-pulation pol-icyicy cannot be understood withocannot be understood without considering ut considering the the individuals who are individuals who are also the policy makers as procreators. also the policy makers as procreators. TThe global hegemonic he global hegemonic influence on influence on population control in population control in the the 1960s was 1960s was also also so evident ideologically and op-so evident ideologically and op-erationally. Therefore, both global and individual forces had erationally. Therefore, both global and individual forces had active agen-active agen-cies to be considerecies to be considered in addition d in addition toto the government.the government. And emancipating And emancipating the forms of life approach from the governmental scope will provide com-the forms of life approach from the governmental scope will provide com-mon ground and multidimensional perspective to mon ground and multidimensional perspective to capture capture global, na-global, na-tionaltional,, and individual interests and inand individual interests and interactionteractions ins in population control. population control.
For instance, in the global hegemonic perspective,
For instance, in the global hegemonic perspective, the citizens of each the citizens of each hegemonic powers and their allies representhegemonic powers and their allies represent good lives to be protected, good lives to be protected, whwhileile the citizens of the contesting power and the citizens of the contesting power and itsits allies represent unbear-allies represent unbear-ablable life, just e life, just likelike the position ofthe position of thethe US and US and the the Soviet Union during the Soviet Union during the Cold WarCold War era. era. The The Iron Iron CCurtain countries were unbearable for NATO allies urtain countries were unbearable for NATO allies and vice versa. The developing world and their citizens were the bare and vice versa. The developing world and their citizens were the bare liveslives that that representrepresenteded the area of contethe area of contestation, station, that that should not should not be be left to left to the occupation of the unbearable rival.the occupation of the unbearable rival.
In the national sphere, the ruling elites and their habitat represent
In the national sphere, the ruling elites and their habitat represent the good life, the individuals or groups the good life, the individuals or groups who havewho have no add value but a bur-no add value but a bur-den den to to government represent unbearablegovernment represent unbearable life, and the mass majority in life, and the mass majority in between are the bare life. Among between are the bare life. Among the the groups, the unbearable life is the groups, the unbearable life is the opposing part or threat, good life is the leading elites and their allies, and opposing part or threat, good life is the leading elites and their allies, and the bare life is the bare life is what lieswhat lies in between. This process can even be extended in between. This process can even be extended to the to the parents’ childbearing decision, as they parents’ childbearing decision, as they weighweigh whether it is good or whether it is good or unbearable for them to have a child unbearable for them to have a child (bare life)(bare life)..
This theoretical framework allows to reformulate the main question
This theoretical framework allows to reformulate the main question of this dissertation of this dissertation asas; ; what stimulates these life forms to favwhat stimulates these life forms to favor or
74 Daniel J. Kevles, Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Los (Los AngelesAngeles: University of California Press, 1985), 259.: University of California Press, 1985), 259.
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population control and how these perspective
population control and how these perspectivess, qualifications and appre-, qualifications and appre-ciations tciations transformransform into into a a policy orientation depending on policy orientation depending on the institution the institution that that adoptsadopts themthem how they how they actact and interact in and interact in the the global, nationalglobal, national,, and and individual sphereindividual spheress? The initial attempt of this study was t? The initial attempt of this study was to adapto adapt the “he-the “he-gemonygemony--security narrativesecurity narrative”” ttoo the life forms the life forms thatthat could provide some fer-could provide some fer-tile groundtile ground,, especially especially atat the global and national sphere. the global and national sphere.
Security is a self
Security is a self--evident condition for the evident condition for the existence of life, both indi-existence of life, both indi-vidual and social. vidual and social. It is aIt is also the first and lso the first and fundamental condition for fundamental condition for the the state, fstate, foror the the modern modern understandingunderstanding of politics, and of politics, and forfor international re-international re-lations.lations.75 The negative connotation of the termThe negative connotation of the term,, the state of insecurity, the state of insecurity, threat,threat, fear,fear, and danger helps and danger helps to define nto define not only to what to ot only to what to fight against fight against but also where to exercise power. but also where to exercise power. In his governmentality approach, Fou-In his governmentality approach, Fou-cault mentions that cault mentions that the the sovereignsovereign’s’s/government/government’s greatest fear is ’s greatest fear is loslosinging its hegemony, and thits hegemony, and thereforeerefore the object of powthe object of power is the organized multi-er is the organized multi-plicity of individuals of whom the counterplicity of individuals of whom the counter--power of resistance is believed power of resistance is believed to spring from.to spring from.76 Applied to the terminology of Applied to the terminology of formformss of liof lifefe; the fear of ; the fear of the government is ththe government is that at bare life (bare life (the the public) public) will become anwill become an unbearable unbearable life (source of resistance) life (source of resistance) that tthat threatenhreatenss the hegemony of the good life the hegemony of the good life ((the the ruling elites), and thruling elites), and that it must at it must be kept under control through disci-be kept under control through disci-plinary and biopower.plinary and biopower.77
Gramsci adds the notion of “
Gramsci adds the notion of “consentconsent,,” ” inin which which he defines hegemony he defines hegemony as as the the power and power and pursuit of pursuit of dominationdomination,, by seeking legitimacy from shift-by seeking legitimacy from shift-ing blend of coercion and consenting blend of coercion and consent ofof multiplicities (bare and unbearable multiplicities (bare and unbearable life) life) that that enables enables a a rulingruling class class (good life) (good life) to stabilize its rule and domi-to stabilize its rule and domi-nation.nation.78 ThThisis legitimationlegitimation,, he adds, he adds, sprisprings mngs mostly from the ostly from the social, polit-social, polit-icalical,, or or especially especially economic economic anxietiesanxieties and insecuritiesand insecurities of thof theseese
75 Graham Burchell, “Governmental Rationality: An Introduction,” inGraham Burchell, “Governmental Rationality: An Introduction,” in The Foucault Effect: The Foucault Effect: Studies in GovernmentalityStudies in Governmentality, ed. Michel Foucault et al. (Chicago: University of Chicago , ed. Michel Foucault et al. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 1Press, 1991), 1––52.52.
76 Michel Foucault, Michel Foucault, Discipline and PunishDiscipline and Punish, , 22ndnd ed.ed. (New York: Vintage Books, 1995), 219.(New York: Vintage Books, 1995), 219.
77 Michael Dillon, “Governing Through Contingency: The Security of Biopolitical Govern-Michael Dillon, “Governing Through Contingency: The Security of Biopolitical Govern-ance,” ance,” Political GeographyPolitical Geography 26, no. 1 (January26, no. 1 (January 2007): 412007): 41––47.47.
78 Antonio Gramsci and David Forgacs, Antonio Gramsci and David Forgacs, The Gramsci Reader: Selected Writings, 1916The Gramsci Reader: Selected Writings, 1916--19351935 (New York: New York University Press, 2000), 189(New York: New York University Press, 2000), 189––2221.21.
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multiplicities.
multiplicities. MoreoverMoreover, the , the success and longevity of a hegemonic project success and longevity of a hegemonic project lies in its capacity lies in its capacity to gainto gain the consent that requires dynamic reciprocal, the consent that requires dynamic reciprocal, horizonthorizontal and vertical process formations.al and vertical process formations.79
In th
In thiiss respect, respect, the introduction of the idea of the introduction of the idea of population controlpopulation control as as a precondition for a precondition for development and modernization theories development and modernization theories iin the 1950s n the 1950s and 1960s was and 1960s was nothing more nothing more than than a a hegemonic search for hegemonic search for the the developing developing world’s consent to world’s consent to population controlpopulation control.. And And thisthis worked extremely well worked extremely well for some countriesfor some countries, as , as it seemed like an illusory it seemed like an illusory curecure for their for their greatest greatest fearfears:s: povertypoverty and backwardnessand backwardness..80 Yet this cycle ofYet this cycle of hegemonyhegemony--security security has ihas its shortcomings ts shortcomings when it comes to capturing the when it comes to capturing the intentions intentions of of and and interactions interactions amongamong the global, nationalthe global, national,, and individual forces onand individual forces on popula-popula-tion control. It gives very limited agency to the family and the individual, tion control. It gives very limited agency to the family and the individual, the ultimate decision makers on fertility the ultimate decision makers on fertility behavior (at least in more dem-behavior (at least in more dem-ocraticocratic settingssettings) and d) and devaluesevalues the other intentions of actors and their ca-the other intentions of actors and their ca-pabilities. pabilities.
Therefore,
Therefore, this dissertation this dissertation utilizeutilizess another theoryanother theory, the , the “capability “capability approachapproach,,” to ” to provide aprovide a more balanced, flexiblemore balanced, flexible,, and multidimensionaland multidimensional ac-ac-countcount ooff population control. The theory was originated by Amartya Sen population control. The theory was originated by Amartya Sen in 1979 as a normative framework for the evaluationin 1979 as a normative framework for the evaluation and assessment of and assessment of individual wellindividual well--being based on capability and functioning.being based on capability and functioning.81 According to According to Sen, functionings represent parts of the state of a person, in particular Sen, functionings represent parts of the state of a person, in particular the various things that he or shethe various things that he or she is capable of doingis capable of doing or beor being over the ing over the course of course of a a lifetimelifetime. . IIndividual ndividual capability reflects the alternative combi-capability reflects the alternative combi-nations of functionings nations of functionings a a person can person can achieve and from which he or she achieve and from which he or she can can select a select a collection.collection. 82 Consequently, “quality of life” dependsConsequently, “quality of life” depends on on anan
79 Ibid., 203.Ibid., 203.
80 Ansley J. Coale and Edgar M.Ansley J. Coale and Edgar M. HooverHoover, , Population Growth and Economic Development Population Growth and Economic Development (Princeton, N.J: Princeton University(Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1958).Press, 1958).
81 AmAmartya Sen, “Equality of What?,” in artya Sen, “Equality of What?,” in The Tanner Lectures on Human ValuesThe Tanner Lectures on Human Values (Salt Lake (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Pres, 1979), 198City: University of Utah Pres, 1979), 198––220.220.
82 Amartya Sen, “Capability and WellAmartya Sen, “Capability and Well--Being,” in Being,” in The Quality of LifeThe Quality of Life, ed. Martha C. Nussbaum , ed. Martha C. Nussbaum and Amartya Sen (Oand Amartya Sen (Oxford [England] : New York: Clarendon Press ; Oxford University xford [England] : New York: Clarendon Press ; Oxford University Press, 1993), 41Press, 1993), 41––71.71.
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individual capability to achieve valuable functionings.
individual capability to achieve valuable functionings. 83 And And so,so, the the ra-ra-tional tional decision about the decision about the fertilityfertility made by the made by the womwomaan and the family, n and the family, should be based on the assessment of whether or not an additional child should be based on the assessment of whether or not an additional child will serve the quality of life.will serve the quality of life.
Similar to the
Similar to the attempt on attempt on forms of life, this study aims to exforms of life, this study aims to extendtend the the individuindividualistic originalistic originss of the capability approach to the interstate, na-of the capability approach to the interstate, na-tional and group relationstional and group relations and and to to utilize both Agamben’s, Bradley’s and utilize both Agamben’s, Bradley’s and Sen’s Sen’s methodologies methodologies to to population control. The third hypothesis of this population control. The third hypothesis of this dissertation is that the ultimatedissertation is that the ultimate goal of goal of all thall these global, national, groupese global, national, group,, and individual agents is to and individual agents is to improveimprove the quality of the “good life” through the quality of the “good life” through their capabilities and functioning’s. And population control polictheir capabilities and functioning’s. And population control policies areies are desirable for the global, nationaldesirable for the global, national,, and inand individualdividual “good li“good lifefe,”,” only if limit-only if limit-iing the number of bare and unbearable lives increases theirng the number of bare and unbearable lives increases their quality of quality of lifelife..
Accordingly, this thesis asserts that
Accordingly, this thesis asserts that hegemonic powers hegemonic powers in the global in the global sphere sphere tend to support population controltend to support population control whenwhen bare and unbearable bare and unbearable lives threaten or diminish the quality of the hegemonic good life. (lives threaten or diminish the quality of the hegemonic good life. (SuchSuch as burden for achieving scarce resources, as burden for achieving scarce resources, security,security, and immigration con-and immigration con-cern etc.) Similarly, they might immediately stop supporting population cern etc.) Similarly, they might immediately stop supporting population controlcontrol if if these bathese bare and unbearable life forms are utilized to expand the re and unbearable life forms are utilized to expand the quality of the hegemonic good life (quality of the hegemonic good life (throughthrough new markets or cheap labornew markets or cheap labor,, etc.) etc.)
In the national sphere, the population policy of the governing elites
In the national sphere, the population policy of the governing elites ((the the good life) again depended on contribution of tgood life) again depended on contribution of the bare and unbeara-he bare and unbeara-ble lives on their life quality. ble lives on their life quality. GGovernments support antinatalist policiesovernments support antinatalist policies when when those lives restrain othose lives restrain orr diminish the government’s capability to diminish the government’s capability to function (such as internal migration function (such as internal migration which which worsenworsenss allocation of re-allocation of re-sources, ethnic or class csources, ethnic or class conflict, political turmoil’sonflict, political turmoil’s,, etc.). Or they might etc.). Or they might switch on to pronatalism switch on to pronatalism whenwhen bare and unbearable lives are required to bare and unbearable lives are required to improveimprove the quality of the good life (as voting power, cheap labor, for eco-the quality of the good life (as voting power, cheap labor, for eco-nomic or military nomic or military purposespurposes for further expansionfor further expansion,, etc.) etc.)
83 Ingrid Robeyns,Ingrid Robeyns, “The Capability Approach in Practice“The Capability Approach in Practice,,” ” Journal of Political PhilosophyJournal of Political Philosophy 14, 14, no. 3 (2006): 351no. 3 (2006): 351––76.76.
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Regarding
Regarding tthe family spherehe family sphere,, the impact of children on the the impact of children on the parents’ parents’ quality of life is crucial for the fertility decision. Parents mquality of life is crucial for the fertility decision. Parents may chooseay choose to to have a child (based on the cultural, religious, have a child (based on the cultural, religious, and and social normssocial norms,, or secu-or secu-rity, economic, moral value) or rity, economic, moral value) or may may peperceive rceive itit as a burden as a burden onon their life their life quality (timequality (time--consuming, consuming, creating budget deficit,creating budget deficit, etc). etc).
Another aspect is how th
Another aspect is how theese three spheres interact se three spheres interact to to producproduce and e and shape shape population control ideology and policy. population control ideology and policy. The fourth hypothesis of The fourth hypothesis of this dissertation is this dissertation is that that there is no straightforward diffusion between there is no straightforward diffusion between ththeese spheresse spheres inin population controlpopulation control,, but but rather rather a vibrant interaction, in-a vibrant interaction, in-terrelationterrelation,, and interinfluence in between with the existence of a relative and interinfluence in between with the existence of a relative autonomy. autonomy. ThusThus, the global population control movement of the, the global population control movement of the 1960s in 1960s in the the developing world and Turkey, this thesis developing world and Turkey, this thesis arguesargues, was not only a heg-, was not only a heg-emonic project of a global sphereemonic project of a global sphere,, but also an implicit consensus with the but also an implicit consensus with the national and individual spheresnational and individual spheres,, as they also believed that it served to as they also believed that it served to improveimprove the quality of theithe quality of their own good lives.r own good lives.
In
In summary, summary, this study, this study, in in itsits quest quest to to analyzanalyzee the the dynamics and pro-dynamics and pro-cesses of pcesses of population opulation policy change from pronatalism to antinatalism in policy change from pronatalism to antinatalism in Turkey Turkey inin the 1950s andthe 1950s and 1960s1960s,, constructs a tripartite sphereconstructs a tripartite sphere:: the the global, global, the the national and national and the the inindividualdividual. In doing so, . In doing so, Agamben’s and Bradley’s Agamben’s and Bradley’s “forms of lives” approach “forms of lives” approach is applied to these spheres, claiming that is applied to these spheres, claiming that pop-pop-ulation policulation policies in each ies in each spheresphere emerge emerge based on the relationship between based on the relationship between these life forms. these life forms. In additionIn addition, Sen’s capability approach for ind, Sen’s capability approach for individuals ividuals were were applied applied to thto theese spheres to reveal the stimulation se spheres to reveal the stimulation ofof population population control, which is claimed in this study as maximizcontrol, which is claimed in this study as maximizing theing the “quality” of the “quality” of the good life good life inin each sphere. each sphere.
The following chapters of the study
The following chapters of the study aimaim to explore the changing na-to explore the changing na-ture and ture and motivations of thmotivations of theese life forms in each global, nationalse life forms in each global, national,, and indi-and indi-vidual sphere that produced the antinatalist ideology in many developing vidual sphere that produced the antinatalist ideology in many developing countriescountries,, including Turkeyincluding Turkey,, in the 1960s, and to in the 1960s, and to highlighthighlight the intersec-the intersec-tions, interactions, interrelations, contestations and negotiations in be-tions, interactions, interrelations, contestations and negotiations in be-tween. tween.
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§ 1.5 MethodologyMethodology
The narratives and methodologies used
The narratives and methodologies used inin the population control litera-the population control litera-ture ture areare far from holistic, not only far from holistic, not only because because the topic attracts diverse aca-the topic attracts diverse aca-demicdemic interestinterestss ranging from political science, economranging from political science, economicsics, demography, , demography, history, health, sociology, psychology, gender studieshistory, health, sociology, psychology, gender studies,, etc., but also etc., but also be-be-cause cause each study addresses the issue each study addresses the issue with an isolated focus fromwith an isolated focus from a a global, global, national,national, or individual sphereor individual sphere..
Moreover
Moreover, , the the distinction between qdistinction between qualitative and quantitative ualitative and quantitative works works is common in historical demograpis common in historical demography, into which hy, into which this dissertation this dissertation may also be cmay also be classifiedlassified. The quantitative scholarship. The quantitative scholarship, which , which mostly mostly has a has a demographic and statistical background, leans on numbers todemographic and statistical background, leans on numbers to reveal the reveal the relative “truth” derived from censuses and relative “truth” derived from censuses and Knowledge Attitude Practice Knowledge Attitude Practice (KAP) (KAP) surveyssurveys to analyze the global and national sphereto analyze the global and national spheress84 and uses and uses questionnaires and local surveys to focus on the individual sphere.questionnaires and local surveys to focus on the individual sphere.85 The The qualitative part, oqualitative part, on the other n the other hand, represented hand, represented mainlymainly by sociologists by sociologists and historians, and historians, tendstends to use state archives, institutional reports or news-to use state archives, institutional reports or news-papers papers when the study seeks to find the when the study seeks to find the answer in global and national answer in global and national spherespheress,,86 or utilizes the field works, face to face interviews, diarieor utilizes the field works, face to face interviews, diariess,, and and archival materials on individual cases archival materials on individual cases when it focuses when it focuses on the micro-on the micro-sphere.sphere.87
84 The Population Council The Population Council teams report from the teams report from the 1960s 1960s fall into fall into this category, this category, as doas do Mauldin’s Mauldin’s comparativecomparative analyanalysissis oof developing countries f developing countries KAPKAP reports;reports; W. Parker Mauldin, W. Parker Mauldin, “Fertility Studies: Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice,” Studies in Fa“Fertility Studies: Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice,” Studies in Family Planningmily Planning 1, no. 7 1, no. 7 (1965): 1(1965): 1––10.10.
85 ÖÖzbay’s zbay’s fieldfield survey and questionnaire survey and questionnaire on attitudes toward on attitudes toward family planning in family planning in Etimesgut Etimesgut PProvincerovince,, TurkeyTurkey,, in 1968 is a study in 1968 is a study concerned concerned with the individual sphere; with the individual sphere; Ferhunde Ferhunde ÖÖzbay, “Etimesgut’da Aile Planlama BTK Araştırması 1969” (3. Üniversitler zbay, “Etimesgut’da Aile Planlama BTK Araştırması 1969” (3. Üniversitler Arası İstatistikçiler Konferansı, October 17, 1968).Arası İstatistikçiler Konferansı, October 17, 1968).
86 Binnet uBinnet usesses an interpretive approach by analyzing the news of than interpretive approach by analyzing the news of the era about the e era about the dis-dis-course on fcourse on family amily pplanning; lanning; Binnet, “My Wife, My Choice: Reproductive Policymaking and Binnet, “My Wife, My Choice: Reproductive Policymaking and Social Control in TurkeySocial Control in Turkey..””
87 KaKağıtçıbaşığıtçıbaşı and her colleagues have conducted extensive interviews with some 360 and her colleagues have conducted extensive interviews with some 360 fam-fam-iliesilies from from ninenine countries to analycountries to analyzze the changing value of childrene the changing value of children; ; KaKağığıttçıbaşıçıbaşı, “Old Age , “Old Age Security Value of Children and Development: CrossSecurity Value of Children and Development: Cross--National Evidence.”National Evidence.”
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This study attempts not only to integrate th
This study attempts not only to integrate theese spheresse spheres,, but also to but also to confront qualitative and quantitative approaches and its methodologies confront qualitative and quantitative approaches and its methodologies to to achieveachieve a holistic approach fa holistic approach for responding or responding toto the research question. the research question.
In the global sphere,
In the global sphere, thethe changing power relations after the changing power relations after the WWIIWWII that repositioned that repositioned the the good, good, bare,bare, and unbearable liand unbearable life fe in the hegemonic in the hegemonic perspective perspective are are explored in explored in the context of the context of the reinvention and rebranding the reinvention and rebranding of the population control ideology and its diffusion to the developing of the population control ideology and its diffusion to the developing countries. countries.
The reports and diaries of US based foundations
The reports and diaries of US based foundations, especially the, especially the Rock-Rock-efeller and Ford Foundationsefeller and Ford Foundations, offer, offer illuminating insights. Yet similar illuminating insights. Yet similar tratraces ces can also be found in can also be found in the official sources as well. A critical reading the official sources as well. A critical reading of the official reports and panel discussions of the World Population Con-of the official reports and panel discussions of the World Population Con-ferences ferences held in Rome held in Rome in 1954 and in 1954 and Belgrade Belgrade in 1965 reveals many in-in 1965 reveals many in-stances from participants around the world stances from participants around the world ooff the changing perceptionthe changing perceptionss of the bare and unbearable lives. Furthermore, the proceedings and the of the bare and unbearable lives. Furthermore, the proceedings and the reports of the United Nations (UN) and its agencies, UN’sreports of the United Nations (UN) and its agencies, UN’s Population Population Commission, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), theCommission, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the WorldWorld Health Health Organization (WHO)Organization (WHO) onon population control population control areare critically examined for critically examined for that purpose. that purpose. Another key indicator is political and economic pressureAnother key indicator is political and economic pressures s and incen-and incen-tives for population control, which tives for population control, which are traare tracked from cked from variousvarious sources in-sources in-cluding lcluding loanoan agreements, annual reports and country agreements, annual reports and country specific reports specific reports from the from the World Bank, World Bank, the the International Bank for Reconstruction and De-International Bank for Reconstruction and De-velopment (IBRDvelopment (IBRD)),, the the Organization for Economic CoOrganization for Economic Co--operation and De-operation and De-velopmentvelopment (OECD) (OECD) and special missions. and special missions. The diffusion of the global population ideology in Turkey The diffusion of the global population ideology in Turkey isis obobserved served from several sourcesfrom several sources:: from the activities and reports of international from the activities and reports of international foundationsfoundations, especially the , especially the Population CouncilPopulation Council,, established by the Rocke-established by the Rocke-feller Foundation, which feller Foundation, which also produced also produced an official an official popopulation pulation ccontrol ontrol rre-e-port for Turkeyport for Turkey in 1963in 1963 atat the request of the Turkish the request of the Turkish Ministry of Ministry of Health,Health,88 organized the first organized the first nationnationwide wide KKAP sAP survey urvey inin the same year and spon-the same year and spon-sored the establishment of sored the establishment of Turkey’s only pTurkey’s only population opulation iinstitutenstitute in 1967. in 1967. In In
88 Population Council,Population Council, Population Council’in Türkiye’deki Nüfus Planlamasına Dair RaporuPopulation Council’in Türkiye’deki Nüfus Planlamasına Dair Raporu..
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additionaddition, the key , the key foreign foreign mission reports mission reports prepared for prepared for Turkey, anTurkey, and taken d taken seriously by the DPseriously by the DP,, government namely government namely the the Thornburg Report Thornburg Report ofof 1949, 1949, the the Barker Report Barker Report ofof 1951, 1951, the the Chenery Report Chenery Report ofof 1953, 1953, and the and the Baade Baade report report of of 1959 1959 areare evaluated in terms of their evaluated in terms of their population policy population policy recom-recom-mendations. mendations. In additionIn addition, the , the global hard and soft powerglobal hard and soft power exerted exerted on Turkey to on Turkey to switch to switch to aa planned economy and population controlplanned economy and population control,, especially after the especially after the 1958 devaluation and 1958 devaluation and the the 1960 1960 ccoup d’état, is examined through the oup d’état, is examined through the standbystandby agreement with agreement with the the IMF in 1959 and IMF in 1959 and subsequent loansubsequent loan negotia-negotia-tions, minutes of meetings and correspondencetions, minutes of meetings and correspondencess with NATO, global advi-with NATO, global advi-sory and consultancy on establishment of the SPO in 1960sory and consultancy on establishment of the SPO in 1960,,89 and the First and the First National Development ReportNational Development Report of of 19619633 wwhich mentioned hich mentioned population con-population con-trol trol for the first for the first time. time. In the nationIn the national sphere, theal sphere, the critecriterion of the governing good life to drion of the governing good life to de-e-termine which lives are worthy or nottermine which lives are worthy or not and the changing roles of the bare and the changing roles of the bare and unbearable lives that paved way to accept population control in the and unbearable lives that paved way to accept population control in the 1950s and 1960s1950s and 1960s,, are briefly are briefly analyzed for the twenty danalyzed for the twenty developing coun-eveloping coun-tries tries whose whose antinatalist policies were officially accepted before 1970, and antinatalist policies were officially accepted before 1970, and then for the then for the case of case of TurkTurkeyey extensively.extensively. The analyThe analysissis for developing world aimed to for developing world aimed to highlight highlight somesome of the ma-of the ma-jorjor common political, socialcommon political, social,, and economic disorders of the eraand economic disorders of the era,, such as such as military coups, ethnic conflicts, rapid urbanization, economic crises,military coups, ethnic conflicts, rapid urbanization, economic crises, andand faminesfamines thatthat had had underminedundermined national capabilities and functionings national capabilities and functionings (quality of the good life) and forced governments to switch onto antin(quality of the good life) and forced governments to switch onto antina-a-talist policies. talist policies. To this endTo this end, the secondary literature on key political, social, the secondary literature on key political, social,, and eco-and eco-nomic issues nomic issues isis tracked for each country, and the major differences and tracked for each country, and the major differences and commonalities that paved way commonalities that paved way for for ththeese countries to change their trajec-se countries to change their trajec-tory on the population tory on the population policy policy areare comparably comparably categorized. categorized. The striking The striking
89 TheThe Dutch economist Jan Tinbergen was brought inDutch economist Jan Tinbergen was brought intoto the country in early 1960 at the the country in early 1960 at the urging urging of the OECD and the IMF, against the will of the DP governmof the OECD and the IMF, against the will of the DP governmentent. After the military . After the military coupcoup in the same yeain the same yearr, he played a key role in founding the SPO , he played a key role in founding the SPO and shaping its institu-and shaping its institu-tional structuretional structure..
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similarities and differences similarities and differences in in the leadership and the leadership and iimplementation of the mplementation of the population control program population control program are alsoare also briefly elaborated. briefly elaborated. As As forfor Turkey, the changing political, Turkey, the changing political, economic,economic, and social climate and social climate thatthat havehave caused caused the the bare and unbearable lives bare and unbearable lives to to becombecomee a burden for a burden for the governing elites the governing elites areare explored from several dimensions including explored from several dimensions including the the changchange ine in political system political system toto multiparty elections, massive inmultiparty elections, massive internalternal mi-mi-gration, economic turmoil, gration, economic turmoil, the the military coupmilitary coup,, aand revival of the nd revival of the EEastern astern QuQuestion.estion. The tThe transition to multiparty elections in 1946 immediately trans-ransition to multiparty elections in 1946 immediately trans-formed formed the the bare masses into voting stockbare masses into voting stockss and and ledled the competing parties the competing parties to to pay special attention to public values. This was especially the case for pay special attention to public values. This was especially the case for the govethe governing elites of DP, who seemrning elites of DP, who seemed to rival ed to rival not only their political not only their political opponent, opponent, the the Republican PeopleRepublican People ‘s ‘s Party (CHP)Party (CHP),, but also the state bu-but also the state bu-reaucracy. Thus, they ignored the growing economic and sociocultural reaucracy. Thus, they ignored the growing economic and sociocultural tensions between urbans (good life) and ruraltensions between urbans (good life) and rural (bare l(bare life) who migrated ife) who migrated en masse en masse to to the the cities in cities in tthe 1950s. Furthermore, they he 1950s. Furthermore, they also also resisted warn-resisted warn-ings ings fromfrom international institutions to take economic measures and international institutions to take economic measures and con-con-trol trol the population even during the economic turmoil the population even during the economic turmoil ofof the late 1950s. the late 1950s. All thAll theese events, discussions and debates se events, discussions and debates are are tracked from the tracked from the headlines headlines and articles in the prominent newspapers (and articles in the prominent newspapers (Cumhuriyet, MilliyetCumhuriyet, Milliyet) and pe-) and pe-riodicals (riodicals (Forum, Kadın GazetesiForum, Kadın Gazetesi).).
The military coup of 1960 turned the tide
The military coup of 1960 turned the tide in termsin terms ofof the perthe perception ception of the bare life and their sentiments. Similar toof the bare life and their sentiments. Similar to military regimes in other military regimes in other developing countriesdeveloping countries such assuch as South Korea, Egypt, PakistanSouth Korea, Egypt, Pakistan,, and Indone-and Indone-siasia,, the military junta in Turkey was bolder than local governments the military junta in Turkey was bolder than local governments and and applapplied ied radical measuresradical measures,, incluincluding population controlding population control, also , also requested by requested by the local and global developmentalist coalition.the local and global developmentalist coalition.90 Moreover, the Turkish Moreover, the Turkish generals' security concerns were on the agenda because of the "Eastern generals' security concerns were on the agenda because of the "Eastern Problem," which resurged after the Kurds in Iraq gained semiProblem," which resurged after the Kurds in Iraq gained semi--autonomyautonomy
90 Another major milestone Another major milestone ofof ppopulation opulation ccontrol in Turkeyontrol in Turkey, , “aborti“abortionon,,” was also legalized ” was also legalized under the martial law of under the martial law of the the 11980 980 military military coup, icoup, in n 19819833. .
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in 1959.
in 1959.91 On the other hand, the population planning law was barely On the other hand, the population planning law was barely passed in 1965 after four years of interrupted discussions, and the rightpassed in 1965 after four years of interrupted discussions, and the right--wing party AP, seen in many ways as the political heir of DP, was again wing party AP, seen in many ways as the political heir of DP, was again reluctant to implement the population coreluctant to implement the population control law after winning the elec-ntrol law after winning the elec-tions that year.tions that year.
This
This dichotomy ofdichotomy of Turkish population policy and key debates and Turkish population policy and key debates and discussiondiscussionss within the governing bodies within the governing bodies areare tracked tracked through a variety through a variety of of primary sources including official government documents (Official Ga-primary sources including official government documents (Official Ga-zezette, Parliamenttte, Parliamentaryary Archives, Prime Ministry Republican Archives, Min-Archives, Prime Ministry Republican Archives, Min-istry of Health Database, Turkish Grand National Assembly online data-istry of Health Database, Turkish Grand National Assembly online data-base), official reports (SPO Development Reports, base), official reports (SPO Development Reports, Ministry of Ministry of Health Health Reports, State Institute of Statistic Reports), anReports, State Institute of Statistic Reports), and nonofficial reports.d nonofficial reports. In In additionaddition, a quantitative approach, , a quantitative approach, primarily the primarily the results results of the of the 19451945--19701970 censusescensuses,, thethe 1963, 1968 and 19721963, 1968 and 1972 fertility survey, afertility survey, and the peri-nd the peri-odic reports on odic reports on the the demographic demographic ccharacteristicharacteristicss of of IUDIUD acceptors acceptors is is uti-uti-lized to lized to determinedetermine whether ethnic or regional differencewhether ethnic or regional differences have been s have been taken into account in the implementation of the taken into account in the implementation of the Population Planning Population Planning LawLaw..
In the individual sphere, the
In the individual sphere, the changing value of having childchanging value of having childrenren (bare (bare life) on the life quality of the family (good life)life) on the life quality of the family (good life) isis elaborated together with elaborated together with thethe interrelation with the interrelation with the law on law on ppopulation opulation plplanninganning.. The implementa-The implementa-tion of the law by the Turkish government and local cooperation was not tion of the law by the Turkish government and local cooperation was not only weakonly weak,, as mentioned earlier, but one of the weakest amongas mentioned earlier, but one of the weakest among thethe twenty developing counttwenty developing countries.ries.92 However, the censuses and the periodical However, the censuses and the periodical KAP survey results of the KAP survey results of the periodperiod clearly indicates aclearly indicates a decline indecline in fertilityfertility that that exceeds the SPO’sexceeds the SPO’s most optimistmost optimisticic projectionsprojections, indicat, indicating ing individual sup-individual sup-port port forfor the population control but the population control but the wthe way ay it was promoit was promoted by state of-ted by state of-fificialscials..
91 SSecondary sources and memoirs econdary sources and memoirs provide a secretprovide a secret Eastern Report prepared Eastern Report prepared for for Army Army General Gürsel in 1959 and General Gürsel in 1959 and of of a special Eastern Team established under a special Eastern Team established under the the SPO in 1961 SPO in 1961 to deal with the Easter Question. to deal with the Easter Question.
92 Robert J. Lapham and W. Parker Mauldin, “Family Planning Program Effort and Birthrate Robert J. Lapham and W. Parker Mauldin, “Family Planning Program Effort and Birthrate Decline in Developing Countries,” Decline in Developing Countries,” International Family Planning PerspectivesInternational Family Planning Perspectives 10, no. 4 10, no. 4 (1984): 109(1984): 109––18.18.
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The changing attitude of the Turkish family toward children
The changing attitude of the Turkish family toward children isis ana-ana-lyzed lyzed at at both both the the macro and micro levelmacro and micro levelss. . At theAt the macro level, the change macro level, the change in some key figures iin some key figures is observe, is observe, including family structure, actual family ncluding family structure, actual family size, size, desired family size, age odesired family size, age off marriage, marriage and divorce rates, de-marriage, marriage and divorce rates, de-pendency ratespendency rates, and the use , and the use of birth control practices in urban and rural of birth control practices in urban and rural areas. areas.
Furthermore, the changing status of women
Furthermore, the changing status of women, , particularly in terms of particularly in terms of occupation and education is exoccupation and education is exploredplored. . The periodization of thiThe periodization of thiss research research was not limited with the 1was not limited with the 1950s and 1960s but950s and 1960s but extended until the extended until the mid1980s mid1980s to to grasp the grasp the longlong--termterm relationship between relationship between fertility fertility and the and the changing changing women’s status.women’s status. For that purpose,For that purpose, data ondata on social indicators social indicators from from the census the census results results areare paired with paired with results fromresults from KAP surveyKAP surveyss on fer-on fer-tility decisiontility decisionss on on a a spatiotemporal basis. The KAP surveys, spatiotemporal basis. The KAP surveys, begunbegun in in 19631963 at the initiativeat the initiative, , guidanceguidance,, and and with the with the financfinancial support ial support of of the the Pop-Pop-ulation Council and continued ulation Council and continued every five years to this devery five years to this day ay by HUNEE, are by HUNEE, are the oldest surviving statistical series the oldest surviving statistical series on on nationwide fertility attitudenationwide fertility attitudes.s.
At the
At the micro level, the attitudes of micro level, the attitudes of various various interest groups interest groups such as such as wwomen, doctors, religious groups, omen, doctors, religious groups, and and public and village opinion leaders public and village opinion leaders toward toward population control population control areare tracked tracked through the various through the various surveys con-surveys con-ducted during theducted during the era.era.93 For instance, a plot region in Etimesgut For instance, a plot region in Etimesgut PProvince rovince waswas aassigned by the ssigned by the Ministry of Ministry of Health for population control research Health for population control research and thand the region became the epicenter of population surveys.e region became the epicenter of population surveys.94 All All of theseof these surveys and studies surveys and studies are are critically observed due to critically observed due to theirtheir potential biases potential biases to be used to be used for for state propaganda.state propaganda.
The public hesitation to use some 500
The public hesitation to use some 500 ffamily amily pplanning lanning cclinicslinics esestab-tab-lished after tlished after the Population Planning he Population Planning LawLaw is is also discussedalso discussed through through the the personal interviews with many personal interviews with many ppublic ublic hhealth officials who haealth officials who haveve experi-experi-enced birth control practices, enced birth control practices, as weas well as nll as newspaperewspaper accounts, maccounts, memoirs, emoirs,
93 J. Mayone Stycos, “The PoJ. Mayone Stycos, “The Potential Role of Turkish Village Opinion Leaders in a Program tential Role of Turkish Village Opinion Leaders in a Program of Family Planning,” of Family Planning,” Public Opinion QuarterlyPublic Opinion Quarterly 29, no. 1 (1965): 12029, no. 1 (1965): 120––30.30.
94 ÖÖzbay and Shorter, “TURKEY: Changes in Birth Control Practices, 1963 to 1968zbay and Shorter, “TURKEY: Changes in Birth Control Practices, 1963 to 1968..” ”
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novels, panel discussions
novels, panel discussions ofof family planning seminars, and family planning seminars, and IUDIUD ffollowollow--up up ssurveys.urveys.95
§ 1.6 Outline of the DissertationOutline of the Dissertation
T
This dissertation consists of four chapters covering the introductionhis dissertation consists of four chapters covering the introduction ofof global, national, and individual forces on changing population policies, as global, national, and individual forces on changing population policies, as separate chapters. separate chapters.
The
The second chaptersecond chapter analyzes the ganalyzes the global lobal ppopulation opulation ccontrol ontrol iideology, deology, and its and its ccirculation to Third World in the 1950s and 1960sirculation to Third World in the 1950s and 1960s through global through global and national dimenand national dimensions. The global part explores tsions. The global part explores the transformation of he transformation of the the Malthusianist, Malthusianist, eeugenic and ugenic and iindividualistndividualist ideology of population con-ideology of population con-trol into a global hegemonic project through demographic transition, trol into a global hegemonic project through demographic transition, modernization, and developmentalist theories and its circulatimodernization, and developmentalist theories and its circulation to the on to the Third World countries after WWII. The national section briefly analyzes Third World countries after WWII. The national section briefly analyzes the major political, social, and economic events in these twenty countries the major political, social, and economic events in these twenty countries where population control policies were legalized before 1970, and which where population control policies were legalized before 1970, and which have affected their nationahave affected their national capabilities and functioning to cope with the l capabilities and functioning to cope with the bare and unbearable lives.bare and unbearable lives.
The third chapter elaborates the case for Turkey. The country’s polit-
The third chapter elaborates the case for Turkey. The country’s polit-ical, economic, and social turning points that affected population policy ical, economic, and social turning points that affected population policy are discussed under the following headings: political transition to a mul-are discussed under the following headings: political transition to a mul-tiparty system, economic and political atiparty system, economic and political alliance with the US, the local gov-lliance with the US, the local gov-ernment DP, and its economic expansion and collapse, internal migration ernment DP, and its economic expansion and collapse, internal migration flow, andflow, and the 1960 the 1960 ccoup and transition to a planned economy. oup and transition to a planned economy.
In addition, the intellectual and constitutional discussions, and de-
In addition, the intellectual and constitutional discussions, and de-bates about the Popubates about the Population Planning Law before, during, and after its re-lation Planning Law before, during, and after its re-lease in 1965 are examined, as are the content and execution of the law lease in 1965 are examined, as are the content and execution of the law by the newly created institutions: the Family Planning Directorate, the by the newly created institutions: the Family Planning Directorate, the Family Planning Clinics, the Mobile Family Planning Clinics, the Mobile Clinics, theClinics, the Family PlanFamily Planning Associa-ning Associa-tion, and the scientific data processing unit, HUNEE.tion, and the scientific data processing unit, HUNEE. Furthermore, the Furthermore, the
95 Ministry of Health, Population Planning Directorate, Ministry of Health, Population Planning Directorate, 1969 Yılı Rahim İçi Takip Araşt1969 Yılı Rahim İçi Takip Araştır-ır-ması ması (Ankara(Ankara:: Sağlık ve Sosyal Yardım Bakanlığı Yayınları,Sağlık ve Sosyal Yardım Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1971)1971)..
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governmental motivation for
governmental motivation for population planning population planning investment investment and the and the in-in-dividual dividual contraceptive contraceptive choice choice isis analyzed analyzed through descriptive through descriptive variablesvariables..
The fourth chapter analyzes th
The fourth chapter analyzes the individual forces of population con-e individual forces of population con-trol in terms of trol in terms of changing family structure, changing family structure, women’s women’s empowermentempowerment andand changing value of childrenchanging value of children toto the life quality of the family and women the life quality of the family and women both both in urban and rural areas during the 1950s and 1960s.in urban and rural areas during the 1950s and 1960s. And further And further exexpands pands the period the period until the miduntil the mid--1980s to explore the long1980s to explore the long--term trend.term trend.
Macro and microMacro and micro data are utilized to track the transition of women data are utilized to track the transition of women and the family and their changing attitudes toward fertility decisions and and the family and their changing attitudes toward fertility decisions and population control. population control. In addition, individual and puIn addition, individual and public response to the blic response to the government’s family planning program is questioned through interviews government’s family planning program is questioned through interviews with health professionals, and a variety of primary and secondary with health professionals, and a variety of primary and secondary sources. sources. Last but not least, Last but not least, the the associationassociation between between changing changing fertility be-fertility be-havhaviorior and and other variableother variables such as education, employments such as education, employment,, and urbani-and urbani-zation zation areare analyzed in a analyzed in a spatiotemporal spatiotemporal contextcontext with a broader periodi-with a broader periodi-zationzation..
The dissertation concludes with a summary of the arguments pre-
The dissertation concludes with a summary of the arguments pre-sented in the aforementioned chapters and a response to the research sented in the aforementioned chapters and a response to the research quesquestion.tion.

33
2 Global Population Control Ideologies and their Trans-Global Population Control Ideologies and their Trans-fer to fer to the the Third World in the 1950s and 1960s.Third World in the 1950s and 1960s.
his chapter
his chapter seeksseeks to to understandunderstand the evolution of the population con-the evolution of the population con-trol phenomenon in the governmental corpus and its transfor-trol phenomenon in the governmental corpus and its transfor-mation into a useful tool fomation into a useful tool for a hegemonic enterprise r a hegemonic enterprise in the in the developing developing world after world after WWIIWWII. . IIt also t also attempts attempts to interpret the switch of the develop-to interpret the switch of the develop-ing countries to antinatalist policies from their own perspective. There-ing countries to antinatalist policies from their own perspective. There-fore, it consists of three subtitlesfore, it consists of three subtitles,, namely: genealogy of populationamely: genealogy of population con-n con-trol ideology, population control as a global movement and population trol ideology, population control as a global movement and population control control at theat the national level.national level.
The
The genealogy sectiongenealogy section analyzesanalyzes the roots of population control ideol-the roots of population control ideol-ogy ogy withiwithin two main currents: Malthusianism and Eugenic Movements. n two main currents: Malthusianism and Eugenic Movements. The changing maThe changing material conditions, physical and intellectual environment terial conditions, physical and intellectual environment that that led tled these ideas tohese ideas to emerge emerge and diffuse in the industrialand diffuse in the industrializedized world world are are examined iexamined in the forms of lives approach. n the forms of lives approach. To this endTo this end academic literature academic literature on thon theese movements and scientific debates se movements and scientific debates are drawnare drawn upon.upon.
In the global movement section, th
In the global movement section, thisis dissertation dissertation utilizesutilizes the same the same forms of life approach, but forms of life approach, but onon aa global sphere. The transformation and global sphere. The transformation and rebranding of the population control idea to the developing world by de-rebranding of the population control idea to the developing world by de-mographers funded by US based foundatiomographers funded by US based foundations ns is is explored explored inin academic academic
T
T
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debates and discussions.
debates and discussions. FFurthermore, the urthermore, the process of process of institutionaliza-institutionaliza-tiontion, first , first byby private organizations, then on private organizations, then on thethe world stage, and its inter-world stage, and its inter-action with action with the developingthe developing world world isis trackedtracked throughthrough official reports, official reports, minutes of meetingminutes of meetings, s, and conference proceedings. and conference proceedings.
At the national level,
At the national level, the the political, socialpolitical, social,, and economic burdens of theand economic burdens of the twenty twenty developing states which switched on to antinatalism before 1970 developing states which switched on to antinatalism before 1970 is is analyzed to grasp how the bare and unbeanalyzed to grasp how the bare and unbearable lives became an obsta-arable lives became an obsta-cle cle toto the quality of the governmental good life. the quality of the governmental good life. It It also also helpshelps to demon-to demon-strate how the national sphere strate how the national sphere interactedinteracted and interconnected with the and interconnected with the global population movement. To this end, this study assembleglobal population movement. To this end, this study assembless the sec-the sec-ondary literatureondary literature of each country of each country alongalong with collective works and coun-with collective works and coun-try reports on population policytry reports on population policy..
§ 2.1 Genealogy of the Population Control IdeologyGenealogy of the Population Control Ideology
The
The ideaidea of birth control and its traditional techniques haof birth control and its traditional techniques have ve a long history a long history dating back to antiquitydating back to antiquity. Yet their . Yet their legitimization as public policy islegitimization as public policy is, as , as Hartman Hartman puts it,puts it, a drama a drama played out over played out over two centuriestwo centuries byby many actors many actors with with two two radically different scriptsradically different scripts written by the Malthusians and the written by the Malthusians and the eeugenicugenicistists.s.1 This dissertation claims that the script of these two ideolo-This dissertation claims that the script of these two ideolo-gies, that gies, that had had direct impact direct impact on the on the population control movement, were population control movement, were not that different, not that different, as as they arose they arose but but from from aa similar similar anxietyanxiety of the govern-of the govern-ing good lifeing good life,, to to preserve thpreserve their life quality, threeir life quality, threatened by the bare and un-atened by the bare and un-bearable lives. bearable lives.
This section starts with
This section starts with aa brief sketchbrief sketch ofof changing changing WWestern thinking estern thinking about the population until the late about the population until the late eighteentheighteenth century. century. It thenIt then covers the covers the emergence of Malthusian ideas among the ruling elites of the industriaemergence of Malthusian ideas among the ruling elites of the industrial l world, whoworld, who were under pressure were under pressure from thefrom the French revolution, industriali-French revolution, industriali-zation, rapid zation, rapid urbanization,urbanization, and poverty between the late and poverty between the late eighteentheighteenth andand midmid--nineteenthnineteenth centurcenturieiess. And finally, the eugenic . And finally, the eugenic ideaidea, , which was ac-which was ac-companied companied by the fear oby the fear of the ruling elites f the ruling elites (representing the definition of (representing the definition of
1 Betsy Hartmann, “Population Control I: Birth of an Ideology,” Betsy Hartmann, “Population Control I: Birth of an Ideology,” International Journal of International Journal of Health ServicesHealth Services 27, no. 3 (1997): 52327, no. 3 (1997): 523––40.40.
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the good li
the good life fe mentioned in the theoretical framework) mentioned in the theoretical framework) of beingof being demo-demo-graphically graphically displaceddisplaced by the highby the highlyly fertile poor masses (representing the fertile poor masses (representing the definition of the bare and unbearable lidefinition of the bare and unbearable lifefe) ) isis analyzed in two partsanalyzed in two parts:: first,first, the the emergenceemergence of the idea in the industrial world in the late of the idea in the industrial world in the late nineteenthnineteenth centurycentury,, and then its transfer to other parts of the world between two and then its transfer to other parts of the world between two wworld orld wwars.ars.
2.1.1 Population and the statePopulation and the state
The subjects of ancient Greek and early modern European states
The subjects of ancient Greek and early modern European states had had a a hierhierarchicalarchical formationformation in which full citizens in which full citizens wwereere in the in the minoritminorityy and the and the mmasses,asses, including women, children, servants, laborers, and slavesincluding women, children, servants, laborers, and slaves,, were were commonly commonly consideredconsidered as followers of the elite fas followers of the elite frraction.action.2 Agamben cate-Agamben cate-gorizegorizess ththeese subjects se subjects on the basis ofon the basis of theitheir political participationr political participation: a: a good good life if life if ththey are ey are politically qualified, and bare if notpolitically qualified, and bare if not..3 In thIn thiiss system, system, the the central central task task of ruling elites of ruling elites is to create is to create regulatregulatoryory mechanisms that would mechanisms that would sustainsustain a balance between subpopulations and order among them to es-a balance between subpopulations and order among them to es-tablish legitimate andtablish legitimate and lastinglasting governance.governance.
Plato suggests
Plato suggests a a figurefigure of of 5,040 (full citizens only) as 5,040 (full citizens only) as thethe idealideal popu-popu-lation lation sizesize forfor a citya city, , whwhile anticipating that uile anticipating that uncontrolled ncontrolled population population growth growth wouwould ld create create a disruptivea disruptive element element in his in his harmonious harmonious and and wellwell--ordered ordered citycity--state.state.4 Nevertheless, higher fertility was the norm in anNevertheless, higher fertility was the norm in an an-an-cient and medieval agricultural cient and medieval agricultural settingsetting, , not only part of a religious doc-not only part of a religious doc-trine but also a necessity to replace trine but also a necessity to replace the the extremelyextremely high mortalityhigh mortality raterate caused by wars, epidemics, poor hygiene, malnutrition, high infant caused by wars, epidemics, poor hygiene, malnutrition, high infant and and maternal mortality.maternal mortality.5
In mercantilist thought,
In mercantilist thought, the degree of the degree of populousnesspopulousness waswas an inan indicatordicator of of military strength and commercial military strength and commercial wealthwealth. Various measures were . Various measures were
2 Philip Kreager, “Population TheoryPhilip Kreager, “Population Theory -- A Long View,” A Long View,” Population StudiesPopulation Studies 69, 69, ((2015): 292015): 29––37.37.
3 Agamben, Agamben, Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Lifeand Bare Life, 8, 8––10.10.
4 Yves Charbit, Yves Charbit, The Classical Foundations of Population Thought: From Plato to QuesnayThe Classical Foundations of Population Thought: From Plato to Quesnay (Dordr(Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2011), 13echt: Springer Netherlands, 2011), 13––38.38.
5 Johannes Overbeek, Johannes Overbeek, History of Population TheoriesHistory of Population Theories (Netherlands: Rotterdam University (Netherlands: Rotterdam University Press, 1974), 24Press, 1974), 24––27.27.
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taken into consideration in European countries to discourage celibacy
taken into consideration in European countries to discourage celibacy and childlessness. In the and childlessness. In the seventeenthseventeenth--century France, century France, FiFinance nance MMinister inister Colbert Colbert promotedpromoted a tax exemption for fathers of ten living children and a tax exemption for fathers of ten living children and for those who marrifor those who married before the age of twentyed before the age of twenty, who , who would enjoy the tax would enjoy the tax exemption until the age oexemption until the age of twentyf twenty--five. The nobles five. The nobles who hadwho had ten living ten living children wchildren were to ere to receive an annual allowance of 1000 livres.receive an annual allowance of 1000 livres.6
P
Prominent figures of the rominent figures of the EEnlightenment nlightenment also endorsedalso endorsed the pronatalist the pronatalist iideology. In his deology. In his Social Contact,Social Contact, Rousseau portrays the Rousseau portrays the bestbest government as government as tthat in which its hat in which its citizens most flourish and multiply.citizens most flourish and multiply.7 HumeHume,, tootoo,, takes it takes it for granted for granted thatthat happinesshappiness, , virtue,virtue, and the wisest institutionsand the wisest institutions are found are found where peowhere people ple livelive mostmost..8 Adam Smith equaAdam Smith equatestes wealth and greatness with wealth and greatness with the populationthe population's's progress progress and and its its improvement.improvement.9 By iBy increasing the num-ncreasing the num-ber of people, one ber of people, one cancan increase the goods in trade, increase the goods in trade, circulation of moneycirculation of money,, and and thusthus augment augment the the national treasury.national treasury.10
Within this long pronat
Within this long pronatalist trajectory, the subjects (bare life)alist trajectory, the subjects (bare life),, once once neglected by the European states neglected by the European states of the early modern periodof the early modern period as they pri-as they pri-oritized only oritized only on on the territory and the territory and the the community, becamecommunity, became the object of the object of knowledge in the modern states due to its capacity to enhance theknowledge in the modern states due to its capacity to enhance the capa-capa-bilities and functionings of the state.bilities and functionings of the state.11
Foucault relates the changing population thinking
Foucault relates the changing population thinking aboutabout the state the state fromfrom sovereign authority to governmentalized rulesovereign authority to governmentalized rule,, which decenwhich decenteteredred the state under liberalism. the state under liberalism. Yet, the new ideologyYet, the new ideology alsoalso had practical uses had practical uses
6 ”” Ibid., 28Ibid., 28––33.33.
7 JeanJean--Jacques Rousseau, Jacques Rousseau, Discourse on Political Economy and the Social ContractDiscourse on Political Economy and the Social Contract (Oxford; (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 117.New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 117.
8 David Hume, “On the Populousness of Ancient Nations,”David Hume, “On the Populousness of Ancient Nations,” Population and DevPopulation and Development elopment Review Review 3, no. 3 (1977): 3233, no. 3 (1977): 323––2929..
9 Adam Smith, Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Chicago: (Chicago: UniversityUniversity Of Chicago Press, 1977)Of Chicago Press, 1977)
10 Mitchell Dean, “A Genealogy of the Government of Poverty,” Mitchell Dean, “A Genealogy of the Government of Poverty,” Economy and SocietyEconomy and Society 21, no. 21, no. 3 (1992): 221.3 (1992): 221.
11 Scott, Scott, Seeing LikeSeeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have FailedFailed, 51, 51––52.52.
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in
in the the empires and colonies, not only to expand tax collection and con-empires and colonies, not only to expand tax collection and con-scription but also to create or manipulate imagined communities.scription but also to create or manipulate imagined communities.12
Another fundamental factor in changing political thinking was the
Another fundamental factor in changing political thinking was the po-po-liticallitical--economic consequences of the demographic transitioneconomic consequences of the demographic transition in the in the eighteenth centuryeighteenth century. . DecliningDeclining mortality rates in the mortality rates in the NNorthern orthern HHemi-emi-sphere due to better sanitation, nutrition, vaccinationsphere due to better sanitation, nutrition, vaccination,, and increasing and increasing healthhealth carecare led to an led to an incremental increase in incremental increase in population that required population that required new techniques to new techniques to incorporateincorporate them into them into the the production process and production process and to to control them clcontrol them closelyosely. Thus, the population, . Thus, the population, with its variables of number, with its variables of number, spatial and temporal disspatial and temporal distribution, tribution, longevity,longevity, and healthand health,, no longer no longer ap-ap-pearpeareded merely merely as a theoretical entity, but as an object of surveillanceas a theoretical entity, but as an object of surveillance andand analysisanalysis aimed at aimed at intervention and intervention and modificationmodification.. 13
In the
In the conduciveconducive climate of rising statistical thinking and centralized climate of rising statistical thinking and centralized bureaucracybureaucracy, , the periodical modern population the periodical modern population censusescensuses emerged emerged inin the the beginning of the beginning of the nineteenthnineteenth centurycentury as a strategic as a strategic government government technol-technol-ogyogy forfor the gatheringthe gathering, categorizing, and manipulating, categorizing, and manipulating individindividual ual knowledgeknowledge..14 Not only liberal statesNot only liberal states,, but also but also empires of the empires of the timetime imme-imme-diately addiately adoopted pted the the census. census. OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire was no exceptionwas no exception,, actively actively conducting conducting censusescensuses to classify and manage its diverse subjectsto classify and manage its diverse subjects begin-begin-ning in 18ning in 183311..15
2.1.2 Population, Poverty and Malthus in the Population, Poverty and Malthus in the nineteenthnineteenth centurycentury
In
In the last decade of the last decade of the the eighteentheighteenth century, mercantilist creed for the century, mercantilist creed for the positive correlation between population and wealth was shaken as the positive correlation between population and wealth was shaken as the population of migrants and peasants population of migrants and peasants grew along grew along with poverty and with poverty and
12 Benedict Anderson, Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Na-Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Na-tionalism,tionalism, Rev. ed (London; New York: Verso, 2006), 168Rev. ed (London; New York: Verso, 2006), 168––69.69.
13 Bruce Curtis, “Foucault on Governmentality and Population: The ImposBruce Curtis, “Foucault on Governmentality and Population: The Impossible Discovery,” sible Discovery,” Canadian Journal of SociologyCanadian Journal of Sociology 27, no. 4 (2002): 50527, no. 4 (2002): 505––33.33.
14 Theodore M Porter, Theodore M Porter, The Rise of Statistical ThThe Rise of Statistical Thinking 1820inking 1820--1900 1900 (Princeton, N.J: Princeton (Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1986), 17.University Press, 1986), 17.
15 Cem Behar, Cem Behar, OsmanlOsmanlıı İİmparatorlumparatorluğğu’nun ve u’nun ve TTüürkiye’rkiye’ninnin NüNüfusu, 1500fusu, 1500--19271927 (Ankara: T.C. (Ankara: T.C. Basbakanlik Devlet Istatistik Enstitusu, 1996), 68Basbakanlik Devlet Istatistik Enstitusu, 1996), 68––70.70.
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agrarian radicalism, especially in the U
agrarian radicalism, especially in the United nited KKingdom (UK)ingdom (UK)..16 Further-Further-more,more, French Revolution’sFrench Revolution’s optimism optimism forfor perfectibility of man, and an perfectibility of man, and an egalitarian world for all human being without status distinction egalitarian world for all human being without status distinction sparkedsparked some dangerous thoughts thatsome dangerous thoughts that could be directed could be directed against the ruling elite.against the ruling elite.
In his
In his Sketch, Sketch, Condorcet offers a social compensation scheme for the Condorcet offers a social compensation scheme for the society as a whole, to eradicate poverty. society as a whole, to eradicate poverty. According tAccording to his vision, the per-o his vision, the per-fection of social art fection of social art through tthrough the improved intellect could he improved intellect could in the loin the long run ng run replace representative bodies, governments and even replace representative bodies, governments and even nationsnations..17 Godwin, Godwin, carriecarriess the egalitarian vision too far in his the egalitarian vision too far in his Enquiry, Enquiry, outlining outlining an anarchist an anarchist vision of society based on vision of society based on sincerity, sincerity, simplicitysimplicity,, and respect for and respect for privacy privacy and and individualityindividuality, rejecti, rejectingng any form of government or legal coercion.any form of government or legal coercion.18 They both speculated about what They both speculated about what might might happen if population pressurehappen if population pressuress threaten their threaten their visions andvisions and concluded that concluded that such pressuresuch pressure is nis not likely in ot likely in the near futurthe near future e and and could could become become a a serious serious concern concern only only when the whole when the whole world world isis cultivated like a garden.cultivated like a garden.19
Malthus took a radical stance in this debate
Malthus took a radical stance in this debate,, and and sharplysharply attackattackinging in in his his EssayEssay,, as a direct response to Godwin and Condorcetas a direct response to Godwin and Condorcet, , the egalitarian the egalitarian vision on human perfectibility and distribution of wealthvision on human perfectibility and distribution of wealth, , wwhich hich he be-he be-lievelieved wouldd would bring nothing but further vice and misery to society.bring nothing but further vice and misery to society.20
Unlike
Unlike his predecessorshis predecessors,, including Adam Smith, who also conceived including Adam Smith, who also conceived the relationsthe relationship hip between population and subsistence in the form of an between population and subsistence in the form of an unstable but selfunstable but self--adjusting equilibrium, adjusting equilibrium, MMalthus saw at the heart of the althus saw at the heart of the natural order an ontological imbalance, an insurmountable situation of natural order an ontological imbalance, an insurmountable situation of
16 E. P. Thompson, E. P. Thompson, Customs in CommonCustoms in Common (London: Penguin Books, 1991), 185(London: Penguin Books, 1991), 185––258.258.
17 JeanJean--AntoineAntoine--Nicolas de Caritat Condorcet, Nicolas de Caritat Condorcet, Condorcet: Political WritingsCondorcet: Political Writings, ed. Steven , ed. Steven Lukes and Nadia UrbinatiLukes and Nadia Urbinati ((Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 125125––47.47.
18 William Godwin, William Godwin, Enquiry Concerning Political JusticeEnquiry Concerning Political Justice (London: Printed for G.G.J. and J. (London: Printed for G.G.J. and J. Robinson, 1793).Robinson, 1793).
19 Donald Winch, Donald Winch, The The Riches,Riches, and the Poverty: An Intellectual History of Political Economy and the Poverty: An Intellectual History of Political Economy in Britain, 1750in Britain, 1750--18341834 (Cambridge (UK); New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), (Cambridge (UK); New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 236.236.
20 Thomas Malthus, Thomas Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population as It Affects the Future ImprovAn Essay on the Principle of Population as It Affects the Future Improve-e-ment of Society, with Remarks on the Speculations of MR. Godwin, M. ment of Society, with Remarks on the Speculations of MR. Godwin, M. Condorcet,Condorcet, and Other and Other WriterWriterss (London: Printed for J. Johnson, in St. Paul’s Church(London: Printed for J. Johnson, in St. Paul’s Church--Yard, 1798).Yard, 1798).
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scarcity
scarcity..21 In his In his viewview, the power of population is indefinitely greater than , the power of population is indefinitely greater than the power in the earth to produce subsistence for man, whthe power in the earth to produce subsistence for man, whileile the popula-the popula-tiontion, , if if uncuncontrolledontrolled, , growsgrows in a geometrical ratio and in a geometrical ratio and subsistence subsistence only in only in an arithmetical ratio.an arithmetical ratio. 22
He
He further claims that further claims that anyany attempt to improve the attempt to improve the living living conditions of conditions of the poor, the poor, whether iwhether in the form of poor relief or a n the form of poor relief or a salary increasesalary increase,, would would llead to ead to an an increase increase in in the population of the poorthe population of the poor,, makmakinging the lowerthe lower classes classes much poorer than before.much poorer than before.23 The danger, as to Malthus, was far from being The danger, as to Malthus, was far from being remote, but imminent and immediate that remote, but imminent and immediate that “positive checks” “positive checks” such assuch as war, war, famine,famine, and epidemics and epidemics to maintain theto maintain the balance balance might might lead them to expe-lead them to expe-rience the unbearable savage life of the colonized in the future.rience the unbearable savage life of the colonized in the future.24
In other
In other words, words, Malthus constructed a world in which Malthus constructed a world in which physical lawsphysical laws, , impervious to human agency or legislative fiat, impervious to human agency or legislative fiat, dominate the dominate the condition of condition of the poor.the poor.25 TThis gave the ruling elite the intellectual justification to gain his gave the ruling elite the intellectual justification to gain ground against the peasants and working classground against the peasants and working class,, who had distracted themwho had distracted them in the eighteenth centuryin the eighteenth century with food riots, strikeswith food riots, strikes,, and revoltsand revolts, limi, limiting ting their capabilities and functioning. Furthermore, the rapid population their capabilities and functioning. Furthermore, the rapid population growth in England, 80% between 1801 and 1841, and growth in England, 80% between 1801 and 1841, and the the influx of poor influx of poor masses to urban centers inmasses to urban centers intensifiedtensified the hostility in between. As a result, the hostility in between. As a result, the British government enacted the British government enacted the the controvcontroversialersial “Poor Law Amendment “Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834”, Act of 1834”, which which terminatterminateded all outdoor all outdoor poor poor reliefs.reliefs.26
Expectedly, the Malthusian
Expectedly, the Malthusian doctrinedoctrine had attracted vehement criti-had attracted vehement criti-cisms. E.P. Thompson cisms. E.P. Thompson accusesaccuses both Smith and Malthusboth Smith and Malthus ofof demoralizing demoralizing
21 Dean, “A Genealogy of the Government of Poverty.”Dean, “A Genealogy of the Government of Poverty.”
22 Malthus, Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population as It AAn Essay on the Principle of Population as It Affects the Future Improvement of ffects the Future Improvement of Society, with Remarks on the Speculations of MR. Godwin, M. Condorcet and Other WritersSociety, with Remarks on the Speculations of MR. Godwin, M. Condorcet and Other Writers, , 4.4.
23 Ibid., 23Ibid., 23––31.31.
24 Mitchell Dean, “The Malthus Effect: Population and the Liberal Government of Life,” Mitchell Dean, “The Malthus Effect: Population and the Liberal Government of Life,” Economy and SocietyEconomy and Society 44, no. 1 (2015): 1844, no. 1 (2015): 18––39.39.
25 Donald Winch, “Robert Malthus: Christian MoraDonald Winch, “Robert Malthus: Christian Moral Scientist, Archl Scientist, Arch--Demoralizer or Implicit Demoralizer or Implicit Secular Utilitarian?,” Secular Utilitarian?,” UtilitasUtilitas 5, no. 2 (1993): 2395, no. 2 (1993): 239––53.53.
26 Patrice Patrice Bouche, “The PostBouche, “The Post--Malthusian Moment: Some Responses to Population Explo-Malthusian Moment: Some Responses to Population Explo-sion in Britain 1840,” in sion in Britain 1840,” in From Malthus’ Stagnation to Sustained Growth: Social, Demo-From Malthus’ Stagnation to Sustained Growth: Social, Demo-graphic and Economic Factorsgraphic and Economic Factors (Palgrave Macmilla(Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 160n, 2012), 160––79.79.
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and disastrously
and disastrously disinfesting the intrusion of moral economydisinfesting the intrusion of moral economy by aby attempt-ttempt-inging to to removremove thee the safety valves safety valves protecting protecting people people ffrom rom thethe free market free market economy.economy.27 Furthermore, MarxFurthermore, Marx accuses the capitalist mode of productionaccuses the capitalist mode of production of of fuellingfuelling both poverty and population. both poverty and population. Capitalist productiCapitalist production, he adds,on, he adds, isis by no means content itself with the quantity of disposable labor power by no means content itself with the quantity of disposable labor power to generate more capital accumulation, that can only be achieved with the to generate more capital accumulation, that can only be achieved with the relative surplus population which he calls relative surplus population which he calls the the “industrial reserve army“industrial reserve army..”” 28 Marx was also confident about the scientific progress Marx was also confident about the scientific progress would lead to would lead to ex-ex-pansion of pansion of the level of subsistence and thus the “Malthusian trap” was the level of subsistence and thus the “Malthusian trap” was nothing nothing more than more than a pretext to defend the interests of the landed aristoc-a pretext to defend the interests of the landed aristoc-racy.racy.29
In addition
In addition to the to the scientific proscientific progress gress iin land cultivation, that Marx ac-n land cultivation, that Marx ac-curately predicted, Malthus could not curately predicted, Malthus could not hhave ave foreseen theforeseen the “fertility decline” “fertility decline” in in the industrializedthe industrialized world. This phenomenon, world. This phenomenon, latterly latterly theorised as “de-theorised as “de-mographic transition,” indicates a gradual shift from high mographic transition,” indicates a gradual shift from high mortalitmortalityy and and high fertility regime to low mortalityhigh fertility regime to low mortality andand low fertility during the indus-low fertility during the indus-trialization processtrialization process..30 As to the theory, first the mortality declines As to the theory, first the mortality declines due to due to decline of decline of infectious infectious and and contagious diseases spread by contagious diseases spread by waterwater oror air.air. How-How-ever, the responseever, the response toto fertility decline takes time due to its complicated fertility decline takes time due to its complicated social, economic, and cultural interactions. Thus, the time interval be-social, economic, and cultural interactions. Thus, the time interval be-tween tween the the mortality and fertility decline represents “excessive popula-mortality and fertility decline represents “excessive popula-tion growth.”tion growth.”
Indeed, Malthus’s fear of overpopulation and
Indeed, Malthus’s fear of overpopulation and the Poor Law coincide the Poor Law coincide with the first with the first phasephase of the demographic transition; declinof the demographic transition; decline in e in mortality, mortality, whichwhich had already had already begunbegun in Northern Europe around 1800. in Northern Europe around 1800. AA century century later,later, however, virtuallyhowever, virtually allall countrcountriesies in the North in the North underwentunderwent the second the second phase as they phase as they experienced a fertility decline experienced a fertility decline aboutabout 50%50% between 1870 between 1870
27 Thompson, Thompson, Customs in CommonCustoms in Common, 201, 201––20202.2.
28 KarlKarl MarxMarx, , Capital: A Critique of Political Economy,Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Volume 1 (Moscov: Progress Publish-Volume 1 (Moscov: Progress Publish-ers, 1995), 445.ers, 1995), 445.
29 Yves Yves Charbit, Charbit, Economic, Social and Demographic Thought in the XIXth Century: The Pop-Economic, Social and Demographic Thought in the XIXth Century: The Pop-ulation Debate from Malthus to Marxulation Debate from Malthus to Marx (Dordrecht; London: Springer, 2009), 121(Dordrecht; London: Springer, 2009), 121––53.53.
30 Ronald Lee,Ronald Lee, “The Demographic Transition: Three Centuries of Fundamental Change“The Demographic Transition: Three Centuries of Fundamental Change,,”” Journal of Economic PerspectivesJournal of Economic Perspectives 17, no.4 (2003): 16717, no.4 (2003): 167––190. 190.
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and 1940.
and 1940.31 AdditionallyAdditionally, Malthusian positive checks; the , Malthusian positive checks; the First World War First World War and the Spanish Influenza and the Spanish Influenza caused the caused the European continent European continent to become des-to become des-olatedolated.. This time the populationThis time the population debate was debate was about about depopulation and the depopulation and the differential fertility levels differential fertility levels between between the different classes. the different classes. aand the Malthu-nd the Malthu-sian ideology was not only rendered obsolete, but also cursed as the sian ideology was not only rendered obsolete, but also cursed as the cause of this "undesirable" resultcause of this "undesirable" result..
Although Malthus, who was an Anglican
Although Malthus, who was an Anglican clergyman in his earlier life, clergyman in his earlier life, considered "contraception" immoral, it was accepted by neoconsidered "contraception" immoral, it was accepted by neo--Malthusians Malthusians as a key method of solving the population problemas a key method of solving the population problem.. Apart from the reli-Apart from the reli-gious controversy it gious controversy it generatedgenerated, the contraception, which was , the contraception, which was used used much much more frequenmore frequently by the elites and tly by the elites and the the higher classes than higher classes than by by the lower the lower classes, was blamed as classes, was blamed as the the main cause of the dmain cause of the decliningeclining fertility of the fertility of the higher classes higher classes compared tocompared to the poor and migrants. the poor and migrants.
The fear of the ruling elites of being outnumbered by the much more
The fear of the ruling elites of being outnumbered by the much more fertile immigrants and the masses from the lower classes has revived the fertile immigrants and the masses from the lower classes has revived the "eugenic movement,""eugenic movement,"32 which proposes not only to lower the "inferior" which proposes not only to lower the "inferior" population but also to increase the number of the "superior" through population but also to increase the number of the "superior" through pronatalist measures. Ipronatalist measures. In the Malthusian theon the Malthusian theory, however, there was no ry, however, there was no place for pronatalist measures to support any form of population in-place for pronatalist measures to support any form of population in-crease.crease.
Nevertheless, Malthusian thinking, which Dean summarizes as the bi-
Nevertheless, Malthusian thinking, which Dean summarizes as the bi-opolitics of population, the bioeconomics of scarcity, and the biogeogra-opolitics of population, the bioeconomics of scarcity, and the biogeogra-phy of territory,phy of territory, gained momentum after Wgained momentum after WWIWII and had a profound im-I and had a profound im-pact on such diverse areas as international development and aid, national pact on such diverse areas as international development and aid, national social policy, family planning and birth control, immigration issues and social policy, family planning and birth control, immigration issues and national security, and postnational security, and post--1960s 1960s environmentalism.environmentalism.33
31 Michael S.Michael S. TeitelbaumTeitelbaum andand Jay M.Jay M. WinterWinter, , The Fear of Population DeclineThe Fear of Population Decline (Orlando: Aca-(Orlando: Aca-demic Press, 1985), 14.demic Press, 1985), 14.
32 Richard A.Richard A. Soloway,Soloway, Demography and DegenerationDemography and Degeneration: Eugenics and the Declining Birthrate : Eugenics and the Declining Birthrate in Twentieth Century Britainin Twentieth Century Britain (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 7.(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 7.
33 Dean, “The Malthus Effect,” 25.Dean, “The Malthus Effect,” 25.
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2.1.3 Rise oRise of Eugenic Movement in Industrial World until f Eugenic Movement in Industrial World until WWIIWWII
Inspired by Malthusian biological determinism, Charles Darwin devel-
Inspired by Malthusian biological determinism, Charles Darwin devel-oped the idea of evolution based on heritable, transferable traits, allow-oped the idea of evolution based on heritable, transferable traits, allow-ing the bettering the better--adapted species to survive and evolve. This theory adapted species to survive and evolve. This theory sparked sparked a fierce controversy between religious and secular circles that continues a fierce controversy between religious and secular circles that continues to this day. The crux of the debate was to this day. The crux of the debate was encapsulated by Darwin’s mentor encapsulated by Darwin’s mentor Adam Sedgwick, who expressed his fear on the theory’s brutalizing and Adam Sedgwick, who expressed his fear on the theory’s brutalizing and degrading effect on human being.degrading effect on human being. In his opinion, the moral and meta-In his opinion, the moral and meta-physical connection of human creation was ignored and replaced by physical connection of human creation was ignored and replaced by physical law. Consequently, man was degraded to an ordinary species.physical law. Consequently, man was degraded to an ordinary species.34 This critic also reveals the reason why the idea immediately flourished This critic also reveals the reason why the idea immediately flourished half half a a centucentury later, in the era of Taylorism and totalitarian governments. ry later, in the era of Taylorism and totalitarian governments.
Darwin’s cousin Francis Galton
Darwin’s cousin Francis Galton appliedapplied Darwinian analogies into hu-Darwinian analogies into hu-man beingsman beings,, claimclaiming that ing that not only not only mental and mental and physical but also moral physical but also moral traits were inherited, providing traits were inherited, providing a a “scientifically” grounded justification “scientifically” grounded justification for white supremacy over other races.for white supremacy over other races.35 In contrast to the longIn contrast to the long--term fa-term fa-talism of Darwin's idea of survival of the fittest, Galton did not intend to talism of Darwin's idea of survival of the fittest, Galton did not intend to wait for wait for the lengthy natural selection process to find the "fittest" race. He the lengthy natural selection process to find the "fittest" race. He envisioned that humans would use their intelligence to modify external envisioned that humans would use their intelligence to modify external factors so that only the most gifted would reproduce.factors so that only the most gifted would reproduce.36
In th
In this regardis regard, , the term "eugenic," meaning "noble in heredthe term "eugenic," meaning "noble in heredity" or ity" or "good in birth," was redefined by him to refer to the "science" of improv-"good in birth," was redefined by him to refer to the "science" of improv-ing racial quality through the selective breeding of genetically superior ing racial quality through the selective breeding of genetically superior individuals (positive eugenics) and restricting the reproduction of those individuals (positive eugenics) and restricting the reproduction of those deemed inferior (negative edeemed inferior (negative eugenics)ugenics)..37
Ideologically, eugenic thought sought to provide
Ideologically, eugenic thought sought to provide further further justification justification for for WeWestern supremacy ostern supremacy overver the “inferior” racethe “inferior” race of the colonial worldof the colonial world, but , but
34 Richard Weikart, Richard Weikart, From Darwin to Hitler: Evolutionary Ethics, Eugenics and Racism in Ger-From Darwin to Hitler: Evolutionary Ethics, Eugenics and Racism in Ger-many many (New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2004), 1(New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2004), 1––3.3.
35 Kevles, Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human HeredityIn the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity, 4, 4––20.20.
36 Stefan Kühl, Stefan Kühl, For the Betterment of the RaceFor the Betterment of the Race (New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2013)(New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2013), , 12.12.
37 Francis Galton, Francis Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its DevelopmentInquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development (London: Macmillan (London: Macmillan and Co., 1883), 25and Co., 1883), 25––227.7.
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the colonizers had no intention
the colonizers had no intention of limitingof limiting the reproduction of the natives the reproduction of the natives inin the colonies. On ththe colonies. On the contrary, e contrary, populated colonies werepopulated colonies were desired fordesired for tax tax collection, labor,collection, labor, and military and military recruitmentrecruitment purposes.purposes.38 Furthermore, Furthermore, the the British, French, and other European colonizers provided sanitaBritish, French, and other European colonizers provided sanitationtion and and health services to their colonies in Africa to solve thehealth services to their colonies in Africa to solve the problem of depop-problem of depop-ulation onulation on the continent.the continent. 39 In densely populated India, In densely populated India, the British gov-the British gov-ernment ernment also found it inconvenient to implement a population control also found it inconvenient to implement a population control policypolicy..40
Ironically, it was the
Ironically, it was the mainland of imperial states and the industrial mainland of imperial states and the industrial world where the eugenic idea germinatedworld where the eugenic idea germinated,, as as thethe alterations brought alterations brought about by industrialization, urbanization, migration, and immigration about by industrialization, urbanization, migration, and immigration gradually led gradually led to a to a more negative social interpretation at the dawn of thmore negative social interpretation at the dawn of the e twentiethtwentieth centurycentury, creating , creating very fertile ground for the eugenic idea.very fertile ground for the eugenic idea.41
Meanwhile
Meanwhile, the new scientific works, the new scientific works of of Weismann and Mendel on the Weismann and Mendel on the autonomous hereditary characteristics of germplasm and plants recircu-autonomous hereditary characteristics of germplasm and plants recircu-lated the eugenic though around lated the eugenic though around academic cacademic circles of ircles of the industrial world. the industrial world. And And a a series of eugenic conferences organized by Galton and Pearson in series of eugenic conferences organized by Galton and Pearson in UK, Weismann in Germany, Davenport in US during the era attracted pub-UK, Weismann in Germany, Davenport in US during the era attracted pub-lic attention.lic attention.42
The
The eugenic ideaeugenic idea found many advocates from found many advocates from vvastly astly differentdifferent political political spectrum, not only reactionaries and conservatives, but also Marxists, spectrum, not only reactionaries and conservatives, but also Marxists,
38 Karl Ittmann, “Where Nature Dominates Man: Demographic Ideas and Policy in British Karl Ittmann, “Where Nature Dominates Man: Demographic Ideas and Policy in British Colonial Africa, 1890Colonial Africa, 1890––1970,” in 1970,” in The Demographics of Empire: The Colonial Order and the The Demographics of Empire: The Colonial Order and the CCreation of Knowledgereation of Knowledge, ed. Karl Ittmann, Dennis D. Cordell, and Gregory Maddox (Ath-, ed. Karl Ittmann, Dennis D. Cordell, and Gregory Maddox (Ath-ens: Ohio University Press, 2010), 59ens: Ohio University Press, 2010), 59––88.88.
39 Dennis D. Cordell, Karl Ittmann, and Gregory Maddox, “Counting Subjects,” in Dennis D. Cordell, Karl Ittmann, and Gregory Maddox, “Counting Subjects,” in The De-The De-mographics of Empire: The Colonial Order and the Creation of Knowledgemographics of Empire: The Colonial Order and the Creation of Knowledge, ed. Karl Itt-, ed. Karl Itt-mann, Dennis D. Cordell, and Gregory Maddox (Athens: Ohio Universmann, Dennis D. Cordell, and Gregory Maddox (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2010), 1ity Press, 2010), 1––22.22.
40 T. J. Samuel, “The Development of India’s Policy oT. J. Samuel, “The Development of India’s Policy of Population Control,f Population Control,” The Milbank Me-” The Milbank Me-morial Fund Quarterlymorial Fund Quarterly 44, no. 1 (1966): 4944, no. 1 (1966): 49––67.67.
41 Nancy Lays Stepan, Nancy Lays Stepan, The Hour of Eugenics: Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America The Hour of Eugenics: Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America (Ith-(Ith-aca: Cornell University Press, 1991), 21aca: Cornell University Press, 1991), 21––32.32.
42 Deborah Barrett and Charles Kurzman, “Globalizing Social Movement Theory: The CaseDeborah Barrett and Charles Kurzman, “Globalizing Social Movement Theory: The Case of Eugenics,” of Eugenics,” Theory and SocietyTheory and Society 33, no. 5 (2004): 48733, no. 5 (2004): 487––527.527.
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feminists, and democrats
feminists, and democrats.. It became an integral It became an integral part of widely dpart of widely debated ebated issues issues such such as as degeneration, degeneration, evolution, evolution, civilization,civilization, and modernity, and and modernity, and touched touched many many emergingemerging fields fields llike ike psychiatry, psychiatry, maternity, criminology, maternity, criminology, public health, and sex education.public health, and sex education.43
The totalizing, organizing, and optimizing nature of eugenic thought
The totalizing, organizing, and optimizing nature of eugenic thought was also immediately embraced by organized was also immediately embraced by organized capitalism capitalism together together with with its industrial bureaucracies and industrial conglomeratesits industrial bureaucracies and industrial conglomerates. . FFordism, Tay-ordism, Tay-lorism, and lorism, and sscientific cientific mmanagement appeared as thanagement appeared as the new modes of pro-e new modes of pro-duction duction inin the first quarter of the the first quarter of the twentiethtwentieth century, aimed century, aimed at at utilizutilizinging the the labor force as a work producing machinelabor force as a work producing machiness for mass production, and for mass production, and the the role of role of eugenicseugenics in this in this process was to process was to sustainsustain the reproduction of the the reproduction of the “best” human resou“best” human resourcercess..44
The eugenic movement in the industrialized Western world had suc-
The eugenic movement in the industrialized Western world had suc-ceeded in building up an impressive organizational network before ceeded in building up an impressive organizational network before World War IWorld War I. . The The eugenics societieseugenics societies first first mushroomedmushroomed on the on the national national levellevel, chronologically in , chronologically in Germany (1905), Germany (1905), England (1907), the United England (1907), the United States (1910)States (1910),, and in France (1912).and in France (1912). Furthermore, tFurthermore, the First International he First International Eugenics CongressEugenics Congress was held in London in was held in London in 1911912, 2, at whichat which some 750 par-some 750 par-ticipants from Europe and the US, delivered thirty papers about the eu-ticipants from Europe and the US, delivered thirty papers about the eu-genic virtue and igenic virtue and its interpretation in biology, education, sociology, and ts interpretation in biology, education, sociology, and medicine.medicine.45 As aAs an n result result of thof thee congress,congress, a number a number of new national eu-of new national eu-genic associations were establishedgenic associations were established, as well as, as well as a a Permanent International Permanent International EugenicsEugenics CommitteeCommittee which which was aimed towas aimed to coordinate thecoordinate the transnational transnational cooperation cooperation among eugenic organizationsamong eugenic organizations..46
E
Eugenic motivation, articulationugenic motivation, articulation,, and implementation wand implementation wereere not the not the same in all same in all WWestern societies. estern societies. NNorthern industrial countries orthern industrial countries such assuch as US,US,
43 Frank Dikötter, “Race Culture: Recent Perspectives on the History of Eugenics,” Frank Dikötter, “Race Culture: Recent Perspectives on the History of Eugenics,” The The American Historical Review American Historical Review 108, no. 2 (1998): 467108, no. 2 (1998): 467––78.78.
44 Sheila Faith Weiss, “The Race Hygiene Movement in Germany, 1904Sheila Faith Weiss, “The Race Hygiene Movement in Germany, 1904--1945,” in 1945,” in The Well-The Well-born Science: Eugenics in Germany, France, Brazil, aborn Science: Eugenics in Germany, France, Brazil, and Russiand Russia, ed. Mark B. Adams (New , ed. Mark B. Adams (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 38.York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 38.
45 The Eugenics Education Society, The Eugenics Education Society, “Problems in Eugenics” (First International Eugenics “Problems in Eugenics” (First International Eugenics Congress, London: The Eugenics EducatCongress, London: The Eugenics Education Society, 1912).ion Society, 1912).
46 Jakob Tanner, “Eugenics before 1945,” Jakob Tanner, “Eugenics before 1945,” Journal of Modern European HistoryJournal of Modern European History 10, no. 4 10, no. 4 (2012): 466.(2012): 466.
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UK
UK, and Germany, , and Germany, were concerned with were concerned with race and class race and class issues and issues and more more inclined with the negative eugenics. inclined with the negative eugenics. In the case of the UIn the case of the US, booS, boosting sting alien alien immigration immigration and the and the tortured race relationstortured race relations were the priwere the primarymary sources of sources of the the eugenic eugenic anxietyanxiety.. IIn n UKUK, where racial, where racial and and ethnic ethnic homogeneity homogeneity had long had long prevailedprevailed,, the the predominantpredominant concern concern was the inflwas the influx ux of the of the EEastern Euro-astern Euro-pean immigrants, mainly Jewspean immigrants, mainly Jews..47 In GermanyIn Germany,, too, too, the seemingly hostile, the seemingly hostile, uncontrollable, anduncontrollable, and everever--increasing industrial proletariatincreasing industrial proletariats were the s were the origin of eugenic motivation origin of eugenic motivation ofof many middlemany middle andand upperupper--class Germansclass Germans, , which made them the catalyst for which made them the catalyst for the movement before the the movement before the First World First World WarWar..48
On the other hand, Catholic countries
On the other hand, Catholic countries,, including France and Italyincluding France and Italy,, were traditionally on the positive side of twere traditionally on the positive side of the eugenic movementhe eugenic movement,, seeing seeing aabortion and sterilization bortion and sterilization asas inferior. Thinferior. Thusus, the agenda was not to , the agenda was not to reduce reduce the fertility of the “inferior”the fertility of the “inferior” races,races, but to increase the “superior” races but to increase the “superior” races through incentives. The trauma through incentives. The trauma following the Gfollowing the German invasion in 1870,erman invasion in 1870, promptedprompted the the French government to French government to imposeimpose familism familism promoted promoted by Le by Le Play Play fewfew decades earlierdecades earlier,, toto halt halt the declining birth rates.the declining birth rates.49 The The Italian Italian case wascase was particularly different particularly different fromfrom the others as the source of positive the others as the source of positive eugenic activism was neither decreasing population nor class or raceugenic activism was neither decreasing population nor class or racialial conflictconflict,, but the justification for hegemonic abut the justification for hegemonic aspirations,spirations, especially during especially during the the Mussolini era.Mussolini era.50
Meanwhile, as the
Meanwhile, as the welfare welfare state intervention state intervention oon politicsn politics were gaining were gaining popularity,popularity, WeWestern governments stern governments began began to to enact enact eugenic leugenic lawsaws for a morefor a more ““rational” rational” organizationorganization of of human reproduction and selection.human reproduction and selection.51 In 1907, In 1907, the Swiss parliament the Swiss parliament passedpassed a a nationalnational ccivil ivil ccode ode which came which came into into force force inin 19121912, , included included aan article motivated by eugenic philosophy to restrictn article motivated by eugenic philosophy to restrict
47 SolowaySoloway, , Demography and DegenerationDemography and Degeneration, 60., 60.
48 Weiss, “The Race Hygiene Movement in GermanWeiss, “The Race Hygiene Movement in Germany, 1904y, 1904--1945,” 12.1945,” 12.
49 MariaMaria--Sophia QuineSophia Quine, Population Politics in Twentieth Century Europe: Fascist Dictator-, Population Politics in Twentieth Century Europe: Fascist Dictator-ships and Liberal Democraciesships and Liberal Democracies (Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2013), 52(Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2013), 52––88.88.
50 Carl Ipsen, “The Organization of Demographic Totalitarianism: Early Population Policy Carl Ipsen, “The Organization of Demographic Totalitarianism: Early Population Policy in Fascist Italy,” in Fascist Italy,” Social Science History Social Science History 17, no. 1 (1993): 7117, no. 1 (1993): 71––108.108.
51 Thomas C Leonard, “Retrospectives: Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era,” Thomas C Leonard, “Retrospectives: Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 19Journal of Economic Perspectives 19, no. 4 (2005): 207, no. 4 (2005): 207––24.24.
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marriage
marriage. This law would later become . This law would later become thethe model formodel for many other coun-many other coun-tries.tries.52
That same year, the state of Indiana became the first state to enact a
That same year, the state of Indiana became the first state to enact a sterilization law in sterilization law in the USthe US. Within ten years, fifteen other states enacted . Within ten years, fifteen other states enacted similar legislation to eradicate the "social defect" by preventing the re-similar legislation to eradicate the "social defect" by preventing the re-production of the eugenically feebleproduction of the eugenically feeble--minded, poor, drunkard, criminal, minded, poor, drunkard, criminal, and insane classesand insane classes..53 In California alone, approximately 6,000 surgical In California alone, approximately 6,000 surgical forced sterilizations were performed between 1909 and 1929.forced sterilizations were performed between 1909 and 1929.54 Follow-Follow-ingly, the Immigration Reingly, the Immigration Re--striction Act was passed in 1924, which pro-striction Act was passed in 1924, which pro-vided for a vided for a national quota system to prevent the immigration of Asians, national quota system to prevent the immigration of Asians, Latin Americans, and Southern and Eastern EuropeansLatin Americans, and Southern and Eastern Europeans..55
The eugenic movement in the US was actively pursued and supported
The eugenic movement in the US was actively pursued and supported in Germany, and various sterilization lawsin Germany, and various sterilization laws were soon adapted to Nazi were soon adapted to Nazi practipractice with an extraordinary undertaking in terms of scale and im-ce with an extraordinary undertaking in terms of scale and im-pact.pact.56 In 1933, In 1933, the Preventionthe Prevention of Offspring with Hereditary Diseasesof Offspring with Hereditary Diseases Law Law had passedhad passed, mandating, mandating the forced sterilization the forced sterilization ofof the “hereditarily sick”the “hereditarily sick” people. By 1945, about people. By 1945, about 360360,,000 German’s 000 German’s had been had been sterilizedsterilized and band by add-y add-ing the illegal sterilization of foreign workers and ethnical minoritiesing the illegal sterilization of foreign workers and ethnical minorities,, the the number would number would rise as many asrise as many as 11..2 million people.2 million people.57
However, the more recent implementations paved the way for the ca-
However, the more recent implementations paved the way for the ca-lamitous genocide acts. By 1939, the elimination of lamitous genocide acts. By 1939, the elimination of handicapped infantshandicapped infants under under the age of the age of 3 and mentally ill people3 and mentally ill people,, estimated estimated at some at some 7070--90,000, 90,000,
52 Tanner, “Eugenics before 1945,” 465.Tanner, “Eugenics before 1945,” 465.
53 Kevles, Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredityof Human Heredity, 100., 100.
54 Alexandra Minna Stern, Alexandra Minna Stern, Eugenic Nation: Faults and Frontiers of Better Breeding in Mod-Eugenic Nation: Faults and Frontiers of Better Breeding in Mod-ern Americaern America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 159.(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 159.
55 Ibid., 16Ibid., 16––17.17.
56 Stefan Kühl, Stefan Kühl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National So-The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National So-cialism cialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 37(New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 37––52.52.
57 Paul Weindling, Paul Weindling, Health Race and German Politics between National Unification and Na-Health Race and German Politics between National Unification and Na-zism :1870 1945zism :1870 1945 (Cambridge [England]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), (Cambridge [England]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 533.533.
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continued with the systematic ‘euthanasia’ pro
continued with the systematic ‘euthanasia’ program for the old poor, sick gram for the old poor, sick workersworkers, anti, anti--socials,socials, and concentration camp inmates.and concentration camp inmates.58
In contrast to the conservative and racist agenda of the Northern Bloc,
In contrast to the conservative and racist agenda of the Northern Bloc, mainstream eugenics in the Scandinavian countries had liberal tenden-mainstream eugenics in the Scandinavian countries had liberal tenden-cies, and the sterilization lawcies, and the sterilization laws enacted in Denmark (1929) and Sweden s enacted in Denmark (1929) and Sweden (1934) were presented as an essential feature of an ideal welfare state. (1934) were presented as an essential feature of an ideal welfare state. By 1960, well over 50,000 people had been sterilized by the Swedish gov-By 1960, well over 50,000 people had been sterilized by the Swedish gov-ernment, initially on medical grounds and later for social reasons.ernment, initially on medical grounds and later for social reasons.59
Aft
After WWII, the eugenic movement in the West collapsed with the er WWII, the eugenic movement in the West collapsed with the murder of hundreds of thousands of victims under Nazism and in the murder of hundreds of thousands of victims under Nazism and in the name of eugenic ideology. The term "eugenics" was dropped from the name of eugenic ideology. The term "eugenics" was dropped from the population policy vocabulary and, after the 1970s, was complepopulation policy vocabulary and, after the 1970s, was completely tely equated with Nazism. Nevertheless, negative eugenic tools such as abor-equated with Nazism. Nevertheless, negative eugenic tools such as abor-tion, sterilization, and birth control continued to prevail under various tion, sterilization, and birth control continued to prevail under various names, organizations, and packages to maintain white supremacy, such names, organizations, and packages to maintain white supremacy, such as the medicalization of human geneticas the medicalization of human genetics. Likewise, eugenics found a new s. Likewise, eugenics found a new field of activity in the fight against the problem of overpopulation in the field of activity in the fight against the problem of overpopulation in the Third World and merged with the "population control movement."Third World and merged with the "population control movement."60
2.1.4 Eugenics in other parts of the WorldEugenics in other parts of the World
In the interwar period, many of the nations
In the interwar period, many of the nations defined by the Western world defined by the Western world as inferior developed their own eugenic plans. By 1930, more than thirty as inferior developed their own eugenic plans. By 1930, more than thirty countries adapted various forms of eugenic practices to reflect their own countries adapted various forms of eugenic practices to reflect their own specific social, cultural, political, ethnic, and economic anxieties about specific social, cultural, political, ethnic, and economic anxieties about theirtheir own populations, which were classified as inferior (poor, inferior, own populations, which were classified as inferior (poor, inferior, ethnically,ethnically, or religiously different from the ruling class, etc.)or religiously different from the ruling class, etc.)..61 Yet, the Yet, the
58 Quine, Quine, Population Politics in Twentieth Century Europe: Fascist Dictatorships and Liberal Population Politics in Twentieth Century Europe: Fascist Dictatorships and Liberal DemocraciesDemocracies, 124., 124.
59 Dikötter, “Race Culture: Recent Perspectives on the History of Eugenics,” 468Dikötter, “Race Culture: Recent Perspectives on the History of Eugenics,” 468––669.9.
60 Kühl, Kühl, For the Betterment of the RaceFor the Betterment of the Race, 148, 148––56.56.
61 Mark B. Adams, “Eugenics in the History of Science,” in Mark B. Adams, “Eugenics in the History of Science,” in The Wellborn Science: Eugenics The Wellborn Science: Eugenics in Germanyin Germany, France, Brazil, and Russia, ed. Mark B. Adam, France, Brazil, and Russia, ed. Mark B. Adamss (New York: Oxford University (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 5.Press, 1990), 5.
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nationalist context was much apparent eugenic drive especially for those
nationalist context was much apparent eugenic drive especially for those newly emerging nations.newly emerging nations.
Central and
Central and Eastern European countries including TurkeyEastern European countries including Turkey,, were as-were as-pired to strengthen their newly created nationpired to strengthen their newly created nation--states demographically states demographically and biologically for further legitimation. and biologically for further legitimation. They considered eugenics and They considered eugenics and racial nationalism the best strategy not only to achieve a hearacial nationalism the best strategy not only to achieve a healthy body lthy body politic but also to preserve the "biological capital" of the nation's ethnic politic but also to preserve the "biological capital" of the nation's ethnic majority. In the interwar period, the idea of a homogeneous national majority. In the interwar period, the idea of a homogeneous national community in Central and Southeastern Europe was envisaged in the community in Central and Southeastern Europe was envisaged in the sense that the ethnic majority thesense that the ethnic majority therein represented the whole nation, and rein represented the whole nation, and its protection was the core of the eugenic debateits protection was the core of the eugenic debate..62
In China too, the eugenic thought
In China too, the eugenic thought mingled wmingled with racial nationalism, ith racial nationalism, which was propagated soon after the fall of the last dynasty in 1911 as which was propagated soon after the fall of the last dynasty in 1911 as the the restoration of the purity of the Chinese racerestoration of the purity of the Chinese race. . MMembers of professional embers of professional classes, intellectuals, academicians, medical professionals in particular classes, intellectuals, academicians, medical professionals in particular and politicians and politicians pioneeredpioneered medical and eugenic discoursesmedical and eugenic discourses dealing with dealing with heredity, descent, sexual heredity, descent, sexual hygiene,hygiene, and raand race. Although eugenics in China ce. Although eugenics in China never achieved legislative expression, or institutional organization, never achieved legislative expression, or institutional organization, the the ideaidea of race improvement wof race improvement wasas widespread and pervasive in society. widespread and pervasive in society. Cheap textbooks, primers, selfCheap textbooks, primers, self--study manuals and pamphlets on heredity study manuals and pamphlets on heredity and society exand society explaining the danger of racial degeneration, were wide-plaining the danger of racial degeneration, were wide-spread in spread in the the 1920s.1920s.63
In India, the most vocal proponents of eugenics were the upper caste
In India, the most vocal proponents of eugenics were the upper caste members who feared differential fertility rates that would increase the members who feared differential fertility rates that would increase the relative size and power of the lower carelative size and power of the lower caste and Muslim communities. In ste and Muslim communities. In this regard, the Congress Party, which dominated Indian politics until the this regard, the Congress Party, which dominated Indian politics until the end of the Emergency in 1977, had its concerns about population quality end of the Emergency in 1977, had its concerns about population quality even before independence. In 1940, its National Planning Committee even before independence. In 1940, its National Planning Committee
62 Marius Turda and Paul Weindling, Marius Turda and Paul Weindling, Blood and Homeland: Eugenics and Racial National-Blood and Homeland: Eugenics and Racial National-ism in Central and Southeast Europe, 1900ism in Central and Southeast Europe, 1900––19401940 (Budapest ; New York: Central Euro-(Budapest ; New York: Central Euro-pean University Press, 2007), 1pean University Press, 2007), 1––16.16.
63 Frank Dikötter, “Racial Discourse Frank Dikötter, “Racial Discourse in China: Continuities and Permutations,” in in China: Continuities and Permutations,” in The Con-The Con-struction of Racial Identities in China and Japan, ed. Frank Dikötter struction of Racial Identities in China and Japan, ed. Frank Dikötter (Hong Kong: Hong (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2015), 12Kong University Press, 2015), 12––25.25.
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commissione
commissioned a report on the gradual domination of the lower social d a report on the gradual domination of the lower social classes and warned the government to remove barriers to intermarriage classes and warned the government to remove barriers to intermarriage among the upper castes and to launch a birth control campaign for the among the upper castes and to launch a birth control campaign for the lower castes to prevent the deterioration of racial lower castes to prevent the deterioration of racial makeupmakeup..64
In Latin America, growing concerns
In Latin America, growing concerns aboutabout ppoverty, migration, immi-overty, migration, immi-gration,gration, unemploymentunemployment, strikes, and social tensions , strikes, and social tensions amongamong the rapidly the rapidly growing urban populationgrowing urban population during during the the 1920s and 1930s revi1920s and 1930s revivedved the eu-the eu-genicgenic ideaidea of of a a healthy and fit population of the nahealthy and fit population of the nation.tion.65 Although Although steri-steri-lization, abortion, and birth control were nlization, abortion, and birth control were neverever legalized as eugeniclegalized as eugenic measuresmeasures mostly due to the condemnation mostly due to the condemnation byby the the CCatholic atholic CChurch, Latin hurch, Latin American eugenicAmerican eugenicistsists applied their own form of negative reproductive applied their own form of negative reproductive eugenics through eugenics through matrimonmatrimonial selectionial selection based on the principles of hered-based on the principles of hered-ity and adaptationity and adaptation to mto maintain aintain the gapthe gap betweenbetween various ethnic and racial various ethnic and racial groupsgroups..66 In that sense, the premarital medical examinations had been In that sense, the premarital medical examinations had been prescribedprescribed by law in Mexico (1928), in Argentina (1937) and in Brazil by law in Mexico (1928), in Argentina (1937) and in Brazil (1934).(1934).67
Furthermore, the immigration once desired to increase European he-
Furthermore, the immigration once desired to increase European he-redity in the 1920s, was restricted in the 1930s in many Latin American redity in the 1920s, was restricted in the 1930s in many Latin American countries due to the mass migration from Easterncountries due to the mass migration from Eastern and Oriental origins and Oriental origins whose physical orwhose physical or cultural characteristics they believed might disturb the cultural characteristics they believed might disturb the process ofprocess of racial homogenization at home.racial homogenization at home.68 Ironically, they applied the Ironically, they applied the same Immigration Restriction Act to “inferior” nations, that the US had same Immigration Restriction Act to “inferior” nations, that the US had enacted in 192enacted in 1924 to prevent immigration from “inferior” Latin American 4 to prevent immigration from “inferior” Latin American countries. countries.
After
After WWIIWWII, the eugenic movement was transferred to the new, the eugenic movement was transferred to the new,, de-de-colonizedcolonized states as part of their nationstates as part of their nation--building process, especially in the building process, especially in the areas where areas where eethnic tensions thnic tensions accumulatedaccumulated. Positive eugenics w. Positive eugenics wasas
64 Connelly, “Population Control in India: Prologue to the Emergency Period,” 631Connelly, “Population Control in India: Prologue to the Emergency Period,” 631––3322..
65 Stepan, Stepan, The Hour of Eugenics: Race, Gender, The Hour of Eugenics: Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin Americaand Nation in Latin America, 36, 36––339.9.
66 Ibid., 102Ibid., 102––3535..
67 Nancy Lays Stepan, “Eugenics in Brazil 1917Nancy Lays Stepan, “Eugenics in Brazil 1917--1945,” in 1945,” in The Wellborn Science: EugenicThe Wellborn Science: Eugenics in s in Germany, France, Brazil, and RussiaGermany, France, Brazil, and Russia, ed. Mark B. Adams (New York: Oxford University , ed. Mark B. Adams (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 110Press, 1990), 110––52.52.
68 Ibid., 142Ibid., 142––445.5.
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encouraged
encouraged to preserve national purity by increasing the to preserve national purity by increasing the ethnic majority ethnic majority in in quantity and quality,quantity and quality, whilewhile negative eugenics wnegative eugenics was intended as intended to control to control and limit tand limit the ethnic minority. he ethnic minority.
Summary of
Summary of 2.12.1
In this section, the genealogy of Malthusian and
In this section, the genealogy of Malthusian and eeugenic ugenic ideas wasideas was re-re-vealed and interpreted in terms of the forms of life approach. In addition vealed and interpreted in terms of the forms of life approach. In addition to the natural connection to the natural connection between thesebetween these ideasideas,, where eugenics wwhere eugenics wasas in-in-spired by spired by the ideas of the ideas of DarvinDarvin,, who already had capitalized on Malthusian who already had capitalized on Malthusian thought, the similarities thought, the similarities between twobetween two movements were tracked in terms movements were tracked in terms of the anxieties of the governing elites to retain their life quality against of the anxieties of the governing elites to retain their life quality against poor, poor, migrants,migrants, and lower classes.and lower classes.
During
During the the Malthusian Malthusian era, theera, the French Revolution and its egalitarian French Revolution and its egalitarian vision wvision wereere at theat the heart of elite anxietyheart of elite anxiety, , alongalong with the increasing num-with the increasing num-berberss of of urban urban poor and migrants as a result of rapid urbanization and the poor and migrants as a result of rapid urbanization and the chaotic nature of industrialization in chaotic nature of industrialization in the Westernthe Western world.world.
A century later, eugenic anxiety was fed not only by the flooding mi-
A century later, eugenic anxiety was fed not only by the flooding mi-grants and the higher fergrants and the higher fertility rates of the lower classes, but also by the tility rates of the lower classes, but also by the declining fertility levels of the upper classes. Again, colonization, increas-declining fertility levels of the upper classes. Again, colonization, increas-ing industrialization, World War I, and economic and social unrest pro-ing industrialization, World War I, and economic and social unrest pro-vided further justification for the ruling elites of the ivided further justification for the ruling elites of the industrial world to ndustrial world to adopt eugenic ideas. In other parts of the world, the impetus for eugenics adopt eugenic ideas. In other parts of the world, the impetus for eugenics was rising nationalism and the desire to protect the ethnic majority.was rising nationalism and the desire to protect the ethnic majority.
This dissertation further claims that
This dissertation further claims that similarsimilar Malthusian and eugenic Malthusian and eugenic concerns also existed iconcerns also existed in the global population control movement, but n the global population control movement, but with quite different scopewith quite different scopess and scaleand scaless. .
§ 2.2 Population Control as a Global MovementPopulation Control as a Global Movement
Concern for world population has been a well
Concern for world population has been a well--known phenomenon since known phenomenon since the beginning of the nineteenth century. Moreover, in the firthe beginning of the nineteenth century. Moreover, in the first quarter of st quarter of the twentieth century, a series of international meetings such as the In-the twentieth century, a series of international meetings such as the In-ternational Malthusian Conferences (the first was held in Paris in 1900) ternational Malthusian Conferences (the first was held in Paris in 1900) and the International Genetics Conferences were organized to discuss and the International Genetics Conferences were organized to discuss
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population issues.
population issues.69 HoweverHowever, these movements had exhausted them-, these movements had exhausted them-selves on the brink of Wselves on the brink of WWWII; eugenics was II; eugenics was cursed,cursed, and the Malthusians and the Malthusians were marginalized for their advocacy of birth were marginalized for their advocacy of birth control.control.
After
After WWIIWWII, a new and a much appealing formulation , a new and a much appealing formulation forfor population population control was control was developeddeveloped by the academicians and institutions funded by by the academicians and institutions funded by US based private foundations. Furthermore, they were determined to US based private foundations. Furthermore, they were determined to spreadspread the antinatalist idea the antinatalist idea throughout throughout the developing world through the developing world through their flexible structuretheir flexible structure,, wellwell--connecteconnected networking hubd networking hub,, and newly cre-and newly cre-ated institutionsated institutions..
This section will cover the inception of th
This section will cover the inception of theese ideas and institutions on se ideas and institutions on population control after population control after WWIIWWII and the way they interacted with hege-and the way they interacted with hege-monic powers and monic powers and the the developing developing worldworld to trigger a global populatito trigger a global population on control movement. But control movement. But beyond beyond that, it deals with the changing definition that, it deals with the changing definition of the bare and unbearable liof the bare and unbearable lifefe of the nonof the non--WWestern world estern world to sustainto sustain the the quality of the hegemonic governing elitesquality of the hegemonic governing elites (US interest) from the late (US interest) from the late 1930s to the 1960s and how th1930s to the 1960s and how theese changse changes redefined the ideas and insti-es redefined the ideas and insti-tutions on the population control in the global sphere. In thtutions on the population control in the global sphere. In thiiss respectrespect,, the the global population control movement is explored global population control movement is explored inin two main two main areas: theareas: the conceptualization of the population control idea for the nonconceptualization of the population control idea for the non--WWestern estern world, aworld, and nd the process of the process of its its institutionalizationinstitutionalization that enabled the that enabled the diffu-diffu-sion of sion of population control population control inin the developing world.the developing world.
The conceptualization is covered in three sections.
The conceptualization is covered in three sections. First,First, the growing the growing interest of individual philanthropists and industrial conglomerates interest of individual philanthropists and industrial conglomerates inin the the demographic studies of the nondemographic studies of the non--WWestern world estern world prior toprior to WWIIWWII isis analyzed analyzed throughthrough the secondary literaturethe secondary literature, along, along with the academic works with the academic works of the of the eraera,, such as such as the the expansion of the demographic transition theory onto the expansion of the demographic transition theory onto the nonnon--researched nonresearched non--industrial worlindustrial world. Then the sudden change of the de-d. Then the sudden change of the de-mographic works from the social scientific perspective to the policymographic works from the social scientific perspective to the policy--ori-ori-ented approachented approach,, as a dedication to demonstrateas a dedication to demonstrate thethe “unmet need” for “unmet need” for contraception in the various parts of the world to convince the govern-contraception in the various parts of the world to convince the govern-ments to switch to antinatalismments to switch to antinatalism,, is is discussed with the different views of discussed with the different views of
69 Alison Bashford, Alison Bashford, Global Population: History Geopolitics and Life on EarthGlobal Population: History Geopolitics and Life on Earth (New York: Co-(New York: Co-lumbia Univerlumbia University Press, 2014), 9sity Press, 2014), 9––10.10.
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the academic literature. Finally, the
the academic literature. Finally, the thetheorization of orization of populationpopulation control as control as a key for developma key for development and aent and as as a solution solution toto povertypoverty, which had , which had a profound a profound iinfluence nfluence on the nonon the non--WesternWestern nations to nations to embrace antinatalist embrace antinatalist policiespolicies, is , is analyzed from Coale and Hooveranalyzed from Coale and Hoover’s original thesis’s original thesis..
The part
The part dealing with dealing with institutionalization institutionalization process of process of global popula-global popula-tion contrtion control movement, ol movement, consists of four sections; firstconsists of four sections; first,, the initial steps for the initial steps for the the post WWII post WWII population control policy discussions and the reestablish-population control policy discussions and the reestablish-ment of the international organizations ment of the international organizations are are covered covered through through the the digital digital archivesarchives of UNof UN and the minutes of and the minutes of the the meetinmeetings of the gs of the World Population World Population ConferencesConferences. . This section, then analyzes This section, then analyzes the key figures of the movement,the key figures of the movement, thethe US based private initiations and US based private initiations and the the demographic research demographic research in terms in terms of their changing motivationof their changing motivations fors for population control population control and and their efforttheir efforts s not not only to sonly to spread and initiate antinatalist thought in the developing world pread and initiate antinatalist thought in the developing world but also to convince ruling elites to address the issue. To this end, various but also to convince ruling elites to address the issue. To this end, various sources are consulted, including the memoirs of the main initiators, their sources are consulted, including the memoirs of the main initiators, their own works, and those of scholarly critiown works, and those of scholarly critics.cs.
Furthermore, the hidden international pressure
Furthermore, the hidden international pressure groups suchgroups such as as the the IMFIMF andand World World Bank,Bank, and their and their potential attempts potential attempts to promote population to promote population controlcontrol areare critically critically tracked through borrowing negotiations, minutes of tracked through borrowing negotiations, minutes of meetingmeetingss and parliamentary discussions. And finally, the full support of and parliamentary discussions. And finally, the full support of the US government and UN organizations the US government and UN organizations forfor population control and population control and their their connections connections toto the developing world the developing world areare revealed to demonstrate revealed to demonstrate the changing circumstances in both global and national the changing circumstances in both global and national spheres. spheres.
2.2.1 Conceptualization of Population Control Idea before Conceptualization of Population Control Idea before WWIIWWII..
T
There was little here was little evidence on the eevidence on the earlier scientific work arlier scientific work on the world pop-on the world pop-ulation in ulation in anyany part of the worldpart of the world before the First World Warbefore the First World War,,70 and and very very first persistent calls for demographic studfirst persistent calls for demographic studies on the ies on the issue issue came from US came from US based philanthropists based philanthropists in the early 1920sin the early 1920s, presumably motivated by, presumably motivated by
70 Simon Szreter, “The Idea of Demographic Transition and the Study of Fertility Change: Simon Szreter, “The Idea of Demographic Transition and the Study of Fertility Change: A Critical Intellectual History,”A Critical Intellectual History,” Population and Development ReviewPopulation and Development Review 19, no. 4 (1993): 19, no. 4 (1993): 659659––701.701.
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eugenic concerns
eugenic concerns overover “unbearable” “unbearable” migration flow, whmigration flow, whileile some 21,6 mil-some 21,6 mil-lion immigrants poured lion immigrants poured into into the country the country between 1881 and 1915between 1881 and 1915..71
Triggered by the “yellow
Triggered by the “yellow peril” in the US, Edward S. Scripps, owner peril” in the US, Edward S. Scripps, owner of a newspaper chain, has decided to invest of a newspaper chain, has decided to invest iin scientific research on the n scientific research on the global population problemglobal population problem,, particularly particularly inin EastEasternern Asia, and established Asia, and established the Scripps Foundation for Research in Population Problems as early as the Scripps Foundation for Research in Population Problems as early as 1922. During his research on 1922. During his research on populationpopulation literature, he literature, he came acrosscame across War-War-ren S. Thompson’s dissertation on Malthus and hired him as director of ren S. Thompson’s dissertation on Malthus and hired him as director of his foundation.his foundation.72 After Scripp’s sudden death in 1926,After Scripp’s sudden death in 1926, thethe Rockefeller Rockefeller Fund Fund continued to scontinued to support the project from upport the project from itsits experimental subdivision, experimental subdivision, the the Laura Spellman Rockefeller Memorial Fund.Laura Spellman Rockefeller Memorial Fund.73
Thompson, proved to be
Thompson, proved to be thethe right choiceright choice,, publishing a seminal article publishing a seminal article in 1929in 1929, , inin which he extended the scope of the “Demographic Transition” which he extended the scope of the “Demographic Transition” theory on to nontheory on to non--industrial and nonindustrial and non--researched worldresearched world..74 His vision wHis vision was as to to inspire all demographic studies of population control conducted in the inspire all demographic studies of population control conducted in the United States in the 1940s and 1950sUnited States in the 1940s and 1950s.. As mentionedAs mentioned earlier, the theory earlier, the theory itself was a deduction of a century long itself was a deduction of a century long demographic data of the indus-demographic data of the indus-trial world (Northern Europe and the US) observed trial world (Northern Europe and the US) observed in in regular censuses, regular censuses, indicating the indicating the gradual gradual transitiontransition from high mortality, high fertility regime from high mortality, high fertility regime to to a a low mortalitlow mortality, low fertility y, low fertility system system during the industrialization pro-during the industrialization pro-cesscess, , but never tested in the other parts of the world.but never tested in the other parts of the world.
The very few studies for Russia, India and especially Japan inspired
The very few studies for Russia, India and especially Japan inspired Thompson to make generalization on the negative correlation between Thompson to make generalization on the negative correlation between industrialization/modernization and fertility behaviour globally. And he industrialization/modernization and fertility behaviour globally. And he divided all societies in divided all societies in the world into the world into a tripa tripartite demographic typology artite demographic typology based on their elevation on industrialization and modernization. Group based on their elevation on industrialization and modernization. Group
71 A G Kenwood and A L Lougheed, A G Kenwood and A L Lougheed, The Growth of the InternatiThe Growth of the International Economy 1820onal Economy 1820––20002000, , 44thth ed. (London: Routledge, ed. (London: Routledge, 20022002), 46.), 46.
72 Frank W. Notestein, “Demography in the United StatFrank W. Notestein, “Demography in the United States: A Partial Account of the Devel-es: A Partial Account of the Devel-opment of the Field,” opment of the Field,” Population and Development ReviewPopulation and Development Review 8, no. 4 (1982): 6518, no. 4 (1982): 651––89.89.
73 Donald Fisher, “The Role of Philanthropic Foundations in the Reproduction and Produc-Donald Fisher, “The Role of Philanthropic Foundations in the Reproduction and Produc-tion of Hegemony: Rockefeller Foundations and the Social Sciences,” tion of Hegemony: Rockefeller Foundations and the Social Sciences,” Sociology Sociology 17, no. 2 17, no. 2 (1983): 206(1983): 206––33.33.
74 Warren S. TWarren S. Thompson, “Population,” hompson, “Population,” American Journal of SociologyAmerican Journal of Sociology 4, no. 6 (1929): 9594, no. 6 (1929): 959––75.75.
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A countries (Northern Europe) with low and declining rates of popula-
A countries (Northern Europe) with low and declining rates of popula-tion growth due to rapidly declining fertility and already low mortality;tion growth due to rapidly declining fertility and already low mortality;75 Group B countGroup B countries (Southern and Central Europe) with high population ries (Southern and Central Europe) with high population growth duegrowth due toto still high fertility but rapidly declining mortality; Group C still high fertility but rapidly declining mortality; Group C countries (the rest of the world) with fluctuating but relatively lcountries (the rest of the world) with fluctuating but relatively lowow pop-pop-ulation growth with higher fertility and mortalityulation growth with higher fertility and mortality,, not subject to snot subject to signifi-ignifi-cantcant human control. human control.
The theory had scientific and ideologic shortcomings. First, the
The theory had scientific and ideologic shortcomings. First, the nec-nec-essary essary demographic data set to make such demographic data set to make such a a generalizationgeneralization,, especially for especially for the Group C countries were not present. Furthermore, this new global the Group C countries were not present. Furthermore, this new global demographic transition theory was demographic transition theory was based based on the on the evolutionary view of so-evolutionary view of so-cietal developmentcietal development within the framework owithin the framework off modernization theorymodernization theory. . Inev-Inev-itably, the Eurocentric view, foitably, the Eurocentric view, foreseeing reseeing WesternWestern type of lifestyle is supe-type of lifestyle is supe-rior, progressive, and ultimately good for everyonerior, progressive, and ultimately good for everyone was fully embedded. was fully embedded. SSocieties were imaginedocieties were imagined movingmoving along a single continuum of demo-along a single continuum of demo-graphic development graphic development from primitive to advance, frfrom primitive to advance, from traditional to mod-om traditional to mod-ernern,, until they unifuntil they unifiedied. Accordingly, the fertility transition was perceived . Accordingly, the fertility transition was perceived as as a a unidirectional, progressive, irreversible, homogenous, lengthy, and unidirectional, progressive, irreversible, homogenous, lengthy, and phased process phased process that that dependedependedd on the on the degreedegree of industrialization and of industrialization and modernizationmodernization and did not take into accounand did not take into account the t the spatiotemporal dimen-spatiotemporal dimen-sion sion oror local power relations and cultural values.local power relations and cultural values.76
Private in
Private interest in the US for global population research took another terest in the US for global population research took another level after Milbank Memorial Fund decided to establish a research divi-level after Milbank Memorial Fund decided to establish a research divi-sion for the population studies, assion for the population studies, as a result of urgent calls of one of its a result of urgent calls of one of its trusteestrustees,, Thomas Cochran, Thomas Cochran, who shared the same who shared the same concernconcerns about s about
75 Beginning in thBeginning in the late 1970s, “low mortality” become the key demographic concern e late 1970s, “low mortality” become the key demographic concern be-be-ing referred to ing referred to as “agingas “aging..” The very first World Assembly o” The very first World Assembly onn Aging was gathered in Vi-Aging was gathered in Vi-ennaenna in 1982in 1982. . Nevertheless, theNevertheless, the literature literature onon aging aging can be traced can be traced back to the 1940s. back to the 1940s. Al-Al-fred Sauvy, “Social and Economic Consequences of the Agfred Sauvy, “Social and Economic Consequences of the Ageing of Western European eing of Western European Populations,” Populations,” Population StudiesPopulation Studies 2, no. 1 (1948): 1152, no. 1 (1948): 115––24.24.
76 Susan Greenhalgh, “Anthropology Theorizes Reproduction: Integrating Practice, Politi-Susan Greenhalgh, “Anthropology Theorizes Reproduction: Integrating Practice, Politi-cal Economic, and Feminist Perspectives,” in cal Economic, and Feminist Perspectives,” in Situating FeSituating Fertility,rtility, ed. Susan Greenhalgh ed. Susan Greenhalgh (Cambridge (UK); New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 3(Cambridge (UK); New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 3––26.26.
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migration and its potential socioeconomic
migration and its potential socioeconomic impact as impact as Mr. Scripps had ear-Mr. Scripps had ear-lier.lier.77 They They immediately immediately hired demographer Frank W. Notesteinhired demographer Frank W. Notestein,, whowho would become the principal figure for the global population control ac-would become the principal figure for the global population control ac-tivities with his colleagues in tivities with his colleagues in Princeton University’s Office of PopulaPrinceton University’s Office of Population tion Research Division (OPR) established in 1936 also with the initiation of Research Division (OPR) established in 1936 also with the initiation of another Milbank trustee; a forefront eanother Milbank trustee; a forefront eugenic Fredrick Osborn.ugenic Fredrick Osborn.78
In the meantime,
In the meantime, a number of acta number of activitieivities and organizations were orga-s and organizations were orga-nized to draw attention nized to draw attention to to the growing world population. A World Popu-the growing world population. A World Popu-lation Conference was held in Geneva in 1927, initiated,lation Conference was held in Geneva in 1927, initiated, planned, and ex-planned, and ex-ecuted by the birth coecuted by the birth control pioneer Margaret Sanger. The original plan ntrol pioneer Margaret Sanger. The original plan was to organize the seventh International Malthusian Conference, but was to organize the seventh International Malthusian Conference, but her her plans to plans to promote promote birth control birth control had turned into a scientific had turned into a scientific venue venue to to dis-dis-cuss cuss gglobal lobal ppopulation problem.opulation problem.79 The conference The conference generated a strong generated a strong consensus on the importance of furthering the investigation of popula-consensus on the importance of furthering the investigation of popula-tion and related problems but on the condition that its activities as an tion and related problems but on the condition that its activities as an organization be divorced from the promotion of any social policy.organization be divorced from the promotion of any social policy.80
A year later,
A year later, tthe Internatihe International Union for theonal Union for the Scientific Investigation of Scientific Investigation of Population ProblemsPopulation Problems was was foundedfounded and organized and organized a a series of conferences series of conferences in in the the early 1930s.early 1930s.81 ReflectingReflecting the political and intellectual conflicts of the political and intellectual conflicts of the interwar period, the conference and the union’s organizations were the interwar period, the conference and the union’s organizations were kidnapped by the academic and political rivalry among the participants kidnapped by the academic and political rivalry among the participants of whom had various agendas and different backgrounds ranging from of whom had various agendas and different backgrounds ranging from
77 Clyde V. Kiser et al., “The Work of the Milbank Memorial Fund in PopulatClyde V. Kiser et al., “The Work of the Milbank Memorial Fund in Population since 1928,” ion since 1928,” The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 49, no. 4 (1971): 1549, no. 4 (1971): 15––66.66.
78 Frank W.Frank W. NotesteinNotestein,, “Reminiscences: The Role of Foundations, the Population Associa-“Reminiscences: The Role of Foundations, the Population Associa-tion of America, Princeton University and ttion of America, Princeton University and the United Nations in Fostering American In-he United Nations in Fostering American In-terest in Population Problemsterest in Population Problems,” The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly,” The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 49, no. 4 (1971): 49, no. 4 (1971): 6767––85.85.
79 Bashford, Bashford, Global Population: History Geopolitics and LifeGlobal Population: History Geopolitics and Life on Earth,on Earth, 8484––85.85.
80 Frank Lorimer, “The Role of the International Union for the Scientific Study of Popula-Frank Lorimer, “The Role of the International Union for the Scientific Study of Popula-tion,” tion,” The Milbank Memorial Fund QuarterlyThe Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 49, no. 4 (1971): 8649, no. 4 (1971): 86––105.105.
81 Alison Bashford, “Nation, EmpiAlison Bashford, “Nation, Empire, Globe: The Spaces of Population Debate in the Inter-re, Globe: The Spaces of Population Debate in the Inter-war Years,” war Years,” Comparative Studies in Society and HistoryComparative Studies in Society and History 49, no. 1 (2007): 17049, no. 1 (2007): 170––201.201.
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eu
eugenics, immigration restrictionists, colonialists, antigenics, immigration restrictionists, colonialists, anti--colonialists, na-colonialists, na-tionalists, expansionist, Malthusianist and antitionalists, expansionist, Malthusianist and anti--Malthusianist.Malthusianist.82
In t
In the League of Nations, global population was fhe League of Nations, global population was framedramed as an as an interna-interna-tional tional ““health health problem”problem” to be to be solved not solved not by population controlby population control, but , but by by better better governance ofgovernance of world human world human traffic and traffic and migration.migration. Due to that hes-Due to that hes-itation to deal with the population control, the League was not responsive itation to deal with the population control, the League was not responsive for the rare calls from the members to for the rare calls from the members to assist them in addressing assist them in addressing theitheir r population problem.population problem.83 InsteadInstead,, activities on activities on worldworld population were lim-population were lim-ited ited toto tabulating world population from the earlier preliminary studies tabulating world population from the earlier preliminary studies and estimations, which already and estimations, which already begun begun by by the International Statistical In-the International Statistical In-stitutestitute as early as 1920.as early as 1920.84
Th
Theese individual interests in the US se individual interests in the US regregaardingrding global and local popu-global and local popu-lationlationss were unified in 1931 under the name of Population Association of were unified in 1931 under the name of Population Association of America (PAA) which soon America (PAA) which soon morphedmorphed into an organization of into an organization of ppopulation opulation scientists after eugeniscientists after eugenicisciststs and birth controland birth controllerler were removed were removed ffrom the rom the board.board.85 After 1935, the PAA sought connection with the US government After 1935, the PAA sought connection with the US government and and its New Deal programits New Deal program,, producproducinging a report on “Problems of a Chang-a report on “Problems of a Chang-ing Population” for the US National Resource Committee in 1938, also a ing Population” for the US National Resource Committee in 1938, also a significant indicator of significant indicator of the US government’s the US government’s growing interest growing interest inin demog-demog-raphy.raphy.86
As a precursor
As a precursor toto the planning era of the planning era of the the 1960s, the Great Depression1960s, the Great Depression ofof 19291929 and massive unemployment in the US created an urgent need for and massive unemployment in the US created an urgent need for socioeconomic planningsocioeconomic planning, with , with all all kinds kinds of scientific demographic inputs of scientific demographic inputs onon the population cthe population coomming to foreing to fore. Furthermore, . Furthermore, isolationist policies, isolationist policies, such such as not joining the League of Nations, as not joining the League of Nations, which were which were believed to serve Amer-believed to serve Amer-ican interest in the 1920sican interest in the 1920s were were gradually gradually abandoned andabandoned and replaced by replaced by
82 Matthew Connelly, Matthew Connelly, Fatal MiscoFatal Misconception: The Struggle to Control World Populationnception: The Struggle to Control World Population (Cam-(Cam-bridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008), 70bridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008), 70––76.76.
83 Alison Bashford, “Global Biopolitics and the History of World Health,” Alison Bashford, “Global Biopolitics and the History of World Health,” History of the Hu-History of the Hu-man Sciencesman Sciences 19, no. 1 (2006): 6719, no. 1 (2006): 67––88.88.
84 J.W. NixoJ.W. Nixon, n, A History of the International Statistical Institute 1885A History of the International Statistical Institute 1885--1960 1960 (The Hague: In-(The Hague: In-ternational Statistical Institute, 1960).ternational Statistical Institute, 1960).
85 Hodgson, “The Ideological Origins of the Population Association of America.”Hodgson, “The Ideological Origins of the Population Association of America.”
86 Notestein, “Demography in the United States,” 663Notestein, “Demography in the United States,” 663––64.64.
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international
internationalistist policies policies aimed at aimed at expanding into new markets and new expanding into new markets and new resources to recover from the economic depresources to recover from the economic depression.ression. 87
The internationalist bloc, consisting of organizations
The internationalist bloc, consisting of organizations such assuch as Council Council of Foreign Relations and the transnational investorsof Foreign Relations and the transnational investors,, which hadwhich had already already established commercial, political, and social ties through philanthropic established commercial, political, and social ties through philanthropic activities around the world,activities around the world, had already had already started started dominatdominatinging US foreign US foreign policy policy before before tthe WWII to he WWII to create create iindirect global hegemony ndirect global hegemony by supporting by supporting decolonization in decolonization in AfricaAfrica and and AsiaAsia..88
Reformulati
Reformulatingng the American internationalism with the categories ad-the American internationalism with the categories ad-dressed in the theoretical framework section of the dissertation; by leav-dressed in the theoretical framework section of the dissertation; by leav-ing the isolationist policies after the New Deal, ing the isolationist policies after the New Deal, the the definition of definition of bare and bare and unbearable lives unbearable lives by which by which US governing elites (good lUS governing elites (good life) ife) seekseek to to improve improve their capability and functioning upon, hatheir capability and functioning upon, hass expanded from national bor-expanded from national bor-ders to a global scaleders to a global scale..
S
Starting from the late 1930starting from the late 1930s, t, this changing trajectory created a his changing trajectory created a major major market for demographic research on the populationmarket for demographic research on the populationss of the underdevel-of the underdevel-oped worldoped world,, and new fundand new funding floweding flowed into the field.into the field.89 Notestein and his Notestein and his colleagues colleagues atat OPR, such as OPR, such as Irene Taeuber, Dudley Kirk, Ansley JIrene Taeuber, Dudley Kirk, Ansley J. . CoaleCoale andand Kingsley DavisKingsley Davis, immediately reinvented and reformulated Thompson’s , immediately reinvented and reformulated Thompson’s global global demographic transition theorydemographic transition theory, which had been published, which had been published a dec-a dec-ade earlier ade earlier and found and found very livery limited audience mited audience amongamong social scientistssocial scientists, pol-, pol-iticians, iticians, or funding agencies.or funding agencies.90
Thompson’s earlier theory, underling the fertility behaviour depend-
Thompson’s earlier theory, underling the fertility behaviour depend-ency on the industrialency on the industrialization and modernization movementsization and modernization movements,, was rein-was rein-forced and transformed into an antiforced and transformed into an anti--colonial manifestation in the works colonial manifestation in the works of OPRof OPR,, as they claimedas they claimed, that , that one sided modernization experience of one sided modernization experience of
87 Jeff Frieden, “Sectoral Conflict and Foreign Economic Policy, 1914Jeff Frieden, “Sectoral Conflict and Foreign Economic Policy, 1914––1940,”1940,” InternInternational ational Organization Organization 42, no. 1 (1988): 5942, no. 1 (1988): 59––90.90.
88 Cornelia Navari, Cornelia Navari, Internationalism, and the State in the Twentieth CenturyInternationalism, and the State in the Twentieth Century ((London: London: Routledge, 2013), 145Routledge, 2013), 145––47.47.
89 Susan Greenhalgh, “The SSusan Greenhalgh, “The Social Construction of Population Science: An Intellectual, In-ocial Construction of Population Science: An Intellectual, In-stitutional, and Political History of Twentiethstitutional, and Political History of Twentieth--Century Demography,” Century Demography,” Comparative Stud-Comparative Stud-ies in Society and Historyies in Society and History 38, no. 1 (1996): 2638, no. 1 (1996): 26––66.66.
90 Szreter,Szreter, “The Idea of Demographic Transition and the Study of Fertility Change: A Criti-“The Idea of Demographic Transition and the Study of Fertility Change: A Criti-cal Intellectual History,” 670.cal Intellectual History,” 670.
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colonial domination
colonial domination, while it , while it could to some extent reduce mortality, was could to some extent reduce mortality, was of no help in reducing of no help in reducing fertilityfertility,, as its as its predatory nature hamperpredatory nature hampereded indus-indus-trialization by treating colonies as a source of trialization by treating colonies as a source of raw materials and raw materials and aa market market for the motherfor the motherlandland.. 91 Furthermore, Furthermore, the the Japanese success story Japanese success story inin reduc-reduc-ing fertility ing fertility rates wasrates was constantly referred as a living example oconstantly referred as a living example off how an how an independent sovereign state could achieve rapid industrialization and independent sovereign state could achieve rapid industrialization and liberalization that liberalization that would would foster foster a a fertility decline.fertility decline.92 Expectedly, this anti-Expectedly, this anti-colonial version of colonial version of the the demographic transition demographic transition theory theory received a warm received a warm reception and reception and approval approval fromfrom aallll cadres in the UScadres in the US government.government.
The theory
The theory itself itself offered no quick solution offered no quick solution on modernization and on modernization and for for dealingdealing with the “heavy population pressure” with the “heavy population pressure” inin ththeese regions. Neverthe-se regions. Neverthe-less, in line with organizing postless, in line with organizing post--war reconstruction of war reconstruction of the the worldworld,, politi-politi-cal cal relationships,relationships, and the trade and the trade from the point of the American interests; from the point of the American interests; granting political autonomy, and the establishment of market economy granting political autonomy, and the establishment of market economy were prescribed aswere prescribed as essential tools to form a democratic society that essential tools to form a democratic society that would would gradually gradually stimulate stimulate a downward a downward trend trend in in the the fertility. fertility.
2.2.2 Into a PolicyInto a Policy--Oriented Demography during Cold War RivalryOriented Demography during Cold War Rivalry
After
After WWIIWWII, , demographic transition theorydemographic transition theory lost its social scientific per-lost its social scientific per-spectivespective. T. The he diminishing diminishing fertility fertility levellevel, once OPR members de, once OPR members defined fined asas an an outcome of outcome of longlong--term modernizationterm modernization and industrialization, was and industrialization, was rede-rede-fined by the very same team as afined by the very same team as an n “independent“independent” variable creating a ” variable creating a pos-pos-itive impact oitive impact on the modernization process. Then the question changed n the modernization process. Then the question changed from “from “how to modernize the how to modernize the TThird hird WWorld to support reducing fertility” to orld to support reducing fertility” to “how to reduce the fertility to support the modernization of the “how to reduce the fertility to support the modernization of the TThird hird WWorld.”orld.” Accordingly, OPR members have switched into an acAccordingly, OPR members have switched into an active “policytive “policy--oriented approach” oriented approach” and and initiatinitiateded birth control policies birth control policies iin developing n developing world world to to reducereduce fertilityfertility,, supported by the supported by the ffundsunds of private and of private and govern-govern-mentment--sponsoredsponsored institutioninstitutionss..
91 Frank W. Notestein, “Problems of Policy in Relation to Areas of Heavy Population Frank W. Notestein, “Problems of Policy in Relation to Areas of Heavy Population Pres-Pres-sure,” sure,” The Milbank Memorial Fund QuarterlyThe Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 22, no. 4 (1944): 42422, no. 4 (1944): 424––44.44.
92 Irene B. Taeuber and Edwin G. Beal, “The Dynamics of Population in Japan,” Irene B. Taeuber and Edwin G. Beal, “The Dynamics of Population in Japan,” The Milbank The Milbank Memorial Fund Memorial Fund QuarterlyQuarterly 22, no. 2 (1944): 22222, no. 2 (1944): 222––55.55.
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The swift intellectual shift was elaborated by various academicians in
The swift intellectual shift was elaborated by various academicians in detail. Caldwell claims the change had no hidden agenda as the further detail. Caldwell claims the change had no hidden agenda as the further demographic research after 1945 simply did not support the demographic research after 1945 simply did not support the original de-original de-mographic mographic transition idea.transition idea.93 Indeed, the Indeed, the orioriginaginal theory did not provide l theory did not provide convincing scientific evidence convincing scientific evidence forfor evolutionary fertility behaviour, evolutionary fertility behaviour, with with the exception of fertility research in Japan in 1944, the results of which the exception of fertility research in Japan in 1944, the results of which were comparable to the Western sequence of demographic change.were comparable to the Western sequence of demographic change.
However, Hodgso
However, Hodgson, convincingly argues that the scope and the scale n, convincingly argues that the scope and the scale of the research before and after of the research before and after WWIIWWII had changed dramatically due to had changed dramatically due to the political orientation of the field, so the outcomes were not compara-the political orientation of the field, so the outcomes were not compara-ble. He identifies four main shifts. Fble. He identifies four main shifts. Firstirst,, the the narrowing of fnarrowing of focus from ocus from highhigh--levellevel theoretical abstraction theoretical abstraction to to an operationalan operational interest in the more prac-interest in the more prac-tical tical issuesissues. Second. Second,, the gradual the gradual loss ofloss of historical perspective, as historical perspective, as the the main main focusfocus shifted fromshifted from evaluatievaluatingng of the of the historical historical time series time series to to analyzing analyzing the the presentpresent and and projecting projecting the the futurefuture. T. Thirdhird, , the the shift from the macro to shift from the macro to the the micromicro level oflevel of demographic researchdemographic research, , wherewhere the structural features of the structural features of the the societsocietiesies,, the key the key determinants of determinants of the the fertility changefertility change, were , were replaced by replaced by the utilitarian considerations of individuals. Fourth, the utilitarian considerations of individuals. Fourth, the shifting view of the shifting view of ddemographers emographers view of view of society from asociety from a cohesivecohesive andand integrated system to integrated system to an atomistic collection of individuals.an atomistic collection of individuals. 94
Furthermore, Greenhalgh refers to the
Furthermore, Greenhalgh refers to the profoundprofound political orientation political orientation of demography field by of demography field by its its nature in Foucauldian sensenature in Foucauldian sense, claiming, claiming that the that the changing scope of demographic transition theory after changing scope of demographic transition theory after WWIIWWII, was a nat-, was a nat-ural outcome of ural outcome of changing changing political choices. political choices. For For Foucault, demography is Foucault, demography is an essential part an essential part ofof the “the “powerpower--knowledge” process and demographerknowledge” process and demographerss are the “gatekeepers” of knowledge and “truth” are the “gatekeepers” of knowledge and “truth” to to secure “governmental-secure “governmental-ity” and “biopolitics” ity” and “biopolitics” throughthrough totalising narratives,totalising narratives, structuralist explana-structuralist explana-tions, and modernisationtions, and modernisation programmesprogrammes..95
93 John John CC. Caldwe. Caldwell, “Demographers’ Involvement in Twentiethll, “Demographers’ Involvement in Twentieth--Century Population Policy: Century Population Policy: Continuity or Discontinuity?,” Continuity or Discontinuity?,” Population Research and Policy ReviewPopulation Research and Policy Review 24, no. 4 (2005): 24, no. 4 (2005): 359359––85.85.
94 Hodgson, “Demography as Social Science and Policy Science,” 27Hodgson, “Demography as Social Science and Policy Science,” 27––28.28.
95 Stephen Legg, “Foucault’s Population Geographies: Classifications, Biopolitics and Gov-Stephen Legg, “Foucault’s Population Geographies: Classifications, Biopolitics and Gov-ernmental Spaces,” ernmental Spaces,” Population, Space and PlacePopulation, Space and Place 11, no. 3 (2005): 13711, no. 3 (2005): 137––56.56.
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The greatest demand f
The greatest demand for the or the demography’s demography’s intellectual products and intellectual products and the most extensive source of funding the most extensive source of funding has been has been governments, foundations, governments, foundations, and international bodies. Thus, to gain access to funding for its work and and international bodies. Thus, to gain access to funding for its work and markets for its products, demography had to act markets for its products, demography had to act primarily as a policyprimarily as a policy--relevant field, tailoring its work and theories to the needs of its clientele's relevant field, tailoring its work and theories to the needs of its clientele's action agenda.action agenda.96 In this sense, Greenhalgh refutes the clear distinction In this sense, Greenhalgh refutes the clear distinction between Hauser's "social science" and "social engineering" demography, between Hauser's "social science" and "social engineering" demography, claiming tclaiming that the intellectual shift was just another demographic focus hat the intellectual shift was just another demographic focus on changing population policy.on changing population policy.97
Finally,
Finally, Szreter Szreter attributes theattributes the conceptual and theoretical conceptual and theoretical capabilities capabilities and and limitationslimitations of of demographydemography to to the the foreign policy needs foreign policy needs of the US dur-of the US dur-ing ing the Cold Warthe Cold War.. Since Since the poor masses the poor masses in peasant societies in peasant societies were were ac-ac-cused of creatingcused of creating economic and political instability economic and political instability that favored that favored ccom-om-munist takeoversmunist takeovers, , achievachievinging greater and more democratically greater and more democratically widewidespread economic spread economic progresprogress in these poor countries s in these poor countries became became the best the best hope of strategic policy planners and philanthropic foundationshope of strategic policy planners and philanthropic foundations for for pro-pro-tection against further communist tection against further communist expansion.expansion. 98
Consequently, OPR members skilfully adapted the
Consequently, OPR members skilfully adapted the shift in shift in US foreign US foreign policy from antipolicy from anti--colonialist strategy to the colonialist strategy to the CCold old WWar rivalry on ar rivalry on toto global global demographdemographicsics, by ref, by reframing raming the developing world (bare life) from the the developing world (bare life) from the masses to be “unmasses to be “unleashedleashed,,” to the potential unbearable to be “mitigated.” ” to the potential unbearable to be “mitigated.” Furthermore, they Furthermore, they sought insought in every feasible way to promote this mitiga-every feasible way to promote this mitiga-tion to the local and international community by means of birth control.tion to the local and international community by means of birth control.
The “defining moment” as Demeny put it, was the report of four OPR
The “defining moment” as Demeny put it, was the report of four OPR members commissioned by the Rockefeller Foundation to study demo-members commissioned by the Rockefeller Foundation to study demo-graphic prographic problems in blems in thethe Far EastFar East in late 1948, that coincided with the in late 1948, that coincided with the sudden victory of Marxistsudden victory of Marxist--Leninist ideology in China. A persistent de-Leninist ideology in China. A persistent de-mand of a local mayor in China’s peasant Peipei province for birth control mand of a local mayor in China’s peasant Peipei province for birth control
96 Greenhalgh, “The Social Construction of Population Science: An Intellectual, Institu-Greenhalgh, “The Social Construction of Population Science: An Intellectual, Institu-tional,tional, and Political History of Twentiethand Political History of Twentieth--Century Demography,” 31.Century Demography,” 31.
97 Philip M. Hauser, “Social Science and Social Engineering,” Philip M. Hauser, “Social Science and Social Engineering,” Philosophy of SciPhilosophy of Scienceence 16, no. 3 16, no. 3 (1949): 209(1949): 209––18.18.
98 Szreter, “TSzreter, “The Idea of Demographic Transition and the Study of Fertility Change: A Criti-he Idea of Demographic Transition and the Study of Fertility Change: A Criti-cal Intellectual History.”cal Intellectual History.”
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methods, have led the
methods, have led the OPR members OPR members to take the to take the opportunity to construct opportunity to construct the fertility behaviour theory on the individual motivation of a “rational the fertility behaviour theory on the individual motivation of a “rational man.”man.”99 Nevertheless, stimulating the demand of the individuals and Nevertheless, stimulating the demand of the individuals and smaller groups to lower their fertilitysmaller groups to lower their fertility by promoting “family planning pro-by promoting “family planning pro-gramgram”” (FPP) was (FPP) was a a much much fasterfaster and and more more costcost--effective way in dealing effective way in dealing with the pressing population problem with the pressing population problem than inthan investing vesting iinn the moderniza-the moderniza-tion process.tion process.100
Accordingly, the primary focus of the US based demographic studies
Accordingly, the primary focus of the US based demographic studies gradually shifted to explore or to “create” gradually shifted to explore or to “create” an unmetan unmet demand for fertility demand for fertility control, which refers to the condition of wanting to avoid or postpone control, which refers to the condition of wanting to avoid or postpone having having childchildrrenen but not using any methods of contraception. but not using any methods of contraception. It was antic-It was antic-ipaipated that theted that the documented existence of documented existence of an an “unmet need” to limit the fer-“unmet need” to limit the fer-tilitytility would generate would generate a a preeminent preeminent rationale for increased investment in rationale for increased investment in the “supply” of FPP in high fertility the “supply” of FPP in high fertility countries and inspire local policy countries and inspire local policy makers to support the initiative.makers to support the initiative.101
The method of measurement was simply
The method of measurement was simply to conduct to conduct KAP surveys in KAP surveys in ththeese high fertility countries/regions about women's knowledge of, atti-se high fertility countries/regions about women's knowledge of, atti-tudes toward, and practicetudes toward, and practicess of birth control as welof birth control as well as about their family l as about their family size preferences.size preferences.102 The number of such surveys grew rapidly, The number of such surveys grew rapidly, so so that that by by 1970, about 1970, about 400 KAP surveys had been fielded in 400 KAP surveys had been fielded in fifty fifty TThird hird WWorld coun-orld coun-tries.tries.103 However, the pioneering work dates back However, the pioneering work dates back toto 19471947, as i, as itt proved proved
99 Paul Demeny, “Social Science and Population Policy,” Paul Demeny, “Social Science and Population Policy,” Population and Development Re-Population and Development Re-viewview 14, no. 3 (1988): 45114, no. 3 (1988): 451––79.79.
100 A famous quote of President Johnson in 1965 "Less than five dollars invested in popu-A famous quote of President Johnson in 1965 "Less than five dollars invested in popu-lation contlation control is worth a hundred dollars invested in economic growth” in rol is worth a hundred dollars invested in economic growth” in Martha J. Bai-Martha J. Bai-ley, “Fifty Years of Family Planning: New Evidence on the Longley, “Fifty Years of Family Planning: New Evidence on the Long--Run Effects of Increasing Run Effects of Increasing Access to Contraception,” in Access to Contraception,” in Brookings Papers on Economic ActivityBrookings Papers on Economic Activity (Brookings Institu-(Brookings Institu-tion Press, 201tion Press, 2013), 385.3), 385.
101 Sarah E.K. Bradley and John B. Casterline, “Understanding Unmet Need: History, Theory, Sarah E.K. Bradley and John B. Casterline, “Understanding Unmet Need: History, Theory, and Measurement,”and Measurement,” Studies in Family PlanningStudies in Family Planning 45, no. 2 (2015): 12345, no. 2 (2015): 123––50.50.
102 John Bongaarts, “The KAPJohn Bongaarts, “The KAP--Gap and the Unmet Need for Contraception,” Gap and the Unmet Need for Contraception,” Population and Population and Development Review Development Review 17, no. 2 (1991): 29317, no. 2 (1991): 293––313.313.
103 Albert I. Hermalin, Barbara Entwisle, and Lora G. Myers, “Some Lessons from the At-Albert I. Hermalin, Barbara Entwisle, and Lora G. Myers, “Some Lessons from the At-tempt to Retrieve Early Kap and Fertility Surveys,” tempt to Retrieve Early Kap and Fertility Surveys,” Population Index Population Index 51, no. 2 (1985): 51, no. 2 (1985): 194194––208.208.
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the feasibility of conducting surveys in a wide variety of settings,
the feasibility of conducting surveys in a wide variety of settings, estab-estab-lished many of the procedures for future lished many of the procedures for future work andwork and set much of the tone set much of the tone for for the subsequent the subsequent studies.studies.104
Notable a
Notable among mong the early studies, the early studies, was the one conducted in was the one conducted in 1951 1951 jointly jointly by the Goby the Government of India and vernment of India and UN in Mysore State of India.UN in Mysore State of India.105 UN UN Population CommissionPopulation Commission DivisionDivision had long considered had long considered undertakundertakinging a a ““necessarynecessary”” preliminary work preliminary work onon a study ofa study of the interrelationship of eco-the interrelationship of eco-nomic, socialnomic, social,, and demographicand demographic factors in factors in an underdeveloped an underdeveloped areaarea to to pro-pro-vide methodological guidance for further studiesvide methodological guidance for further studies..106 And India was And India was cho-cho-sensen,,107 not only not only for its for its high fertile structure, but also for the commitment high fertile structure, but also for the commitment of the local government to lower fertility and their inclination to seek in-of the local government to lower fertility and their inclination to seek in-ternatiternational assistance as onal assistance as itit had already approached the World Health Or-had already approached the World Health Or-ganization (WHO) ganization (WHO) for for assistance assistance in in birth control methods.birth control methods.108
The survey was twofold
The survey was twofold:: firstfirst,, the the hhousehold ousehold ssurveyurvey in a sample of in a sample of 10,744 households, and then the 10,744 households, and then the ffertility and ertility and aattitude ttitude ssurveyurvey,, which waswhich was administered administered to 1403 married women and 1,084 husbands. The exten-to 1403 married women and 1,084 husbands. The exten-sive findings depicted that the average family size of sive findings depicted that the average family size of everever--married married women women was was 55..3 children per 3 children per family,family,109 whwhileile the ideal family size declared the ideal family size declared by young married women as 3by young married women as 3..7, and 7, and ttheheirir husbands with slightly higher husbands with slightly higher as 4,1.as 4,1.110 However only 15% of the participaHowever only 15% of the participatingting men and women who men and women who
104 Mauldin, “Fertility Studies: Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice.”Mauldin, “Fertility Studies: Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice.”
105 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, ""The Mysore Population The Mysore Population Study: Report of a FieStudy: Report of a Field Survey Carried out in Selected Areas of Mysore State, India: A ld Survey Carried out in Selected Areas of Mysore State, India: A Cooperative Project of the United Nations and the Government of India,Cooperative Project of the United Nations and the Government of India,"" Population Population Studies No:34 (New York, 1961).Studies No:34 (New York, 1961).
106 United Nations Economic and Social Council, “Report of the Population Commission United Nations Economic and Social Council, “Report of the Population Commission (Fourth Session),” E/1313 Arti(Fourth Session),” E/1313 Article: 30cle: 30--32 (New York, 1949), 932 (New York, 1949), 9––10.10.
107 United Nations Economic and Social Council, “Population Commission Report of the United Nations Economic and Social Council, “Population Commission Report of the Fifth Session (MayFifth Session (May 2222ndnd -- JuneJune 22ndnd, 1950, 1950),” E/1711 E/CN.9/62 Article:16 (New York, ),” E/1711 E/CN.9/62 Article:16 (New York, 1950), 3.1950), 3.
108 SamuelSamuel, “The Development of India’s Policy of Population Control.”, “The Development of India’s Policy of Population Control.”
109 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, ""The Mysore Population The Mysore Population Study: Report of a Field Survey Carried out in Selected Areas of Mysore State, India: A Study: Report of a Field Survey Carried out in Selected Areas of Mysore State, India: A Cooperative PCooperative Project of the United Nations and the Government of India,roject of the United Nations and the Government of India,"" 110.110.
110 Ibid., 140.Ibid., 140.
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expressed
expressed nono desire desire have have more children had used more children had used aa family limitationfamily limitation methmethodod other than abstinence.other than abstinence.111
The unmet need
The unmet need for contraceptionfor contraception, , documented asdocumented as above, had pro-above, had pro-vided further justification forvided further justification for thethe Indian Indian ggovernment to overnment to launch the “first” nationwide FPP of a Third World country as early as 1952. The program, was embedded in India’s first five-year plan, had ambitious targets ad-dressing wives and husbands to reduce "improvident maternity" level from 40% to 5% within 15 years.112 The result was far from the target, mostly due to unwillingness of the Indian government to consider effec-tive family planning methods other than rhythm or safe period.113
2.2.3 Population Control in Developmentalist Discourse by the early Population Control in Developmentalist Discourse by the early 1960s1960s..
An even stronger incentive for national governments to take the neces-sary measures to reduce fertility rates, other than exploring the unmet need through KAP surveys, has been the “developmentalist discourse on population,” which has changed the perspective from the individualistic and healthcare view to the macroeconomic benefits.114 The categories of “underdevelopment” and “poverty” at the global scale were discursive products of the postwar climate.115 Furthermore, “development,” just like modernization, was promoted to conform the ideas and expectations of the affluent West, to what Western countries saw as the normal course of evolution and progress.116
The perception of poverty was nothing more than the result of a com-parative statistical operation, whereas annual per capita income was a
111 Ibid., 172.Ibid., 172.
112 The "improvident maternity” is defined as a childbirthThe "improvident maternity” is defined as a childbirth occurring to a mother who has occurring to a mother who has already given birth to three or more children of whom at least one is alive.already given birth to three or more children of whom at least one is alive.
113 Abraham Stone, “Fertility Problems in India,”Abraham Stone, “Fertility Problems in India,” Fertility and SterilityFertility and Sterility 4, no. 3 (1953): 2104, no. 3 (1953): 210––17.17.
114 Samuel, “The Development of India’s Policy of Population Control,” 55.Samuel, “The Development of India’s Policy of Population Control,” 55.
115 Arturo Escobar, Arturo Escobar, Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking ofEncountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third the Third WorldWorld (Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1995), 33.(Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1995), 33.
116 Ibid., 26.Ibid., 26.
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single unit of measurement. In 1948, almost two-thirds of the world's population was categorized as poor, when the World Bank defined coun-tries with an annual per capita income of less than $100 as poor.117 Pov-erty thus became an organizing concept, the object of a new problemati-zation, and the essential characteristic of the Third World. Accordingly, economic growth and development soon became a self-evident, neces-sary, universal truth and omnipresent reality as a solution to the problem of poverty.118
In this context, a study in 1958 by of two prominent OPR members, demographer Ansley J. Coale and economist Edgar M. Hoover, demon-strated the inverse relationship between population growth and eco-nomic development. As expected, the project was sponsored by the In-ternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBDR).119 The study was based on the projection of Indian economy and demography between 1956 and 1986 with alternative fertility scenarios; unchanged fertility level and 50% decline.120
The results depict that fertility decline has a positive impact on eco-nomic development, whereas the annual growth in total output was found as 4.5% in the low fertility scenario, and 3.5% in the unchanged fertility scenario, and furthermore, per capita income was found to be 38% higher in low fertility scenario than the unchanged fertility.121
The model identified and the simulations quantified three negative effects of population growth:
1 A larger number of consumers tendA larger number of consumers tendss to to limitlimit the mobilization of the mobilization of re-re-sourcesources to s to promotpromotee economic growth and economic growth and reducereduce private savings and the private savings and the capability capability of the governmentof the governmentss to to collect collect funds forfunds for development. development.
117 Ibid., 23Ibid., 23––24.24.
118 Arturo Escobar, “Power and Visibility:Arturo Escobar, “Power and Visibility: Development and the Invention and Management Development and the Invention and Management of the Third World,” of the Third World,” Cultural AnthropologyCultural Anthropology 3, no. 4 (1988): 4283, no. 4 (1988): 428––43.43.
119 Frank W., “Reminiscences: The Role of Foundations, the Population Association of Amer-Frank W., “Reminiscences: The Role of Foundations, the Population Association of Amer-ica, Princeton University and the United Nations in Fostering American Interest in Pop-ica, Princeton University and the United Nations in Fostering American Interest in Pop-ulation Problems.”ulation Problems.”
120 Coale and Hoover Edgar M., Population GroCoale and Hoover Edgar M., Population Growth and Economic Development.wth and Economic Development.
121 Ibid., 273Ibid., 273––81.81.
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2 Increased youth dependency forces the government to invest more in new housing, new schools, and new medical facilities at the expense of factories, machinery, and roads that were believed to yield higher re-turns.
3 Less saving, less investment, and less consumption per capita reduce the productivity of the labor force.122
The
The corecore of their argument was simple, of their argument was simple, attractive,attractive, and applicable to all and applicable to all developing countriesdeveloping countries:: thatthat reducing reducing population growth population growth would always would always mean mean moremore funds for capital investment funds for capital investment as there would be as there would be fewer depend-fewer depend-ents and ents and less spending on less spending on consumption and social needs. This approach consumption and social needs. This approach puts the spotlighputs the spotlight t on populon population growth rates ation growth rates inin the the developing countries developing countries as as a constraint on a constraint on economic growtheconomic growth ratesrates. .
After
After the the CoaleCoale--Hoover thesis, population control Hoover thesis, population control became became fully em-fully em-bedded into the heart of developmentalist discourse and bedded into the heart of developmentalist discourse and was was mentioned mentioned as an as an indispensable indispensable part of thepart of the national development plans of most de-national development plans of most de-veloping countries in the 1960s. Furthermore, it veloping countries in the 1960s. Furthermore, it also also became an essential became an essential criterion for the international lending agreements of IMF and World criterion for the international lending agreements of IMF and World Bank, together with US foreign aid policy.Bank, together with US foreign aid policy.123
2.2.4 İnstitutionalizationİnstitutionalization of Global Population Control after of Global Population Control after WWIIWWII
After the decay of the Malthusian and eugenic international organiza-
After the decay of the Malthusian and eugenic international organiza-tions and conferences by tions and conferences by WWIIWWII, the very first institution to d, the very first institution to deal with eal with the the world population on a global world population on a global scale scale was the Population Commission es-was the Population Commission es-tablitablished shed at at UN in 1946. Yet, neither the UN in 1946. Yet, neither the ComCommission nor any other state mission nor any other state ddared ared tto o officially officially interfere interfere in population control activities in population control activities or provide or provide as-as-sistance sistance to a to a developing country until 1965.developing country until 1965.124
122 Ibid., 284Ibid., 284––91.91.
123 Allen C. Kelley, “ThAllen C. Kelley, “The Population Debate in Historical Perspective: Revisionism Revised,” e Population Debate in Historical Perspective: Revisionism Revised,” in in Population Matters: Demographic Change, Economic Growth, and Poverty in the Devel-Population Matters: Demographic Change, Economic Growth, and Poverty in the Devel-oping Worldoping World, ed. Nancy Birdsall, Allen C. Kelley, and Steven W. Sinding (New York: Oxford , ed. Nancy Birdsall, Allen C. Kelley, and Steven W. Sinding (New York: Oxford University PrUniversity Press, 2001), 24ess, 2001), 24––54.54.
124 Rafael M. Salas, Rafael M. Salas, InternatioInternational Population Assistance: The First Decadenal Population Assistance: The First Decade (Oxford ; New (Oxford ; New York: Pergamon Press, 1979), XVYork: Pergamon Press, 1979), XV––XIX.XIX.
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I
In the early 1950s, birth control n the early 1950s, birth control was was a conta controversial aroversial and sensitnd sensitive ive is-is-suesue in the USin the US,, as in most other parts of the worldas in most other parts of the world..125 EEven soven so,, 4141stst presi-presi-dent of dent of the the USUS,, George H.George H. W.W. BuBushsh, recounts, recounts how his father lost his bid for how his father lost his bid for reelection to the reelection to the SSenate in 1950 due to his alleged support for birth con-enate in 1950 due to his alleged support for birth con-trol. He adds that birth control. He adds that birth control was a taboo, not only because of religious trol was a taboo, not only because of religious oppositionopposition,, but but mmainly because ainly because many many people were unwilling to discusspeople were unwilling to discuss the the issue issue in publicin public, , considerconsidering it ing it asas a private matter.a private matter.126
The US
The US ggovernment overnment was not the only one reluctant to participate di-was not the only one reluctant to participate di-rectly in rectly in international population control assistanceinternational population control assistance. . Agencies at Agencies at the UNthe UN were also slow to see a role for themselves in this area.were also slow to see a role for themselves in this area. RegulationRegulation inin pop-pop-ulation growth was universally regarded as a sensitive political issue, and ulation growth was universally regarded as a sensitive political issue, and intervention was strongly resisted by theintervention was strongly resisted by the members during the 1950s and members during the 1950s and early 1960s. Some of the most sustained opposition came from Catholic early 1960s. Some of the most sustained opposition came from Catholic countries and from the Soviet Union. The former due to its religious in-countries and from the Soviet Union. The former due to its religious in-terpretationterpretation,, which which restrictrestrictss the contraception,the contraception,127 and the latterand the latter byby blam-blam-ing the ing the economic policies of economic policies of the the colonial powerscolonial powers ffor creating or creating the circum-the circum-stances stances ofof rapid population growth.rapid population growth.128
Opposition was so strong
Opposition was so strong that WHO was about to split apart over the that WHO was about to split apart over the question of involvement in family planning in 1952. question of involvement in family planning in 1952. WHO and most WHO and most healthhealth officials took the position that birth control information and ser-officials took the position that birth control information and ser-vices should be provided in conjunction with health services, while sev-vices should be provided in conjunction with health services, while sev-eral member governments, including those of Ceylon and India, had al-eral member governments, including those of Ceylon and India, had al-ready asked the organization ready asked the organization to give attention to.to give attention to. In response, In response, representatives of Catholic nations flatly refused to provide any research representatives of Catholic nations flatly refused to provide any research or technical assistance in the areas of population and family planning, or technical assistance in the areas of population and family planning, and even threatened to withdraw from the and even threatened to withdraw from the organizationorganization. Numbers vary, . Numbers vary,
125 Oscar Harkavy, Oscar Harkavy, Curbing Population Growth, The Springer Series on Demographic Curbing Population Growth, The Springer Series on Demographic Meth-Meth-ods,ods, and Population Analysisand Population Analysis (Boston, MA: Springer US, 1995), 14.(Boston, MA: Springer US, 1995), 14.
126 Phyllis Tilson Piotrow, Phyllis Tilson Piotrow, World Population Crisis: The United States ResponseWorld Population Crisis: The United States Response (New York: (New York: Praeger, 1973), VII.Praeger, 1973), VII.
127 Norman St. JohnNorman St. John--Stevas, “A Roman Catholic View of Population Control,”Stevas, “A Roman Catholic View of Population Control,” Law and Con-Law and Con-temporary Problemstemporary Problems 25, no. 3 (1960): 44525, no. 3 (1960): 445––69.69.
128 Jason L. Finkle and C. Alison McIntoJason L. Finkle and C. Alison McIntosh, “The New Politics of Population,” sh, “The New Politics of Population,” Population and Population and Development ReviewDevelopment Review 20 (1994): 320 (1994): 3––34.34.
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but WHO officials believed
but WHO officials believed that as many as onethat as many as one--third of member govern-third of member govern-ments could withdraw from the ments could withdraw from the WHOWHO..129
The UN Population Commission had no political agenda on popula-
The UN Population Commission had no political agenda on popula-tion too. The commission, tion too. The commission, headedheaded by the most prominent demographers by the most prominent demographers of the of the dayday; Frank W. Notestein, Kingsley Davie; Frank W. Notestein, Kingsley Davies, Ansley J. Coale s, Ansley J. Coale of theof the US, US, David Glass David Glass ofof UK,UK, and Albert Savvy and Albert Savvy ofof France, wFrance, wasas busy busy compilingcompiling and and consolidating population data, preparing statistical yearbooks,consolidating population data, preparing statistical yearbooks, setting setting in-in-ternational census standards, training demographternational census standards, training demographers in the ers in the regional cen-regional cen-ters ters UN UN established in Bombay (1956), Santiago (1957)established in Bombay (1956), Santiago (1957),, and Cairo and Cairo (1963)(1963),, and organizing World Population Conferences.and organizing World Population Conferences. 130
These conferences were particularly important in setting the ground
These conferences were particularly important in setting the ground for global population policy agendas. The first global for global population policy agendas. The first global conference orga-conference orga-nized by UN was held in Rome in 1954 nized by UN was held in Rome in 1954 with the participation of 500 ex-with the participation of 500 ex-perts from 70 countriesperts from 70 countries,, including Turkey.including Turkey.131 More than 400 scientific pa-More than 400 scientific pa-pers were presented pers were presented on variouson various aspects of population issues, including aspects of population issues, including techniques techniques forfor demographic medemographic measurements, asurements, fertility,fertility, and mortality and mortality trends in developed and developing regions, international migration, trends in developed and developing regions, international migration, and and demographic aspects of economic and social development.demographic aspects of economic and social development.132
The “population problem” in developing regions was predominantly acknowledged at the conference, but with no single paper or recommen-dation on population control or family planning. However, at the second conference, held eleven years later held in Belgrade, a full-fledged family
129 Jason L. Finkle and Barbara B. Crane, “The World Health Organization and the Popula-Jason L. Finkle and Barbara B. Crane, “The World Health Organization and the Popula-tion Issue: Organizational Values in the United Nations,” tion Issue: Organizational Values in the United Nations,” Population and Development Population and Development ReviewReview 2, no. 3/4 (1976): 3672, no. 3/4 (1976): 367––993.3.
130 Frank W. Notestein, “Demographic Work of the United Nations,”Frank W. Notestein, “Demographic Work of the United Nations,” Population Index Population Index 16, no. 16, no. 3 (1950): 184.3 (1950): 184.
131 The participantThe participants from Turkey were, the director of Turkish Central Statistical Office, s from Turkey were, the director of Turkish Central Statistical Office, Prof. Sefik lnan and his deputy, Ratip Yuceuluğ, but no paper was presented. Prof. Sefik lnan and his deputy, Ratip Yuceuluğ, but no paper was presented.
132 United Nations, “Proceedings of the World Population Conference, Rome 1954: Sum-United Nations, “Proceedings of the World Population Conference, Rome 1954: Sum-mary Report,” E/CONF.13/412 (New York: United Natiomary Report,” E/CONF.13/412 (New York: United Nations, 1955).ns, 1955).
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planning session was organized to discuss achievements, plans, and strategies for combating the “population explosion.”133
By 1970, some thirty nation
By 1970, some thirty nation--statesstates,, together accounting for together accounting for 74% of 74% of worldworld’s’s population, had already changed their official policpopulation, had already changed their official policiesies to reduce to reduce population growth.population growth.134 And the “heroiAnd the “heroic work” on population control, as c work” on population control, as the first president of the United Nations Fund for Population Activities the first president of the United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA) Rafael M. Salas admitted (UNFPA) Rafael M. Salas admitted in in retrospect was retrospect was done done by the private by the private agencies and the US based foundations.agencies and the US based foundations.135
2.2.5 The US based Private Initiation The US based Private Initiation
I
Indindividuals, organizationsviduals, organizations,, and foreign policy elites and foreign policy elites playedplayed a pivotal role a pivotal role in shaping the global hegemonic construction of US leadership in shaping the global hegemonic construction of US leadership byby estab-estab-lishing the plausibility of the new argumentslishing the plausibility of the new arguments among among other nations and other nations and creating creating a global consensus through their a global consensus through their networks networks in in other countriesother countries, , within the US government and in local publicwithin the US government and in local public..136
This was especially t
This was especially truerue for for ssensitive taboos ensitive taboos such assuch as population con-population con-trol, as thtrol, as theese organizations, supported se organizations, supported primarily primarily by the Rockefeller and by the Rockefeller and FordFord FoundationFoundationss, , were able to were able to provide financial, intellectualprovide financial, intellectual,, and mate-and mate-rial support for population control in developing worldrial support for population control in developing world through through their their wellwell--established networks and transnational business ties.established networks and transnational business ties.137 Without Without the the direct involvement of the US direct involvement of the US ggovernment, theyovernment, they could be much could be much more more
133 United NationsUnited Nations, , “Proceedings of the World Population Conference, Belgrade 1965, Vol-“Proceedings of the World Population Conference, Belgrade 1965, Vol-ume II: Fertility, Family Planning, Mortality.,” E/CONF.41/3 (ume II: Fertility, Family Planning, Mortality.,” E/CONF.41/3 (New York: United Nations, New York: United Nations, 1967), 2531967), 253––320.320.
134 Mauldin, “Assessment of National Family Planning Programs in DevelMauldin, “Assessment of National Family Planning Programs in Developing Countries,” oping Countries,” 31.31.
135 Rafael M Salas, Rafael M Salas, The Multilateral Approach to PopulationThe Multilateral Approach to Population (Oxford [England] : New York: (Oxford [England] : New York: PPergamon Press, 1976), 15.ergamon Press, 1976), 15.
136 Stephen AStephen Alexander Wertheim, “Tomorrow, the World: The Birth of U.S. Global Suprem-lexander Wertheim, “Tomorrow, the World: The Birth of U.S. Global Suprem-acy in World War II” (PhDacy in World War II” (PhD ThesisThesis, Columbia University, 2015), 15, Columbia University, 2015), 15––16.16.
137 Inderjeet Parmar, Inderjeet Parmar, Foundations of the American Century: The Ford, Carnegie, and Rocke-Foundations of the American Century: The Ford, Carnegie, and Rocke-feller Foundations in the Rise of American Powerfeller Foundations in the Rise of American Power (New York: Columbia University Press, (New York: Columbia University Press, 2015), 12015), 1––31.31.
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flexible and less constrained by national borders, national authority,
flexible and less constrained by national borders, national authority, bu-bu-reaucratic inertiareaucratic inertia and and political backlash.political backlash.138
As
As notednoted earlier, the very first private fundearlier, the very first private funderers on demography before s on demography before WWIIWWII were were the the Rockefeller Fund and Rockefeller Fund and the the Milbank Milbank Memorial FundMemorial Fund,, as they as they were the were the principal principal donors of OPR and other scientific enterprisesdonors of OPR and other scientific enterprises, most , most of of which wwhich wereere published in published in the the ““Milbank QuarterlyMilbank Quarterly,”,” one of the earliest one of the earliest demographic journals.demographic journals.139 However, it was not until 1952, when resistance However, it was not until 1952, when resistance toto an international solution for family planning became apparent after an international solution for family planning became apparent after the crisis the crisis at at WHO, WHO, that that the private initiative accelerated. John D. Rockefel-the private initiative accelerated. John D. Rockefel-ler 3ler 3rdrd hadhad already already been dissatisfied been dissatisfied with the Rockefeller Fwith the Rockefeller Foundation's re-oundation's re-luctance to luctance to prioritizeprioritize population work in the 1940s and early 1950s, and population work in the 1940s and early 1950s, and gathered the gathered the leadingleading demographers, scientists, and administrators demographers, scientists, and administrators for for a a conference shortly after the WHO meeting.conference shortly after the WHO meeting.140
Having the Malthusian concerns on the minds with eug
Having the Malthusian concerns on the minds with eugenic, antienic, anti--com-com-munist agenda, munist agenda, the the conclusion of the meeting wasconclusion of the meeting was to helpto help those those societies societies already in need of already in need of population control population control assistance assistance and and to make to make the rest of the rest of the Third World “understand” the existence of their population problem the Third World “understand” the existence of their population problem by influencing local opinby influencing local opinion and policy, such as training local scholars ion and policy, such as training local scholars at at home or home or abroad, conducting seminars and KAP surveysabroad, conducting seminars and KAP surveys,, and and establishingestablishing research centers. Thus, a new organization, research centers. Thus, a new organization, the the Population CouncilPopulation Council,, was was established and established and became became the the world’s world’s leadingleading institute for policyinstitute for policy--oriented oriented research in demography and contraceptionresearch in demography and contraception. . It alsoIt also became a became a nexus for nexus for the the rest of the rest of the major major intellectual intellectual studies studies and and the field works the field works on popula-on popula-tion control tion control in the 1950s and early 1960s.in the 1950s and early 1960s.141
That
That same year, same year, the the International Planned Parenthood Federation International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) was (IPPF) was foundedfounded by by family planning organizations from the Ufamily planning organizations from the USS,, UKUK, , the Federal Republic of Germanythe Federal Republic of Germany, , Sweden, the Netherlands, Hong KongSweden, the Netherlands, Hong Kong,, SingaporeSingapore,, and and IndiIndiaa at a conference in Mumbai. at a conference in Mumbai. Unlike Unlike the Population the Population
138 Connelly, “Seeing beyond the State: The Population Control Movement and the Problem Connelly, “Seeing beyond the State: The Population Control Movement and the Problem of Sovereignty.”of Sovereignty.”
139 Kiser et al., “The Work of the Milbank Memorial Fund in Population since 1928.”Kiser et al., “The Work of the Milbank Memorial Fund in Population since 1928.”
140 Connelly, “Seeing beyond the State: The Population Control Movement and the Problem Connelly, “Seeing beyond the State: The Population Control Movement and the Problem of Sovereignty,” 219.of Sovereignty,” 219.
141 Connelly, Connelly, Fatal Misconception: The Struggle to Control World PopulationFatal Misconception: The Struggle to Control World Population, 154, 154––59.59.
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Coun
Council, which kept a low cil, which kept a low public public profile and maintained its organiza-profile and maintained its organiza-tional legitimacy by promoting itself as a scientific, politically neutral, tional legitimacy by promoting itself as a scientific, politically neutral, nonnon--propagandistic organizationpropagandistic organization, the , the IPPF IPPF sought sought to to buildbuild its support its support network by network by reaching out brreaching out broadly to the public oadly to the public mostly by using mostly by using media out-media out-lets lets such such as newspapers, magazines, radio, televisionas newspapers, magazines, radio, television and and public lecturespublic lectures,, and conferences to promote publicity of birth control and and conferences to promote publicity of birth control and increase increase ac-ac-ceptance of its use.ceptance of its use.142
Both organizations were largely funded by the Ford Foundation,
Both organizations were largely funded by the Ford Foundation, wwhichhich had devoted had devoted $ $ 100 million 100 million over over 16 16 yearsyears to to combat the combat the worldworld’s’s population problemspopulation problems,, more than any other public or privatemore than any other public or private entityentity.. The The Foundation has Foundation has played played a major a major rolerole in three general areas of population in three general areas of population work: the establishment and/or expansion of work: the establishment and/or expansion of collegecollege centers for centers for popula-popula-tion studies in the Ution studies in the US,S, support for support for population programs in developing population programs in developing countriescountries,, and finallyand finally,, research and training in reproductive biologyresearch and training in reproductive biology, , onon whicwhich 54% of the fundh 54% of the funding wasing was spent.spent.143
Indeed,
Indeed, from the beginning, from the beginning, the search for better contraceptithe search for better contraceptiveve tech-tech-nology was one of nology was one of the the main targets of both main targets of both the the Population Council and Population Council and IPPFIPPF,, but with different methods and motivations. IPPF defined the pur-but with different methods and motivations. IPPF defined the pur-pose of contrapose of contraception as a method ception as a method that allows that allows an individual woman or an individual woman or couple to couple to choosechoose when and how many children to have. Therefore, they when and how many children to have. Therefore, they supported supported contraceptive techniques contraceptive techniques with with high userhigh user responsibresponsibilityility such as such as oral contraceptives, known as “the pill.”oral contraceptives, known as “the pill.”144
In contrast, th
In contrast, the Population Councie Population Council soughtl sought to to influence the develop-influence the develop-ment ment and invention and invention ofof new new contraceptive technologcontraceptive technologies ies so that theyso that they would would best serve its best serve its goal of mass stabilization goal of mass stabilization of world population growthof world population growth, es-, es-peciallypecially in the Third World. As a result, the Council's conceptualization of in the Third World. As a result, the Council's conceptualization of the "ideal" contraceptive was a technthe "ideal" contraceptive was a technology that meant little responsibility ology that meant little responsibility
142 Suzanne A. Onorato, “Organizational Legitimacy and the Social Construction of Contra-Suzanne A. Onorato, “Organizational Legitimacy and the Social Construction of Contra-ceptives: The Politics of Technological Choice” (PhD Thesis, Duke University, 1990), ceptives: The Politics of Technological Choice” (PhD Thesis, Duke University, 1990), 169169––99.99.
143 OsOscar Harkavy, Lyle Saunders, and Anna L. Southam, “An Overview of the Ford Founda-car Harkavy, Lyle Saunders, and Anna L. Southam, “An Overview of the Ford Founda-tion’s Strategy for Population Work,”tion’s Strategy for Population Work,” Demography Demography 5, no. 2 (1968): 5415, no. 2 (1968): 541––52.52.
144 Onorato, “Organizational Legitimacy and the Social Construction of Contraceptives: The Onorato, “Organizational Legitimacy and the Social Construction of Contraceptives: The Politics of Technological Choice,” 223Politics of Technological Choice,” 223––26.26.
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for the user,
for the user, was inexpensive and had was inexpensive and had a a longlong--term effectiveness, such as term effectiveness, such as the the iintrauterine device (IUD).ntrauterine device (IUD).145
Both
Both pills and pills and IUDIUDs were assessed, s were assessed, and and developed in developed in the latethe late 1950s1950s,, and both were approved by US Food and Drug Administrationand both were approved by US Food and Drug Administration, FDA,, FDA, in in 1960. In some view1960. In some viewss,, this this was was ““single most important medical advancesingle most important medical advance of of thethe twentieth centurtwentieth centuryy in terms of in terms of improving women’s heimproving women’s health” and “one of alth” and “one of the the greatest successegreatest successes s ofof reproductive medicine.”reproductive medicine.”146
The pills were m
The pills were moreore a product of the “sexual revolution” of a product of the “sexual revolution” of the the 1960s1960s,, and some 10 of 13 million users worldwide were and some 10 of 13 million users worldwide were fromfrom developed coun-developed coun-tries.tries. 147 However,However, they were already on the Turkish market as early as they were already on the Turkish market as early as 1961, some four years before the manufacture and distribution of con-1961, some four years before the manufacture and distribution of con-traceptives became legal. It traceptives became legal. It waswas introduced introduced and classified and classified by the Ministry by the Ministry of Healthof Health as a hormonas a hormonalal preparation butpreparation but used as an oral contused as an oral contraceptive.raceptive.148 This This issueissue was was also also one of the debates in one of the debates in pparliamentary discussions arliamentary discussions dur-dur-ing the ing the approval of approval of ppopulation opulation pplanning item lanning item as an inevitable part of the as an inevitable part of the national planning in 1962.national planning in 1962. AA delegate Suat Seren and delegate Suat Seren and his his fifteen associ-fifteen associ-ates have asked to remove ates have asked to remove ppopulation opulation pplanning section, reasoning that all lanning section, reasoning that all the contraceptive items were already available the contraceptive items were already available oon the market.n the market.149
The IUDs on the other hand,
The IUDs on the other hand, were were the the primary primary meansmeans of of birth birth control control inin less developed countries because less developed countries because they werethey were relatively cheaprelatively cheap, , easyeasy to to administer, administer, providing providing faster faster and and measurable results for reducing popula-measurable results for reducing popula-tiontion..150 By 1967, IUDs were manufactured in By 1967, IUDs were manufactured in India, India, Egypt, Egypt, Pakistan, Pakistan, Hong Hong
145 Ibid., 226Ibid., 226––29.29.
146 John Frederick Kantner and Andrew KJohn Frederick Kantner and Andrew Kantner, antner, International Discord on Population and International Discord on Population and DevelopmentDevelopment (New York(New York:: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 22.Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 22.
147 Lara V. Marks,Lara V. Marks, SexuSexual Chemistry: al Chemistry: A History of the Contraceptive PillA History of the Contraceptive Pill (New Haven and Lon-(New Haven and Lon-don: Yale University Press, 2001), 184.don: Yale University Press, 2001), 184.
148 Robert H. Smith, Robert H. Smith, Contraceptive Distribution in the Commercial Sector of TurkeyContraceptive Distribution in the Commercial Sector of Turkey (West-(West-inghouse Population Center, Health Systems Division, April 1974), 31inghouse Population Center, Health Systems Division, April 1974), 31––32.32.
149 RRepublic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi)epublic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi), , (Term 2, (Term 2, Vol. 6, Meeting No: 7, November 10, 1962), 237Vol. 6, Meeting No: 7, November 10, 1962), 237––39.39.
150 Frank W. Notestein, “The Population Council and the Demographic Crisis of the Less De-Frank W. Notestein, “The Population Council and the Demographic Crisis of the Less De-veloped World,” veloped World,” DemographyDemography 5, no. 2 (1968): 5535, no. 2 (1968): 553––60.60.
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Kong,
Kong, Taiwan, Taiwan, South Korea and Turkey, and the South Korea and Turkey, and the necessarynecessary molds and raw molds and raw materials were materials were provided provided free of charge free of charge by the Poby the Population Council.pulation Council.151
In addition
In addition toto biomedical biomedical researchresearch, an intens, an intensiveive family planning family planning agenda was agenda was carried outcarried out for tfor the less developed countrieshe less developed countries, primarily, primarily by by Population Council Population Council granteesgrantees. In its very early years, the Population Coun-. In its very early years, the Population Coun-cil cil focusedfocused on on schoscholarshiplarship, research grants, and institutional support , research grants, and institutional support for for demographicdemographic, biological, biological,, and medical aspects of human reproduction andand medical aspects of human reproduction and family planningfamily planning,, particularly in the less developed regions of the worlparticularly in the less developed regions of the world. d. Within 15 years, the number of fellowship Within 15 years, the number of fellowship grantsgrants have reached 529have reached 529, of, of which 404 which 404 went to went to sscientistscientists, , physiciansphysicians, and practitioners , and practitioners from from under-under-developed countries.developed countries.152 ThirtyThirty--seven of thseven of these fellowshiese fellowships were ps were awardedawarded to Turkey. to Turkey. 153 Moreover, the Council Moreover, the Council has esthas establishedablished Population Studies Population Studies Research Institutes in Research Institutes in many developingmany developing countries including Turkey, to countries including Turkey, to ensure the continuation ofensure the continuation of networking, networking, surveys,surveys, and and information information flow. flow.
In
In 1955, 1956, and 19571955, 1956, and 1957, , a a series of meetings series of meetings were held under the were held under the auspicesauspices of the of the PopulPopulation Councilation Council to develop and define general princi-to develop and define general princi-ples for promoting birth control overseas.ples for promoting birth control overseas.154 Turkey was also Turkey was also on the on the agenda, but it was too early to discuss birth control. Instead, agenda, but it was too early to discuss birth control. Instead, the the Rocke-Rocke-feller Foundationfeller Foundation invited Professor H.J. Habakkukinvited Professor H.J. Habakkuk ofof Oxford Oxford ColleCollegege to to make presentation on “Population Increase and Economic Development” make presentation on “Population Increase and Economic Development” in Istanbul University Economy and Political Science divisions in March in Istanbul University Economy and Political Science divisions in March 1957.1957.155
As early as
As early as 19551955,, the Council the Council had advised had advised the the Indian government to Indian government to establishestablish the the FPPFPP, and, and in 1959in 1959 another another mission went to Pakistan for mission went to Pakistan for
151 Emily R. Merchant, “Prediction and Control: Global Population, Population Science, and Emily R. Merchant, “Prediction and Control: Global Population, Population Science, and Population Politics in the Twentieth Century” (PhD Thesis, University of Michigan, Population Politics in the Twentieth Century” (PhD Thesis, University of Michigan, 2015), 401.2015), 401.
152 Frederic Osborn, “The Population Council Fellowship Program,”Frederic Osborn, “The Population Council Fellowship Program,” The Milbank Memorial The Milbank Memorial Fund QuarterlyFund Quarterly 32, no. 1 (1954): 11832, no. 1 (1954): 118––19.19.
153 Aziz Küçük, “Hayırseverliğin Ötesi: Türkiye’de Nüfus ve Tarım Politikalarında Rockefel-Aziz Küçük, “Hayırseverliğin Ötesi: Türkiye’de Nüfus ve Tarım Politikalarında Rockefel-ler Etkisi,” ler Etkisi,” Ankara Üniversitesi SBF DergisiAnkara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 2019, 1, 2019, 1––26.26.
154 Piotrow, Piotrow, World Population Crisis: The United States ResponsWorld Population Crisis: The United States Response, 14.e, 14.
155 Aydın Yalçın, “Bir Aydın Yalçın, “Bir kkonferans ‘Nüfus onferans ‘Nüfus aartışrtışı ve ı ve iiktisadi ktisadi ggelişme,’” elişme,’” ForumForum, April 1, 1957., April 1, 1957.
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technical assistance
technical assistance..156 As the As the leading leading specialized specialized agency on agency on population population controlcontrol, the , the CCouncil was ouncil was asked byasked by a number of developing countries, in-a number of developing countries, in-cluding Taiwan, Tunisia, South Korea, and Turkey, to help establish cluding Taiwan, Tunisia, South Korea, and Turkey, to help establish na-na-tional FPPs between 1961 and 1963htional FPPs between 1961 and 1963h. By 1965, the Council . By 1965, the Council had had expanded expanded its technical assistance program to Thailand, the Philippines, Kenya, Mo-its technical assistance program to Thailand, the Philippines, Kenya, Mo-rocco, and Iran.rocco, and Iran.157
2.2.6 A A Hidden Global Soft PowerHidden Global Soft Power
Until the
Until the early 1early 1960s, the global population control 960s, the global population control activities were coor-activities were coor-dinated by thdinated by theese private organizations. se private organizations. The The US government and US government and the the insti-insti-tutions tutions of UN avoided of UN avoided becoming becoming politically involved politically involved in this in this delicate mat-delicate mat-ter. On the other hand, in line with the developmentalist ter. On the other hand, in line with the developmentalist discourse, globaldiscourse, global financial financial instituinstitutionstions such as such as the the World Bank, World Bank, the the IBRDIBRD,, and and the the IMF had IMF had already begun to criticizealready begun to criticize higher fertility rates of higher fertility rates of developing nations in developing nations in their country reports as early as 1949. their country reports as early as 1949.
In the
In the early early report on the mission to Colombia, the report on the mission to Colombia, the World World Bank ex-Bank ex-pressed concern about the impact of pressed concern about the impact of the the exorbitant exorbitant growth of growth of the ruralthe rural population on economic development and the decline in productivity.population on economic development and the decline in productivity.158 AA 1949 1949 IBRD IBRD economic report for Turkey also highlights the simieconomic report for Turkey also highlights the similar com-lar com-ments about the excessive ments about the excessive population butpopulation but fforesaworesaw no danger due to ex-no danger due to ex-cessive cultivable areas.cessive cultivable areas.159 Another report for Ceylon in 1953 was bold Another report for Ceylon in 1953 was bold enough to urge the government to take immediate action to enough to urge the government to take immediate action to initiateinitiate na-na-tional family planning.tional family planning.160 Yet, Yet, neither thneither the report noe report norr the the Ceylonese Ceylonese
156 In 1959,In 1959, East Bengal, now the independent country of BangladeshEast Bengal, now the independent country of Bangladesh, was also in the ter-, was also in the ter-ritory of Pakistan.ritory of Pakistan.
157 Chikako Takeshita, Chikako Takeshita, The Global Biopolitics of the IUDThe Global Biopolitics of the IUD (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2012), (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2012), 14.14.
158 Michele AlacevichMichele Alacevich, , The Political Economy of the The Political Economy of the World Bank, Early YearsWorld Bank, Early Years (Stanford(Stanford, Cali-, Cali-fornia: Stanford University Press, 200fornia: Stanford University Press, 2009), 67.9), 67.
159 International Bank for Reconstruction and DevelopmentInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development,, “Economic Report on Turkey” “Economic Report on Turkey” (Washington D.C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1949).(Washington D.C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1949).
160 Gary S. KyzrGary S. Kyzr--Sheerly, “The Evolution of Population Policies in The World Health Organi-Sheerly, “The Evolution of Population Policies in The World Health Organi-zatiozationn" in" in The World Bank and The United Nations Fund For Population ActivitiesThe World Bank and The United Nations Fund For Population Activities” (Indi-” (Indi-ana University, 1980), 96.ana University, 1980), 96.
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government’s
government’s persistent calls for international aid persistent calls for international aid were heard were heard atat UNUN meetimeetingsngs..
T
Thesehese country reports and their recommendationscountry reports and their recommendations have have been been taken taken seriously by the international donors during the negotiations for finan-seriously by the international donors during the negotiations for finan-cial aidcial aid especially by the midespecially by the mid--1950s.1950s. And presumably population control And presumably population control should have been considered as an additional “hidden” should have been considered as an additional “hidden” criterioncriterion in thin theese se agreements. agreements.
In examining the loan agreements with various countries, no written
In examining the loan agreements with various countries, no written evidence was found that specifically revidence was found that specifically referred to population control, pos-eferred to population control, pos-sibly because this issue might stir antisibly because this issue might stir anti--colonial sentiments in the decolo-colonial sentiments in the decolo-nizing world about the "growth of the poor, dark South under the control nizing world about the "growth of the poor, dark South under the control of the rich, white North," as one of the senior World Bank officials admit-of the rich, white North," as one of the senior World Bank officials admit-tteded..161 However, there is some evidence of this conditionality from other However, there is some evidence of this conditionality from other sources. For example, during discussions on population control in the sources. For example, during discussions on population control in the Turkish Assembly in 1962, Deputy Prime Minister Turhan Feyzioğlu Turkish Assembly in 1962, Deputy Prime Minister Turhan Feyzioğlu stated that not only the IMF and IBDR, but also tstated that not only the IMF and IBDR, but also the NATO missions were he NATO missions were constantly urging them to lower theconstantly urging them to lower the fertility rates.fertility rates.162
Furthermore, the hidden soft power of th
Furthermore, the hidden soft power of theese global institutions to im-se global institutions to im-pose population planning on developing countries in the late 1950s and pose population planning on developing countries in the late 1950s and 1960s 1960s waswas more evident as part of more evident as part of the the ddevelopmentalist discourse. evelopmentalist discourse. Not Not only did theseonly did these global institutions set the developmentalist debate global institutions set the developmentalist debate in mo-in mo-tion tion by sponsoring Coale and Hoover’s work on the inverse relationship by sponsoring Coale and Hoover’s work on the inverse relationship between development and population, between development and population, discussed in tdiscussed in the previous sec-he previous sec-tions, but tions, but they they also also ensured thatensured that thethe population control policies population control policies were were mentionedmentioned in the national development reportin the national development reportss of of allall developing coun-developing coun-tries indebted to tries indebted to the the IMF or IMF or the the World BankWorld Bank..
Jan Tinbergen, a senior
Jan Tinbergen, a senior economist,economist, and advent defender ofand advent defender of the devel-the devel-opmentalist thopmentalist thinkinginking, was , was appointed appointed by the Turkish and Indonesian gov-by the Turkish and Indonesian gov-ernments ernments as a senior consultant for the as a senior consultant for the preparpreparation ofation of their national de-their national de-velopment reports. However, it was velopment reports. However, it was the the OECD and OECD and the the World Bank that World Bank that forced thforced theese governments, which were se governments, which were in the midin the midstst of of aa financial crises financial crises
161 Connelly,Connelly, Fatal Misconception: The Struggle to Control World PopulationFatal Misconception: The Struggle to Control World Population, 245., 245.
162 Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak DergisiCumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi)), , November November 10, 1962), 23910, 1962), 239––41.41.
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and
and in in desperate needed desperate needed of of foreign loans, to accept foreign expertiseforeign loans, to accept foreign expertise,, andand they namedthey named TinbergenTinbergen in in particularparticular..163 And he further And he further advised during the advised during the procesprocesss that the reports should be that the reports should be written written according to the according to the HarrodHarrod--Do-Do-mar mar mmodelodel,, which puts the population growth as awhich puts the population growth as an impediment ton impediment to eco-eco-nomic growth nomic growth as as iit t is believed to is believed to reduce savingsreduce savings the the resourcesresources..164
2.2.7 Into a FullInto a Full--Fledged International SupportFledged International Support
The idea o
The idea off population controlpopulation control waswas gradually gradually put on theput on the agenda agenda byby the US the US ggovernment overnment oon various n various occasionsoccasions. I. In 1959, n 1959, tthe Presidential Advisory he Presidential Advisory Board known asBoard known as thethe “Draper Committee,” “Draper Committee,” which was which was commissioned to commissioned to study on the US Military Assistance Program, produced a formal recom-study on the US Military Assistance Program, produced a formal recom-mendation to assist developing countrmendation to assist developing countries control their populationies control their populationss. The . The aid package consisted of monetary assistance, technical and knowhow aid package consisted of monetary assistance, technical and knowhow transfer, maternal and child welfare programstransfer, maternal and child welfare programs,, and research programs in and research programs in coordination with coordination with the UNthe UN..165
This first official
This first official mention of mention of the global the global population problem in a reportpopulation problem in a report onon international military international military assistanceassistance is a is a clearclear indication that controlling indication that controlling population population inin the developing world was mothe developing world was more a matter re a matter of security for of security for the the US hegemonic enterprise. US hegemonic enterprise. The The “taboo” “taboo” remained however,remained however, and President and President EisenhoEisenhower respondedwer responded, , "This government will not, as long as I am here, "This government will not, as long as I am here, have a positive political doctrine in its program that has to do with the have a positive political doctrine in its program that has to do with the problem of birth control. That is not our businessproblem of birth control. That is not our business..””166
US hesitation continued under the first Catholic President Ken
US hesitation continued under the first Catholic President Kennedy, nedy, who called birth control a personal and national decision and refused to who called birth control a personal and national decision and refused to link it to economic developmentlink it to economic development..167 AAuthorization for foreign aid was uthorization for foreign aid was
163 Erwin Dekker, Erwin Dekker, Jan Tinbergen (1903Jan Tinbergen (1903––1994) and the Rise of Economic Expertise1994) and the Rise of Economic Expertise (New York: (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 309.Cambridge University Press, 2021), 309.
164 Monica Das Gupta, John Bongaarts, and John Cleland, “Population, Poverty, and Sustain-Monica Das Gupta, John Bongaarts, and John Cleland, “Population, Poverty, and Sustain-able Development: A Review of the Evidence,” able Development: A Review of the Evidence,” Policy Research Working PaperPolicy Research Working Paper (The (The World Bank, 2011).World Bank, 2011).
165 The President’s Committee to Study the United States Military Assistance Program, The President’s Committee to Study the United States Military Assistance Program, “Composite Report” (Washington D.C., 1959), 96“Composite Report” (Washington D.C., 1959), 96––97.97.
166 Piotrow, Piotrow, World Population Crisis: The United States ResponseWorld Population Crisis: The United States Response, 45, 45––46.46.
167 Ibid., 72Ibid., 72––73.73.
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finally signed in
finally signed in December 1963, December 1963, by President Johnsonby President Johnson,, who in 1965 had who in 1965 had quotedquoted,, “Let us act on the fact that “Let us act on the fact that less than five dollars invested in pop-less than five dollars invested in pop-ulation control is worth a hundred dollars invested in economic ulation control is worth a hundred dollars invested in economic growthgrowth..””168
The funds were distributed through
The funds were distributed through the the United United States Agency for In-States Agency for In-ternational Development (USAID), which provided well over half of all ternational Development (USAID), which provided well over half of all international aid, both public and private between 1967 and 1973.international aid, both public and private between 1967 and 1973.169
T
Turkey was the urkey was the first major government to first major government to receive receive family planning as-family planning as-sistance in the form of a sistance in the form of a $ $ 3.6 million loan to purchase 1,400 jeeps 3.6 million loan to purchase 1,400 jeeps andand audioaudiovvisual equipment for rural family planning isual equipment for rural family planning networknetwork,, which turned which turned out to be a out to be a majormajor disappointment and only half of the loan was material-disappointment and only half of the loan was material-ized.ized.170 Nevertheless, Nevertheless, the the Turkish Turkish ggovernment purchased the full set of overnment purchased the full set of equipmentequipment onon the local market.the local market.171
The resistance that still existed to the active involvement
The resistance that still existed to the active involvement of of the the UN in UN in supporting family planning was largely supporting family planning was largely overcomeovercome in 1967 by the estab-in 1967 by the estab-lishment of a semilishment of a semi--independent trust fund, the United Nations Fund for independent trust fund, the United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA)Population Activities (UNFPA). . Not only the changing attitude of the US Not only the changing attitude of the US government, but also the persongovernment, but also the personal efforts of John D. Rockefeller 3al efforts of John D. Rockefeller 3rdrd had a had a major impact on the creation of this new organization when he distrib-major impact on the creation of this new organization when he distrib-uted "The World Leaders' Statement" to the presidents of developing uted "The World Leaders' Statement" to the presidents of developing countries in 1966 and obtained the signatures of thirty countriescountries in 1966 and obtained the signatures of thirty countries..172 The The ststatement, which affirmed that "the ability to decide the number and atement, which affirmed that "the ability to decide the number and spacing of children is a basic human right," was submitted to the Secre-spacing of children is a basic human right," was submitted to the Secre-tariat of UN as evidence of world readiness for family planning and was tariat of UN as evidence of world readiness for family planning and was additional leverage for UN to establish UNFPA.additional leverage for UN to establish UNFPA.173
168 Ibid., 78.Ibid., 78.
169 Peter J. Donaldson, Peter J. Donaldson, Nature Against Us: The United States and the World Population Crisis, Nature Against Us: The United States and the World Population Crisis, 19651965--19801980 (Chapel Hill: University of North(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 48.Carolina Press, 1990), 48.
170 Piotrow, Piotrow, World Population Crisis: The United States Response, World Population Crisis: The United States Response, 129.129.
171 Prime Ministry, “Sağlık ve Sosyal Yardım Bakanlığı ihtiyacı için Jeep, YedePrime Ministry, “Sağlık ve Sosyal Yardım Bakanlığı ihtiyacı için Jeep, Yedek Parça, Nüfus k Parça, Nüfus Planlaması Planlaması iiçin Tavsiye ve Eğitim Materyalinin satın alınması” (Republican Archives, çin Tavsiye ve Eğitim Materyalinin satın alınması” (Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30.18.1.2 / 223.62.6, August 16, 1968).Catalog no. 30.18.1.2 / 223.62.6, August 16, 1968).
172 United Nations Economic and Social Council, “General Discussions on International Eco-United Nations Economic and Social Council, “General Discussions on International Eco-nomic and Socnomic and Social Policy,” E/SR.1480, 43ial Policy,” E/SR.1480, 43rdrd Session (Geneva, July 11, 1967).Session (Geneva, July 11, 1967).
173 Harkavy, CHarkavy, Curbing Population Growth,urbing Population Growth, 53.53.
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Turkish Minister Suleyman Demirel was also among
Turkish Minister Suleyman Demirel was also among thethe recipients of recipients of the draft statement circulated. the draft statement circulated. Even thoughEven though the population planning law the population planning law was already passed a year ago, Demirel, who was aware of the discus-was already passed a year ago, Demirel, who was aware of the discus-sions within UN, refused to sign it by stating: sions within UN, refused to sign it by stating:
“I strongly
“I strongly belibelieeveve that the achievement of aspiration that the achievement of aspiration atat the inter-the inter-national level should be realized through thnational level should be realized through the medium of an inter-e medium of an inter-national forum representing the consensus of a majority of the na-national forum representing the consensus of a majority of the na-tions, i.e., the UN organization. Apparently, the time is not yet ripe tions, i.e., the UN organization. Apparently, the time is not yet ripe for such a venture. On the other hand, I am inclined to think that for such a venture. On the other hand, I am inclined to think that declarations by a comparatively sdeclarations by a comparatively small group carry with them the mall group carry with them the danger of further controversy already existing with regard to ex-danger of further controversy already existing with regard to ex-tremely sensitive problem.”tremely sensitive problem.”174
Surprisingly, the Soviet delegation had changed
Surprisingly, the Soviet delegation had changed itsits irreconcilable Marxist irreconcilable Marxist position on population control and acknowledged it as anposition on population control and acknowledged it as an acute problem acute problem in in the the UN assembly. Di Maio explains that twist with two motives. FirstUN assembly. Di Maio explains that twist with two motives. First,, to to avoid avoid becombecominging irrelevant to irrelevant to the the developing world and falldeveloping world and fallinging behind behind itsits other rivalother rival,, ChinaChina,, which which declared itself the intellectual and political declared itself the intellectual and political leader of the Thirdleader of the Third World and was already pursuing a policy of popula-World and was already pursuing a policy of popula-tion controltion control. Second,. Second, to contain the high birth rates of Central Asian Mus-to contain the high birth rates of Central Asian Mus-lims, who posed a threat to the dwindling European Slavic populationlims, who posed a threat to the dwindling European Slavic population..175
The new organization allowed special funds to be used for s
The new organization allowed special funds to be used for specific pecific purposes, so donors could avoid derailing their favorite programs in gen-purposes, so donors could avoid derailing their favorite programs in gen-eral assemblies.eral assemblies.176 Within two years, UNFPA became the largest and most Within two years, UNFPA became the largest and most influential multilateral organization in the field of population policy. As influential multilateral organization in the field of population policy. As expected, the largest donor was USAID, expected, the largest donor was USAID, they were in in belief that they were in in belief that UN aid UN aid to FPPs would be more politically acceptable and legitto FPPs would be more politically acceptable and legitimate for many imate for many
174 Prime Ministry, “Milletlerarası Aile Planlaması konusunda Başbakan Süleyman Demirel Prime Ministry, “Milletlerarası Aile Planlaması konusunda Başbakan Süleyman Demirel ile John D. Rockefeller 3ile John D. Rockefeller 3rdrd Arasındaki Yazışmalar” (Republican Archives, Catalog no. Arasındaki Yazışmalar” (Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30.1.0.0/ 9.52.1, January 31, 1967).30.1.0.0/ 9.52.1, January 31, 1967).
175 Di Maio, “The Soviet Union and Population,” 110Di Maio, “The Soviet Union and Population,” 110––12.12.
176 Finkle and McIntosh, “The New Politics of Population,”Finkle and McIntosh, “The New Politics of Population,” 88––11.11.
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Third World countries than aid offered by a single developed country,
Third World countries than aid offered by a single developed country, particularly the Uparticularly the US.S.177
Summary of 2.
Summary of 2.22
This
This sectionsection depicted thedepicted the conceptualization of the population control ide-conceptualization of the population control ide-ology and its ology and its institutionalizationinstitutionalization process for its transfer process for its transfer to to the developingthe developing worldworld.. As the prominent French demographer Alfred Sauvy As the prominent French demographer Alfred Sauvy noted noted as as early as 1949, the fear of world overpopulation reearly as 1949, the fear of world overpopulation reemerged with emerged with the de-the de-mise of colonialism, internationalism, and mise of colonialism, internationalism, and the the rise of the hegemonic ri-rise of the hegemonic ri-valry between valry between the the US and US and the the SoviSoviet Union on the world domination. And et Union on the world domination. And world demography was another world demography was another venue venue of of the the interplay.interplay.178
The
The issues issues mentioned in this section such as expanmentioned in this section such as expansion of the longsion of the long--studied demographic transition theory to the global sphere in the 1930s, studied demographic transition theory to the global sphere in the 1930s, the transformation of tthe transformation of the theory from an outcome of modernization to he theory from an outcome of modernization to an independent variable after an independent variable after WWIIWWII, the , the focusfocus on measuring “unmet on measuring “unmet need” need” throughthrough KAP surveys, and finally attaching population control to KAP surveys, and finally attaching population control to ddevelopmentalist discourse in the late 1950s, had some inevitable corre-evelopmentalist discourse in the late 1950s, had some inevitable corre-lalations tions withwith the the shift in shift in US foreign policy from internationalism and US foreign policy from internationalism and the the antianti--colonial agenda in colonial agenda in thethe 1930s to 1930s to CCold old WWar rivalry after the ar rivalry after the WWIIWWII..
The need for an immediate solution
The need for an immediate solution toto the “overpopulation the “overpopulation problem” problem” ledled to to the creation of the creation of more effective and more effective and stimulatingstimulating conceptualizations conceptualizations for the for the TThird hird WWorld such as “unmet need” and population control as a orld such as “unmet need” and population control as a precondition of the development. precondition of the development.
In addition
In addition toto the changes in the theoretical ground, the US based the changes in the theoretical ground, the US based private foundations had created a flprivate foundations had created a flexible organization and used their po-exible organization and used their po-litical, sociallitical, social,, and economic and economic connectionsconnections to promote the movement to promote the movement in the in the developing world and also developing world and also amongamong the US government and international the US government and international associations associations that werethat were reluctant reluctant to intervene. Yet international institu-to intervene. Yet international institu-tionstions,, especially especially the the financial onesfinancial ones,, did not hesitate did not hesitate toto put put additionaladditional
177 Donaldson, Donaldson, Nature Against Us: The United States and the World Population CrisisNature Against Us: The United States and the World Population Crisis, , 19651965--19801980, 119, 119––24.24.
178 Alfred Sauvy, “Alfred Sauvy on the World Population Problem: A View in 1949,” Alfred Sauvy, “Alfred Sauvy on the World Population Problem: A View in 1949,” Popula-Popula-tion and Development Reviewtion and Development Review 16, no. 4 (1990): 75916, no. 4 (1990): 759--74.74.
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pressure on developing
pressure on developing countriescountries to ato adoptdopt population control policies in population control policies in the context of the context of the the developmentalist discourse. developmentalist discourse.
However, all th
However, all theese hard efforts se hard efforts atat the global sphere to change the the global sphere to change the population control discourse and to create effective networks with devel-population control discourse and to create effective networks with devel-oping oping worldworld would not be a meaningful pursuit without the consent of would not be a meaningful pursuit without the consent of national and individual spheres, which had their own reasons and justi-national and individual spheres, which had their own reasons and justi-fications fications fofor r switchswitchinging to antinatalist policies. to antinatalist policies.
§ 2.3 Population Control in National SpherePopulation Control in National Sphere
This dissertation refutes the
This dissertation refutes the notion notion that the population control move-that the population control move-ment of the 1960s was a topment of the 1960s was a top--down global hegemonic infusion. Instead, it down global hegemonic infusion. Instead, it aarguesrgues that the ideology was equally that the ideology was equally developed at both thedeveloped at both the national and national and individual spheres with different tools, but for the same purposeindividual spheres with different tools, but for the same purpose,, to ito im-m-proveprove the quality of the good life. the quality of the good life.
This section elaborates the driving forces of population control poli-
This section elaborates the driving forces of population control poli-cies in the cies in the national sphere. What did population mean to a developing national sphere. What did population mean to a developing nation in the 1950s and 1960s in the context of a decolonization ap-nation in the 1950s and 1960s in the context of a decolonization ap-proach? proach? How did it affect the capability and functioning of the nation/rul-How did it affect the capability and functioning of the nation/rul-ing elites? And mostly what were the economic, politicing elites? And mostly what were the economic, politicalal,, and social fac-and social fac-tors that led governmentstors that led governments toto change their parameterchange their parameters towardss towards antinatalism and interact with the global sphere? These are the main antinatalism and interact with the global sphere? These are the main questions that this section questions that this section seeks to answerseeks to answer by analyzing by analyzing the changing so-the changing so-cial, economic, and political conditioncial, economic, and political conditions in the twenty developing coun-s in the twenty developing coun-tries that led them to accept population control policies before 1970.tries that led them to accept population control policies before 1970.
Reminiscing the inception of the population control idea in the
Reminiscing the inception of the population control idea in the nine-nine-teenthteenth century industrializing world, in which class conflicts, century industrializing world, in which class conflicts, the the French French RevolutionRevolution,, and mass ruraland mass rural--urban migration curban migration caused unrest,aused unrest, and and stimu-stimu-latedlated antinatalist ideas as a solutionantinatalist ideas as a solution. T. This study chis study contendsontends that the that the devel-devel-oping nations of the decolonizing world oping nations of the decolonizing world in the 1950s and 1960s in the 1950s and 1960s also also struggled with struggled with some major key issuessome major key issues that ithat ignitedgnited populatipopulation control on control idea idea in the national sphere.in the national sphere.
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Figure 2.1
Figure 2.1 Countries Countries acceptedaccepted ffamily amily pplanning until 1970lanning until 1970. . SOURCESOURCE: : https://historicalmapchart.nethttps://historicalmapchart.net with national borders as of with national borders as of 1965.1965.
Th
Thee key key issuesissues and commonalities, and commonalities, identifiedidentified during the research process during the research process of thof the population literature of thesee population literature of these twenty countriestwenty countries include include internal mi-internal mi-gration, military coups, famines, econogration, military coups, famines, economic crismic crisees, ethnic conflicts, and re-s, ethnic conflicts, and re-source scarcity. In addition source scarcity. In addition toto ththeese factors, the sse factors, the strongtrong personal commit-personal commit-ment of some of ment of some of the heads of the state in the heads of the state in ththeese developingse developing countries to countries to antinatalist creed as a crucial part of antinatalist creed as a crucial part of the the modernization and developmen-modernization and developmen-taltalization process was ization process was critical critical key key to to uncover uncover in a comparative fashion. in a comparative fashion.
However, there were also some pronatalist currents during this pe-
However, there were also some pronatalist currents during this pe-riod that showed appreciation for the poor lower classes over the ruling riod that showed appreciation for the poor lower classes over the ruling elites, even in the national sphere. Telites, even in the national sphere. Therefore, to herefore, to demonstrate the prag-demonstrate the prag-matic mentality of population change based on life forms and quality of matic mentality of population change based on life forms and quality of life approaches, this section begins with some notable examples of the life approaches, this section begins with some notable examples of the shiftshifting policiesing policies between antinatalism and pronatalism.between antinatalism and pronatalism.
2.3.1 Pronatalism against AntiPronatalism against Antinatalismnatalism
One of the
One of the main assumptionmain assumptionss of this dissertation is that population policy of this dissertation is that population policy decisiondecisions are s are based on the based on the changing impact of changing impact of bare and unbearable bare and unbearable lifelife on the quality of good life, which is not necessarily move towards the an-on the quality of good life, which is not necessarily move towards the an-tinatalist direction. tinatalist direction. CountrCountries could adjust ies could adjust their population policies their population policies based on their changing capability and functioning. based on their changing capability and functioning.
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In
In CCommunist ommunist China, populationChina, population growthgrowth was perceived as was perceived as proof of proof of so-so-cialist virtue and birth control as a cialist virtue and birth control as a way to wipe out way to wipe out the Chinese people the Chinese people without without bloodshebloodshedd in in the the earlyearly years of the years of the 1949 1949 revolution.revolution.179 RRe-e-strictions strictions onon access access to to contraception were contraception were soon relaxed soon relaxed after women after women were called were called upon upon to participate in “socialist construction” in the to participate in “socialist construction” in the ffirst irst FFiveive--YYear ear Plan for NPlan for National ational DDeevevelopment lopment oof 1953f 1953--1957.1957.180 However, hostile However, hostile confrontation with confrontation with the two the two superpowers, and China’s isolation from tech-superpowers, and China’s isolation from tech-nologically advanced countries in the late 1950snologically advanced countries in the late 1950s promptedprompted Mao to en-Mao to en-dorsedorse the 1958the 1958 “Great Leap Forward” movement“Great Leap Forward” movement, which , which envisioned envisioned la-la-borbor--intensive industrialization andintensive industrialization and mass mobilizationmass mobilization with with a a fullfull--fledged fledged pronatalist vision.pronatalist vision.181
In Indonesia, too, Sukarno, the first president after decolonization,
In Indonesia, too, Sukarno, the first president after decolonization, presented the population question as one of exploiting the available labor presented the population question as one of exploiting the available labor power by mobilizing the masses. And he consistentlpower by mobilizing the masses. And he consistently dismissed the dire y dismissed the dire warnings of USwarnings of US--educated technocrats that Indonesia had a population educated technocrats that Indonesia had a population problem that threatened the country's development prospects during his problem that threatened the country's development prospects during his reign until 1967reign until 1967..182
In the case of Turkey, which we will discuss in more detail in the next
In the case of Turkey, which we will discuss in more detail in the next chapchapters, the rural masses were perceived as voting ters, the rural masses were perceived as voting stockstock for the for the DP DP gov-gov-ernment in the 1950s. Although they shared the modernist and develop-ernment in the 1950s. Although they shared the modernist and develop-mentalist vision of the mentalist vision of the West andWest and had a heavy economic debt that made had a heavy economic debt that made them vulnerable to the intrusion of foreign developthem vulnerable to the intrusion of foreign developmentalist ideologiesmentalist ideologies--including population controlincluding population control, , the antinatalist demands from the West the antinatalist demands from the West were were persistently persistently rejected by government officials. Even after family rejected by government officials. Even after family planning was legalized, planning was legalized, DP’s political heir AP government did not sign the DP’s political heir AP government did not sign the World Leader’s StatemWorld Leader’s Statement for accepting population control in 1966, and ent for accepting population control in 1966, and
179 John S. Aird, “Population Policy in Mainland China,”John S. Aird, “Population Policy in Mainland China,” Population StudiesPopulation Studies 16, no. 1 (1962): 16, no. 1 (1962): 3838––57.57.
180 Susan Susan Greenhalgh and Edwin A. Winckler, Greenhalgh and Edwin A. Winckler, Governing China’s Population: From Leninist Governing China’s Population: From Leninist to Neoliberal Biopoliticsto Neoliberal Biopolitics (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2005), 65.(Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2005), 65.
181 Ibid., 55Ibid., 55––75.75.
182 Brad Simson, “IndonesBrad Simson, “Indonesia’s ‘Accelerated Modernization’ and the Global Discourse of De-ia’s ‘Accelerated Modernization’ and the Global Discourse of De-velopment, 1960velopment, 1960--1975,” 1975,” Diplomatic HistoryDiplomatic History 33, no. 10 (2009): 46733, no. 10 (2009): 467––86.86.
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was reluctant to enforce the
was reluctant to enforce the llaw, aw, largely for largely for fear of provoking rural fear of provoking rural con-con-stituencies.stituencies.
In Egypt, although President Nasser expressed concern that the in-
In Egypt, although President Nasser expressed concern that the in-crease in fertility might hinder development and suppocrease in fertility might hinder development and supported birth control rted birth control initiated by the Egyptian women's movement in the midinitiated by the Egyptian women's movement in the mid--1950s, he soon 1950s, he soon downplayed his support for these activities for fear of arousing conserva-downplayed his support for these activities for fear of arousing conserva-tive religious opposition.tive religious opposition.183 Moreover, after the construction of the huge Moreover, after the construction of the huge Aswan Dam with RussiaAswan Dam with Russian help and the unification with Syria to form the n help and the unification with Syria to form the United Arab Republic in the late 1950s, Nasser became more confident United Arab Republic in the late 1950s, Nasser became more confident that economic development could absorb the population increase.that economic development could absorb the population increase.184
The above
The above cases cases confirmconfirm that higher population that higher population size size could still be could still be an an advantageadvantage for some developing countries in the 1950s and 1960s for some developing countries in the 1950s and 1960s when when it came toit came to economic or territorial expansion and power consolidation economic or territorial expansion and power consolidation through votes. Yet, many developing countries, including those men-through votes. Yet, many developing countries, including those men-tioned abovetioned above,, adoptedadopted population control policies by the midpopulation control policies by the mid--1960s, 1960s, when the masses were no when the masses were no longer longer a comfort but a burden a comfort but a burden toto national gov-national gov-ernments. ernments.
2.3.2 NeoNeo--Malthusian ConcernsMalthusian Concerns
A popular
A popular nneoeo--Malthusian and environmentalist myth about the popula-Malthusian and environmentalist myth about the popula-tion control movement, still valid todtion control movement, still valid today, was simply the “population ay, was simply the “population bomb” of the Third World as a result of the rapidbomb” of the Third World as a result of the rapidly decliningly declining mortality mortality rates after rates after WWIIWWII, and fear, and fearss that ththat thisis population flow would diminish population flow would diminish scarce resources.scarce resources.185
However,
However, this dissertation this dissertation arguesargues that this assumption is an othat this assumption is an oversim-versim-plification and misleading for the Third Worplification and misleading for the Third Worlldd, with the , with the exceptexception of ion of the the IndianIndian PeninsulaPeninsula,, where the where the idea of the idea of the population bomb population bomb ooriginatedriginated..186
183 Laura Kathleen Landolt, “Norms, PopLaura Kathleen Landolt, “Norms, Population Control, USAID and Egypt” (PhD Thesis, ulation Control, USAID and Egypt” (PhD Thesis, The University of Arizona, 2004), 121.The University of Arizona, 2004), 121.
184 Haifaa AM El Salam Shanawany, “Family Planning; An Equilibrium Response to Demo-Haifaa AM El Salam Shanawany, “Family Planning; An Equilibrium Response to Demo-graphic Conditions in The United Arab Republic (Egypt)” (PhD Thesis, Cornell Univer-graphic Conditions in The United Arab Republic (Egypt)” (PhD Thesis, Cornell Univer-sity, 1967), 226sity, 1967), 226––30.30.
185 Paul R EhrlPaul R Ehrlich, ich, Population BombPopulation Bomb (New York: Ballantine Books, 1986).(New York: Ballantine Books, 1986).
186 Ibid., 1Ibid., 1––2.2.
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Table 2.1
Table 2.1 demonstdemonstratesrates the average annual population growth of coun-the average annual population growth of coun-tries tries that that accepted population control accepted population control before 1970 for the period be-before 1970 for the period be-tween 1950tween 1950--1956 and between 19601956 and between 1960--1965. Since 1965. Since fifteen of twenty coun-fifteen of twenty coun-triestries did not enforce did not enforce population control policies population control policies until until 19651965, one could , one could expect to see expect to see a visible increase between tha visible increase between theese twose two periods periods to to confirmconfirm the the population bompopulation bomb assumption. b assumption.
Table 2.
Table 2.11 Change in Change in ppopulation opulation ggrowth rowth 19501950--19651965
Country
Country
Population
Population Planning LawPlanning Law
Average annual
Average annual poppop.. growth % growth % 1950 1950 –– 19561956
Average annual
Average annual poppop. . growth % growth % 1960 1960 -- 19651965
Change
Change % % IndiaIndia 19521952 11..7171 22..0505 20%20% PakistanPakistan 19601960 11..5151 22..4848 64%64% South KoreaSouth Korea 19611961 22..2727 22..6363 16%16% ChinaChina 19621962 11..9898 11..8585 --7%7% TunisiaTunisia 19641964 11..7979 11..7070 --5%5% TurkeyTurkey 19651965 22..5151 22..4040 --4%4% EgyptEgypt 19651965 22..5454 22..6767 5%5% Sri Lanka Sri Lanka 19651965 11..9393 22..3636 22%22% SingaporeSingapore 19651965 44..8989 22..7979 --43%43% KenyaKenya 19661966 22..7979 33..2020 15%15% MalaysiaMalaysia 19661966 22..8383 33..1111 10%10% NepalNepal 19661966 11..8888 11..6565 --12%12% JamaicaJamaica 19661966 11..8888 11..5151 --20%20% IranIran 19671967 22..3939 22..6161 9%9% BangladeshBangladesh 19671967 22..1010 22..8686 36%36% IndonesiaIndonesia 19681968 22..1111 22..6767 27%27% MoroccoMorocco 19681968 33..1212 22..8787 --8%8% TaiwanTaiwan 19681968 33..7979 33..4242 --10%10% DominicDominic 19681968 33..2525 33..2626 0%0% GhanaGhana 19691969 22..5858 33..0808 19%19%
SOURCE
SOURCE: : World Population Prospect 2019World Population Prospect 2019..187
However, the figures show that only five of these twenty countries had
However, the figures show that only five of these twenty countries had population growth of 20% or more between the 1950s and 1960s, and population growth of 20% or more between the 1950s and 1960s, and
187 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “World Population Pro-United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “World Population Pro-spects 2019: Volume I: Comprehensive Tables,” 55spects 2019: Volume I: Comprehensive Tables,” 55––66.66.
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all were from South and Southeast Asia. Ironically, nine of the twenty
all were from South and Southeast Asia. Ironically, nine of the twenty countries that accepted the Population Control Acountries that accepted the Population Control Act, including China and ct, including China and Turkey, had lower annual population growth rates in the 1960s than a Turkey, had lower annual population growth rates in the 1960s than a decade earlier, which is a good indication not to rely solely on the popu-decade earlier, which is a good indication not to rely solely on the popu-lation bomb assumption.lation bomb assumption.
On the other hand, Malthusian claims about resource scarcity as a
On the other hand, Malthusian claims about resource scarcity as a motive for population control policies are partially true for some coun-motive for population control policies are partially true for some coun-tries, especially those with geographic limitationstries, especially those with geographic limitations. . Taiwan, a small island Taiwan, a small island about 90 miles off the southeast coast of China, had one of the highest about 90 miles off the southeast coast of China, had one of the highest population densities in the world population densities in the world in in 1965, 1965, with more than 350 persons with more than 350 persons per square per square kilometer, whokilometer, who concentrated inconcentrated in western part of the island as western part of the island as the eathe eastern half stern half iis mountainous.s mountainous.188 The country then immediately The country then immediately switcheswitchedd on to antinatalist policies, despite the fact that the population on to antinatalist policies, despite the fact that the population was already slowing down. was already slowing down.
In Singapore too
In Singapore too, population density and the lack of resources was a , population density and the lack of resources was a problem. Even though the annual rate of population growth had already problem. Even though the annual rate of population growth had already slowed down dramaticallslowed down dramatically from 4.89% to 2.89% between y from 4.89% to 2.89% between the the 1950s and 1950s and 1960s due to the availability of family planning services with1960s due to the availability of family planning services without the out the di-di-rect influence of international groups, the new government declared the rect influence of international groups, the new government declared the official official FPPFPP immediately immediately after gaining after gaining independence in 1965.independence in 1965.189
In N
In Nepal, the population problem was not the population per square epal, the population problem was not the population per square kilometer, which was considerablykilometer, which was considerably low, but the population density thatlow, but the population density that hadhad accumulated accumulated onon a very limited arable land and resources within the a very limited arable land and resources within the mountainous terrain.mountainous terrain.190
188 G. Cernada et al., “Taiwan’s Population and Family Planning Efforts : An Historical Per-G. Cernada et al., “Taiwan’s Population and Family Planning Efforts : An Historical Per-spective,” spective,” International Quarterly of Community Health EducationInternational Quarterly of Community Health Education 27, no. 2 (2007): 9927, no. 2 (2007): 99––120.120.
189 James T. Fawcett and SiewJames T. Fawcett and Siew--Ean Khoo, “Singapore: Rapid Fertility Transition in a Com-Ean Khoo, “Singapore: Rapid Fertility Transition in a Com-pact Society,” pact Society,” Population and Development ReviewPopulation and Development Review 6, no. 4 (1980): 5496, no. 4 (1980): 549––79.79.
190 Nanda R Shrestha, “A PrelimNanda R Shrestha, “A Preliminary Report on Population Pressure and Land Resources inary Report on Population Pressure and Land Resources in Nepal,” in Nepal,” The Journal of Developing AreasThe Journal of Developing Areas 16, no. 2 (1982): 19716, no. 2 (1982): 197––212.212.
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2.3.3 Urbanization Urbanization
What
What appears to distinguish these twenty developing countries be-appears to distinguish these twenty developing countries be-tween the 1950s and 1960s more than population growth is rapid urban-tween the 1950s and 1960s more than population growth is rapid urban-ization. Table 2.2 shows that twelve of these twenty countries that had ization. Table 2.2 shows that twelve of these twenty countries that had population control policies before 1970 experienced a netpopulation control policies before 1970 experienced a net increase in ur-increase in ur-banization rate of 30% or more between 1950 and 1965, while five of banization rate of 30% or more between 1950 and 1965, while five of them, including China, achieved solid urbanization growth of over 50%. them, including China, achieved solid urbanization growth of over 50%. The least progress in urbanization was recorded by India, with only 11% The least progress in urbanization was recorded by India, with only 11% growth, not to mention Singapogrowth, not to mention Singapore and Taiwan, where the full urbaniza-re and Taiwan, where the full urbaniza-tion rate had already been reached in 1950.tion rate had already been reached in 1950.
Reading Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 together, the negative correlation be-
Reading Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 together, the negative correlation be-tween population tween population growth growth and urbanization in some countries and urbanization in some countries isis striking. striking. For instance, Indian peninsula, aFor instance, Indian peninsula, a champion in population champion in population growthgrowth hahad d the the lloweowesst rate t rate of of urbanization, and Chinaurbanization, and China,, a forerunner in urbanization, ex-a forerunner in urbanization, ex-perienced negative perienced negative population population growth. The affinity between urbaniza-growth. The affinity between urbaniza-tion and fertility tion and fertility decline has long been decline has long been studied. As Martine et al. pointed studied. As Martine et al. pointed ouout, urbanization is a major vehicle in promoting a variety of social t, urbanization is a major vehicle in promoting a variety of social changes affecting the fertility transition.changes affecting the fertility transition.191 ThTheese factors se factors affectingaffecting indi-indi-vidual fertility behavior vidual fertility behavior areare the subject of the individual sphere anthe subject of the individual sphere and will d will be discussed be discussed inin the the last last chapterchapter. .
In governmental point of vie
In governmental point of vieww that inverse relationship between ur-that inverse relationship between ur-banization and fertility had much contributed the popularity of family banization and fertility had much contributed the popularity of family planning among both urbanplanning among both urban dwellerdwellers and rural migrants s and rural migrants inin the develop-the develop-ing ing worldworld in the1960sin the1960s,, providing an providing an additadditional leverage ional leverage for governmentsfor governments to ato adoptdopt antinatalist policies. It was not only the changing fertility atti-antinatalist policies. It was not only the changing fertility atti-tudes of rural migrants that tudes of rural migrants that stimulated stimulated further interest for contracep-further interest for contracep-ttivesives, but also the , but also the rereluctance luctance of urban locals to share limited resources of urban locals to share limited resources
191 George Martine, José Eustáquio Diniz Alves, and Suzana Cavenaghi, George Martine, José Eustáquio Diniz Alves, and Suzana Cavenaghi, Urbanization and Urbanization and Fertility Decline: Cashing in on Structural ChaFertility Decline: Cashing in on Structural Change, vol. IIED Working Papernge, vol. IIED Working Paper (London: IIED, (London: IIED, 2013).2013).
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with
with nnewcomers ewcomers thatthat had had reinforcedreinforced advocacy advocacy oof antiurbanization and f antiurbanization and population control.population control.192
Table 2.
Table 2.22 Change in Change in uurbanization rbanization 11950950--19651965
Country
Country
Population
Population Planning Law Planning Law
Urbanization 1950 %
Urbanization 1965 %
Change % IndiaIndia 19521952 17.0 18.8 11% PakistanPakistan 19601960 17.5 23.5 34% South KoreaSouth Korea 19611961 21.4 32.4 51% ChinaChina 19621962 11.8 18.1 53% TunisiaTunisia 19641964 32.3 39.7 23% TurkeyTurkey 19651965 24.8 34.2 38% EgyptEgypt 19651965 31.9 39.7 24% Sri Lanka Sri Lanka 19651965 15.3 17.6 15% SingaporeSingapore 19651965 99.4 100.0 1% KenyaKenya 19661966 5.6 8.6 54% MalaysiaMalaysia 19661966 20.4 29.9 47% NepalNepal 19661966 2.7 3.7 37% JamaicaJamaica 19661966 24.1 37.5 56% IranIran 19671967 27.5 37.1 35% BangladeshBangladesh 19671967 4.3 6.2 44% IndonesiaIndonesia 19681968 12.4 15.8 27% MoroccoMorocco 19681968 26.2 31.9 22% TaiwanTaiwan 19681968 96.9 96.2 -1% DominicDominic 19681968 23.7 35.0 48% GhanaGhana 19691969 15.4 26.1 69%
SOURCE
SOURCE:: World Urbanization Prospect: The 2014 RevisionWorld Urbanization Prospect: The 2014 Revision..193
Urbanization has been associated with numerous positive societal out-
Urbanization has been associated with numerous positive societal out-comes such as technological innovation, economic progress, and higher comes such as technological innovation, economic progress, and higher standards of living, but also standards of living, but also llinked to social and environmental problems inked to social and environmental problems that hathat haveve ssignificant implicationsignificant implications forfor population policy change. As population policy change. As noted noted
192 Ned Levine, “Antiurbanization: An Implicit Development Policy in Turkey,” Ned Levine, “Antiurbanization: An Implicit Development Policy in Turkey,” Journal of De-Journal of De-velopiveloping Areas ng Areas 14, no. 4 (1980): 51314, no. 4 (1980): 513––38.38.
193 United Nations Department of Economic and Social AfUnited Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “World Urbanization Pro-fairs, “World Urbanization Pro-spects: The 2014 Revision,” ST/ESA/SER.A/366 (New York: United Nations Publica-spects: The 2014 Revision,” ST/ESA/SER.A/366 (New York: United Nations Publica-tions, 2015), 204tions, 2015), 204––14.14.
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in the genealogy section,
in the genealogy section, the the Malthusian and eugenic concerns Malthusian and eugenic concerns of of the in-the in-dustrial dustrial WWestest that that gave rise to gave rise to the population control movement in the the population control movement in the global sphere wglobal sphere wereere closely related toclosely related to the urbanization process they had the urbanization process they had undergundergone in the late one in the late eighteentheighteenth andand nineteenthnineteenth centurcenturiesies and and the the “un-“un-bearable” foreign labor immigration in thebearable” foreign labor immigration in the early early twentiethtwentieth century.century.
Moreover, the rapid urbanization
Moreover, the rapid urbanization in the developing world after in the developing world after WWIIWWII was incomparably was incomparably more more oppreoppressive ssive than urbanization in thethan urbanization in the industrial industrial world, as it world, as it was completely was completely unconventional unconventional in terms in terms of of scopescope and and scalescale. . First, the First, the scale and speed of scale and speed of urbanization in the developing world after urbanization in the developing world after WWIIWWII was more than twwas more than twice tice thahatt of Europe and the USof Europe and the US iin the n the nineteenthnineteenth century. Furthermore, the century. Furthermore, the WestWesternern world had world had its own its own colonies colonies frfroom m which it could extract resources which it could extract resources from, from, and export the surplus and export the surplus population population onto, onto, while while the developing world had to live with the limited resources the developing world had to live with the limited resources mostly extracted by the mostly extracted by the WWest. And finally, thest. And finally, theese developing countries had se developing countries had no competitive edge to compete with the no competitive edge to compete with the WesternWestern industrial giants.industrial giants.194
In low
In low--income settings, rincome settings, rapid rurapid ruralal--urban migrationurban migration invariably leads invariably leads to shortages of to shortages of infrastructure, housinginfrastructure, housing,, and and basbasicic serviceservicess (health, educa-(health, educa-tiontion,, etc.)etc.) and and posesposes financial and financial and service service delivery problems for respon-delivery problems for respon-sible local governments and national agenciessible local governments and national agencies..195 Therefore, this disser-Therefore, this disser-tation claims that ruraltation claims that rural--urban migration and rapid urbanization in urban migration and rapid urbanization in postpost-- WWII WWII developing developing countries have countries have exhausted the exhausted the capability and function-capability and function-ings of ings of these these developing developing country country governments and triggered governments and triggered a a series of series of problems problems for for political and political and social stability that social stability that have also have also converted the mi-converted the mi-grants a major concern in the eyes of the grants a major concern in the eyes of the government government cadres.cadres.
In Malaysia,
In Malaysia, as in as in most ofmost of other developing countries other developing countries that that experienexperiencedced the rapid growth after the rapid growth after thethe1950s, the rate of industrial growth was 1950s, the rate of industrial growth was not not sufficient sufficient to to absorb absorb the the increase in the size of increase in the size of labor force accumulated in labor force accumulated in the urban areas,the urban areas, so urbanizationso urbanization became a transfer mechanism of both became a transfer mechanism of both underemployment and unemployment from rural areas to underemployment and unemployment from rural areas to cities,cities, with with their own housing, healththeir own housing, health,, and educationand education problemsproblems. The . The squatter areas squatter areas
194 John D. Kasarda and Edward M. Crenshaw, “Third World Urbanization: Dimensions, The-John D. Kasarda and Edward M. Crenshaw, “Third World Urbanization: Dimensions, The-oories, and Determinants,” ries, and Determinants,” Annual Review of SociologyAnnual Review of Sociology 17, no. 1 (1991): 46717, no. 1 (1991): 467––501.501.
195 Cecilia Tacoli, Gordon McGranahan, and David Satterthwaite, Cecilia Tacoli, Gordon McGranahan, and David Satterthwaite, Urbanization, RuralUrbanization, Rural--Urban Urban Migration anMigration and Urban Poverty, vol. IIED Working Paperd Urban Poverty, vol. IIED Working Paper (London: IIED, 2015).(London: IIED, 2015).
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that
that mushroommushroomeded were mostly outside formal administratiwere mostly outside formal administrativeve authority authority or beyond urbanor beyond urban servicing capability, and they were the main source of servicing capability, and they were the main source of the the general general rise rise in in crime crime rates and rates and juvenile juvenile delinquencydelinquency in many Malay-in many Malay-sian sian cities, which cities, which the government was unable to cope withthe government was unable to cope with..196
In Iran,
In Iran, population policy change is largely associated with the Shahpopulation policy change is largely associated with the Shah’s ’s “White Revolution” program“White Revolution” program, which , which aimed aimed to improve to improve tthe legal and social he legal and social status of women and status of women and increasincreasee their participation in social and economictheir participation in social and economic lifelife..197 But more than that, But more than that, the the main impetusmain impetus for the antinatalist for the antinatalist program program waswas thethe excessiveexcessive rural exodusrural exodus that that resulted in resulted in TehranTehran’s’s population in-population in-creascreasinging by 80% between 1956 and 1966by 80% between 1956 and 1966 alonealone. The government had to . The government had to invest much of its resources invest much of its resources to provide jobs, housing, transportto provide jobs, housing, transportationation, , food, and public services such as health, educationfood, and public services such as health, education,, and sanitation. and sanitation. Fur-Fur-thermothermore, the scarcity of critical resources such re, the scarcity of critical resources such as arable land andas arable land and water water had put had put additional additional pressure on the urban population.pressure on the urban population.198
In China, it was Mao’s labor
In China, it was Mao’s labor--intensintensiveive industrialization enterprise and industrialization enterprise and the massive rural the massive rural exodus of exodus of the1950s that triggered the1950s that triggered aa chainchain of unfortu-of unfortu-nate events nate events and paved the and paved the way for the most devastatiway for the most devastatingng catastrophe in catastrophe in human historyhuman history:: the Great Famine of 1959the Great Famine of 1959--19611961.. For China, the For China, the famine famine also represents also represents the the decisive end of the Great Move Forward and a turning decisive end of the Great Move Forward and a turning point from pronatalism to antinatapoint from pronatalism to antinatalism.lism. 199
2.3.4 Famines Famines
As mentioned in
As mentioned in the case the case of Chinaof China, famines, epidemics, famines, epidemics,, and catastrophes and catastrophes are the strongest and are the strongest and most most direct factors direct factors paralyzingparalyzing the capabilities and the capabilities and functionings of governmentsfunctionings of governments,, and population control has been one of key and population control has been one of key measures measures to to reduce reduce casualties in the mcasualties in the medium termedium term. .
196 Hamzah Sendut, “Contemporary Urbanization in Malaysia,” Hamzah Sendut, “Contemporary Urbanization in Malaysia,” Asian SurveyAsian Survey 9, no. 6 (1966): 9, no. 6 (1966): 484484––91.91.
197 Akbar Aghajanian, “Population Change in Iran, 1966Akbar Aghajanian, “Population Change in Iran, 1966--86: A Stalled Demographic Transi-86: A Stalled Demographic Transi-tion?,” tion?,” Population and Development ReviewPopulation and Development Review 17, no. 4 (1991): 70317, no. 4 (1991): 703––15.15.
198 Richard Moore, Khalil Richard Moore, Khalil Asayesh, and Joel Montague, “Population and Family Planning in Asayesh, and Joel Montague, “Population and Family Planning in Iran,” Iran,” Middle East JournalMiddle East Journal 28, no. 4 (1974): 39628, no. 4 (1974): 396––408.408.
199 Zhongwei Zhao and Anna Reimondos, “The Demography of China’s 1958Zhongwei Zhao and Anna Reimondos, “The Demography of China’s 1958--61 Famine: A 61 Famine: A Closer Examination,” Closer Examination,” PopulationPopulation (English Edition) 67, no. 2 (2012): 281(English Edition) 67, no. 2 (2012): 281––308.308.
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Ironically, it was not
Ironically, it was not the shortage the shortage of agricultural productionof agricultural production inin China, China, butbut the the excessive excessive procurement of grain for use procurement of grain for use in the in the urban urban industrial ar-industrial ar-eas, with seeas, with serioriousus miscalculations miscalculations ofof urban urban needsneeds and mismanagement of and mismanagement of the process, the process, whichwhich caused caused rural China rural China to to starve and some sixteen to forty starve and some sixteen to forty million inhabitants million inhabitants to dieto die..200
In
In India, where antinatalist policies were accepted at least a decade India, where antinatalist policies were accepted at least a decade earlier than earlier than in in any other any other developingdeveloping country, country, a similar a similar devastating famine devastating famine occurred occurred in the province of Bengal in in the province of Bengal in 19431943, killing , killing some three million some three million peoplepeople. . Sen claims that the famine was not caused by a reduced rice har-Sen claims that the famine was not caused by a reduced rice har-vest due to unfavorable weather conditions or by the failure to vest due to unfavorable weather conditions or by the failure to iimport mport from Japanesefrom Japanese--controlled Burma as controlled Burma as asserted asserted in the report of the Famine in the report of the Famine Commission of Inquiry, but primarily by rapidly rising rice prices due to Commission of Inquiry, but primarily by rapidly rising rice prices due to wartime inflation, black market transactions, and inadequate relief ef-wartime inflation, black market transactions, and inadequate relief ef-forts by colonial rulers and local forts by colonial rulers and local governorsgovernors..201
Nevertheless, the Famine Inquiry Commission emphasized
Nevertheless, the Famine Inquiry Commission emphasized major set major set of inquiries concernof inquiries concerninging ththe e Malthusian Malthusian relationship between food supply relationship between food supply and populationand population and and urged urged local governors to consider limiting popula-local governors to consider limiting popula-tion tion tto o preserve preserve limited resources.limited resources.202 The request was rThe request was rejectedejected by the co-by the co-lonial government, but the secretary of tlonial government, but the secretary of thathat commission, R. A. Gopalas-commission, R. A. Gopalas-wami, who wwami, who was to bas to becomeecome census commissioner in 1951, was the key census commissioner in 1951, was the key initiainitiator of the first nationwide tor of the first nationwide FPPFPP in 1952in 1952..203
2.3.5 Eugenic Agenda and Ethnic Conflicts Eugenic Agenda and Ethnic Conflicts
Although the
Although the termterm “eugenic” “eugenic” disappeared disappeared from the global agenda andfrom the global agenda and de-de-bates on bates on population control after population control after WWIIWWII, it was , it was still discernable still discernable in some in some
200 Xin Meng, Nancy Qian, and Pierre Yared, “The InstituXin Meng, Nancy Qian, and Pierre Yared, “The Institutional Causes of China’s Great Fam-tional Causes of China’s Great Fam-ine, 1959ine, 1959––1961,” 1961,” The Review of Economic StudiesThe Review of Economic Studies 82, no. 4 (2015): 156882, no. 4 (2015): 1568––1611.1611.
201 Amartya Sen, “Starvation and Exchange Entitlements: A General Approach and Its Ap-Amartya Sen, “Starvation and Exchange Entitlements: A General Approach and Its Ap-plication to the Great Bengal Famine,” plication to the Great Bengal Famine,” CambriCambridge Journal of Economicsdge Journal of Economics 1, no. 1 (1977): 1, no. 1 (1977): 3333––59.59.
202 Sarah Hodges, “Governmentality, Population and Reproductive Family in Modern India,” Sarah Hodges, “Governmentality, Population and Reproductive Family in Modern India,” Economic and Political WeeklyEconomic and Political Weekly 19, no. 11 (2004): 115719, no. 11 (2004): 1157––63.63.
203 Harkavy, Harkavy, Curbing Population GrowthCurbing Population Growth, 129, 129––30.30.
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parts of the developing world, esp
parts of the developing world, especially in countriesecially in countries with a with a heterogene-heterogene-ous ethnicous ethnic distribution.distribution.
In
In India, overpopulation was a concern of local elites for India, overpopulation was a concern of local elites for a a variety ofvariety of reasons, including genderreasons, including gender equality and maternal health, but also neoequality and maternal health, but also neo--Malthusianism and eugenicsMalthusianism and eugenics..204
The population report
The population report of the National Planning Committee, chaired of the National Planning Committee, chaired by the future prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru in 1940, concluded that by the future prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru in 1940, concluded that the population should be reduced to manageable numberthe population should be reduced to manageable numberss in order to in-in order to in-crease opportunities crease opportunities forfor education, sanitation, incomeeducation, sanitation, income,, and and recreationrecreation,, but with special attention but with special attention to the to the system system of representation on the basis of of representation on the basis of divisions according to caste, communitydivisions according to caste, community,, and religion. Therefore, aside and religion. Therefore, aside from the positive eugenic measures to increase the decaying upper Hindu from the positive eugenic measures to increase the decaying upper Hindu castescastes,, such as like intersuch as like inter--cast marrcast marriageiage andand encouraging widow remar-encouraging widow remar-riage, family planning was recommended for the lower castes and for riage, family planning was recommended for the lower castes and for Muslims to increase the “quality” of the population.Muslims to increase the “quality” of the population.205
T
The Indian governmenthe Indian government, however, , however, was cautious was cautious not to create any not to create any mis-mis-understanding about the eugenic view after gaining independence, and understanding about the eugenic view after gaining independence, and therefore the therefore the ffirst irst nnational ational ddevelopment reportevelopment report,, which first announced which first announced the family planning in 1951, the family planning in 1951, emphasized emphasized the suitability of birth control the suitability of birth control for “all classesfor “all classes..””206 Yet, research Yet, research onon ththe fertility differene fertility differences among ces among differ-differ-ent social and economic groups went social and economic groups wasas still attached to the governmentstill attached to the government--fundedfunded field works.field works.207
After recognizing the ineffectiveness of the early years, which Samuel
After recognizing the ineffectiveness of the early years, which Samuel refers to as the "experimental phase," the Indian governmenrefers to as the "experimental phase," the Indian government introduced t introduced an aggressive population control program in 1961 with the Third an aggressive population control program in 1961 with the Third NDPNDP, , which included voluntary sterilization, permitting abortion, and import-which included voluntary sterilization, permitting abortion, and import-ing cheap contraceptiving cheap contraceptiveses..208
204 Connelly, “Population Control in India: Prologue to the Emergency Period,” 630Connelly, “Population Control in India: Prologue to the Emergency Period,” 630––31.31.
205 National Planning Committee, “National Planning Committee Series: Population” (Bom-National Planning Committee, “National Planning Committee Series: Population” (Bom-bay: Vora & Co., 1947), 130.bay: Vora & Co., 1947), 130.
206 Government of India Government of India Planning Commission, “First FivePlanning Commission, “First Five--Year Plan Year Plan -- AA Draft Outline” (Gov-Draft Outline” (Gov-ernment of India Planning Commission, 1951), 207.ernment of India Planning Commission, 1951), 207.
207 Connelly, “Population Control in India: Prologue to the Emergency Period,” 637.Connelly, “Population Control in India: Prologue to the Emergency Period,” 637.
208 Samuel, “The Development of India’s Policy of Population Control,” 54Samuel, “The Development of India’s Policy of Population Control,” 54––58.58.
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By the end of 1973, some 15 million Indians
By the end of 1973, some 15 million Indians had been had been sterilized, and sterilized, and five five million women had million women had anan IUDIUD insertinserteded. Although . Although not not enforced, the enforced, the en-en-ticingticing financial public and private incentives for sterilization financial public and private incentives for sterilization andand IUDIUD in-in-sertionsertion created an “adcreated an “ad--hoc coercion” as Vicziani asserts, hoc coercion” as Vicziani asserts, that applied pri-that applied pri-marily to the urban and rural poor and to marily to the urban and rural poor and to members of the lower castesmembers of the lower castes..209
In Malaysia, the weakening ethnic composition of the Malays
In Malaysia, the weakening ethnic composition of the Malays visvis--àà--vis thevis the Chinese and Indians was theChinese and Indians was the main concern of the government, main concern of the government, whereas whereas the the total fertility rate of total fertility rate of the the MalayMalayss in 1957 in 1957 was was one whole one whole child child llowerower than that than that of the Chinese population and more than 1.5 children of the Chinese population and more than 1.5 children llowerower than that of than that of the the IndiansIndians. . IIn the early 1960sn the early 1960s, h, however, owever, the the difference difference between between ChineseChinese and and MalayMalays s reversed, and reversed, and the the higher fertility higher fertility of of Malay Malay has has persisted ever since.persisted ever since. A similar shift in the relative positions of Malay A similar shift in the relative positions of Malay and Indian fertility took place in the late 1960.and Indian fertility took place in the late 1960.210
T
The he MalaysiMalaysian an government made no attempt government made no attempt to to introduce FPP selec-introduce FPP selec-tively by tively by ethnicity and ethnicity and made contraceptives available and accessible. Yet, made contraceptives available and accessible. Yet, it is interesting to note that it is interesting to note that unlike unlike many other implementations including many other implementations including TurkTurkish caseish case, , whwhich ich the the governmentgovernment focus on focus on FPP FPP implementation was implementation was more on the moremore on the more fertile fertile rural population, family planning servrural population, family planning services in Ma-ices in Ma-laysia became available first in the urban areaslaysia became available first in the urban areas, which , which were predomi-were predomi-nantlynantly inhabited by the Chinese population.inhabited by the Chinese population.211
It was
It was primarilyprimarily the legislative and operational ethnic favoritism of the legislative and operational ethnic favoritism of the Malaysian the Malaysian ggovernmentovernment’s’s New Economic Program that New Economic Program that producedproduced the the desired distribution desired distribution of fertility of fertility among among the the different groups. The legal in-different groups. The legal in-centives centives given given to the rural and poor Malays to the rural and poor Malays over the over the urban ricurban rich Chinese h Chinese in in various various areas areas such as such as education, health, employment, education, health, employment, and and land settle-land settle-ment, created a considerable ment, created a considerable positive positive leverage on leverage on the the social and social and
209 Marika Vicziany, “Coercion in a Soft State: The FamilyMarika Vicziany, “Coercion in a Soft State: The Family--Planning PrograPlanning Program of India: Part I: m of India: Part I: The Myth of Voluntarism,” The Myth of Voluntarism,” Pacific AffairsPacific Affairs 55, no. 3 (1982): 373.55, no. 3 (1982): 373.
210 Pavalavalli Govindasamy and Julie DaVanzo, “Ethnicity and Fertility Differentials in Pen-Pavalavalli Govindasamy and Julie DaVanzo, “Ethnicity and Fertility Differentials in Pen-insular Malaysia: Do Pinsular Malaysia: Do Policies Matter?,” olicies Matter?,” Population and Development ReviewPopulation and Development Review 18, no. 2 18, no. 2 (1992): 243(1992): 243––67.67.
211 J. Timothy Johnson, “Influences on Family Planning Acceptance:J. Timothy Johnson, “Influences on Family Planning Acceptance: An Analysis of Back-An Analysis of Back-ground and Program Factors in Malaysia,” ground and Program Factors in Malaysia,” Studies in Family Planning Studies in Family Planning 10, no. 1 (1979): 10, no. 1 (1979): 1515––24.24.
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economic
economic welfare of the welfare of the rural Malay’s and further derural Malay’s and further degradation ofgradation of the the higher standards higher standards of the of the urban urban Chinese and Indians.Chinese and Indians.212 ThThis appearis appearss to to have been have been the catalyst the catalyst for the higher usfor the higher usee of cof contraceptiveontraceptivess byby Chinese and Chinese and Indians Indians comparedcompared to to Malays.Malays.213
2.3.6 Military CoupsMilitary Coups
The power vacuum triggered by the decolonization process, undermined
The power vacuum triggered by the decolonization process, undermined by by the the CCold old WWar ar rivalrrivalriesies,, aand nd exacerbatedexacerbated by the political, economicby the political, economic,, and and social instability of developing nations, had created favorable conditions social instability of developing nations, had created favorable conditions for military intervention in the 1950s and 1960s. Insomuch thatfor military intervention in the 1950s and 1960s. Insomuch that,, be-be-tween 1950 and 1969tween 1950 and 1969, , 184 coups were plotted in fifty184 coups were plotted in fifty--one developing one developing countriescountries of which of which 98 of th98 of theese attempts sse attempts succeeded.ucceeded.214
Six of th
Six of theese fiftyse fifty--one countries one countries that that experiencexperienceded military military coups, Tur-coups, Tur-keykey, Pakistan, South Korea, Indonesia, , Pakistan, South Korea, Indonesia, Dominic,Dominic, and Ghanaand Ghana,, also changed also changed their population polictheir population policiesies from pronatalism to antinatalism sfrom pronatalism to antinatalism shortly there-hortly there-afteafter. This dissertation claimsr. This dissertation claims ththatat periods during the military regime or periods during the military regime or martial laws martial laws inducesinduces population population control control in in the the following ways.following ways.
First the decision
First the decision--making process making process isis faster faster in military regimes in military regimes thanthan in anyin any other other formform of governing mechanismsof governing mechanisms,, especially compared to de-especially compared to de-mocracies. Tmocracies. The idea of population control was he idea of population control was already already under under discussion discussion in all of thin all of theese six countries before the coupsse six countries before the coups,, but without a solid political but without a solid political stance. stance. In In South Korea,South Korea, ffor instance, the head of the Bureau of Medical or instance, the head of the Bureau of Medical Affairs in the Ministry of Health and Social AfAffairs in the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs made unsuccessful fairs made unsuccessful pro-pro-posals posals to start a national to start a national FPP FPP program as earlyprogram as early as 1956, which was re-as 1956, which was re-fused by the government. However, family planning was accepted fused by the government. However, family planning was accepted onlyonly three months later after the coup in May 1961.three months later after the coup in May 1961.215
212 Gavin W. Jones, “Fertility Transitions Among Malay Populations of Southeast Asia: Puz-Gavin W. Jones, “Fertility Transitions Among Malay Populations of Southeast Asia: Puz-zles ofzles of Interpretation,” Interpretation,” Population and Development ReviewPopulation and Development Review 16, no. 3 (1990): 50716, no. 3 (1990): 507––37.37.
213 Johnson, “Influences on Family Planning Acceptance: An Analysis of Background and Johnson, “Influences on Family Planning Acceptance: An Analysis of Background and Program Factors in Malaysia.”Program Factors in Malaysia.”
214 Jonathan M Powell and Clayton L Thyne, “Global Instances of Coups from 1950 to 2010: Jonathan M Powell and Clayton L Thyne, “Global Instances of Coups from 1950 to 2010: A New Dataset,”A New Dataset,” Journal oJournal of Peace Researchf Peace Research 48, no. 2 (2011): 24948, no. 2 (2011): 249––59.59.
215 Jae Mo Yang, Sook Bang, and Myung Ho Kim, “Fertility and Family Planning in Rural Ko-Jae Mo Yang, Sook Bang, and Myung Ho Kim, “Fertility and Family Planning in Rural Ko-rea,” rea,” Population StudiesPopulation Studies 18, no. 3 (1965): 23718, no. 3 (1965): 237––50.50.
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Second, the notion of planning is the essence of military regime by its
Second, the notion of planning is the essence of military regime by its naturenature. T. Therefore, herefore, priority was given to priority was given to all types of socioeconomic plan-all types of socioeconomic plan-ning, including population planning. In ning, including population planning. In Turkey, one of the veTurkey, one of the very first deci-ry first deci-sions sions taken taken after the military revolution in May 1960 was to establish a after the military revolution in May 1960 was to establish a State Planning OfficeState Planning Office (SPO)(SPO),, which which was was charged with preparingcharged with preparing the the ffirsirstt NPD NPD thereafterthereafter, , aand nd just just as in as in the case of India, the case of India, this wasthis was the first docu-the first docu-ment ment to to mention mention populatiopopulation planning in Turkey. n planning in Turkey.
Third,
Third, regarding the regarding the autocratic nature of the regime, religious, autocratic nature of the regime, religious, cul-cul-tural,tural, or traditional sentiments and prejudices against population control or traditional sentiments and prejudices against population control are much easier toare much easier to curbcurb. In Indonesia, the much. In Indonesia, the much--feared religious opposi-feared religious opposi-tion was overcome by tion was overcome by the the Suharto Regime after Suharto Regime after the the 1966 1966 ccoup, oup, when when his his deputideputieses organized organized a a series of panel discussions with series of panel discussions with various various religious religious leaders until a national consensus leaders until a national consensus onon the morality of birth control the morality of birth control changed changed from from a a strongly negative to strongly negative to a a strongly positivestrongly positive attitudeattitude..216
In Pakistan
In Pakistan,,217 GGeneraleneral Ayub Khan, Ayub Khan, also took a firm stand also took a firm stand against reli-against reli-gious objections gious objections toto birth control by statingbirth control by stating,, ““Religion Religion isis for the better-for the better-ment of mankinment of mankind, and no good religion cd, and no good religion canan stand in the way of human stand in the way of human progress and happiness."progress and happiness."218 In Turkey, it is no coincident that not only In Turkey, it is no coincident that not only was was the the PopulationPopulation Planning Law triggered by the 1960 Planning Law triggered by the 1960 ccoup, but oup, but also also the the muchmuch--discussed discussed Law of Abortion in 1983 was a byproduct ofLaw of Abortion in 1983 was a byproduct of the the 1980 1980 ccoup’s military regime. The democratic governments between 1965 and oup’s military regime. The democratic governments between 1965 and 1980 could not dare to put th1980 could not dare to put this sensitive is sensitive issue on their agenda, which was issue on their agenda, which was only discussed in only discussed in hhealth ealth ccouncils and private health associations.ouncils and private health associations.219
Furthermore, the need for
Furthermore, the need for international legitimainternational legitimacycy of military re-of military re-gimes leads them to adapt gimes leads them to adapt toto international standards, international standards, requirements,requirements, or or
216 Terence H. Hull, “Formative Years of Family Planning in Indonesia,” in Terence H. Hull, “Formative Years of Family Planning in Indonesia,” in The Global Family The Global Family Planning Revolution: Three Decades of Population Policies and ProgramsPlanning Revolution: Three Decades of Population Policies and Programs, ed. Warren A. , ed. Warren A. Robinson and John A. Ross (Washington D.C.: The World Bank, 2007)Robinson and John A. Ross (Washington D.C.: The World Bank, 2007), 235, 235––56.56.
217 Pakistan was consisted of the eastern (today's Pakistan) and the western wings (today’s Pakistan was consisted of the eastern (today's Pakistan) and the western wings (today’s Bangladesh)Bangladesh) until the partition in 1971.until the partition in 1971.
218 B. Maxwell Stamper, “Demographic Considerations and Population Policies in Develop-B. Maxwell Stamper, “Demographic Considerations and Population Policies in Develop-ment Planning: A Survey of Thirment Planning: A Survey of Third World Countries with Case Studies of Bangladesh and d World Countries with Case Studies of Bangladesh and Pakistan” (PhD Thesis, The London School of Economics and Political Science, 1979), Pakistan” (PhD Thesis, The London School of Economics and Political Science, 1979), 9090––98.98.
219 Asım Karaömerlioğlu, “Türkiye’de Kürtajın Kısa Tarihi,” Asım Karaömerlioğlu, “Türkiye’de Kürtajın Kısa Tarihi,” BianetBianet, 2012., 2012.
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movements such as population control much
movements such as population control much more quicklymore quickly. In Ghana, af-. In Ghana, af-ter the ter the coup in coup in 1966, the new military regime focused on 1966, the new military regime focused on eliminating eliminating the the sociasocialist affiliations of the list affiliations of the previous Nkrumah government and invited previous Nkrumah government and invited WesternWestern advisory and aid for national development. In thadvisory and aid for national development. In this regard is regard Ford Ford Foundations guidance was instrumental not only in economic planning Foundations guidance was instrumental not only in economic planning but also in but also in the the transitiontransition toto population control polpopulation control policies.icies.220
Finally, the distinction between the self
Finally, the distinction between the self and the other is even more and the other is even more profound profound in in military regimesmilitary regimes because of the hegemonic security priori-because of the hegemonic security priori-tiesties.. Accordingly, the good, Accordingly, the good, bare,bare, and unbearable life forms asserted in and unbearable life forms asserted in this dissertation are much this dissertation are much crystalcrystallizedlized during these pduring these periodseriods as as the the ten-ten-dency isdency is to keep all life forms to keep all life forms under control and surveillanceunder control and surveillance, , where where popop-p-ulation control methods became ulation control methods became useful.useful.
In Indonesia
In Indonesia,, Suharto and his advisSuharto and his advisoors viewed the population prob-rs viewed the population prob-lem as a source of economic lem as a source of economic stagnation, food insecuritystagnation, food insecurity,, and and social con-social con-flict that flict that they fearedthey feared would would expand the influence of expand the influence of the the “unbearable” In-“unbearable” In-donesian Communist Partydonesian Communist Party. Therefore,. Therefore, family planningfamily planning,, especially in especially in ruralrural areasareas,, appeared to be a key instrument for national security.appeared to be a key instrument for national security.221
2.3.7 EcoEconomic Crisis and Search for Economic Aidnomic Crisis and Search for Economic Aid
This dissertation a
This dissertation arguesrgues that that eeconomic crises conomic crises inin the developing countries the developing countries have dhave dual effectsual effects on population policies on population policies inin the national sphere. First, the national sphere. First, ththeese crises se crises dramatically reducedramatically reduce the capability and functionings of gthe capability and functionings of gov-ov-ernments and further ernments and further deterioratedeteriorate the living conditions of the massesthe living conditions of the masses,, thatthat can easily lead can easily lead to to social unrest, political social unrest, political instabilitinstabilityy,, and even military and even military coups. Second, a country suffering from economic crises and coups. Second, a country suffering from economic crises and in in dire dire need need of foreign loans for of foreign loans for a a quick recovery is much more vulnerable to foreign quick recovery is much more vulnerable to foreign hegemonic intervention. Thhegemonic intervention. Theese loans se loans are are usually conditioned usually conditioned onon limited limited investment, guided investment, guided spendingspending and and stricstrictt economic planningeconomic planning,, including including population population planning. planning.
220 Holly Ashford, “Population CoHolly Ashford, “Population Control Development, and Ghana’s National Family Planning ntrol Development, and Ghana’s National Family Planning Programme 1960Programme 1960--1972,” 1972,” The Historical Journal The Historical Journal 63, no. 2 (2020): 46963, no. 2 (2020): 469––93.93.
221 Simson, “Indonesia’s ‘Accelerated Modernization’ and the Global Discourse of Develop-Simson, “Indonesia’s ‘Accelerated Modernization’ and the Global Discourse of Develop-ment, 1960ment, 1960--1975, 480.1975, 480.
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All th
All theese se effectseffects are traceable for those developing countries are traceable for those developing countries that ex-that ex-perienced perienced economic crises in the late economic crises in the late 1950s1950s and early 1960s. In Turkey, and early 1960s. In Turkey, the economic boom the economic boom that that had been fueled by the had been fueled by the international favorable international favorable conjuncture due to Korean War had conjuncture due to Korean War had subsidedsubsided by the end of the by the end of the 1950s. 1950s. Besides, Besides, tthe huge foreign he huge foreign debtdebt invested invested iin n arbitraryarbitrary projects with lprojects with littleittle marginal utilitymarginal utility,, and other factors and other factors such assuch as poor poor harvest instigated a mon-harvest instigated a mon-etary crisis and currency devaluation in 1958. etary crisis and currency devaluation in 1958.
The
The Menderes government had to Menderes government had to comply with the comply with the IMF’s IMF’s rrequestsequests to to establishestablish a a pplanning lanning ccommission ommission in order to obtainin order to obtain further foreign loans further foreign loans to overcome the acute crises. But to overcome the acute crises. But itit had no intention had no intention of allowing the of allowing the com-com-mission mission to to work or work or of attending to its advice on of attending to its advice on planningplanning,, including pop-including pop-ulation planning. The relapsulation planning. The relapse into e into economic hardship accompanied economic hardship accompanied byby social unrests social unrests preparedprepared the ground forthe ground for the the mmilitary ilitary ccoup in May 1960, oup in May 1960, arguably with arguably with somesome degree of degree of hegemonic intervention. The premature hegemonic intervention. The premature PPlanning lanning CCommission ommission was was immediately rimmediately reactivated as a much eactivated as a much strongerstronger institutioninstitution (SPO) and the (SPO) and the ffirstirst nnational ational pplanning was lanning was issuedissued in 1963 in 1963 with with the population control policy attached. the population control policy attached.
In similar fashion, the economic and financial difficulties experienced
In similar fashion, the economic and financial difficulties experienced by the Sukarno government in Indonesia by the Sukarno government in Indonesia were largely stemmed from itswere largely stemmed from its overdependence overdependence on foreign trade on foreign trade revenuesrevenues,, which began to decline in the which began to decline in the late 1959s late 1959s largely largely as a consequence of unfavorable worldas a consequence of unfavorable world market condi-market condi-tions for rubber and other commodities. The authorities proved unable tions for rubber and other commodities. The authorities proved unable to to compensate compensate ffor the or the revenue lossesrevenue losses by by increasing increasing other domestic reve-other domestic reve-nues and nues and therefore therefore opted for deficit financingopted for deficit financing,, primarily primarily from the Soviet from the Soviet UnionUnion,, as the most convenient route to maintain desired levels of ex-as the most convenient route to maintain desired levels of ex-penditure.penditure.222 EconomicEconomic vulnerability and poverty vulnerability and poverty spilled over into spilled over into polit-polit-ical instability in the 1960sical instability in the 1960s,, and the country became a major contesting and the country became a major contesting area of the area of the CCold old WWar rivalry. ar rivalry.
The escalat
The escalatinging chaochaos between communists and antis between communists and anti--communist ca-communist ca-dres ended with dres ended with the the mass mass murder murder of a million of a million civilianscivilians and left the coun-and left the coun-try virtually bankrupt. Economic activittry virtually bankrupt. Economic activity ground to a halty ground to a halt, inflation , inflation
222 Miron Mushkat, “Is Indonesia Poised for an Economic Takeoff?,” Miron Mushkat, “Is Indonesia Poised for an Economic Takeoff?,” Asian PerspectiveAsian Perspective 15, 15, no. 1 (1991): 157no. 1 (1991): 157––85.85.
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topped
topped 600 percent and the government had lost control 600 percent and the government had lost control bby the time the y the time the pproro--American General Suharto came to power in 1966.American General Suharto came to power in 1966. And a And a WesternWestern aid aid package, including economic package, including economic loans, loans, financial financial planners, planners, and and family plan-family plan-ning ning consultantsconsultants flooded into flooded into the the country to adapt the developmentalist country to adapt the developmentalist discourse discourse toto the capitalist framework, the capitalist framework, iin whin which antinatalist policies were ch antinatalist policies were embedded.embedded.223
In Ghana
In Ghana,, too, the too, the catastrophic declinecatastrophic decline in the international price of in the international price of cocoa, cocoa, the the waste of resources on waste of resources on ununproductive prestige projects, and in-productive prestige projects, and in-creasing corruption among government officials were the creasing corruption among government officials were the harbingersharbingers of of the the impendingimpending civil unrest and civil unrest and the the military coup that pavedmilitary coup that paved the the way forway for control of the control of the population.population.224
For some developing countries
For some developing countries inin economic depresseconomic depression, ion, the shift to the shift to population control policpopulation control policiesies was not inevitabwas not inevitablele, , but abut a cunning move to cunning move to at-at-tract foreign investment and international tract foreign investment and international funds allocated for funds allocated for population population control.control.225 In Kenya, the desire of the global sphere to share a success In Kenya, the desire of the global sphere to share a success story story iin n aa population control in population control in subsub--Saharan Africa, met with the coun-Saharan Africa, met with the coun-try’s need to utilize try’s need to utilize a a marketmarket--oriented development strategy that re-oriented development strategy that re-quires foreign investment. Hodgson and Watkins define these very dis-quires foreign investment. Hodgson and Watkins define these very dis-tinct visions of global and the national sphere as an intricate tinct visions of global and the national sphere as an intricate pas de deux pas de deux thatthat hashas developed betwedeveloped between Kenyan elites and en Kenyan elites and members of the interna-members of the interna-ttional population movementional population movement..226 Chimbwete et al.Chimbwete et al. assert that Kenyan assert that Kenyan elites had no intention or interestelites had no intention or interest in in population control but accepted the population control but accepted the PPopulationopulation PPlanning lanning LLaw to aw to gain accessgain access to to international donorinternational donor funds funds in ways that they preferred. They further state They further state that that World Bank officials wereWorld Bank officials were
223 Simson, “Indonesia’s ‘Accelerated Modernization’ and the Global Discourse of DevSimson, “Indonesia’s ‘Accelerated Modernization’ and the Global Discourse of Develop-elop-ment, 1960ment, 1960--1975, 1975, 467467––86.86.
224 William Burnett Harvey, “PostWilliam Burnett Harvey, “Post--Nkrumah Ghana: The Legal Profile of a Coup,” Nkrumah Ghana: The Legal Profile of a Coup,” Articles by Articles by Maurer Faculty. Paper 1187 Maurer Faculty. Paper 1187 (1966)(1966): 1096: 1096--112.112.
225 Deborah Barrett and Amy Ong Tsui, “Policy as Symbolic Statement: International Re-Deborah Barrett and Amy Ong Tsui, “Policy as Symbolic Statement: International Re-sponse to National Population Policies,” sponse to National Population Policies,” Social Forces Social Forces 78, no. 1 (1999): 21378, no. 1 (1999): 213––33.33.
226 Dennis Hodgson and Susan Watkins, “From Mercantilists to NeoDennis Hodgson and Susan Watkins, “From Mercantilists to Neo--Malthusianism: Inter-Malthusianism: Inter-national Population Movement and the Transformation of Population Ideology in national Population Movement and the Transformation of Population Ideology in Kenya” Kenya” (Paper presented at the Workshop on Social Processes Underlying(Paper presented at the Workshop on Social Processes Underlying Fertility Change Fertility Change in Developing Countries, Committee on Population, in Developing Countries, Committee on Population, National Academy of Sciences, Wash-National Academy of Sciences, Wash-ington D.C., January 29, 1998).ington D.C., January 29, 1998).
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terrified
terrified to discover that to discover that the funds granted were the funds granted were not not used for family plan-used for family plan-ning activities but ning activities but for for infrastructural development.infrastructural development.227
2.3.8 Developmentalist and Modernist DiscoursesDevelopmentalist and Modernist Discourses
D
Developing eveloping countriescountries, seeking ways to i, seeking ways to improvemprove their catheir capability and func-pability and func-tioningtioning out of out of social, social, political,political, and and especially especially economic hardshipeconomic hardship,, were al-were al-lured with the global developmentalist discourselured with the global developmentalist discourse and its and its applicable applicable methodsmethods,, including including NDPNDP preparation with preparation with an an antinatalist attachmentantinatalist attachment. .
In
In the the Cold War Cold War era, era, there was a there was a broad consensbroad consensus us on on both sides about both sides about state intervention state intervention iin the economyn the economy.. The The majormajor achiachievements evements ofof Soviet in-Soviet in-dustrializationdustrialization,, labelled labelled by the by the fivefive--year industrial plansyear industrial plans, which , which had al-had al-ready ready begun begun in 1928in 1928, , wwereere proclaimed asproclaimed as a signifying a signifying proof ofproof of thethe supe-supe-riority riority of the planned economy of the planned economy over over the the freefree--marketmarket economieseconomies which which were were being being shaken by the Great Depression during the same shaken by the Great Depression during the same period.period. In In the ethe early post war era, arly post war era, the the Marshall PlanMarshall Plan’s success ’s success in in aiding theaiding the recovery recovery of of Western Europe was also Western Europe was also seen seen as as another another triumph of triumph of economic economic inter-inter-ventionist policyventionist policy, this time in the , this time in the capitalist economy.capitalist economy.228
For many newly independent states in the 1950s and 1960s,
For many newly independent states in the 1950s and 1960s, the the prep-prep-araration of anation of an NPD was almost as important aNPD was almost as important as as a symbol of national symbol of national sov-sov-ereignty, but ereignty, but it was it was also a prerequisite for foreign aid and had effective also a prerequisite for foreign aid and had effective national and international pnational and international promotional romotional value.value.229 In his analysis of the In his analysis of the NDPsNDPs of of sixty countries sixty countries in thein the 1970s and earlier, Stamper reveals that 1970s and earlier, Stamper reveals that twentytwenty--five of them supported populafive of them supported population control and family planning.tion control and family planning.230 Following the formula created by Coale and Hoover in 1958, all Following the formula created by Coale and Hoover in 1958, all of of those those NDPNDPs s that that supportedsupported population controlpopulation control portrayedportrayed family planning as an family planning as an
227 Chiweni Chimbwete, Susan Cotts Watkins, and Eliya Msiyaphazi Zulu, “The Evolution of Chiweni Chimbwete, Susan Cotts Watkins, and Eliya Msiyaphazi Zulu, “The Evolution of Population PoliciesPopulation Policies in Kenya and Malawi,” in Kenya and Malawi,” Population Research and Policy ReviewPopulation Research and Policy Review 24, no. 24, no. 1 (2005): 851 (2005): 85––106.106.
228 Admos O. Chimhowu, David Hulme, and Lauchlan T. Munro, “The ‘New’ National Devel-Admos O. Chimhowu, David Hulme, and Lauchlan T. Munro, “The ‘New’ National Devel-opment Planning and Global Development Goals: Processes and Partnerships,” opment Planning and Global Development Goals: Processes and Partnerships,” World World DevelopmentDevelopment 120 (2019): 76120 (2019): 76––89.89.
229 B. Maxwell Stamper, B. Maxwell Stamper, Population and Planning in Developing Nations: A Review of SixtPopulation and Planning in Developing Nations: A Review of Sixty y Development Plans for the 1970sDevelopment Plans for the 1970s (New York: The Population Council, 1977), 17.(New York: The Population Council, 1977), 17.
230 Ibid., 24Ibid., 24––70.70.
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effective method
effective method of solvingof solving economic, socialeconomic, social,, and demographic problems and demographic problems to reato reach further economic growth.ch further economic growth.
Table 2.
Table 2.33 Population Population pplanning in lanning in the the NDP.NDP.
Country
Country
Population
Population Planning Law Planning Law
NDP referring to Fam-ily Planning
# of NDP IndiaIndia 19521952 19521952 11stst PakistanPakistan 19601960 19601960 22ndnd South KoreaSouth Korea 19611961 19611961 11stst ChinaChina 19621962 19581958 22ndnd TunisiaTunisia 19641964 19621962 11stst TurkeyTurkey 19651965 19631963 11stst EgyptEgypt 19651965 19651965 22ndnd Sri Lanka Sri Lanka 19651965 19591959 11stst SingaporeSingapore 19651965 19661966 11stst KenyaKenya 19661966 19661966 11stst MalaysiaMalaysia 19661966 19631963 22ndnd NepalNepal 19661966 19651965 33rdrd JamaicaJamaica 19661966 19631963 11sstt IranIran 19671967 19621962 33rdrd BangladeshBangladesh 19671967 19731973 11stst IndonesiaIndonesia 19681968 19691969 11stst MoroccoMorocco 19681968 19651965 22ndnd TaiwanTaiwan 19681968 19651965 44thth DominicDominic 19681968 19691969 11stst GhanaGhana 19691969 19631963 11stst
SOURCE
SOURCE: : Compiled from the NDP reports of each country.Compiled from the NDP reports of each country.
As shown in Table 2.3, all these twenty countries that switched to popu-
As shown in Table 2.3, all these twenty countries that switched to popu-lation control before 1970, had some reference to family planning in their lation control before 1970, had some reference to family planning in their NDP reports. And with the exception of Singapore and Ghana, where the NDP reports. And with the exception of Singapore and Ghana, where the family planning laws were accepted priorfamily planning laws were accepted priorly, these NPD reports were the ly, these NPD reports were the first official documents evidencing to a population policy shift toward an-first official documents evidencing to a population policy shift toward an-tinatalism. tinatalism.
In addition to developmentalist discourse, radical modernist leader-
In addition to developmentalist discourse, radical modernist leader-ship and ship and personal commitment to population control at the national levepersonal commitment to population control at the national level l played a crplayed a critical itical role role in the in the legalization process of national family legalization process of national family
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planning
planning in sin some countries.ome countries. In Tunisia, family planning was part of the In Tunisia, family planning was part of the modernization effort, initiated by national leadermodernization effort, initiated by national leader Habib BourguibaHabib Bourguiba. After . After gaining independence from France in 19gaining independence from France in 1956, some initial measures were 56, some initial measures were taken, such as legalizing abortion after the fifth child and female sterili-taken, such as legalizing abortion after the fifth child and female sterili-zation. In 1962, the target of family planning was first established in the zation. In 1962, the target of family planning was first established in the first national economic and social plan.first national economic and social plan.231 At the same time, the govern-At the same time, the govern-menment started t started to discuss with to discuss with the the Ford Foundation and Ford Foundation and the the Population Population Council Council about about the support and agreed the support and agreed on a on a twotwo--year experimental pro-year experimental pro-gram.gram.232
In Sri Lanka, S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, the
In Sri Lanka, S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, the MMinister of inister of HHealth after ealth after gaining independence, was the first government gaining independence, was the first government official in the world to official in the world to speak openly about population planning and birth control speak openly about population planning and birth control as early as as early as 19491949 at the Second World Health Assembly.at the Second World Health Assembly.233 A year lA year later, he proposed ater, he proposed WHO WHO addressaddress the population problem, which was refused by the population problem, which was refused by a vote of 1a vote of 1 to 30.to 30.234 After becoming prime minister in 1956, Bandaranaike contin-After becoming prime minister in 1956, Bandaranaike contin-ued his efforts on family planning, ued his efforts on family planning, andand the government signed a bilateral the government signed a bilateral agreement with the Swedish government agreement with the Swedish government in 1958 in 1958 to support pilot family to support pilot family planning activities. Furthermore, planning activities. Furthermore, aa large amount of attention was de-large amount of attention was de-voted to population control in the first voted to population control in the first TTenen--YYear ear DDevelopment evelopment PPlan lan of of 1959.1959.235
Concl
Conclusionusion of Chapter of Chapter 22
As
As a a conclusionconclusion of this chapterof this chapter, , not only the not only the idea of idea of population control population control a a byproduct of a hegemonic global spherebyproduct of a hegemonic global sphere,, and the process was and the process was not not a onea one--
231 George F. Brown, “Tunisia: The Debut of Family Planning,” in George F. Brown, “Tunisia: The Debut of Family Planning,” in The Global Family Planning The Global Family Planning Revolution: Three Decades of Population PoliciRevolution: Three Decades of Population Policies and Programses and Programs, ed. Warren A. Robinson , ed. Warren A. Robinson and John A. Ross (Washington D.C.: The World Bank, 2007), 59and John A. Ross (Washington D.C.: The World Bank, 2007), 59––70.70.
232 Warren G. Povey and George F. Brown, “Tunisia’s Experience in Family Planning,” Warren G. Povey and George F. Brown, “Tunisia’s Experience in Family Planning,” De-De-mographymography 5, no. 2 (1968): 6205, no. 2 (1968): 620––26.26.
233 Nicholas H. Wright, “Early Family PNicholas H. Wright, “Early Family Planning Efforts in Sri Lanka,” in lanning Efforts in Sri Lanka,” in The Global Family The Global Family Planning Revolution: Three Decades of Population Policies and ProgramsPlanning Revolution: Three Decades of Population Policies and Programs, ed. Warren A. , ed. Warren A. Robinson (Washington D.C.: The World Bank, 2007), 341Robinson (Washington D.C.: The World Bank, 2007), 341––62.62.
234 World Health OrganizationWorld Health Organization,, “Third World Health Assembly,” 233“Third World Health Assembly,” 233––34.34.
235 Stamper, Stamper, Population aPopulation and Planning in Developing Nations: A Review of Sixty Development nd Planning in Developing Nations: A Review of Sixty Development Plans for the 1970sPlans for the 1970s, 179, 179––80.80.
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way diffusion from
way diffusion from the the developed to developed to the the developing nations, but the developing nations, but the gov-gov-ernments of the ernments of the develdeveloping oping world world had their own reasons had their own reasons for for believbelievinging that it that it mightmight also also serve to reserve to restore store or enhance the capability and function-or enhance the capability and function-ings of the governing good life. ings of the governing good life.
The social,
The social, economic,economic, and political barriers of the developing world and political barriers of the developing world that converted the “bare” and “that converted the “bare” and “unbearable” lives into a burden in the unbearable” lives into a burden in the 1950s and 1960s were analyzed 1950s and 1960s were analyzed within the framework of several key within the framework of several key headlines: traditional Malthusian and eugenic concerns, rapid urbaniza-headlines: traditional Malthusian and eugenic concerns, rapid urbaniza-tion, disasters and famines, political instability and coups, economic cri-tion, disasters and famines, political instability and coups, economic cri-ses andses and urgent need for financial aid, and, finally, the need for develop-urgent need for financial aid, and, finally, the need for develop-ment and modernization.ment and modernization.
In Table 2.4, the topics discussed in this section have been accumu-
In Table 2.4, the topics discussed in this section have been accumu-lated and grouped by countrylated and grouped by country. Needless to say, there should be other . Needless to say, there should be other countrycountry--specific factors and pspecific factors and power relations ower relations that that affectaffect antinatalist dis-antinatalist dis-coursecourse, as well as , as well as cultural, cultural, religious,religious, and other resistances, contestationsand other resistances, contestations,, and negotiations in between. Yet this brief overview demonstrates that and negotiations in between. Yet this brief overview demonstrates that individual developing individual developing countriescountries were not alone in their concerns about were not alone in their concerns about their own “population problemtheir own “population problem,,” as many of th” as many of theese se obstacles to a obstacles to a govern-govern-ing good life were ing good life were spontaneously spontaneously shared by shared by vastly differentvastly different nationsnations,, even even from different continents. from different continents.
The detailed analysis o
The detailed analysis off the national and individual sphere is cthe national and individual sphere is carried arried out out in the following chapters for Turkey, one of the few countriesin the following chapters for Turkey, one of the few countries that that well represents thewell represents the diversitydiversity of theof these key issues.se key issues.
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Table 2.
Table 2.44 Key Key ppopulation opulation iissues per ssues per ddeveloping eveloping ccountryountry Country Malthusian Concerns Rapid Urbanization Famines Eugenic Ethnic conflicts Military Coups Economic Crisis-Need for Financial aids Develop-mentalist Modernist discourse India Pakistan
South Korea
China
Tunisia
Turkey Egypt
Sri Lanka
Singapore
Kenya
Malaysia Nepal
Jamaica
Iran
Bangladesh
Indonesia
Morocco
Taiwan
Dominic
Ghana
LEGEND
Malthusian
Concerns
Rapid Urbanization
Famines
Eugenic /Ethnic conflicts
Military Coups
Economic Crisis / Need for Financial aids
Develop-mentalist / Modernist discourse
Pop increase Below 20%
Below 20%
no
no
no
no
no
20%-29%
20%-29%
Ethnic
30%-39%
30%-39%
yes
Eugenic
yes
Need for financial aid
Developmen-talist
40%-49%
40%-49%
Above 50% + scarce res.
Above 50%
Economic crisis
Modernist

103
3 The Population Control in Turkey: Actors, Debates, The Population Control in Turkey: Actors, Debates, Discussions and Transitions…Discussions and Transitions…
n April
n April 1,1, 1965, a new law on 1965, a new law on ffamily amily pplanning was enacted by the lanning was enacted by the Turkish Assembly.Turkish Assembly.1 With this law, the individuals were permitted to With this law, the individuals were permitted to limit the pregnancy through preventive measures (Article 1) and the limit the pregnancy through preventive measures (Article 1) and the Min-Min-istry of istry of Health was Health was charged with the charged with the promotion, training, educationpromotion, training, education,, and and application of application of FPPFPP in coordination with the military, publicin coordination with the military, public,, and private and private organizations (Article 2). Furthermore, the law liberalized the importorganizations (Article 2). Furthermore, the law liberalized the importa-a-tion tion and sale of contraceptive drugs and materials (Article 9).and sale of contraceptive drugs and materials (Article 9). CCastration astration and sterilizationand sterilization, on the other , on the other hand, remainedhand, remained prohibitedprohibited, , and allowed and allowed only only on a limited basis for on a limited basis for health imperatives (Articlehealth imperatives (Articless 3, 4). 3, 4).
This new Population Planning
This new Population Planning LLaw represents a radical aw represents a radical break with break with the pronatalist stance of the Turkish Republic, the pronatalist stance of the Turkish Republic, in which in which the promotion the promotion and use of contraception was defined as a crime and use of contraception was defined as a crime against against raciracial al integrity integrity and and healthhealth andand punished punished by by six monthsix monthss to two years imprisonment.to two years imprisonment.2 Yet Yet the policy transformation was not immediate. The governmental and the policy transformation was not immediate. The governmental and
1 Turkish Assembly, “Population Panning Law, No: 557,” Turkish Assembly, “Population Panning Law, No: 557,” Official Gazette publication on Official Gazette publication on April 10April 10, 1965, No.11976, enacted on April 1, 1965., 1965, No.11976, enacted on April 1, 1965.
2 Turkish Assembly, “Turkish Penal Code, Law No: 3038Turkish Assembly, “Turkish Penal Code, Law No: 3038,,” Official Gazette publication on ” Official Gazette publication on June June 2323, 1936, No.3337, enacted on June 11, 1936, Article 471., 1936, No.3337, enacted on June 11, 1936, Article 471.
O
O
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parliamentary discussions
parliamentary discussions aboutabout population control have spanned into population control have spanned into five years interruptedly started righfive years interruptedly started right after the 1960 t after the 1960 ccoup. And the issue oup. And the issue had beenhad been onon the public agenda the public agenda for for at least a decade before the promulga-at least a decade before the promulga-tion of the law. tion of the law.
This
This chapter chapter presents the presents the dynamics, actors, public and parliamentary dynamics, actors, public and parliamentary disdisputesputes that that triggeredtriggered the population policy change in Turkethe population policy change in Turkeyy,, as well as as well as the the implementationimplementation of the new policyof the new policy. Furthermore, . Furthermore, social, social, economic,economic, and political and political issues, such as the military coup, rapid urbanization, eco-issues, such as the military coup, rapid urbanization, eco-nomic crisis, nomic crisis, and and developmentalist discoursesdevelopmentalist discourses, which were, which were identifiedidentified in in the previous chapter as key fthe previous chapter as key factors actors in in eroding the capability and func-eroding the capability and func-tionings of the countrytionings of the country,, are are elaborated for Turkish case in detail. elaborated for Turkish case in detail.
The chapter consists of three sections
The chapter consists of three sections.. The first section exploresThe first section explores early early public discussions on population control in terms public discussions on population control in terms of their of their interrelation-interrelation-shipship with public healthwith public health andand changing economic and social lifechanging economic and social life,, primarilyprimarily due to massive internal migration. due to massive internal migration. The sThe second sectionecond section analyzes analyzes the fivethe five--year period year period between between the 1960 the 1960 ccououp p and the and the promulgation of the law in promulgation of the law in 19651965,, with some key turning points, antinatalist initiatiwith some key turning points, antinatalist initiativesves, , resistance,resistance, and parliamentary discussions. The and parliamentary discussions. The lastlast section consists of the imple-section consists of the imple-mentation of the antinatalist law and mentation of the antinatalist law and attemptsattempts to demonstrate the direc-to demonstrate the direc-tion tion of the of the investment in investment in population control and the individual repopulation control and the individual response sponse through through descriptive descriptive statistical data statistical data inin order order to find out the reason to find out the reason for for the the failure of the failure of the hughuge antinatalist campaign.e antinatalist campaign.
§ 3.1 Early Antinatalist Discussions before 1960Early Antinatalist Discussions before 1960
Until the mid
Until the mid--1950s1950s,, therthere was a public consensus about the virtues of e was a public consensus about the virtues of the populationthe population growthgrowth, which was re, which was reaffirmedaffirmed in the party program of the in the party program of the ruling ruling DP government in 1954.DP government in 1954.3 But, fromBut, from the midthe mid--1950s 1950s onward, onward, medi-medi-cal, cal, political,political, and economic concerns about population growth gradualland economic concerns about population growth gradually y emerged especially amongemerged especially among the medical professionals, economiststhe medical professionals, economists,, and and journalistsjournalists,, with with vastlyvastly differentdifferent justificationsjustifications..
3 İrfan Neziroğlu and Tuncer Yılmaz, İrfan Neziroğlu and Tuncer Yılmaz, HükümetlerHükümetler--Programları ve Genel Kurul Görüşmeleri, Programları ve Genel Kurul Görüşmeleri, vol. 2: 22 Nisan 1950 vol. 2: 22 Nisan 1950 –– 20 Kasım 19620 Kasım 19611 (Ankara, Turkey: TBMM Yayınları, 2013), 1026.(Ankara, Turkey: TBMM Yayınları, 2013), 1026.
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In this section, th
In this section, theese concerns se concerns areare analyzed in three categories and analyzed in three categories and in four sections. Firstin four sections. First,, the the medicalmedical professionalsprofessionals’’ ccalls foralls for a a changchange ine in na-na-talist polictalist policyy due to their due to their increasingincreasing medical concerns about maternal medical concerns about maternal mortality and high abortion rates mortality and high abortion rates areare evaluated. Second, the evaluated. Second, the anxieties of anxieties of sosociologists, economistsciologists, economists,, and journalistsand journalists regarding regarding rapid population rapid population growth and migration growth and migration areare addressedaddressed in two headlines, in terms of the in two headlines, in terms of the cause cause and and effect. effect. Finally, Finally, early female voices early female voices are are tracked from the tracked from the Women’s Journal to find a population control debate Women’s Journal to find a population control debate in terms of women’s in terms of women’s rightrightss. .
3.1.1 Discussions on Public Health Discussions on Public Health
How come some of the key health professionals have radically changed
How come some of the key health professionals have radically changed the medical the medical discoursediscourse from a dedication for increasing fertility until the from a dedication for increasing fertility until the late 1940s to striving for decreasing it, and what welate 1940s to striving for decreasing it, and what were their arguments re their arguments and impand implicationslications? These are the main queries ? These are the main queries exploredexplored in this subsection.in this subsection.
The very first formal attempt
The very first formal attempt to challengeto challenge the ongoing pronatalist the ongoing pronatalist stance of the state was the petition of Dr. Zekai Tahir Burak to the Minis-stance of the state was the petition of Dr. Zekai Tahir Burak to the Minis-try of Health in 1958try of Health in 1958 asking asking to allow contraceptive use to stop the to allow contraceptive use to stop the in-in-creasing creasing number of abortion cases causing maternal mortality.number of abortion cases causing maternal mortality.4 Based on Based on his previous observations of the medical records of 5his previous observations of the medical records of 5,,000 women 000 women who who had had gone gone to the Ankara Maternity Hospital between 1953 and 1954, heto the Ankara Maternity Hospital between 1953 and 1954, he founded that founded that more than 30% of them had induced abortion or miscar-more than 30% of them had induced abortion or miscar-riage experiences in their prriage experiences in their previousevious pregnancies. He further observed that pregnancies. He further observed that thethe maternal mortality ratematernal mortality rate for the women who had suffered an abortionfor the women who had suffered an abortion was four times higherwas four times higher than than for the for the other other normalnormal pregnancies.pregnancies.5 And he And he confidently stated that in Turkey some 500confidently stated that in Turkey some 500,,000 women had either in-000 women had either in-duced abortion or miscarriage annually that caused more than 10duced abortion or miscarriage annually that caused more than 10,,000 000 maternal mortality.maternal mortality.6
4 RagıpRagıp Üner and Nusret FiÜner and Nusret Fişşekek, Türkiye’de Doğum Kontrolü Uygulaması Üzerine , Türkiye’de Doğum Kontrolü Uygulaması Üzerine İnİncelemelercelemeler (Ankara: Sağlık ve Sosyal Yardım Bakanlığı, 1961), 134(Ankara: Sağlık ve Sosyal Yardım Bakanlığı, 1961), 134––36.36.
5 Sabahat Tezcan and BanSabahat Tezcan and Banu Akadlı Ergöçmen, “Türkiye’de İsteyerek Düşükler,u Akadlı Ergöçmen, “Türkiye’de İsteyerek Düşükler,” Türkiye ” Türkiye Halk Sağlığı DergisiHalk Sağlığı Dergisi, Özel Sayı: Düşükler, no. 10 (2012): 36, Özel Sayı: Düşükler, no. 10 (2012): 36––42.42.
6 Üner and FiÜner and Fişşek, ek, Türkiye’de Doğum Kontrolü Uygulaması Üzerine İncelemelerTürkiye’de Doğum Kontrolü Uygulaması Üzerine İncelemeler, 9., 9.
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The
The Ministry of Ministry of Health commissioned him to chair a committee to in-Health commissioned him to chair a committee to in-vestigate the issue immediately. As a result, the committee was convinced vestigate the issue immediately. As a result, the committee was convinced that it was the that it was the PPenal enal CCodeode, which prohibited, which prohibited abortion and uabortion and use of se of contra-contra-ceptive ceptive methodsmethods, , that led that led pregnant women to search for disguipregnant women to search for disguised, un-sed, un-sterile and dangerous operations to sterile and dangerous operations to terminatterminatee the pregnancy and endan-the pregnancy and endan-ger their lives. Accordingly, they ger their lives. Accordingly, they reported toreported to the Ministry of Health to the Ministry of Health to immediately repeal immediately repeal the the PPenal enal CCode.ode.7
Indeed, the newspaper articles of the era
Indeed, the newspaper articles of the era indicateindicate many abortion many abortion casecases. In this dissertation, the abortion cases mentioned in the prominent s. In this dissertation, the abortion cases mentioned in the prominent newspapers (newspapers (Cumhuriyet, Milliyet) Cumhuriyet, Milliyet) were tracked were tracked and classified and classified between between 1950 and 1959. Among twenty1950 and 1959. Among twenty--six abortion cases mentioned in thesix abortion cases mentioned in thesese newspapers within newspapers within a a tenten--yearyear period, only seven wperiod, only seven were selfere self--abortionabortionss, , whwhileile five of them five of them died died due to due to nonnon--sterile conditions. The remaining nine-sterile conditions. The remaining nine-teen cases mentioned in the newspapers were teen cases mentioned in the newspapers were performedperformed by the doctors, by the doctors, in which nine of thin which nine of theese pregnantse pregnant women wwomen were killed during the illegal op-ere killed during the illegal op-erations. erations.
In March 19
In March 1952, after three 52, after three successivesuccessive abortion cases ended abortion cases ended inin death, death, the Ministry of Health declared that inspections and the Ministry of Health declared that inspections and penaltiespenalties would be would be tightenedtightened to to crack down on crack down on doctors'doctors' illegal abortion operations.illegal abortion operations.8 In De-In De-cember 1953, acember 1953, abortionbortion became a hot topic again, when a doctor, Asım became a hot topic again, when a doctor, Asım Onur, was caught Onur, was caught performingperforming an illegal operation.an illegal operation.9 The court case The court case dragged on for dragged on for yyears and ears and was was closely closely followedfollowed by the press and by the press and the the publicpublic, , endingending with with a a 1010--month month prison sentenceprison sentence..10 In January 1955, an insidIn January 1955, an insider er news from a doctor telling some 60 illegal abortions news from a doctor telling some 60 illegal abortions had been performedhad been performed in Istanbul alin Istanbul alertederted many columnists many columnists to to the topic.the topic.11
Nevertheless
Nevertheless, abortion was still enframed in moral and judicial terms , abortion was still enframed in moral and judicial terms by the public and the government andby the public and the government and not not associated with associated with ththe pronatalist e pronatalist agenda. Even so, the medical report prepared for the Ministry of Health agenda. Even so, the medical report prepared for the Ministry of Health to cancel the pronatalist penal code to cancel the pronatalist penal code disappeared disappeared after some after some
7 Ibid., 131Ibid., 131––33.33.
8 “Kürtaj “Kürtaj hhadiseleri,” adiseleri,” MilliyetMilliyet, March 17, 1952., March 17, 1952.
9 ““Kürtaj yapan bir doktor suçüstü yakalandıKürtaj yapan bir doktor suçüstü yakalandı," ," MilliyetMilliyet, December 9, 1953., December 9, 1953.
10 “Kürtajdan “Kürtajdan ssanık Asım Onur anık Asım Onur mmahkûm ahkûm ooldu,” ldu,” MilliyetMilliyet, June 10, 1959., June 10, 1959.
11 ““Günde 60 Kadına Kürtaj Yapılıyor,” Günde 60 Kadına Kürtaj Yapılıyor,” MilliyetMilliyet, April 1, 1955., April 1, 1955.
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correspondence
correspondence between between the the Ministry of Health and Ministry of Health and the the Ministry of Jus-Ministry of Jus-tice and tice and was neverwas never taken into consideratitaken into consideration until the on until the ccoup of 1960.oup of 1960.12
One exception was Fakir Baykurt, an awar
One exception was Fakir Baykurt, an awardd--winningwinning pastoral novel-pastoral novel-ist, who also ist, who also publishedpublished short stories in daily newspaper, short stories in daily newspaper, CumhuriyetCumhuriyet. The . The subject subject of his article in April 1958 was excessive multiplicationof his article in April 1958 was excessive multiplication,, and he and he portraited its harms portraited its harms inin a short storya short story:: three new three new cemeteriescemeteries in an Anato-in an Anato-lian village belonging to three young women who had lost their lives lian village belonging to three young women who had lost their lives per-per-forming an forming an unsterile abortion themselves. And asked the readersunsterile abortion themselves. And asked the readers to con-to con-sider the economic and social sider the economic and social presspressuresures that forced these girls that forced these girls sselfelf--abort abort and and kill themselveskill themselves..13 The story was so compelling that Dr. Nusret Fişek, The story was so compelling that Dr. Nusret Fişek, who would become the who would become the underundersecretary secretary forfor the Ministry of Health the Ministry of Health be-be-tween 1960 and 1965 and drafted the tween 1960 and 1965 and drafted the ppopulation opulation pplanning lanning llaw by him-aw by him-self, admitself, admitted in his memoirs and in ted in his memoirs and in his his opening speechopening speeches at es at most of his most of his conferences thatconferences that, , it was it was Baykurt’s article, Baykurt’s article, made him think made him think how to mitigate how to mitigate the maternal mortality and the abortion.the maternal mortality and the abortion.14
Dr. Fişek, a principal of the Public Health Institute at t
Dr. Fişek, a principal of the Public Health Institute at thehe time, and time, and in-in-spispired red by Baykurt’s article, asked medical trainees to collect maternal by Baykurt’s article, asked medical trainees to collect maternal and infant mortality data in their and infant mortality data in their assigned assigned stations in the summer of stations in the summer of 1959. The face1959. The face--toto--face interviews were conducted with 7face interviews were conducted with 7,,092 women 092 women from 137 villages and the infant mortality rate wasfrom 137 villages and the infant mortality rate was found as 167 found as 167 %o%o and and maternal mortality rate as 5maternal mortality rate as 5..22%o%o in which more half ofin which more half of whomwhom had died had died during abortion. Like Dr. Burak, Dr. Fişek sent his report to the Ministry during abortion. Like Dr. Burak, Dr. Fişek sent his report to the Ministry of Healthof Health, urging it to lift, urging it to lift restrictions against contraceptirestrictions against contraceptivesves..15
The design of the survey indicates that Dr. Fişek also considered the
The design of the survey indicates that Dr. Fişek also considered the infant mortality as a function oinfant mortality as a function of the f the overproliferationoverproliferation, which he believed , which he believed increased numbers of children could reduce parents' increased numbers of children could reduce parents' capabilitycapability to feed, to feed, care for, and thus save their lives.care for, and thus save their lives.
The typical determinants of infant mortality in a Turkish village w
The typical determinants of infant mortality in a Turkish village wereere already summarized already summarized as early as 19as early as 1950 50 by a seventeenby a seventeen--yearyear--old village old village teacher, Mahmut Makal, in his groundbreaking book, teacher, Mahmut Makal, in his groundbreaking book, Bizim KöyBizim Köy (Our (Our
12 Turkish Medical Turkish Medical Association, Association, Nusret Fişek ile SöyleşiNusret Fişek ile Söyleşi, 11., 11.
13 FakirFakir Baykurt, “Aşırı Baykurt, “Aşırı ççoğalma,” oğalma,” CumhuriyetCumhuriyet, April 12, 1959., April 12, 1959.
14 Turkish Medical Association, Turkish Medical Association, Nusret Fişek Nusret Fişek iile Söyleşi,le Söyleşi, 10.10.
15 Üner and FiÜner and Fişşek,ek, Türkiye’de Doğum Kontrolü Uygulaması Üzerine İncelemeler,Türkiye’de Doğum Kontrolü Uygulaması Üzerine İncelemeler, 137137––42.42.
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village).
village).16 In the book, Makal enlisted birth and death statistics of his vil-In the book, Makal enlisted birth and death statistics of his vil-lage for four yearslage for four years,, recordrecordinging 226 births 226 births during tduring that period together with hat period together with 134134 infant mortalities who had perished infant mortalities who had perished fromfrom malnutrition, lack of breast malnutrition, lack of breast feeding, malaria, lack of climatization in winters, and diarrhea in sum-feeding, malaria, lack of climatization in winters, and diarrhea in sum-mer.mer.17 His His harshharsh village life depiction was so disappointing village life depiction was so disappointing toto the young the young republic that he was republic that he was imprisonedimprisoned for somefor some timetime,, but equally but equally it was of in-it was of in-terest to terest to foreignersforeigners,, so much that so much that a US mission a US mission visited visited Makal’s village to Makal’s village to see see the the conditions conditions forfor themselves.themselves.18
All th
All theese figures justify the magnitude of abortion, maternal and in-se figures justify the magnitude of abortion, maternal and in-fant mortalityfant mortality, and , and the changing attitude of the changing attitude of some medical professionals some medical professionals towards the towards the continuing continuing pronatalist approach. Yet, these concerns pronatalist approach. Yet, these concerns have have al-al-ways ways been high been high on the medical agenda, and the timing of this sudden in-on the medical agenda, and the timing of this sudden in-terest needs further elaboration and comparison with terest needs further elaboration and comparison with earlierearlier data.data.
It
It isis already known and documented that abortion was widespread already known and documented that abortion was widespread since the Ottoman era.since the Ottoman era.19 Although there is no statistical evidence aboAlthough there is no statistical evidence about ut its density, its density, thethe relatively small size of an average Istanbul familyrelatively small size of an average Istanbul family, which , which consisted ofconsisted of 44..1 households 1 households according to the according to the 1907 census,1907 census,20 and the lack and the lack of medical and contraceptive technology at thof medical and contraceptive technology at thee time, mtime, mayay be indicatorbe indicatorss of of aa higher abortion utilization higher abortion utilization which which maymay have led to higher maternal mor-have led to higher maternal mor-tality. tality.
As for
As for infant mortality, infant mortality, despite the despite the incomplete and erroneous incomplete and erroneous death death registrations severalregistrations several statistical methods were utilized to statistical methods were utilized to retrospectively retrospectively calculate the infant mortality rate in Turkey. Miroslav Macura calculate the infant mortality rate in Turkey. Miroslav Macura utilized utilized birth survival historiesbirth survival histories from the from the 1968 KAP survey to calculate infant mor-1968 KAP survey to calculate infant mor-tality rates from 1945 to 1968.tality rates from 1945 to 1968.21 And Fredrick Shorter regressed infant And Fredrick Shorter regressed infant mortality series mortality series even even back to 1935back to 1935 using multiple projection method.using multiple projection method.22
16 Mahmut Makal, Mahmut Makal, Bizim KBizim Köyöy, 11th ed. (Ankara: Derinlik Yayınları, 1978)., 11th ed. (Ankara: Derinlik Yayınları, 1978).
17 Ibid., 92Ibid., 92––94.94.
18 RAC, “Diaries of John Marshall March 18RAC, “Diaries of John Marshall March 18thth -- June 13June 13thth , 1952,” 1952, 63., 1952,” 1952, 63.
19 Gülhan Balsoy, “Gender and the Politics of the Female Body: Midwifery, Abortion, and Gülhan Balsoy, “Gender and the Politics of the Female Body: Midwifery, Abortion, and Pregnancy in Ottoman Society (1838Pregnancy in Ottoman Society (1838--1890s), 1221890s), 122––63.63.
20 Cem Behar, Cem Behar, A Neighborhood in Ottoman Istanbul: Fruit Vendors and Civil Servants in the A Neighborhood in Ottoman Istanbul: Fruit Vendors and Civil Servants in the Kasap İlyas MahalleKasap İlyas Mahalle (Albany: State University of Ne(Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003), 136.w York Press, 2003), 136.
21 Shorter and MacuraShorter and Macura, Trends in Fertility and Mortality in Turkey, 1935, Trends in Fertility and Mortality in Turkey, 1935--19751975, 59, 59––90.90.
22 Ibid., 91Ibid., 91––95.95.
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Table 3.1
Table 3.1 shows shows infant mortality rates from 1935 to 1975 infant mortality rates from 1935 to 1975 in in fivefive--year year intervalsintervals,, whereas the rates were in continuous decline except the mili-whereas the rates were in continuous decline except the mili-tary mobilization period during tary mobilization period during WWIIWWII. Therefore, this sudden . Therefore, this sudden increase in increase in awareness was not necessarily due to increasing abortion, awareness was not necessarily due to increasing abortion, maternal or maternal or infant fertility cases but infant fertility cases but maymay be be thethe result of result of an an increasing “increasing “encounters”encounters” between medical professionals and patients. between medical professionals and patients.
Table 3.
Table 3.11 Infant Infant mmortality ortality rrates 1935ates 1935--19751975
Period
Period
Infant Mortality Rate
Infant Mortality Rate (per 1000 births)(per 1000 births)
Change
Change %% 19351935--19401940 273273 -- 19401940--19451945 306306 12%12% 19451945--19501950 260260 --15%15% 19501950--19551955 233233 --10%10% 19551955--19601960 203203 --13%13% 19601960--19651965 176176 --13%13% 19651965--19701970 151151 --14%14% 11970970--19751975 126126 --17%17%
SOURCE
SOURCE: : ShorterShorter andand MacuraMacura (1982)(1982), , 95.95.
Table 3.2 depicts the
Table 3.2 depicts the trends in the trends in the total total number of state hospitals and the number of state hospitals and the total number of bedstotal number of beds inin state hospitals and nurseries between 1935 and state hospitals and nurseries between 1935 and 1970. The rapid increase between 1950 and 1955 is discernable as both 1970. The rapid increase between 1950 and 1955 is discernable as both the the number of number of statestate hospitals and beds hospitals and beds exceeded exceeded all other periodsall other periods. This . This may may help help to understand why Dr. Zeki Tahir Burak had found to understand why Dr. Zeki Tahir Burak had found aa higher higher abortion and maternal mortality cases in Ankara Maternity Hospital abortion and maternal mortality cases in Ankara Maternity Hospital inin 1953 and 1954.1953 and 1954.
For more accurate
For more accurate assessmentassessment, the number of pregnancy cases in hos-, the number of pregnancy cases in hos-pitals and nurseries pitals and nurseries isis required. However, the required. However, the Yearbook of Medical Statis-Yearbook of Medical Statis-ticstics,, whichwhich contains the relcontains the relevant mevant medical dataedical data, was not published until , was not published until 19551955,, and the information before that date is unreliable. Nevertheless, and the information before that date is unreliable. Nevertheless, the figures the figures in Tablein Table 3.33.3, which , which indicate indicate the the number of number of women hwomen hospital-ospital-ized for ized for pregnancy inpregnancy in hospitals and nurseries between 1955 and 1959, hospitals and nurseries between 1955 and 1959, confirm the increasing number of encounters between doctors and the confirm the increasing number of encounters between doctors and the pregnantpregnant women.women.
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Table 3.
Table 3.22 State State hhospitals and ospitals and bbeds 1935eds 1935--19701970
Year
Year
Number of
Number of State Hospitals State Hospitals
Change
Change %%
Number of Beds
Number of Beds in State Hospitals in State Hospitals and Nurseriesand Nurseries
Change
Change
% % 19351935 1313 33,,710710
1940
1940
15
15
15%
15%
4
4,,395395
18%
18% 19451945 2323 53%53% 55,,745745 31%31%
1950
1950
41
41
78%
78%
8
8,,654654
51%
51% 19551955 8787 112%112% 1313,,646646 58%58%
1960
1960
94
94
8%
8%
17
17,,041041
25%
25% 19651965 154154 64%64% 2323,,115115 36%36%
1970
1970
182
182
18%
18%
28
28,,181181
22%
22%
SOURCE
SOURCE: : Sağlık Hizmetlerinde 50 YılSağlık Hizmetlerinde 50 Yıl..23
Table 3.
Table 3.33 Pregnancy cases in Pregnancy cases in hhospitals and ospitals and nnurseries 1955urseries 1955--19591959
Year
Year
Pregnancy cases
Pregnancy cases in Hospitals in Hospitals
Pregnancy cases
Pregnancy cases in Nurseriesin Nurseries
Total
Total 19551955 4646,,456456 4848,,473473 9494,,929929
1956
1956
47
47,,265265
50
50,,811811
98
98,,076076 19571957 6666,,534534 5757,,175175 123123,,709709
1958
1958
68
68,,167167
71
71,,911911
140
140,,078078 19591959 7777,,906906 7070,,315315 148148,,221221
SOURCE
SOURCE: : Tıbbi Tıbbi İstatistik Yıllığı 1956İstatistik Yıllığı 1956--19591959..24
The medical calls to prevent contraception did not
The medical calls to prevent contraception did not triggertrigger thethe desired desired ef-ef-fectfect, as the government , as the government persisted with persisted with the pronatalist agendathe pronatalist agenda until the until the 19601960 ccoup,oup, when Dr. Fişek when Dr. Fişek was appointedwas appointed as as underundersecretary secretary forfor the Min-the Min-istry of istry of Health Health and and maintained close contact maintained close contact with the military junta and with the military junta and the SPO committee. Nevertheless, those scientific figures and the tabula-the SPO committee. Nevertheless, those scientific figures and the tabula-tionstions producedproduced on on abortion, maternalabortion, maternal,, and infant mortality were hand infant mortality were highly ighly used by the politicians and SPO technocrats as a used by the politicians and SPO technocrats as a stereotype for medical stereotype for medical
23 Ministry of Ministry of Health, Health, Sağlık Hizmetlerinde 50 YılSağlık Hizmetlerinde 50 Yıl, 422 (Ankara, Turkey: Sağlık ve Sosyal , 422 (Ankara, Turkey: Sağlık ve Sosyal Yardım Bakanlığı, 1973), 265.Yardım Bakanlığı, 1973), 265.
24 Ministry of HeaMinistry of Health, lth, Tıbbi İstatistik Yıllığı 1956Tıbbi İstatistik Yıllığı 1956--19591959, No:265 (Ankara: Sağlık ve Sosyal , No:265 (Ankara: Sağlık ve Sosyal Yardım Bakanlığı, 1961), 112, 136, 210Yardım Bakanlığı, 1961), 112, 136, 210––16.16.
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and scientific justification of the
and scientific justification of the ppopulation opulation pplanning lanning llaw after the 1960s aw after the 1960s and during the parliamentary discussions.and during the parliamentary discussions.25
3.1.2 Discussions on Economic and Social Perspective Discussions on Economic and Social Perspective –– The Cause The Cause
By the mid
By the mid--1950s1950s,, some economists and sociologists started to raise the some economists and sociologists started to raise the “population problem“population problem” in” in the daily and weekly newspapers. Yet the defini-the daily and weekly newspapers. Yet the defini-tion of the problem and the solutions offered were entirely different tion of the problem and the solutions offered were entirely different fromfrom the discussion in the 1960s. the discussion in the 1960s. These two sections will elaborate on the ex-These two sections will elaborate on the ex-istence of the population problem and how it has changed in the eyes of istence of the population problem and how it has changed in the eyes of economists and sociologists.economists and sociologists.
The very first written discussions of excessive population growth are
The very first written discussions of excessive population growth are found in a found in a fortnightly journal, fortnightly journal, ForumForum, launched in 1954 by prominent in-, launched in 1954 by prominent in-tellectuals to criticize the populist and haphazard tellectuals to criticize the populist and haphazard executionsexecutions of the of the DP DP government and to offer scientific solutions to the country's economic, government and to offer scientific solutions to the country's economic, social and political problems. In this study, all 3social and political problems. In this study, all 379 printed issues of 79 printed issues of Fo-Fo-rumrum magazine from 1954 to 1970 were magazine from 1954 to 1970 were briefly examinedbriefly examined in terms of arti-in terms of arti-cles and their content.cles and their content.
In the earlier articles before 1960, population growth was
In the earlier articles before 1960, population growth was recognizedrecognized as a constant fact and the focus was not to mitigate it but to neutralas a constant fact and the focus was not to mitigate it but to neutralize its ize its adverse effectsadverse effects,, especially for the big citiesespecially for the big cities,, whereas the expanding ruralwhereas the expanding rural--urban migration became a major concern. Kenan Taşpınar underlines the urban migration became a major concern. Kenan Taşpınar underlines the limited capacity of the cities to absorb the migrants especially in terms of limited capacity of the cities to absorb the migrants especially in terms of housing and employment thhousing and employment that increases the tension between urban at increases the tension between urban lo-lo-calscals and rural migrants.and rural migrants.26 Şerif Mardin discusses the social problemsŞerif Mardin discusses the social problems cre-cre-ated by theated by the increasing “masses” in increasing “masses” in cities, suchcities, such as the promotion of banal-as the promotion of banal-ity and the marginalization of small but effective organizations and ity and the marginalization of small but effective organizations and creative ideas through the conformism of herd behaviorcreative ideas through the conformism of herd behavior..27
As a solution, Sami Katircioglu urges the government
As a solution, Sami Katircioglu urges the government to regulateto regulate pop-pop-ulation movements.ulation movements.28 Nejat Bengül, Nejat Bengül, on the other hand, on the other hand, prioritizes prioritizes
25 Prime Ministry and State Planning Organization, Prime Ministry and State Planning Organization, First FiveFirst Five--Year Development Plan Year Development Plan (1963(1963--19671967), 69.), 69.
26 Kenan Taşpınar, “Şehirlerin Büyümesi,” Kenan Taşpınar, “Şehirlerin Büyümesi,” Forum,Forum, July 1, 1956.July 1, 1956.
27 Mardin, “İstikbalimizdeki Mardin, “İstikbalimizdeki kkütle ütle pproblemleri roblemleri hhakkında.”akkında.”
28 Sami Katırcıoğlu, “Nüfus Sami Katırcıoğlu, “Nüfus hhareketleri ve Türkiye,”areketleri ve Türkiye,” ForumForum, June 1, 1957., June 1, 1957.
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increasing
increasing the pace of the pace of economic economic activities activities to absorb overpopulato absorb overpopulation and tion and hidden unemployment.hidden unemployment.29 And Kemal Karpat, acknowledging the irrevers-And Kemal Karpat, acknowledging the irrevers-ibility of the migration process, asks for continuous investment and con-ibility of the migration process, asks for continuous investment and con-struction struction projects projects in the cities to solve in the cities to solve the the unemployment and housing unemployment and housing problems of rural migrants.problems of rural migrants.30
There
There have been have been venues venues other thanother than thethe ForumForum for the for the discussions discussions on on excessiveexcessive population dpopulation densityensity. . AtAt a joint conference with Istanbul Univer-a joint conference with Istanbul Univer-sity and sity and the the Rockefeller Foundation about the “Population Increase and Rockefeller Foundation about the “Population Increase and Economic Development” in March 1958, Economic Development” in March 1958, tthe keynote spehe keynote speaker, Professor aker, Professor H.J. Habakkuk H.J. Habakkuk of of Oxford Oxford College,College, introduced various impintroduced various implicationslications of pop-of pop-ulation growth ulation growth for for the economy, the economy, claiming that iclaiming that it t couldcould favor economic favor economic growth growth either either as as a a variable of market expansion in variable of market expansion in the the Keynesian model Keynesian model or as a determinant of laboror as a determinant of labor cost reduction to create additional savingcost reduction to create additional savingss in in the the Ricardo Model.Ricardo Model.31
Interestingly,
Interestingly, although Professor Habakkuk was invited by although Professor Habakkuk was invited by the Rock-the Rock-efeller Foundation, efeller Foundation, the the mainmain promoter of the antinatalist agenda, he did promoter of the antinatalist agenda, he did not even not even raise the raise the inverse relationship betweeninverse relationship between population growth and population growth and developmentdevelopment,, asas this this antinatalist antinatalist ideaidea was introduced to academiwas introduced to academiaa by by Coale and Hoover in the very same year, 1958. Coale and Hoover in the very same year, 1958. 32
The theories of
The theories of Coale and HooverCoale and Hoover also reached also reached to Turkish academito Turkish academiaa by the early 1960s by the early 1960s and contributed to and contributed to reshape thereshape the overpopulation dis-overpopulation dis-coursecourse. . AAs a s a brief sample of the brief sample of the shift in shift in discourse, the discourse, the articles of articles of Haluk Haluk Cillov, Cillov, a professor of economics and ona professor of economics and one of the e of the early early initiators of initiators of the the an-an-tinatalist idea,tinatalist idea, on the on the causes and effects of population growth causes and effects of population growth areare illumi-illumi-natnative. ive. IIn his article of n his article of May 1958, he May 1958, he focused focused primarily onprimarily on excessive pop-excessive pop-ulation growth in citiesulation growth in cities due to internal migrationdue to internal migration and and the problems that the problems that maymay cause. The overall population growth or economic implications was cause. The overall population growth or economic implications was
29 Nejat Bengül, “İktisadi Nejat Bengül, “İktisadi ggelişme elişme mmeselemize eselemize ddair,” air,” ForumForum, April 1, 1955; Mard, April 1, 1955; Mardin, “İsti-in, “İsti-kbalimizdeki kbalimizdeki kkütle ütle pproblemleri roblemleri hhakkında”; Cillov, “İktisat ve akkında”; Cillov, “İktisat ve tticaret ‘Şehirlerimizde icaret ‘Şehirlerimizde nnüfus üfus hhızla ızla aartıyor.’”rtıyor.’”
30 Kemal Kemal Karpat, “Memleketimizde Karpat, “Memleketimizde şşehirlere ehirlere nnüfus üfus aakını,” kını,” ForumForum, February 15, 1960., February 15, 1960.
31 Yalçın, “Bir Yalçın, “Bir kkonferans ‘Nüfus onferans ‘Nüfus aartışı ve rtışı ve iiktisadi ktisadi ggelişme.’”elişme.’”
32 Coale and Hoover Edgar M., Coale and Hoover Edgar M., Population Growth and Economic DevelopmentPopulation Growth and Economic Development..
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not
not oon his agenda.n his agenda.33 Yet two years later, hYet two years later, he changed his view for the very e changed his view for the very same problem, as he claimed thsame problem, as he claimed that the at the population growth population growth isis harmfulharmful to to economic development as a factor of decreasing the GNP per capita. He economic development as a factor of decreasing the GNP per capita. He further addfurther addeded that that reducingreducing population growth should be the priority of population growth should be the priority of all nonall non--indusindustrialized world.trialized world.34
So,
So, what was the cause, scopewhat was the cause, scope,, and and effecteffect of the internal migration of the internal migration problem that was the center of social and economic concern for popula-problem that was the center of social and economic concern for popula-tion matters in the late 1950s? The vast literature on Turkish migration tion matters in the late 1950s? The vast literature on Turkish migration studies indicates several political and economic studies indicates several political and economic ruptures inruptures in the midthe mid--1940s 1940s that paved tthat paved the way for he way for major social and political changes major social and political changes of which of which internal migrationinternal migration was one.was one.
By
By the end of the the end of the WWIIWWII, and mostly triggered by frustration , and mostly triggered by frustration with So-with So-vietviet claims claims toto the Bosporus and the Bosporus and eeasternastern frontiers, the Turkish govern-frontiers, the Turkish govern-ment immediately took some initiativement immediately took some initiatives to bes to become pcome part of the new world art of the new world order led by US administration. The key adjustments were order led by US administration. The key adjustments were the the democra-democra-tization of the electtization of the electoral oral system from onesystem from one--party rule to party rule to a a multimulti--party party sys-sys-tem tem in 1946, in 1946, the the devaluation of the Turkish devaluation of the Turkish lliraira (TL)(TL) byby 40% to 40% to meet meet IMF IMF standardstandards in 1948s in 1948,, and and finallyfinally the the sending sending of of military troops military troops toto the Ko-the Ko-rean War in 1950 to show commitment to the antirean War in 1950 to show commitment to the anti--communist agenda communist agenda and and the the desire to desire to joinjoin the NATO alliance. The the NATO alliance. The request request was accepted by the was accepted by the US administration and the country became US administration and the country became the the southern southern flank of the flank of the NATO alliance against NATO alliance against the the Soviet threat in the Soviet threat in the context of the context of the CCold old WWar. ar. 35
Following the Truman military aid, the country was integrated into
Following the Truman military aid, the country was integrated into the Marshall the Marshall AAid id PProgramrogram,, that was designed for that was designed for the economic recon-the economic recon-struction of struction of Europe. Turkey’s role in thEurope. Turkey’s role in this is programprogram, which was discussed , which was discussed at length at length between US Ambassador of Turkey and the US Secretary of between US Ambassador of Turkey and the US Secretary of State, was to State, was to assistassist Europe Europe with the with the agricultural and mineral agricultural and mineral resourcesresources..36
33 Cillov, “İktisat ve Ticaret ‘Şehirlerimizde Nüfus Hızla Artıyor.’”Cillov, “İktisat ve Ticaret ‘Şehirlerimizde Nüfus Hızla Artıyor.’”
34 Haluk Cillov, “İktisat ve Ticaret ‘1960 Nüfusumuz,’” Haluk Cillov, “İktisat ve Ticaret ‘1960 Nüfusumuz,’” MilliyetMilliyet, November 16, 1960., November 16, 1960.
35 İlhan Tekeli and Selim İlkin, İlhan Tekeli and Selim İlkin, Cumhuriyetin Harcı: Köktenci Modernitenin Ekonomik Poli-Cumhuriyetin Harcı: Köktenci Modernitenin Ekonomik Poli-tikasının Gelişimitikasının Gelişimi, v, vol. 2 (Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2010), 365ol. 2 (Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2010), 365––72.72.
36 Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1948, Western Europe, Volume III, eds. Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1948, Western Europe, Volume III, eds. David H. Stauffer, Ralph R. Goodwin et al. (Washington: Government Printing Office, David H. Stauffer, Ralph R. Goodwin et al. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1974, 361974, 3677--373.373.
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In that respect the large
In that respect the largest portion of the aid was directed primarily to st portion of the aid was directed primarily to agricultural and infrastructural investmentagricultural and infrastructural investmentss, , inincludingcluding the construction the construction of harbors, ports, silos, but mostof harbors, ports, silos, but most importantly importantly the construction of nation-the construction of nation-wide road network that would support twide road network that would support the expansion of he expansion of local malocal market.rket.37
Rapid importation of more than
Rapid importation of more than 40,000 40,000 additional additional tractors tractors between between 1948 and 19561948 and 1956 wwith the US aid, was ith the US aid, was instrumentalinstrumental in transforming eco-in transforming eco-nomic trajectory from ongoing Soviet influenced, statist, heavy industrynomic trajectory from ongoing Soviet influenced, statist, heavy industry--based development model to an agriculturabased development model to an agricultural development system based l development system based on private investment.on private investment.38 As an immediate consequence, the land cultiva-As an immediate consequence, the land cultiva-tion nearly doubled in the very same era and increased from 13,2 million tion nearly doubled in the very same era and increased from 13,2 million hectares to 22,5 million hectares in less than eight years.hectares to 22,5 million hectares in less than eight years.39 See Table 3.4.See Table 3.4.
Table 3.
Table 3.44 TractorTractorss and and lland and ccultivaultivation 1948tion 1948--19561956 Year Number of Tractors Change % Cultivated Land (000 hectares) Change % 1948 1,756
13,900
1949 9,170 422% 13,264 -5% 1950 16,585 81% 14,542 10% 1951 24,000 45% 15,272 5% 1952 31,415 31% 17,361 14% 1953 35,600 13% 18,812 8% 1954 37,743 6% 19,616 4% 1955 40,282 7% 20,998 7% 1956 43,727 9% 22,453 7%
SOURCE
SOURCE:: Kepenek and YenitürkKepenek and Yenitürk (2001)(2001)..40
37 Anne Krueger O. and Vernon W. Ruttan, “Assistance to Turkey,” in Anne Krueger O. and Vernon W. Ruttan, “Assistance to Turkey,” in Aid and DevelopmentAid and Development, , ed. Anne O. Krueger, Constantine Michalopoulos, and Vernon W. Ruttan (Baltimore and ed. Anne O. Krueger, Constantine Michalopoulos, and Vernon W. Ruttan (Baltimore and London: The John HopLondon: The John Hopkin University Press, 1989), 250kin University Press, 1989), 250––66.66.
38 Fikret Şenses, “Main Phases and Salient Features of Turkish Foreign Aid ExperiFikret Şenses, “Main Phases and Salient Features of Turkish Foreign Aid Experience,” in ence,” in Foreign Aid: New PerspectivesForeign Aid: New Perspectives, ed. Kanhaya L. Gupta (New York: Springer Science and , ed. Kanhaya L. Gupta (New York: Springer Science and Business Media, Business Media, 1999)1999), 233, 233––54.54.
39 Fritz Baade mentions in his Fritz Baade mentions in his MMission ission RReport that the maximum cultivable land is 16eport that the maximum cultivable land is 16..4 4 million hectares, and million hectares, and that that the expansionthe expansion was based on cultivation on the hills and was based on cultivation on the hills and slop-slop-inging terrain which is much open for the risk of erosion.terrain which is much open for the risk of erosion. See Fritz Baade, See Fritz Baade, FOA Türkiye FOA Türkiye RaporuRaporu ((Ankara: T.C Ziraat Bankası 100. Yıl Yayını, 1962), 14Ankara: T.C Ziraat Bankası 100. Yıl Yayını, 1962), 14--15.15.
40 Yakup Kepenek and Nurhan Yenitürk, Yakup Kepenek and Nurhan Yenitürk, Türkiye EkonomisiTürkiye Ekonomisi, 12th ed. (, 12th ed. (IIstanbul: Remzi stanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 2001), 106.Kitabevi, 2001), 106.
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
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Tekeli says that the agricultural mechanization has not only made the
Tekeli says that the agricultural mechanization has not only made the agricultural labor working the farms obsolete, but has also led agricultural labor working the farms obsolete, but has also led many many small landowners, who have lost their competitive advantage, to sell their small landowners, who have lost their competitive advantage, to sell their property to the large landowners.property to the large landowners.41 And he adds that according to a study And he adds that according to a study on the impact of the agricultural mechanization, some 25% of the villag-on the impact of the agricultural mechanization, some 25% of the villag-ers who were affected by the trers who were affected by the transition, migrated to the towns or cities ansition, migrated to the towns or cities between 1948 and 1952.between 1948 and 1952.42
Another major investment arena of
Another major investment arena of MarshallMarshall AAid was on transporta-id was on transporta-tion tion and and infrastructure, especially road construction tinfrastructure, especially road construction to enable the trans-o enable the trans-portation ofportation of agricultural surplusagricultural surpluseses to local and intto local and international markets. ernational markets. The traditional investment strategy of expanding on railways was The traditional investment strategy of expanding on railways was discon-discon-tinued atinued after fter WWIIWWII and replaced by roads and and replaced by roads and highwayshighways, which w, which wereere ex-ex-panded panded by by 37% between 1948 and 1960 and reached 61.542 km, only 37% between 1948 and 1960 and reached 61.542 km, only 10% of below of the current length10% of below of the current length by the end of the 2021.by the end of the 2021.43
The increasing road construction
The increasing road construction,, together with the expanding culti-together with the expanding culti-vation through tractors, vation through tractors, producedproduced economically economically viableviable results in results in agricul-agricul-tural production and distribution in the first half of the 1950s. Further-tural production and distribution in the first half of the 1950s. Further-more, transportatmore, transportation and communication facilities have exploded during ion and communication facilities have exploded during the period. the period.
As shown in Table 3.5
As shown in Table 3.5,, the number of automobiles, the number of automobiles, busesbuses,, and trucks and trucks tripled between 1945tripled between 1945--1950 and doubled between 19501950 and doubled between 1950--1955 and 19551955 and 1955--19601960,, respectively. And the total number of telephone lirespectively. And the total number of telephone lines doubled once nes doubled once in each five years starting from 1945.in each five years starting from 1945.
However,However, the increasthe increase in e in transportation and communication in the transportation and communication in the 1950s1950s,, surpassing all other periodssurpassing all other periods,, was not only a sign of the transpor-was not only a sign of the transpor-tation of goods and agricultural products, but also tation of goods and agricultural products, but also of the of the flow of masses, flow of masses,
41 İlhan Tekeli, “Türkiye Tarımında Mekanizasyonun Yarattığı Yapısal Dönüşümler ve Kır-İlhan Tekeli, “Türkiye Tarımında Mekanizasyonun Yarattığı Yapısal Dönüşümler ve Kır-dan Kopuş Süreci,” in dan Kopuş Süreci,” in Yerleşme Yapısının Uyum Süreci Olarak İç GöçlerYerleşme Yapısının Uyum Süreci Olarak İç Göçler, ed. İlhan Tekeli , ed. İlhan Tekeli and Leila Erder (Ankara: Hacettepe Unand Leila Erder (Ankara: Hacettepe University Publications, 1978), 299iversity Publications, 1978), 299––329.329.
42 Ibid., 329, footnote 31.Ibid., 329, footnote 31.
43 Karayolları Genel Müdürlüğü, Karayolları Genel Müdürlüğü, Ulaşım İstatistikleriUlaşım İstatistikleri 20212021, https://www.kgm.gov.tr/Sit-, https://www.kgm.gov.tr/Sit-eCollectionDocuments/KGMdocuments/Yayinlar/YayinPdf/KarayoluUlasimIstatisti-eCollectionDocuments/KGMdocuments/Yayinlar/YayinPdf/KarayoluUlasimIstatisti-kleri2021.pdf.kleri2021.pdf.
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the
the ““migrantsmigrants..”” The direction of thThe direction of theese migrants and their deterioration of se migrants and their deterioration of llocal ocal elements will be analyzed in the next section.elements will be analyzed in the next section.
Table 3.
Table 3.55 Transportation Transportation and cand communication 1935ommunication 1935--19701970 Year Constructed Roads Automobile Bus Truck Telephone Lines 1935 39,583 4,349 747 2,514 1515,,503503 1940 41,582 4,343 1,237 3,520 2222,,964964 1945 43,511 3,649 1,213 5,417 2828,,875875 1950 47,080 13,405 3,744 15,404 5858,,139139 1955 55,008 29,970 6,848 34,429 116116,,455455 1960 61,542 45,767 10,981 57,460 180180,,030030 1965 58,972 87,584 22,169 79,121 243243,,361361 1970 59,543 137,771 15,980 70,730 376376,,987987
SOURCE
SOURCE: : Istatistiki Göstergeler 1927Istatistiki Göstergeler 1927--2009.2009.44
3.1.3 Discussions on Economic and Social Perspective Discussions on Economic and Social Perspective –– The Effect The Effect
The
The scalescale of migration and its impactof migration and its impact onon the the locallocal citizens hacitizens hass always been always been a a central theme in central theme in population policies and debatespopulation policies and debates. The tensions between . The tensions between localslocals and and migrantsmigrants to share the to share the limited limited resourcesresources create fertile ground create fertile ground for population control ideologies to flourishfor population control ideologies to flourish,, just as Malthusianism and just as Malthusianism and Eugenie that were explored in the previous chapter. Consequently, the Eugenie that were explored in the previous chapter. Consequently, the newspaper articles about the population problem in the 1950newspaper articles about the population problem in the 1950s s men-men-tioned in the previous section tioned in the previous section diddid not not refer torefer to the population increase as the population increase as a a whole butwhole but complaincomplained mostlyed mostly about about itsits explosion in the big cities. explosion in the big cities.
In this section, the epicenter of
In this section, the epicenter of migrationmigration,, IstanbulIstanbul,, was was chosenchosen as the as the point of analypoint of analysissis, in order to de, in order to demonstrate some sketches on how the re-monstrate some sketches on how the re-distribution of resources distribution of resources byby incoming migrant cincoming migrant canan create a disturbance create a disturbance among among locallocals and how a rapidly growing metropole cs and how a rapidly growing metropole canan absorb the capa-absorb the capa-bility and the functioning of the government. For that purpose, the Turk-bility and the functioning of the government. For that purpose, the Turk-ish censish census data from 1935 to 1970 and the Annual Statistical Bulletins of us data from 1935 to 1970 and the Annual Statistical Bulletins of Istanbul from 1945 to 1959 were utilized to construct data series on Istanbul from 1945 to 1959 were utilized to construct data series on
44 Turkish Statistical InstituteTurkish Statistical Institute, , İstatistiki Göstergeler Statistical Indicators 1927İstatistiki Göstergeler Statistical Indicators 1927--20092009,, 370,382.370,382.
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migration, health, transportation, communication, education,
migration, health, transportation, communication, education, housing,housing, and crime.and crime.
Istanbul, the most populous city in the
Istanbul, the most populous city in the world world inin the the Middle AgesMiddle Ages and and in the 17in the 17thth century,century,45 had already undergone a rapid mass migration had already undergone a rapid mass migration twtwiceice in history; in history; when the city was refounded when the city was refounded as as Nova RomaNova Roma by the Em-by the Em-peror Constantine the Great in 330 AD and after itperor Constantine the Great in 330 AD and after its conquest s conquest by Mehmet by Mehmet the Conqueror in 145the Conqueror in 1453. In both cases3. In both cases,, the migration process the migration process waswas forced forced and controlled by the rulers aand controlled by the rulers and the new settlernd the new settlers s were provided with were provided with many granmany grantts and privileges,s and privileges, including lands and housesincluding lands and houses.. But equally mas-But equally mas-sive investments sive investments werewere made made inin infrastructure to expand the capability of infrastructure to expand the capability of the city. the city.
Coming to first half of the
Coming to first half of the twentiethtwentieth century, the city was still a trade century, the city was still a trade and commercial centerand commercial center,, but lost its valor for the governors of the new but lost its valor for the governors of the new Turkish Republic, Turkish Republic, who who werewere eager to move the resources to the Anatolian eager to move the resources to the Anatolian heartland and heartland and mademade Ankara the new capital of the republic.Ankara the new capital of the republic.46 By the sec-By the sec-ond half of the century, the new economic model based on agriculond half of the century, the new economic model based on agricultural tural surplussurpluseses gave priority togave priority to the portal cities and Istanbulthe portal cities and Istanbul onceonce againagain, be-, be-came the came the center of attractioncenter of attraction due due toto its unique geographical position and its unique geographical position and wellwell--advanced trade connections.advanced trade connections.47 And the third wave of migration in And the third wave of migration in the history of the citythe history of the city has begunhas begun,, but this time without any preparation but this time without any preparation and planning. and planning.
According to t
According to the census results, the population of the city he census results, the population of the city almost tri-almost tri-pledpled inin twenty years between 1950 and 1970twenty years between 1950 and 1970, , increased from 1.2 million increased from 1.2 million to to threethree millionmillion inhabitants. inhabitants. The The exact exact densitdensity and y and origin of immigrants origin of immigrants could could only only be be determined determined fromfrom the the “permanent residency” information“permanent residency” information which became which became available available with thewith the 1970 census1970 census. . For For earlier yearsearlier years, , the the data data
45 Tertius Chandler and Gerald Fox, Tertius Chandler and Gerald Fox, 3000 Years of Urban Growth3000 Years of Urban Growth (New York: Academic (New York: Academic Press, 1974), 304Press, 1974), 304––21.21.
46 Begüm Adalet, Begüm Adalet, Hotels and Highways: The Construction of Modernization Theory in Cold Hotels and Highways: The Construction of Modernization Theory in Cold War TurkeWar Turkeyy (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 20(Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2018), 138.18), 138.
47 Ibid., 143.Ibid., 143.
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available
available that helps to make some estimatthat helps to make some estimatee ooff migration is the “place of migration is the “place of birth” information whbirth” information which ich can be tracked from can be tracked from the the 1935 census1935 census..48
Table 3.6
Table 3.6 shows tshows the he population of population of IstanbulIstanbul between 1935 and 1970 between 1935 and 1970 with the distinction with the distinction byby place of birth. The annual growth of the city was place of birth. The annual growth of the city was less than 2% less than 2% beforebefore 19501950,, but grew very rapidly but grew very rapidly during theduring the remaining 20 remaining 20 yeyearsars,, averagingaveraging 4.8% annual growth. 4.8% annual growth. IstanbulIstanbul has always been a vibrant has always been a vibrant place for foreigners, but their proportion never exceeded tplace for foreigners, but their proportion never exceeded that of nativehat of native--born Istanbul residentsborn Istanbul residents until 1950. The averageuntil 1950. The average proportion proportion of of nonnon--Istan-Istan-bulbul--born foreigborn foreignersners to to nativenative--bornborn residents residents was 47.6% was 47.6% between 1935 between 1935 and 1950, and 1950, rising rapidly rising rapidly to 63% by 1970. to 63% by 1970.
Table 3.
Table 3.66 Istanbul Istanbul ppopulation opulation byby pplace of lace of bbirth 1935irth 1935--19701970 Year Year Istanbul Istanbul PopulationPopulation Annual Annual Growth Growth %% Born in Born in Istanbul Istanbul AnnualAnnual Growth Growth %% Born in Born in Other Other PlacesPlaces Annual Annual Growth Growth %% 19351935 883883,,599599
502502,,449449
381381,,150150 19451945 11,,078078,,399399 11..99%99% 530530,,023023 00..53%53% 548548,,376376 33..64%64% 19501950 11,,166166,,477477 11..57%57% 617617,,189189 33..05%05% 549549,,288288 00..03%03% 19551955 11,,533533,,822822 55..48%48% 697697,,555555 22..45%45% 836836,,267267 88..41%41% 19601960 11,,882882,,092092 44..09%09% 811811,,576576 33..03%03% 11,,070070,,516516 44..94%94% 19651965 22,,293293,,823823 33..96%96% 940940,,570570 22..95%95% 11,,353353,,253253 44..69%69% 19701970 33,,019019,,032032 55..49%49% 11,,103103,,976976 33..20%20% 11,,915915,,056056 66..94%94%
SOURCE
SOURCE: : Census results from 1935 to 1970Census results from 1935 to 1970..49
Therefore, it
Therefore, it is reasonable tois reasonable to assume that the difference between these assume that the difference between these two ratios two ratios yields yields the migration between 1950 and 1970, which corre-the migration between 1950 and 1970, which corre-sponds sponds to to 310,000 migrants between 1950 and 1960 and some310,000 migrants between 1950 and 1960 and some 650,000 650,000 additional additional migrants between 1960 and 1970. migrants between 1960 and 1970. TThe focus of this disserta-he focus of this disserta-tiontion, however, however, , is is on on the additional burden of ththe additional burden of theese migrants in terms of se migrants in terms of health, education, transportation, health, education, transportation, communication,communication, and housing between and housing between 1950 and 1959, the time when the 1950 and 1959, the time when the discussions of discussions of population problem population problem first emerged. first emerged.
48 Erol Tümertekin, Erol Tümertekin, Türkiye’de İç Göçler Türkiye’de İç Göçler ((IIstanbul: stanbul: IIstanbul Universitesi Yayınları, stanbul Universitesi Yayınları, 19681968), ), 88––18.18.
49 Prime Ministry Statistical General Directorate, Prime Ministry Statistical General Directorate, Genel Nüfus SayımıGenel Nüfus Sayımı ((Ankara: Devlet Ankara: Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü Matbaası. 1935, 1940, 1945, 1950, 1955, 1960,1965, 1970)İstatistik Enstitüsü Matbaası. 1935, 1940, 1945, 1950, 1955, 1960,1965, 1970)
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Trends in the number of
Trends in the number of doctorsdoctors, beds, and , beds, and patients (total inpatient patients (total inpatient and outpatient) in the health report for the reporting period are shown and outpatient) in the health report for the reporting period are shown in Table 3.7in Table 3.7. . Although the number of doctors hasAlthough the number of doctors has increaseincreased by d by 60% and 60% and the the number of number of beds beds by by 49% 49% inin ten years, ten years, the the increaseincrease in in the number of the number of patients patients has been has been enormousenormous atat 162%162%,, so the capability in health so the capability in health services services hashas depreciated depreciated by by 63% in terms of 63% in terms of number of number of patients per doctors and patients per doctors and by by 75% in terms of 75% in terms of number of number of patients per bedpatients per bed,, due to migration.due to migration.
The same formula was applied to education
The same formula was applied to education byby calculating the calculating the chang-chang-ing ing number of number of primary school students per teacher and literacy; primary school students per teacher and literacy; to to trans-trans-portation portation byby changing changing the the number of passengers per bus and ferry; number of passengers per bus and ferry; to to communicationcommunicationss byby changing changing number of number of telephone ctelephone caallslls per telephone per telephone line; line; to to employmentemployment byby changing changing the the unemployment rateunemployment rate;; and and to to housing housing by by calculating calculating changing changing the the building stock per citizen.building stock per citizen.
Table 3.
Table 3.77 Health Health sservices in Istanbul 1950ervices in Istanbul 1950--1959 1959
YEAR
YEAR PatientsPatients DoctorsDoctors Patients Patients per Dper Doctoroctor BedsBeds Patients Patients per Bedper Bed 19501950 703,411703,411 599599 1,1741,174 99,,873873 71,271,2
1951
1951 752,324752,324 553553 1,3601,360 1010,,099099 74,574,5 19521952 866,962866,962 610610 1,4211,421 1111,,594594 74,874,8
1953
1953 1,052,3991,052,399 645645 1,6321,632 1111,,879879 88,688,6 19541954 947,236947,236 672672 1,4101,410 1212,,336336 76,876,8
1955
1955 1,139,6831,139,683 727727 1,5681,568 1212,,731731 89,589,5 19561956 1,345,1901,345,190 823823 1,6341,634 1212,,802802 105,1105,1
1957
1957 1,552,1541,552,154 947947 1,6391,639 1313,,705705 113,3113,3 19581958 1,540,4921,540,492 879879 1,7531,753 1414,,002002 110,0110,0
1959
1959 1,842,8251,842,825 962962 1,9161,916 1414,,741741 125,0125,0
SOURCE
SOURCE: : IIstanbul İstatistik Yıllığıstanbul İstatistik Yıllığı from 1944 to 1959from 1944 to 1959..50
In education, the 83% increase in the number of primary
In education, the 83% increase in the number of primary school school students students has been offsethas been offset by 2,090 additional teachby 2,090 additional teaching positions, ing positions, and the and the number number of of studentstudentss per teacher has remained aper teacher has remained att thirtythirty--four within a decade. How-four within a decade. How-ever, ever, since since the very first immigrants were the very first immigrants were predominantly predominantly male male workersworkers, , the problem was not the schoolthe problem was not the schoolinging but literacy. but literacy. Previous cPrevious census figures ensus figures
50 Municipality of Istanbul, Municipality of Istanbul, İstatistik Yıllığıİstatistik Yıllığı (I(Istanbul: stanbul: IIstanbul Belediye Matbaası. 1944stanbul Belediye Matbaası. 1944--11948, 1947948, 1947--1951, 19511951, 1951--1955, 19551955, 1955--19591959))
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between 1935 and 1950 indicate that the number of illiterate
between 1935 and 1950 indicate that the number of illiteratess stabilized stabilized between 310between 310,,000 and 315000 and 315,,000. With the 000. With the wave of wave of immigrimmigration after 1950, ation after 1950, the number of illiteratethe number of illiteratess increased by 42,568 between 1950increased by 42,568 between 1950 and and 1955 1955 and and byby another 91,615 between 1955 and 1960. Therefore, it another 91,615 between 1955 and 1960. Therefore, it can be can be as-as-sumesumedd that 14% of ththat 14% of those immigrants who migrated the city between ose immigrants who migrated the city between 1950 and 1960 1950 and 1960 were illiterate. were illiterate.
The a
The additional burden of the incoming migrants on the transporta-dditional burden of the incoming migrants on the transporta-tion was largely tion was largely offsetoffset byby government government investmentinvestment inin the road the road network network and public transportation and public transportation inin the 1950sthe 1950s, , whereas the number of busses in whereas the number of busses in the city increased from 199 to 647the city increased from 199 to 647, , to to meet the meet the additionadditional demand al demand as the as the number of number of passengerspassengers tripltripleded. . BBy the early 1960sy the early 1960s,, however, however, official public official public transporttransportationation was was no longer sufficient no longer sufficient not only to not only to meet demand meet demand but also but also to to accessaccess the shanty towns the shanty towns onon the the outskirtsoutskirts of the cityof the city, , so a new means of so a new means of private private mini transportmini transport, , dolmuşdolmuş,, become popular among migrants.become popular among migrants.
Housing
Housing issues wereissues were one of the key concerns of the one of the key concerns of the timetime. . FFigures in-igures in-dicate thatdicate that between 1950 and 1960, between 1950 and 1960, only 9only 9,,110 houses and 12110 houses and 12,,353 apart-353 apart-ment buildings were ment buildings were builtbuilt which could awhich could accommodate ccommodate a a maximum 43% of maximum 43% of the population the population growth growth during thduring that periodat period..51 FurthermoreFurthermore,, being a house-being a house-holder was too expensive for the immigrants to afford, so shanty townsholder was too expensive for the immigrants to afford, so shanty towns,, gecekondu,gecekondu, were were built on the outskirts of the built on the outskirts of the citycity,, reachingreaching up to 120up to 120,,000 000 units in thunits in the e early 1early 1960s960s,, housing about housing about 660660,,000000 peoplepeople, more than , more than aa third third of the cityof the city’s’s population.population. 52
N
Naturallyaturally, t, the rapid population growth in the city, created he rapid population growth in the city, created some some ad-ad-ditional business and employment opportunities, especially for the mditional business and employment opportunities, especially for the menen, , but much less than the actual growth. but much less than the actual growth. FemaleFemale employmentemployment in the city was in the city was traditionally low and never exceeded 20% until the year 2000traditionally low and never exceeded 20% until the year 2000. . Further-Further-more, the first wave of more, the first wave of immigrants immigrants consisted mostly of single workingconsisted mostly of single working--age man, age man, soso the employment analysis was the employment analysis was basbased on ed on the male population. the male population.
51 Assuming that a house consists of an average of five people and an apartment building Assuming that a house consists of an average of five people and an apartment building consists of an average of five apartments, the additional building stock constructed dur-consists of an average of five apartments, the additional building stock constructed dur-ing this period could accommodate a maxiing this period could accommodate a maximum of 354,375 households, while the pop-mum of 354,375 households, while the pop-ulation increased by 811,576.ulation increased by 811,576.
52 Kemal Karpat, Kemal Karpat, TThe Gecekondu: Rural Migration and Urbanizationhe Gecekondu: Rural Migration and Urbanization (Cambridge (UK); New (Cambridge (UK); New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 59York: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 59––61.61.
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Data on the
Data on the male labor force and employment male labor force and employment in thin the city between e city between 1935 and 1970 w1935 and 1970 wereere compiled from census results compiled from census results and are and are presented presented in in Table 3.8. The figures indicate a radical and irreversible Table 3.8. The figures indicate a radical and irreversible increase increase in un-in un-employment employment inin the 1950the 1950s from s from 110% to 22% 0% to 22% oror moremore. . InIn the period be-the period be-tween 1950 and 1960, the additional male tween 1950 and 1960, the additional male labor forcelabor force triggered by triggered by imimmi-mi-gration gration amounted toamounted to 272272,,093 men093 men,, of whomof whom 42% (11342% (113,,793 men) could 793 men) could not find proper job. not find proper job.
Table 3.
Table 3.88 Male eMale employment in Istanbul 1935mployment in Istanbul 1935--19701970
Year
Year Potential Male Potential Male Workforce Workforce (age 15(age 15--65)65) MalesMales Employed Employed Males Males UnemployedUnemployed Unemployment Unemployment Rate %Rate % 19351935 317,316317,316 287,367287,367 29,94929,949 9%9%
1945
1945 446,801446,801 396,198396,198 50,60350,603 11%11% 19501950 443,310443,310 401,122401,122 42,18842,188 10%10%
1955
1955 620,293620,293 483,700483,700 136,593136,593 22%22% 19601960 715,403715,403 559,422559,422 155,981155,981 22%22%
1965
1965 845,100845,100 629,293629,293 215,807215,807 26%26% 19701970 1,080,2601,080,260 855,177855,177 225,083225,083 21%21%
SOURCE
SOURCE:: Census results from 1935 to 1970Census results from 1935 to 1970..
The
The imimmigrant migrant labor forclabor force was coe was composedmposed of selfof self--employed and blueemployed and blue--col-col-lar workers andlar workers and, while not a threat to , while not a threat to white collar and educated white collar and educated localslocals, , caused caused rivalry in the rivalry in the labor market for labor market for blueblue--collar collar workers workers and in and in some some skilled trades, skilled trades, where where employment and the earnings of employment and the earnings of localslocals declineddeclined..
Finally, cri
Finally, crime rates were analyzed based on the me rates were analyzed based on the prison sprison statistics in tatistics in Istanbul Istanbul in in 1938 and 1959. The literature suggests various theories un-1938 and 1959. The literature suggests various theories un-derlining positive correlation between rapid urbanization and crime derlining positive correlation between rapid urbanization and crime rates.rates.53 According to According to “u“urban rban eecology” model, cology” model, community community relatirelations in ons in ur-ur-ban areas are ban areas are weak due to the constantly changing flow of people, so thweak due to the constantly changing flow of people, so that at thethe social mechanisms and customs that control the behaviorsocial mechanisms and customs that control the behavior are no are no longer effectivelonger effective. In . In the the ““ssocial ocial ddisorganization isorganization ttheory,” migration createsheory,” migration creates fertile ground for the fertile ground for the emergenceemergence of socially disorganized communitiesof socially disorganized communities
53 M. Ali Haider and Pawinee Iamtrakul, “Theoretical Concepts of Crime and Practices in M. Ali Haider and Pawinee Iamtrakul, “Theoretical Concepts of Crime and Practices in Urban Planning and Design Process for Safe Urban Life,”Urban Planning and Design Process for Safe Urban Life,” InternationInternational Journal of Build-al Journal of Build-ing, Urban, Interior and Landscape Technology (BUILT)ing, Urban, Interior and Landscape Technology (BUILT), no. 12 (2018): 7, no. 12 (2018): 7––24.24.
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that lack
that lack solidarity, cohesionsolidarity, cohesion,, and integrationand integration,, lealeading to higher rates of ding to higher rates of crime and dcrime and delinquencyelinquency..54
However, the statistics
However, the statistics of the period, do not of the period, do not depictdepict anyany major change major change in in thethe number of inumber of incarcerationsncarcerations, which, which was 9was 9,,806 in 1950 and 12806 in 1950 and 12,,278 in 278 in 1960.1960.55 When When population growth population growth is taken into account, is taken into account, ththeese figures se figures in-in-dicatedicate a considerable deca considerable declineline in the iin the incarceration ncarceration rate from 854 personrate from 854 personss per hundred thousand to 660 per hundred thousand to 660 within within a decade. It is clear that internal mi-a decade. It is clear that internal mi-grationgration in Turkish case did not in Turkish case did not lead to lead to social disorganization among mi-social disorganization among mi-grantsgrants,, as they as they maintained maintained solidarity with their existing rural connec-solidarity with their existing rural connec-tions and cohesion with other migrants who emigrated from the same tions and cohesion with other migrants who emigrated from the same rural spot. rural spot.
The economic and social bondage created
The economic and social bondage created inin ththisis fellow township, fellow township, hhemsehrilikemsehrilik, , ensured ensured that that the migrants the migrants cope cope with poverty and other so-with poverty and other so-cial problems.cial problems.56 Moreover, it Moreover, it also also enabled the veteran migrants to expand enabled the veteran migrants to expand their social and economic status by profiting from the newcomers andtheir social and economic status by profiting from the newcomers and maintaining maintaining hope hope for bfor better life, whetter life, whatat Işık and Pınarcıklıoğlu coined Işık and Pınarcıklıoğlu coined ““nöbetleşe yoksulluknöbetleşe yoksulluk,”,” ppoverty in overty in tturnsurns,”,”
As a conclusion, the rapid and unplanned expansion of the city
As a conclusion, the rapid and unplanned expansion of the city through through internal migration flow between 1950 and 1960, should have ex-internal migration flow between 1950 and 1960, should have ex-acerbated acerbated tensions between tensions between localslocals and migrantand migrant,, especially especially overover thethe shar-shar-ing ing ofof limited resources such as health, transportation, limited resources such as health, transportation, accommodation,accommodation, and employment. Although thand employment. Although theese early migrants had nothing to do with se early migrants had nothing to do with crime or subversive activities and maintained solidaricrime or subversive activities and maintained solidarity and integrity ty and integrity among themselves, the social and cultural burdens between among themselves, the social and cultural burdens between locals and locals and migrants were still intact even migrants were still intact even amongamong the wealthy migrants, who were the wealthy migrants, who were labelled as parvenus, labelled as parvenus, hacıağa.hacıağa.
54 Charis E. Kubrin, “Social Disorganization Theory: Then, NowCharis E. Kubrin, “Social Disorganization Theory: Then, Now, and In the Future,” in , and In the Future,” in Handbook on Crime and DevianceHandbook on Crime and Deviance, ed. Marvin D. Krohn, Alan J. Lizotte, and Gina P. Hall , ed. Marvin D. Krohn, Alan J. Lizotte, and Gina P. Hall (Dordrecht ; New York: Springer Science and Business Media, 2009), 225(Dordrecht ; New York: Springer Science and Business Media, 2009), 225––36.36.
55 Turkish Statistical Institute, Turkish Statistical Institute, Mahkumlar İstatistiğiMahkumlar İstatistiği (Ankara: (Ankara: Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü MatbaasıMatbaası,, 19381938--1954, 19431954, 1943--19591959))
56 Oğuz Işık and M. Melih Pınarcıoğlu, Oğuz Işık and M. Melih Pınarcıoğlu, Nöbetleşe Yoksulluk: Gecekondulaşma ve Kent Yoksul-Nöbetleşe Yoksulluk: Gecekondulaşma ve Kent Yoksul-ları: Sultanbeyli örneğiları: Sultanbeyli örneği, 1. baskı (Cağaloğlu, , 1. baskı (Cağaloğlu, IIstanbul: İletişim, 2001), 75stanbul: İletişim, 2001), 75––119.119.
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T
This dissertationhis dissertation thus thus claims that it was not actual population claims that it was not actual population growtgrowth, but the h, but the increasingincreasing complaints ofcomplaints of locallocal citizens and columnists citizens and columnists about the growing migration and its about the growing migration and its negativenegative effectseffects thatthat triggered the triggered the overpopulation discourse. In other words, without overpopulation discourse. In other words, without the the massive ruralmassive rural--ur-ur-ban migration ban migration in in the 1950s, the 1950s, which which distorted the governmental capabilitydistorted the governmental capability and created illuand created illusory sory perception of population growth due perception of population growth due to increasingto increasing encounters between encounters between locals (locals (good lifegood life) ) and the and the immigrant “others” immigrant “others” (bare/unbearable life)(bare/unbearable life),, the public discussion the public discussion of the of the switch to antinatal-switch to antinatal-ism would ism would be marginalized as abe marginalized as a foreign foreign economic theory for develop-economic theory for develop-ment. ment.
3.1.4 Antinatalist discourse as Freedom of Rights Antinatalist discourse as Freedom of Rights
In addition
In addition toto public health and public health and the the antianti--migration agenda as sourcemigration agenda as sourcess for for antinatalist discourse in the 1950s, antinatalist discourse in the 1950s, this section interrogates this section interrogates the gender the gender dimension will be questioned in this section. Was the dimension will be questioned in this section. Was the idea of idea of population population control publicly control publicly discussed in the 1950s discussed in the 1950s as a freedom of rights and/or as a freedom of rights and/or choice for choice for women? For thwomen? For thiiss purposepurpose, the regulations and activity reports , the regulations and activity reports of the sole political women association “Turkish Womenof the sole political women association “Turkish Women’s’s Association” Association” (TKD) (TKD) are trackedare tracked together with together with the onlythe only political feminist journal of the political feminist journal of the era, era, the the Women’s Journal, Women’s Journal, Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi..
Admitting the fact that the b
Admitting the fact that the birth control activism was not even irth control activism was not even oon the n the agenda of the industrial world before the agenda of the industrial world before the sexual revolution of the sexual revolution of the 1960s1960s,, except except for a for a few birth control pioneers such as Margaret Sanger in few birth control pioneers such as Margaret Sanger in the the US US and Marie Stropes in and Marie Stropes in the the UK, UK, one may wonder whether the issue was one may wonder whether the issue was also also questioned by Turkish women, who questioned by Turkish women, who already gained advancedalready gained advanced women's women's rights rights even even before many developed countries and had feminist activists before many developed countries and had feminist activists such as Nezihe Muhiddin, the founder of TKD, and Iffet Halim Uruz, the such as Nezihe Muhiddin, the founder of TKD, and Iffet Halim Uruz, the publishpublisher and editor of er and editor of Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi.. In In this contextthis context,, another question another question should be asked; how free were those activists to express their feminist should be asked; how free were those activists to express their feminist agenda?agenda?
In the wake of the establishment of the Turkish Republic, Nezihe Mu-
In the wake of the establishment of the Turkish Republic, Nezihe Mu-hiddin and her associates attempted to hiddin and her associates attempted to esestablishtablish a new political party a new political party as as early as 1923, early as 1923, namely, namely, the the Women’s People Party, Women’s People Party, Kadınlar Halk FıkrasıKadınlar Halk Fıkrası,, to gain to gain women’s women’s political rightspolitical rights,, butbut their application was rejected by the their application was rejected by the
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new government. A year later, they reapplied as an association
new government. A year later, they reapplied as an association,, namely namely TKD,TKD, and and deleteddeleted their ambitious political goals from their programtheir ambitious political goals from their program, lim-, lim-iting it to iting it to gender equality and gender equality and women’s women’s empowerment.empowerment.57 This time their This time their application was well received by the new republic and application was well received by the new republic and by by AtatürkAtatürk, , who who granted granted women women basic rights by the 1926basic rights by the 1926 Legal CoLegal Codede. .
However, Nezihe Muhiddin’s
However, Nezihe Muhiddin’s insistenceinsistence on on giving giving women women the the right to right to be elected in the be elected in the 1927 1927 municipality elections, municipality elections, led to her being led to her being dismissed dismissed from from the the presidency presidency of of the the TKD and TKD and facing tfacing trial.rial.58 Zihnioğlu, Zihnioğlu, describes describes in in her bookher book,, ““TThe Revolution he Revolution Without WomenWithout Women”” thatthat womenwomen’s’s rights were rights were bestowedbestowed from the top down from the top down as a sign of modernity and as a sign of modernity and that that Muhiddin’sMuhiddin’s ideal of ideal of “bellicose women” “bellicose women” did not fit the idid not fit the image of the mage of the “new women” “new women” of of the republicthe republic, , who were also modern, energetic but equally controllable who were also modern, energetic but equally controllable and and docile.docile.59
The
The TKDTKD continued to operate icontinued to operate in low profile and n low profile and quietlyquietly disbandeddisbanded a a year after the year after the Turkish women were granted Turkish women were granted full suffrage in 1934 and full suffrage in 1934 and a a few few days after days after the the 1212thth International WomenInternational Women’s’s Congress held in Istanbul Congress held in Istanbul in 1935.in 1935.60 Toprak also confirms the Toprak also confirms the Republic’s desire Republic’s desire forfor control, as he control, as he comments that the reason comments that the reason forfor the closure was the closure was that the that the TKD TKD involuntarily involuntarily became became part of part of the Athe Allied llied peace peace propaganda propaganda at the at the International International WomenWomen’s ’s Congress, which cCongress, which clashedlashed with delicate Turkish diplomacy on with delicate Turkish diplomacy on the eve of the eve of WWIIWWII..61
In the wake of
In the wake of postpost--WWIIWWII freedomfreedoms, the s, the TKD was reTKD was re--established in established in 1949 1949 to defendto defend the gained political rights and the gained political rights and to strengthen women’s to strengthen women’s po-po-litical and social participationlitical and social participation..62 Yet they were still under staYet they were still under state control. te control.
57 Ayşegül Yaraman, “Siyaset: Türkiye’de Kadınların Siyasal Haklarını Kazanma Ayşegül Yaraman, “Siyaset: Türkiye’de Kadınların Siyasal Haklarını Kazanma Mücadelesinden Dişiliksiz Siyasete,” in Mücadelesinden Dişiliksiz Siyasete,” in Cumhuriyet Cumhuriyet IIstanbul’unda Kadınstanbul’unda Kadın, ed. Ayla Duru , ed. Ayla Duru Karadağ (Istanbul: Kültür A.Ş., 2021), 1Karadağ (Istanbul: Kültür A.Ş., 2021), 11111––66.66.
58 Yaprak ZihnioğluYaprak Zihnioğlu, Kadınsız İnkılap: Nezihe Muhiddin, Kadınlar Halk Fırkası, Kadın Birliği, Kadınsız İnkılap: Nezihe Muhiddin, Kadınlar Halk Fırkası, Kadın Birliği, , 44thth ed. (Istanbul: Metis Yayınları, 2019), 234ed. (Istanbul: Metis Yayınları, 2019), 234––52.52.
59 Ibid., 220Ibid., 220––33.33.
60 Zafer Toprak, “Türkiye’de Siyaset ve Kadın: Kadınlar Halk Fırkası’ndan Arşıulusal Kadın-Zafer Toprak, “Türkiye’de Siyaset ve Kadın: Kadınlar Halk Fırkası’ndan Arşıulusal Kadın-lar Birliği Kongresine (1923lar Birliği Kongresine (1923--1935),” 1935),” Kadın Araştırmaları DergisKadın Araştırmaları Dergisi, no. 2 (i, no. 2 (1994): 51994): 5––12.12.
61 Zafer Toprak, “1935 Zafer Toprak, “1935 IIstanbul Uluslararası Feminizm Kongresi ve Barış,” stanbul Uluslararası Feminizm Kongresi ve Barış,” DüşünDüşün, no. 2 , no. 2 (1986): 24(1986): 24––29.29.
62 “Çıkış Amacımız,”“Çıkış Amacımız,” Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi, March 1, 1947., March 1, 1947.
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The first president of the institution was Mevhibe İnonü, the wife of İsmet
The first president of the institution was Mevhibe İnonü, the wife of İsmet İnönü, who İnönü, who waswas Turkey’sTurkey’s president after Atatürk until 1950. president after Atatürk until 1950. In 1In 1954, in 954, in the heydays of the new DPthe heydays of the new DP governmentgovernment, the presidency of the TKD was , the presidency of the TKD was passedpassed to the party membersto the party members,, who then mainly who then mainly followed the DP program followed the DP program and and did did basic charity basic charity worksworks. .
The center of feminist critic
The center of feminist criticismism was the weekly womenwas the weekly women’s’s jourjournalnal, , Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi, , which appeared which appeared between 1947 and 1979 with 1125 between 1947 and 1979 with 1125 is-is-suesues. Under the leadership of Iffet Halim Uruz, who s. Under the leadership of Iffet Halim Uruz, who hadhad founded the founded the southeastesoutheastern branch of TKD in Diyarbakir rn branch of TKD in Diyarbakir with Nezihe Muhiddin in the with Nezihe Muhiddin in the 1920s, the journal was dedicated to 1920s, the journal was dedicated to the the political, socialpolitical, social,, and economic and economic empowerment of women.empowerment of women.63 The main concern in the early 1950s was The main concern in the early 1950s was to to protect protect their political and social rightstheir political and social rights, , which which had been severely erodhad been severely eroded ed by the 1950s populist multiby the 1950s populist multi--party environment.party environment.64 And the journal was And the journal was well functioned to express strong opposition until 1954,well functioned to express strong opposition until 1954, when when it becait became me a publication of a publication of TKD. ThenTKD. Then it lostit lost its critical view. its critical view.
This
This dissertationdissertation analyzed the analyzed the first 610 of these first 610 of these issueissuess,, published be-published be-tween 1947 and 1960tween 1947 and 1960,, to grasp the feminist view oto grasp the feminist view off the reproduction and the reproduction and population policpopulation policyy. The articles . The articles prior to prior to the midthe mid--1950s w1950s were actively pro-ere actively pro-natalist. In 1948, Lamia Onaf complainnatalist. In 1948, Lamia Onaf complainss that only that only the children of the the children of the state state officialsofficials were entitled to discounted boarding school tuition and were entitled to discounted boarding school tuition and suggestsuggestss that that all the poor families all the poor families with three or more with three or more children should have the children should have the rightright to attend to attend boboarding school free of charge. Tharding school free of charge. Thisis, she states, , she states, is the is the most most effective way to show appreciation to fertile mothers and to support the effective way to show appreciation to fertile mothers and to support the state’s pronatalist policies.state’s pronatalist policies.65 InIn the same year, the editorthe same year, the editor--inin--chiefchief,, Uruz, Uruz, calls Children Protection Institution, calls Children Protection Institution, Çocuk EÇocuk Esirgeme Kurumusirgeme Kurumu, to expand , to expand itsits activities activities in order in order to reduce the infant mortality and increase to reduce the infant mortality and increase
63 İffet Halim Oruz, “Türk Kadınlar Birliği Hakkında Düşünceler,” İffet Halim Oruz, “Türk Kadınlar Birliği Hakkında Düşünceler,” Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi, May 16, , May 16, 1949, 1,2,6.1949, 1,2,6.
64 The main discussion in the The main discussion in the Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi in 1950 and 1951 was the low political rep-in 1950 and 1951 was the low political rep-resentation of women in parliement after the 1950 elections beresentation of women in parliement after the 1950 elections betweentween thethe CHP and DP, CHP and DP, when both parties when both parties fieldedfielded male candidates male candidates who who they believed hathey believed had a better d a better chance chance of of beingbeing elected.elected.
65 Lamia Onaf, “Çok Lamia Onaf, “Çok ççocuklu ocuklu aailelere ilelere yyardım,” ardım,” Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi, July 19, 1948, 1,7, July 19, 1948, 1,7..
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population.
population.66 In 1950, Hasene Ilgaz, celebrates the higher population In 1950, Hasene Ilgaz, celebrates the higher population growth as a result of growth as a result of the the census conducted in the same year and suggests census conducted in the same year and suggests spreadingspreading the news the news abroadabroad to demonstrate how populous the country to demonstrate how populous the country is.is.67
The issue of abortion was also a major concern of the
The issue of abortion was also a major concern of the editorial board editorial board and was regularly discussed and discredited in and was regularly discussed and discredited in articlesarticles, most of which , most of which were written by health care professionalswere written by health care professionals. For instance, Dr. Saim Sağlık . For instance, Dr. Saim Sağlık complains complains that that abortion abortion has become has become a fashion.a fashion.68 In a news item about In a news item about excessive abortion and theexcessive abortion and the Health Ministry's attempt to conduct an inves-Health Ministry's attempt to conduct an inves-tigation into its causes, Editor Uruz confidently predicts that the problem tigation into its causes, Editor Uruz confidently predicts that the problem should be should be economic or moral, because otherwise, she says, no mother economic or moral, because otherwise, she says, no mother would decide to undergo such a risky operation.would decide to undergo such a risky operation.69 And she never thinks And she never thinks of abortion as of abortion as a consequence of a consequence of the unmetthe unmet need for contraception. need for contraception.
From the end of 1955, family planning was
From the end of 1955, family planning was gradually gradually discussed as a discussed as a solution for rural development and for reducing maternal and infant solution for rural development and for reducing maternal and infant mortalitymortality..70 Even so, the same auEven so, the same author who had cheered population thor who had cheered population growth in 1950 joined the antinatalist league in 1958 to control excessive growth in 1950 joined the antinatalist league in 1958 to control excessive births in rural and urban areas.births in rural and urban areas.71
This antinatalist switch of the journal, which became an implicit sup-
This antinatalist switch of the journal, which became an implicit sup-porter of the government after 1954, was porter of the government after 1954, was parparticularly ticularly crucial as a repre-crucial as a repre-sentation of DP loosening their pronatalist rhetoric. However, the sentation of DP loosening their pronatalist rhetoric. However, the jour-jour-nal’s nal’s articulation of the population policarticulation of the population policyy was not far from the was not far from the nationalist, developmentalist and antinationalist, developmentalist and anti--urbanist sentiments that was dis-urbanist sentiments that was dis-cussed cussed earlierearlier and and nono specific reference was made specific reference was made toto fertility behavior as fertility behavior as an individual choice within than individual choice within theese 610 issues se 610 issues except one.except one.
66 İffet Halim Oruz, “Çocuk İffet Halim Oruz, “Çocuk ddavamıavamız,” z,” Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi, November 22, 1948, 1,2., November 22, 1948, 1,2.
67 Hasene Ilgaz, “1950 Nüfus Hasene Ilgaz, “1950 Nüfus ssayımı ve ayımı ve ppropagandası,”ropagandası,” Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi, November 20, 1950, , November 20, 1950, 1,6.1,6.
68 Dr. Saim Sağlık, “Kadın Dr. Saim Sağlık, “Kadın hhijyeni,” ijyeni,” Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi, February 26, 1951, 4., February 26, 1951, 4.
69 İffet Halim Oruz, “Çocuk İffet Halim Oruz, “Çocuk ssıkıtlarınııkıtlarını öönleme nleme ttedbirleri,” edbirleri,” Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi, , February 13, February 13, 1954.1954.
70 “Nüfus ve “Nüfus ve ddoğum oğum kkonferansıonferansı,” ,” Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi,, December 16, 1955, 1,7.December 16, 1955, 1,7.
71 Hasene Ilgaz, “Dünya Hasene Ilgaz, “Dünya nnüfusunun üfusunun ççoğalmasını oğalmasını öönleyici nleyici ttedbirler,” edbirler,” Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi, March , March 1, 1958, 1.1, 1958, 1.
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Leyla Kara, in her article
Leyla Kara, in her article ““Motherhood PropagandaMotherhood Propaganda,”,” written as early written as early as 1950, heavily criticizes governments and journalists as 1950, heavily criticizes governments and journalists who who complaincomplain about the contemporary women ignoring their primary duty, mother-about the contemporary women ignoring their primary duty, mother-hood.hood.72 She says She says thisthis is is thethe natural outcome of a patriarchal viewnatural outcome of a patriarchal view,, perceiv-perceiv-inging women as “egg incubatorwomen as “egg incubators,s,”” confining to their homes and excluding confining to their homes and excluding them socially and politically. The women, who could not stand the humil-them socially and politically. The women, who could not stand the humil-iation, she adds, started searching for the respect they deserved by iation, she adds, started searching for the respect they deserved by mak-mak-ing ing their own careers in their own careers in the the publicpublic eyeeye,, at the at the cost of neglecting their cost of neglecting their motherhood.motherhood. SheShe concludes that no womconcludes that no womaan will take this pronatalist n will take this pronatalist rhetoric seriousrhetoric seriouslyly, if mothers , if mothers continue to have a low and continue to have a low and inactive social inactive social statusstatus..
In summary
In summary, the TKD and , the TKD and the the Women’s Journal were two primary Women’s Journal were two primary feminist formations of the feminist formations of the time that reflectetime that reflected the status od the status of f women in women in Tur-Tur-key andkey and could survive as long as their ideas were in line with the ruling could survive as long as their ideas were in line with the ruling elites. Expectedly their vision about the population policy and its trans-elites. Expectedly their vision about the population policy and its trans-formation had strong formation had strong similarities with the government’s similarities with the government’s political and so-political and so-cioeconomcioeconomic agenda ic agenda and did not contain any and did not contain any feminist or human rightfeminist or human rightss nuancenuance,, except except for for some personal attempts such as the exsome personal attempts such as the exceptional ceptional article article mentioned above. mentioned above.
Summary of
Summary of 33.1.1
Reaching 15 million citizens
Reaching 15 million citizens within 10 years was a national pride within 10 years was a national pride ex-ex-pressedpressed in the “in the “Hymn of the Hymn of the 1010thth YYear” composed in 1933. Some 22 years ear” composed in 1933. Some 22 years laterlater,, the the country’s country’s population population has has barely reached 24 million, barely reached 24 million, equivalent equivalent to to 31 31 inhabitantsinhabitants per square kilometer, yet per square kilometer, yet the initial the initial public discussipublic discussions ons ofof population control had already taken place population control had already taken place byby the midthe mid--1950s. 1950s.
This section covered
This section covered the early medical, economic, the early medical, economic, social,social, and feminist and feminist criticcriticism ofism of the Turkish government’s ongoing pronatalist the Turkish government’s ongoing pronatalist stancestance.. The ar-The ar-guments been raised such as rising mguments been raised such as rising maternalaternal and infant mortality, urban-and infant mortality, urban-ization and its deterioration, this thesis claims, wization and its deterioration, this thesis claims, wereere not not primarilyprimarily due to due to population population growth,growth, but to the increasing encounters between the “oth-but to the increasing encounters between the “oth-ers” mostly triggered by internal mobilization. ers” mostly triggered by internal mobilization. OOvercrowdingvercrowding inin hospi-hospi-tals, tals, streets,streets, and cities and cities heightenedheightened the sense of overpopulation, and the the sense of overpopulation, and the
72 Leyla Kara, “Analık Leyla Kara, “Analık ppropropoogandası,” gandası,” Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi, November 13, 1950, 2,4., November 13, 1950, 2,4.
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sharing
sharing ofof scarce resources and business opportunities with the flooding scarce resources and business opportunities with the flooding migrants migrants should should have increased public sensitivity have increased public sensitivity toto question pronatalist question pronatalist population policies. population policies.
Yet the early calls for population control had a very limited audience
Yet the early calls for population control had a very limited audience from the public and political cadre and did not trigger any antinatalist from the public and political cadre and did not trigger any antinatalist movement during movement during the the DP government. DP government. Nonetheless, these arguments Nonetheless, these arguments were heavily used as a reference point for antinwere heavily used as a reference point for antinatalist justification by the atalist justification by the military junta of the 1960s and the SPO military junta of the 1960s and the SPO reports andreports and were discussed at were discussed at length in parliament in the early 1960s, which wlength in parliament in the early 1960s, which will be revealedill be revealed in the next in the next section.section.
§ 3.2 Towards the Towards the Population Planning LawPopulation Planning Law
Like its rise, the fall of DP herald
Like its rise, the fall of DP heralds a new era in Turkish history. The at-s a new era in Turkish history. The at-tempt to tempt to achieveachieve rapid rapid prosperityprosperity and development, and development, on the basis of on the basis of pop-pop-ulist and unplanned agricultural ulist and unplanned agricultural mechanization,mechanization, had left the country had left the country al-al-most most bankrupt bankrupt in the late in the late 1950s. 1950s. UnderUnder the military regime, the state the military regime, the state apparatapparatus evolved to create a different kind of welfare state based on ra-us evolved to create a different kind of welfare state based on ra-tional planningtional planning,, which inevitably brought population planning which inevitably brought population planning oonto tnto thehe agenda. agenda.
Therefore, this thesis
Therefore, this thesis proposes to startproposes to start the political orientation of the political orientation of population planning with the 1960 population planning with the 1960 ccoup. oup. This This sectionsection analyzes the analyzes the major major turning points of the political orientation turning points of the political orientation thathat facilitatet facilitated the d the legalization legalization of the Population Planning Law of the Population Planning Law in in five difive distinct stinct but interrelated parts. but interrelated parts. The The first part explores tfirst part explores the economic transformation, its he economic transformation, its distortion,distortion, and tand the he foreign tutelage of the late 1950s to demonstrate why and how the coun-foreign tutelage of the late 1950s to demonstrate why and how the coun-try had to switch to the try had to switch to the developmentalist economic model embedded developmentalist economic model embedded with population planning with population planning in the early 1960s. in the early 1960s.
The second part addresses the political deteriorations in the 1950s
The second part addresses the political deteriorations in the 1950s thathat triggered military intervention, with the Army's hegemont triggered military intervention, with the Army's hegemonyy--security security concerns on the southeastern border that could provide additional moti-concerns on the southeastern border that could provide additional moti-vation for population controlvation for population control. . The third part deals with the SPO and the The third part deals with the SPO and the drafting of the first NDP, which included podrafting of the first NDP, which included population planning. The pulation planning. The
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debates and objections to population control during the
debates and objections to population control during the ssenate and enate and par-par-liamentary liamentary votes on the plan are also examined in detail.votes on the plan are also examined in detail.
The antinatalist preparations of governments and private initiatives
The antinatalist preparations of governments and private initiatives to shape the to shape the antinatalist agendaantinatalist agenda and accommodate public opinion in fa-and accommodate public opinion in fa-vor of the vor of the population control population control idea idea is the is the headline of the fourth part,headline of the fourth part, which which also covers also covers the the Population CouncilPopulation Council’s the ’s the invitation to prepareinvitation to prepare the popu-the popu-lation control lation control road map, the first Turkish KAP survey, the activities ofroad map, the first Turkish KAP survey, the activities of thethe Turkish Family Planning Association, and the nationwide family planning Turkish Family Planning Association, and the nationwide family planning seminars. In the seminars. In the lastlast part, the extensive part, the extensive debates,debates, and discussions during and discussions during thethe voting of the Population Planning Law in the parliament and in the voting of the Population Planning Law in the parliament and in the senate senate are are tracked and categorized from the parliamentary archives.tracked and categorized from the parliamentary archives.
3.2.1 Economic Planning and Population ControlEconomic Planning and Population Control
On May 27, 1960, the military junta
On May 27, 1960, the military junta tooktook control of the Turkish Republic control of the Turkish Republic and imand immediately mediately establishedestablished a governing mechanism from the soldiers,a governing mechanism from the soldiers, thethe National Unity Committee, National Unity Committee, Milli Birlik KomitesiMilli Birlik Komitesi (MBK), wh(MBK), which exer-ich exer-cisedcised direct control direct control over over the state until September 15, 1961. This period the state until September 15, 1961. This period represents represents a a radical radical break with thbreak with the ten years of De ten years of DP government policP government policyy,, including including itsits pronatalist stance. pronatalist stance.
One of the
One of the firstfirst decisions MBK decisions MBK made made just eighteen days after the just eighteen days after the coupcoup was to was to establishestablish a State Planning Office (SPO)a State Planning Office (SPO) charged with charged with economic and economic and social planning.social planning.73 FurtherFurther discussions in MBK clearly underlines that the discussions in MBK clearly underlines that the primary motive primary motive forfor prioritization of the SPO was the desperate need for prioritization of the SPO was the desperate need for foreign funds, foreign funds, which which was conditioned on was conditioned on soundsound and systematic plan-and systematic plan-ning.ning.74 And population planning was an inevitable part of this systematAnd population planning was an inevitable part of this systematic ic planning package, which planning package, which isis clearly clearly expressed expressed in in the memoirs of the memoirs of Nusret Nusret Fişek. Fişek.
Fişek, the
Fişek, the underundersecretary secretary forfor the Ministry of Health the Ministry of Health at the timeat the time, , vivisitsitss the SPO in the very early days of its establishment to discuss changing the SPO in the very early days of its establishment to discuss changing
73 MBK General Meeting (Milli Birlik Komitesi Genel Kurul Toplantısı), Vol.1, Meeting no: MBK General Meeting (Milli Birlik Komitesi Genel Kurul Toplantısı), Vol.1, Meeting no: 9, September 10, 1960, 159, September 10, 1960, 15..
74 MBK General Meeting (Milli Birlik Komitesi Genel Kurul Toplantısı), Vol.1, Meeting no: MBK General Meeting (Milli Birlik Komitesi Genel Kurul Toplantısı), Vol.1, Meeting no: 14, September 29, 1960, 1514, September 29, 1960, 15..
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the pronatalist population pol
the pronatalist population policyicy,, which he believewhich he believedd harmful not only to harmful not only to ththe health of the mothere health of the motherss and childrenand children,, but also but also to to the economy. SPO the economy. SPO mmembers, embers, CChairman Colonel Şinasi Orel, hairman Colonel Şinasi Orel, HHead of ead of SSocial ocial PPlanning Necat lanning Necat Erder and Erder and HHead of ead of EEconomic conomic PPlanning Atilla Karaosmanoğlu, warmly lanning Atilla Karaosmanoğlu, warmly welcome Fiwelcome Fişek and şek and inform inform himhim that that changing the ongoing pronatalist changing the ongoing pronatalist stance was also stance was also oon their agenda n their agenda as as no sound economic planning could be no sound economic planning could be made based on the persistent made based on the persistent population growth.population growth.75
This section will deal with the changing economic trajectory of the
This section will deal with the changing economic trajectory of the country bcountry between 1950 and 1960 to respond etween 1950 and 1960 to respond following following inquiresinquires:: What What wwereere the material conditions that led Turkey prepare its own strategic the material conditions that led Turkey prepare its own strategic planning? How planning? How diddid population planning become population planning become a a crucial part of crucial part of plan-plan-ningning anand what d what role did frole did foreign pressureoreign pressure play inplay in it? it?
Until the end of
Until the end of WWIIWWII, Turkey’s economic program was based on So-, Turkey’s economic program was based on So-vietviet--type fivetype five--year industrial planningyear industrial planning,, which worked extremely well in which worked extremely well in the 1930s and the country enjoyed the historicalthe 1930s and the country enjoyed the historicallyly highest economic highest economic growth growth of of well over 8%.well over 8%.76 However, tHowever, the he Soviet threatSoviet threat atat the end of the end of WWIIWWII forced the country to seek forced the country to seek alliance with the alliance with the US US and it had to undergo a and it had to undergo a major major transformation in many areas. transformation in many areas.
In
In the economic spherethe economic sphere, the statist and protectionist Soviet model and, the statist and protectionist Soviet model and thethe selfself--reliant developmenreliant development t pattern werepattern were gradually abangradually abandoned with doned with a a series of measures. In addition series of measures. In addition to the devaluation to the devaluation of the of the TLTL in 1946, im-in 1946, im-port quotas were gradually loosened to get aligned with the liberalization port quotas were gradually loosened to get aligned with the liberalization requirements of the requirements of the alliance’s alliance’s economic arm, economic arm, the the IMF.IMF.77 Furthermore, the Furthermore, the FiveFive--Year Industrial PlYear Industrial Plan of 1946 was halted and replaced an of 1946 was halted and replaced in 1947 by an-in 1947 by an-other planother plan called called the the ““Vaner PlanVaner Planıı,,” which curtail” which curtaileded some major industrial some major industrial investments and addinvestments and addeded liberal tendencies to the plan in the hope of liberal tendencies to the plan in the hope of ob-ob-taining a taining a sizeable sizeable shareshare from Marshall Aid.from Marshall Aid.78
The plan did not attract
The plan did not attract foreign foreign attention attention as as it still contained many it still contained many investment elements that were not appropriate to the country's investment elements that were not appropriate to the country's
75 Turkish Medical Association, Nusret Fişek Turkish Medical Association, Nusret Fişek iile Söyleşi, 11.le Söyleşi, 11.
76 Boratav, Boratav, Türkiye İktisat Tarihi Türkiye İktisat Tarihi 19081908--2009, 592009, 59––82.82.
77 Ibid., 102Ibid., 102––3.3.
78 İlhan Tekeli and Selim İlkin, İlhan Tekeli and Selim İlkin, Savas Sonrasi Ortaminda 1947 Turkiye Iktisadi Kalkinma Savas Sonrasi Ortaminda 1947 Turkiye Iktisadi Kalkinma PlanıPlanı (Ankara: Ortadoğu Teknik Üniversitesi, 1974), 1(Ankara: Ortadoğu Teknik Üniversitesi, 1974), 1––26.26.
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economic role
economic role, , whichwhich the the US government positioned as US government positioned as supplying Europe supplying Europe with agriculture and minerals.with agriculture and minerals. MeanwhileMeanwhile, , several forseveral foreign eign economic mis-economic mis-sionssions were were sent to sent to Turkey Turkey as early as 1948 to prepare the inventory of as early as 1948 to prepare the inventory of the country and provide investment guidance to the country and provide investment guidance to the the US US and Turkish and Turkish ggov-ov-ernmenternments, s, and to thand to the e international institutions like IMF, World Bank, international institutions like IMF, World Bank, and and IBDRIBDR..
The very first miss
The very first mission was sent in 1949ion was sent in 1949 underunder the leadership of M.W. the leadership of M.W. Thornburg, a senior executive Thornburg, a senior executive atat Standard Oil. In his report, Standard Oil. In his report, he first rec-he first rec-ommendommendeded that that statist industrial investments statist industrial investments be stopped be stopped immediatelyimmediately to to be be replacreplaceedd byby private private enterpriseenterprise,, which he mentionwhich he mentioneded having having beenbeen ob-ob-scuredscured by the state for years.by the state for years.79 He further reported to increase agricul-He further reported to increase agricul-tural investments through mechanization and underlined road construc-tural investments through mechanization and underlined road construc-tion, warehousing and port maintenance tion, warehousing and port maintenance so that these products can reach so that these products can reach domestic adomestic and foreign marketsnd foreign markets..80 IIn addition n addition toto economic targets, economic targets, the the con-con-struction of a nationwide road network was also desirable for NATO mil-struction of a nationwide road network was also desirable for NATO mil-itary purposes.itary purposes.81
The anti
The anti--industrialist tone was escalated in 1951 by aindustrialist tone was escalated in 1951 by an n IBRDIBRD mission mission reportreport knownknown as the “Barker Report.”as the “Barker Report.” The government was recom-The government was recom-mended to reduce the expenditures mended to reduce the expenditures atat all levels and to set up an economic all levels and to set up an economic coordination committee coordination committee toto coordinate investments, coordinate investments, expenditures,expenditures, and and operations.operations.82 These reports These reports played aplayed a key rolekey role in addressing the direction in addressing the direction of foreign loansof foreign loans and grants which would reach up to and grants which would reach up to $ $ 354 million be-354 million be-tween 1948 and 1952. And 2/3 of tween 1948 and 1952. And 2/3 of it wasit was spent spent onon investmentsinvestments,, mostly mostly forfor agricultural mechanization and road construction.agricultural mechanization and road construction.83 The The numbernumber of for-of for-eign eign aidaid and grants between 1946 and 1962 and grants between 1946 and 1962 is shownis shown in Table 3.9.in Table 3.9.
79 Max Weston Thornburg, Graham Spry, and George Soule, Max Weston Thornburg, Graham Spry, and George Soule, Turkey : An EconomTurkey : An Economic Apprisal ic Apprisal (New York: The Twentieth Century Found, 1949), 31(New York: The Twentieth Century Found, 1949), 31––34.34.
80 Ibid., 217Ibid., 217––22.22.
81 Krueger and Ruttan, “Assistance to Turkey,” 254.Krueger and Ruttan, “Assistance to Turkey,” 254.
82 James M. Barker, James M. Barker, The Economy of Turkey: An Analysis and Recommendations for Develop-The Economy of Turkey: An Analysis and Recommendations for Develop-ment Programment Program (Washington D.C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop-(Washington D.C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop-ment, 1951), 45ment, 1951), 45––55.55.
83 Hollis B. Chenery, George E. Brandow, and J. Cohn Edwin, Hollis B. Chenery, George E. Brandow, and J. Cohn Edwin, Turkish Investment and Eco-Turkish Investment and Eco-nomic Developmennomic Development t (United States of America Operations Mission to Turkey, Foreign (United States of America Operations Mission to Turkey, Foreign Operations Operations Administration, 1953), 47.Administration, 1953), 47.
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Table 3.
Table 3.99 Foreign Foreign lloans and oans and ggrants to Turkey 1946rants to Turkey 1946--19621962 (million $)(million $) Year Year US LoansUS Loans US GrantsUS Grants Total US Total US Economic AidEconomic Aid Other Foreign Other Foreign InstitutionsInstitutions 19461946--19481948 4545..44 -- 4545..44 55..00 19491949 3333..88 -- 3333..88 -- 19501950 4040..00 3131..99 7171..99 8080..44 19511951 -- 4949..88 4949..88 -- 19521952 1111..22 5858..44 6969..66 3535..22 19531953 -- 5858..66 5858..66 2020..00 19541954 -- 7878..77 7878..77 33..88 19551955 2525..55 8383..88 109109..33 -- 19561956 2525..00 104104..33 129129..33 -- 19571957 2525..11 6262..33 8787..44 1313..55 19581958 2323..22 9090..44 113113..66 2525..55 19591959 9797..22 107107..00 204204..22 -- 19601960 2626..55 9999..00 125125..55 3737..00 19611961 131131..00 8989..88 220220..88 161161..77 19621962 102102..55 8181..66 184184..11 1515..00 TOTALTOTAL 586586..44 995995..66 11,,582582..00 397397..11
SOURCE
SOURCE: : Kepenek and Yenitürk (2001), 102.Kepenek and Yenitürk (2001), 102.
In this study, the investment details of the
In this study, the investment details of the Marshall Aid to TurkeyMarshall Aid to Turkey areare ex-ex-amined amined through through 46 46 official quofficial quarterly reportarterly reportss issued between 1issued between 1949 949 andand 1962, to1962, to detect detect whether any aid whether any aid was donated was donated in terms of population con-in terms of population con-trol.trol.84 As expected, As expected, mostmost of the of the aid wasaid was allocated toallocated to the agricultural and the agricultural and infrastructurinfrastructural development of the country, but social elements al development of the country, but social elements in the ar-in the ar-eas of health and education eas of health and education werewere also presentalso present. .
Four million
Four million $$ was allocated for malaria control between 1949 and was allocated for malaria control between 1949 and 1952,1952,85 one million one million TLTL was granted was granted forfor nnursing ursing ttraining raining sschool chool of Ankara of Ankara Hospital Hospital in 1951,in 1951,86 and some 30 million TL was and some 30 million TL was allocated allocated for the settle-for the settle-ment of immigrants from Bulgaria in the same year.ment of immigrants from Bulgaria in the same year.87 Apparently, thApparently, theese se
84 “Quarterly Report on the Marshall Plan in Turkey,” 1949“Quarterly Report on the Marshall Plan in Turkey,” 1949--1962 (General Secretariat of 1962 (General Secretariat of the Office for Economic Cothe Office for Economic Co--operation of Turkey).operation of Turkey).
85 “Quarterly Report on the Marshall Plan in Turkey” (General Secretariat of the Office for “Quarterly Report on the Marshall Plan in Turkey” (General Secretariat of the Office for Economic CoEconomic Co--operation of Turkey, 1952), 54.operation of Turkey, 1952), 54.
86 “Quarterly Report on the Marshall Plan in Turkey” (General Secretariat of the Office for “Quarterly Report on the Marshall Plan in Turkey” (General Secretariat of the Office for Economic CoEconomic Co--operation of Turkey, 1951), 131.operation of Turkey, 1951), 131.
87 Ibid., 142.Ibid., 142.
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early aids were
early aids were intended to intended to serve the serve the Republic’s Republic’s pronatalist stance pronatalist stance and and promote promote its productivity. Furthermore, noits productivity. Furthermore, not at a single single grant grant in the name of in the name of birth control or contraception birth control or contraception was was mentionedmentioned iin thn theese reports. se reports.
The
The 1950 elections reaffirmed the political and economic transfor-1950 elections reaffirmed the political and economic transfor-mation of the country. The newly elected mation of the country. The newly elected ddemocrats and their leader emocrats and their leader Adnan Menderes Adnan Menderes vehemently chalvehemently challenged lenged the etatist regime and the etatist regime and the the still still existingexisting monopolmonopolizingizing tendencies of the state. Moreover, tendencies of the state. Moreover, he washe was veryvery en-en-thusiastic thusiastic in in implementingimplementing the economic program recommended by the the economic program recommended by the foreign advisorforeign advisorss..88
With the support of foreign aids, the DP government enjoy
With the support of foreign aids, the DP government enjoyed the ed the prosperity prosperity it had promised its votersit had promised its voters duringduring the first three years of the first three years of its its reignreign. . FFavorable weather conditions, rising agricultural prices avorable weather conditions, rising agricultural prices due to due to the the Korean War, and the exKorean War, and the expansion of pansion of cultivation with the help of mechaniza-cultivation with the help of mechaniza-tion had boosted agriculturaltion had boosted agricultural production and revenuesproduction and revenues,, which had rela-which had rela-tively tively raisedraised the living standards of all sthe living standards of all segments of the populationegments of the population in a in a shortshort period of time.period of time.89 And it is no coincidence that And it is no coincidence that until 1953 there was until 1953 there was nonot t a singlea single discussion about the negative economic and social discussion about the negative economic and social effecteffect of of population population growthgrowth..
Nevertheless
Nevertheless, the , the impending impending economic caeconomic catastrophe tastrophe was accurately was accurately predicted predicted that that same year by economist Hollis Chenery who was commis-same year by economist Hollis Chenery who was commis-sioned sioned to Turkey on behalf of the to Turkey on behalf of the US Foreign US Foreign Operation Administration. Operation Administration. In his reportIn his report,, Chenery Chenery urged the government to restore the balance of urged the government to restore the balance of paymentspayments,, which had which had begunbegun to deteriorate to deteriorate due todue to residual longresidual long--term in-term in-vestments fvestments financedinanced by foreign loans. And he was well aware that the suc-by foreign loans. And he was well aware that the suc-cess of Turkcess of Turkey’sey’s ecoeconomic development lnomic development layay in the sudden combination of in the sudden combination of favorable weather and higher pricesfavorable weather and higher prices, , which could not be sustainwhich could not be sustaineded..90 Moreover, heMoreover, he recommended not only economic coordination but also recommended not only economic coordination but also de-de-valuation of valuation of at least at least 30% to secure the balance of payment30% to secure the balance of payments,s, which hewhich he called called a a social return osocial return off investment.investment.91
88 Z.Y Hershlag, Z.Y Hershlag, Turkey: The Challenge of Growth Turkey: The Challenge of Growth (Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1968), 139.(Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1968), 139.
89 Boratav, Boratav, Türkiye İktisat Tarihi 1908Türkiye İktisat Tarihi 1908--20092009, 104, 104––8.8.
90 Chenery, Brandow, and Edwin, Chenery, Brandow, and Edwin, Turkish ITurkish Investment and Economic Developmentnvestment and Economic Development, 64., 64.
91 Ibid., Ibid., 56.56.
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The
The Chenery report, wChenery report, was to as to bebecome onecome one of the reference points of the reference points forfor SPO members after 1960, wasSPO members after 1960, was confiscated confiscated by the by the DP government as DP government as it wasit was shocked by shocked by 30% 30% devaluation offer.devaluation offer.92 Yet, only five years later, the same Yet, only five years later, the same government government had to had to accept accept a devaluation of a devaluation of %320, whereas the %320, whereas the American American dollardollar rose from rose from 22..80 TL to 980 TL to 9..00 TL in August 1958. 00 TL in August 1958.
Indeed, even in the early 1950s
Indeed, even in the early 1950s,, when revenuewhen revenuess from agricultural from agricultural ex-ex-portsports wwere at ere at record highrecord high levelslevels, the country , the country ran a ran a current deficit due to current deficit due to the the risingrising imports financed by shortimports financed by short--term loans. And term loans. And the central bank’s the central bank’s shortage of foreishortage of foreign exchange reserves became apparent after gn exchange reserves became apparent after the rapid the rapid decline decline inin exports by 1953 due to the exports by 1953 due to the poorpoor harvest and harvest and fallingfalling mmarket arket prices.prices.93
Contrary
Contrary to all its liberal rhetoric, the DP government was forced to to all its liberal rhetoric, the DP government was forced to adopt strictadopt strict etatist measures to etatist measures to restrictrestrict imports, such as imposing re-imports, such as imposing re-strictions on international transactionstrictions on international transactionss, import licensing, import licensing,, and freezing and freezing credit importation. Furthecredit importation. Furthermore, as an import substitution, they increas-rmore, as an import substitution, they increas-ingly relied on the State Economic Enterprises (SEE) to ingly relied on the State Economic Enterprises (SEE) to compensate for compensate for the lack the lack ofof private sector investment and kept investing private sector investment and kept investing inin SEEs to SEEs to pre-pre-vent vent erosion erosion ofof their domestic support, which their domestic support, which further strained further strained the bthe bal-al-ance of payments.ance of payments. 94
Nevertheless, the need for foreign exchange was so acute, that the
Nevertheless, the need for foreign exchange was so acute, that the government made great effortgovernment made great effortss to to obtainobtain foreign debt, not only from US foreign debt, not only from US or or iinternational nternational iinstitutions nstitutions such assuch as IMF, IBRDIMF, IBRD,, and World Bank, but also and World Bank, but also from various Western European countries through bilateral agree-from various Western European countries through bilateral agree-ments.ments.95 Yet, the negotiations were formidable. Yet, the negotiations were formidable.
As donor criticism of Turkish economic policy increased, so did the
As donor criticism of Turkish economic policy increased, so did the Turkish government's sensitivity to donor interferTurkish government's sensitivity to donor interference in ence in internal affairsinternal affairs.. Table 3.9 Table 3.9 givesgives some some indication ofindication of the ruptures in the negotiations. The the ruptures in the negotiations. The
92 Atilla Sönmez, “Türk EkonomisiAtilla Sönmez, “Türk Ekonomisi''nin Altın Yılları ve Chenery Raporu,” nin Altın Yılları ve Chenery Raporu,” ODTÜ GODTÜ Gelişme elişme Dergisi Dergisi 23, no. 4 (1996): 66823, no. 4 (1996): 668––75.75.
93 Anne O. Krueger,Anne O. Krueger, Turkey: Foreign Trade Regimes & Economic DevelopmenTurkey: Foreign Trade Regimes & Economic Development (New York: t (New York: Columbia UniColumbia University Press, 1974), 30versity Press, 1974), 30––32.32.
94 Vedat Milor, “The Genesis of Planning in Turkey,” Vedat Milor, “The Genesis of Planning in Turkey,” New Perspectives on Turkey New Perspectives on Turkey 4 (1990): 4 (1990): 11––30.30.
95 Krueger, Krueger, Turkey: Foreign Trade Regimes & Economic DeveTurkey: Foreign Trade Regimes & Economic Developmentlopment, 31., 31.
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cancellation of US funds in 1953 coincides with the
cancellation of US funds in 1953 coincides with the rejection ofrejection of Chenery’s Chenery’s report and the termination of the Wreport and the termination of the World Bank mission the following orld Bank mission the following yearyear..96 Still, Still, governmentgovernment officialsofficials did not feel did not feel felt felt much pmuch pressure to listen ressure to listen to donors, as they were to donors, as they were still still able to find other able to find other sources of creditsources of credit were also were also confident about the US support confident about the US support in the last instancein the last instance, due to their NATO , due to their NATO alliance.alliance.97
Withdrawing from the aggressive i
Withdrawing from the aggressive investment agenda and to govern-nvestment agenda and to govern-inging on the basis of sound planning and coordination was not only a rec-on the basis of sound planning and coordination was not only a rec-ommendation of foreign advisory, which the government resistommendation of foreign advisory, which the government resisteded, but, but was alsowas also increasingly echoed by local intellectuals and business cadreincreasingly echoed by local intellectuals and business cadres s fromfrom the the midmid--1951950s0s onward.onward. Forum Forum periodical, mentioned in the previ-periodical, mentioned in the previ-ous chapters, was their key publication, where the lack of planning was ous chapters, was their key publication, where the lack of planning was heavily criticized.heavily criticized.98 FurthermoreFurthermore,, by the late 1950sby the late 1950s,, allall international or-international or-ganizations ganizations were were advocatingadvocating some form of development planningsome form of development planning, , as theas the experiment experiment in in national national development planning in India wdevelopment planning in India wasas widely ad-widely ad-mired. mired.
The D
The DP governmentP government, however, had , however, had no intention no intention ofof accepting this new accepting this new consensusconsensus, as, as its early its early liberal liberal policies and successes policies and successes werewere depended depended heaheavilyvily on the on the support support of itsof its constituentsconstituents, , especially smallespecially small farmers and farmers and artisansartisans, , who clearly who clearly had the most to losehad the most to lose from planned development from planned development with a focus on industrializationwith a focus on industrialization, and thus the planning , and thus the planning was cursed as was cursed as thethe notion notion of of a totalitarian attitude.a totalitarian attitude.99
By 1958By 1958,, the economic situation had deteriorated to such an extent the economic situation had deteriorated to such an extent that Turkey that Turkey could no longercould no longer borrow from abroad, and US grants, borrow from abroad, and US grants, which which were were given on the basis of the US antigiven on the basis of the US anti--communist interestcommunist interest,, had also dwin-had also dwin-dled. External pressures, dled. External pressures, coupledcoupled with the risiwith the rising costng costss of political unrest of political unrest in the country, forced the DP to announce a stabilization program on Au-in the country, forced the DP to announce a stabilization program on Au-gust 4, 1958. It is also worth noting that the “rescue operation” was held gust 4, 1958. It is also worth noting that the “rescue operation” was held
96 Şenses, “Main Phases and Salient Features of Turkish Foreign Aid ExperienceŞenses, “Main Phases and Salient Features of Turkish Foreign Aid Experience,” 247.,” 247.
97 John White, John White, Pledged to Development: A Study of International Consortia and the StrPledged to Development: A Study of International Consortia and the Strategy ategy of Aidof Aid (Overseas Development Institute (ODI), 1967), 100(Overseas Development Institute (ODI), 1967), 100––102.102.
98 Diren Çakmak, “Forum Dergisi : 1954Diren Çakmak, “Forum Dergisi : 1954--191960” (PhD Thesis, Ankara University, 2007).60” (PhD Thesis, Ankara University, 2007).
99 Cemal MCemal Mıhçııhçıioğlu, “Devlet Planlama Teşkiioğlu, “Devlet Planlama Teşkilatının Kuruluş Günleri,” inlatının Kuruluş Günleri,” in Prof. Dr. Fadıl H. Prof. Dr. Fadıl H. Sur’a ArmağanSur’a Armağan (Ankara: AÜSBF Yayınları, 1983), 229(Ankara: AÜSBF Yayınları, 1983), 229––57.57.
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only twenty days after the Iraq Revolution and its withdrawal from
only twenty days after the Iraq Revolution and its withdrawal from Bagh-Bagh-dad Pactdad Pact,, which may have once again remindedwhich may have once again reminded Turkey’s Turkey’s geostrategic geostrategic cardcard to US administration.to US administration.
The program included de facto devaluation, restraint on government
The program included de facto devaluation, restraint on government expendituresexpenditures, , and liberalization of the import regimeand liberalization of the import regime, , as well as well as commit-as commit-mentment to planning and coordinationto planning and coordination, which was also stated in , which was also stated in previousprevious IMF Reports.IMF Reports.100 The government’s immediate response The government’s immediate response toto the the request request to to add the notion of coordination was add the notion of coordination was to to establish a new ministry in the establish a new ministry in the CCab-ab-inetinet,, namelynamely thethe “Ministry of Coordination“Ministry of Coordination,,””101 and and to to creatcreatee a “Ministerial a “Ministerial Coordination Board” among Coordination Board” among the variousthe various ministers within the governmentministers within the government to act to act as an overarching council as an overarching council for the investment decisions. Further-for the investment decisions. Further-more, the more, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of Foreign Affairs, who directly conducted negotia-who directly conducted negotia-tions with foreign lenders and tions with foreign lenders and was at odds with the Ministry of Finance, was at odds with the Ministry of Finance, established his own "established his own " Investition Program Committee."Investition Program Committee."102
However,
However, these were these were only aonly ad hoc attempts to satisfy lendersd hoc attempts to satisfy lenders,, and the and the government had government had neither the neither the intention norintention nor the the knowledge to apply any knowledge to apply any strategic planning. strategic planning. In an In an effort effort toto obtainobtain the German aid, a planning doc-the German aid, a planning doc-ument was prepared by the Foreign Minister’s ument was prepared by the Foreign Minister’s CCommittee and ommittee and submittedsubmitted to Ludwigto Ludwig ErhardErhard, , German German Minister of Minister of EconomEconomicsics in midin mid--1959. The doc-1959. The doc-ument was ument was ridiculed ridiculed by Erhardby Erhard, who saw it not as a plan, who saw it not as a plan, but a, but ass a a list of list of projectsprojects. Thus. Thus,, hhe declined further ae declined further assistance ssistance and recommended and recommended Turkish Turkish side side toto prepare a solid plan under the guidance of an prepare a solid plan under the guidance of an internationally rec-internationally rec-ognized expert.ognized expert.103
Faced with a
Faced with a lack of credibility that lack of credibility that could could lead to further turbulence lead to further turbulence in the economin the economy, the DP government asked OECDy, the DP government asked OECD’s’s AssistantAssistant Secretary Secretary General, Flint CahanGeneral, Flint Cahan,, for a reputable advisor for a reputable advisor a guidance a guidance to prepare a na-to prepare a na-tional development report. tional development report. Jan Tinbergen, a prominent Dutch economist, Jan Tinbergen, a prominent Dutch economist,
100 IMF Archives, ‘Stabilization Program of the Turkish Government,’” July 23, 1958.IMF Archives, ‘Stabilization Program of the Turkish Government,’” July 23, 1958.
101 Mümtaz Soysal, “Yeni Bir Bakanlığın Kuruluşu,” Mümtaz Soysal, “Yeni Bir Bakanlığın Kuruluşu,” Ankara Üniversitesi SBF DergisiAnkara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi 13, no. 3 13, no. 3 (1958): 276(1958): 276––85.85.
102 Ümit Akçay, Ümit Akçay, Kapitalizmi Kapitalizmi PPlanlamak: Türkiye’de lanlamak: Türkiye’de PPlanlama ve DPT’nin lanlama ve DPT’nin DDönüşümüönüşümü, 1. basım, , 1. basım, Sosyal Araştırmalar Vakfı; Yakın tarih dizisi, 14. 1 (Sosyal Araştırmalar Vakfı; Yakın tarih dizisi, 14. 1 (Beyoğlu, Beyoğlu, IIstanbul: SAV Sosyal stanbul: SAV Sosyal Araştırmalar Vakfı, 2007), 69Araştırmalar Vakfı, 2007), 69––70.70.
103 Dekker, Dekker, Jan Tinbergen (1903Jan Tinbergen (1903––1994) and the Rise of Economic Expertise1994) and the Rise of Economic Expertise, 311., 311.
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and a senior development planning consultant
and a senior development planning consultant was named as twas named as the most he most suitable candidate and invited to Turkey in March 1960.suitable candidate and invited to Turkey in March 1960.104
Along with the
Along with the other developmentalist economists, Tinbergen had other developmentalist economists, Tinbergen had some advanced thoughts on population. His vision too, was on the basis some advanced thoughts on population. His vision too, was on the basis of the inverse relationship between population and povof the inverse relationship between population and poverty and erty and envi-envi-sioned sioned high birth high birth rate irate in n a causal ra causal relationship with elationship with povertypoverty, illiteracy and , illiteracy and underdevelopment.underdevelopment.105 He further states that the duty of the states strug-He further states that the duty of the states strug-gling with poverty is to create conditions conducive to reduce population gling with poverty is to create conditions conducive to reduce population growth.growth.106 In that respect he defines family planning not only as a feasible In that respect he defines family planning not only as a feasible solution solution to to acceleratacceleratee development, but also development, but also as the oas the only weapon left to nly weapon left to the poorest groups to improve their situation.the poorest groups to improve their situation.107
Furthermore, as an ardent Malthusianist,
Furthermore, as an ardent Malthusianist, TinbergenTinbergen urges govern-urges govern-mentsments to control births to compensate for resource shortages and limited to control births to compensate for resource shortages and limited food supplies.food supplies. Turkey onceTurkey once waswas praised by UN for increasing agricultural praised by UN for increasing agricultural and industrial production at a much higher rate than population growth and industrial production at a much higher rate than population growth in 1950,in 1950,108 severely criticized severely criticized after nine after nine yearsyears in another UN mission re-in another UN mission re-port written by Fritz Baade.port written by Fritz Baade.
According to Baade, the population
According to Baade, the population grew fgrew faster than the aster than the agricultural agricultural growth. And cultivable land not only reached its capacity growth. And cultivable land not only reached its capacity limits butlimits but beganbegan to shrink due to erosion to shrink due to erosion resulting from the excessive cultivation resulting from the excessive cultivation ofof un-un-suitable terrains.suitable terrains. 109 The report attracted many public reactions and The report attracted many public reactions and
104 Cemal Mıhçıoğlu, “Yine Devlet PlanlamCemal Mıhçıoğlu, “Yine Devlet Planlama Örgütünün Kuruluşu Üzerine,” a Örgütünün Kuruluşu Üzerine,” Ankara Üniver-Ankara Üniver-sitesi SBF Dergisisitesi SBF Dergisi 43, no. 1 (1988): 11343, no. 1 (1988): 113––46.46.
105 Jan Tinbergen, Jan Tinbergen, Reshaping the International Order : A Report to the Club of RomeReshaping the International Order : A Report to the Club of Rome (New (New York: E.P.Dutton & Co., 1976), 73.York: E.P.Dutton & Co., 1976), 73.
106 Ibid., 137.Ibid., 137.
107 Jan Tinbergen, “Demographic Development and the Exhaustion of Natural Resources,” Jan Tinbergen, “Demographic Development and the Exhaustion of Natural Resources,” Population and Development ReviewPopulation and Development Review 1, no. 1 1, no. 1 (1975): 23(1975): 23––32.32.
108 United Nations Department of Economic Affairs, “Review of Economic Conditions in the United Nations Department of Economic Affairs, “Review of Economic Conditions in the Middle East: Supplement to World Economic Report,Middle East: Supplement to World Economic Report, 19491949--50.” (New York: United Na-50.” (New York: United Na-tions Publications, March 1951), 13.tions Publications, March 1951), 13.
109 Fritz BaadFritz Baade, e, F.A.O. Türkiye RaporuF.A.O. Türkiye Raporu (Ankara, Turkey: Ziraat Bankası 100.Yıldönümü (Ankara, Turkey: Ziraat Bankası 100.Yıldönümü Yayınları, 1962), 13.Yayınları, 1962), 13.
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became one of
became one of the central referencethe central reference pointspoints for Malthusian debates in for Malthusian debates in the the parliamentary discussion about population law.parliamentary discussion about population law. 110
As a respected OECD economist, Tinbergen's leadership and coordi-
As a respected OECD economist, Tinbergen's leadership and coordi-nation of the country's first NDP not only contributed significantly to the nation of the country's first NDP not only contributed significantly to the credibcredibility of the report, but also ensured that its content met the OECD ility of the report, but also ensured that its content met the OECD standard, of which the negative correlation between development and standard, of which the negative correlation between development and population growth was a key component.population growth was a key component. And And the the SPO teamSPO team,, consisting consisting of young Turkish economists of young Turkish economists have have embraced Tinbergen’embraced Tinbergen’s s vision. vision.
However, the country was in political turmoil. Only
However, the country was in political turmoil. Only two months after two months after Tinbergen’s arrival, the DP government was overthrown by Tinbergen’s arrival, the DP government was overthrown by aa mmilitary ilitary coupcoup,, and the sincerity of the government and the sincerity of the government inin followfollowinging Tinbergen’s advice Tinbergen’s advice became an unknown question to be abecame an unknown question to be answered. But as his assistant nswered. But as his assistant Koopman, who stayed in the country for two months before the Koopman, who stayed in the country for two months before the coupcoup and and neglected neglected during his stay during his stay in a hostile environment admitted to the in a hostile environment admitted to the ggener-ener-als a week after the als a week after the coupcoup, that it , that it mightmight be much easier to be much easier to set upset up a planning a planning organization under the organization under the mmilitary ilitary rregimeegime, since, since the politicians the politicians are are often often re-re-luctant toluctant to support an institution support an institution that that might might constrainconstrain their populist poli-their populist poli-cies.cies.111
Indeed, the
Indeed, the formationformation of the SPOof the SPO was much smoother and easierwas much smoother and easier un-un-der the leadership of thder the leadership of the e mmilitary ilitary rregime, egime, sincesince they did not have to worry they did not have to worry about the voters or other interest groups. Furthermore, they were des-about the voters or other interest groups. Furthermore, they were des-perately in need of immediate international recognition to perately in need of immediate international recognition to reresolve the solve the acute financial turmoil. acute financial turmoil. ButBut they they also had other ralso had other reasons to adopeasons to adopt antina-t antina-talist policies than economic necessities, which talist policies than economic necessities, which is is exploredexplored inin the next the next section. section.
3.2.2 Military CMilitary Coup and oup and FFurther urther CConcerns on oncerns on PPopulationopulation
T
This sectionhis section explores explores the sudden switch to the antinatalist agenda after the sudden switch to the antinatalist agenda after the 1960 the 1960 mmilitary ilitary coupcoup, , in in lightlight of of the the DP DP government’s government’s political setbackspolitical setbacks, , which hadwhich had instigated the armyinstigated the army,, alongalong with with the the additional hegemonyadditional hegemony--se-se-curity concerns ocurity concerns on the n the southeastern border. southeastern border.
110 Metin Boysan, “Nüfus Metin Boysan, “Nüfus aartışını rtışını tteşvik eşvik mmi i ttahdit ahdit mmi i eetmelitmeli??” ” ForumForum, June 15, 1962., June 15, 1962.
111 Akçay, Akçay, Kapitalizmi Kapitalizmi PPlanlamak,lanlamak, 72.72.
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The economic unrest in the
The economic unrest in the midmid--1950s1950s also came along with the in-also came along with the in-crease of the political tension and military discontent. crease of the political tension and military discontent. But the “Demo-But the “Demo-crats” had no tolerance for critics crats” had no tolerance for critics and imposed political repression and imposed political repression on on op-op-ponents. In 1953, they began to take ponents. In 1953, they began to take began to crack down the main began to crack down the main opposioppositiontion,, CHPCHP. . AAllll the party property was confiscatedthe party property was confiscated,, and the party and the party newspaper Ulus was also newspaper Ulus was also temporarily temporarily taken over by the authorities.taken over by the authorities.112 InIn 1954, the Press Law 1954, the Press Law gave gave prosecutorsprosecutors direct authority to arrest opposing direct authority to arrest opposing journalistsjournalists on the on the pretextpretext of of damagingdamaging theitheir r reputationreputationss tthrough hrough defam-defam-atory radio broadcasts and press releases.atory radio broadcasts and press releases.113 University professors, University professors, too, too, foundfound themselves exposed to government harassment.themselves exposed to government harassment.114
Furthermore
Furthermore,, under the 1956under the 1956 Meetings and Demonstration Law, Meetings and Demonstration Law, public public gatheringsgatherings were so were so heavilheavily regulated that y regulated that meetings andmeetings and political political activity outside the activity outside the aassembly became ssembly became virtually virtually impossible.impossible.115 IIn early n early 19591959, the , the government took agovernment took an illusory n illusory initiative initiative toto further power consol-further power consol-idation and public idation and public oppression by creating a blocoppression by creating a bloc namely fatherland frontnamely fatherland front, , Vatan Vatan CCephesiephesi,, announcing the new members of the bloc in constant radio announcing the new members of the bloc in constant radio broadcasts in order to broadcasts in order to polarize and stigmatize the masses based on their polarize and stigmatize the masses based on their political support.political support.
The public repression aside, the military officials also had their
The public repression aside, the military officials also had their share share in seriously undermin seriously undermining their political and social prestige as well as eco-ining their political and social prestige as well as eco-nomic conditions in this era.nomic conditions in this era. Relying on Relying on publicpublic support in the elections, support in the elections, the government fethe government feltlt no need for no need for any any additional additional approval approval from the army from the army and even and even unconcerned in its relationsunconcerned in its relations. Prime Minister Ad. Prime Minister Adnan Menderes nan Menderes was widely quoted was widely quoted in 1954 in 1954 as saying that he could run the army with as saying that he could run the army with
112 William Hale, William Hale, Turkish Turkish Politics,Politics, and the Militarand the Military (London; New York: Routledge, 1994), y (London; New York: Routledge, 1994), 9494––95.95.
113 Turkish Assembly, “Press LawTurkish Assembly, “Press Law, No: 6334,” Official Gazette publication on March 17, , No: 6334,” Official Gazette publication on March 17, 1954, No : 8660, enacted on March 17 , 1954.1954, No : 8660, enacted on March 17 , 1954.
114 George S Harris, “The Role of the MilGeorge S Harris, “The Role of the Military in Turkish Politics,” itary in Turkish Politics,” Middle East Journal Middle East Journal 19, no. 19, no. 2 (1965): 1692 (1965): 169––76.76.
115 TurkiTurkish Assembly, “Meeting and Demonstration Law, No: 6761,” Official Gazette publi-sh Assembly, “Meeting and Demonstration Law, No: 6761,” Official Gazette publi-cation on June 30, 1956, No : 9346, enacted on June 27, 1956.cation on June 30, 1956, No : 9346, enacted on June 27, 1956.
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reserve officers if he
reserve officers if he wantedwanted. This had a . This had a very very inflammatoryinflammatory effecteffect on the on the regular officers.regular officers.116
Moreover, most of the military officials,
Moreover, most of the military officials, who saw who saw themselves as themselves as pro-pro-tectortectorss of Kemalist ideology, had of Kemalist ideology, had ggrowing resentrowing resentful of ful of the government the government be-be-cause of the concessions made to undermine the Kemalist reform pro-cause of the concessions made to undermine the Kemalist reform pro-gram, such as the easing of restrictions on religious practices, which had gram, such as the easing of restrictions on religious practices, which had led to an upsurge in superstition and evled to an upsurge in superstition and even open attacks on Ataturk by en open attacks on Ataturk by religious fanatics.religious fanatics.117
The young officers who
The young officers who formedformed the nucleus of the the nucleus of the coupcoup had additionalhad additional aanxietiesnxieties,, such as hampered promotions and desuch as hampered promotions and decliningclining purchasing power purchasing power due to very due to very small pay raisessmall pay raises. . The cost of living increased more tThe cost of living increased more than ten-han ten-fold in 1960 compared to 1950, and military salaries only doubled during fold in 1960 compared to 1950, and military salaries only doubled during the same periodthe same period..118 InIndeeddeed, the problem of inadequate pay was so acute , the problem of inadequate pay was so acute that by 1956 about onethat by 1956 about one--third of commissioned officers had left the mili-third of commissioned officers had left the mili-tary.tary. 119
Membership
Membership inin NATO also dNATO also divided the Turkish armed forceivided the Turkish armed forces along s along technological linetechnological lines,s, and the young officers, especially thand the young officers, especially those ose stationed stationed abroadabroad, gained much of a self, gained much of a self--confidence, mental confidence, mental flexibility,flexibility, and interna-and interna-tional visiontional vision and started to form detached celland started to form detached cell--likelike micromicro--organizations organizations to find ways to to find ways to redress redress the ills of the government.the ills of the government.120
The government became aware of the plans of the plot
The government became aware of the plans of the plot in latein late 1957 1957 throughthrough an incident known as “an incident known as “NNine ine OOfficers’ fficers’ CoConspiracynspiracy,,” but took ” but took them them much more seriously after the revolution in Iraq in July much more seriously after the revolution in Iraq in July 1958, whe1958, whenn the the military regime control of the government. The military high command military regime control of the government. The military high command too was altoo was alarmedarmed by the Iraq revolutionby the Iraq revolution,, but for entirely different reasonbut for entirely different reason::
116 Abdi İpekçi and Ömer Sami Coşar, “27 Mayıs’ın Abdi İpekçi and Ömer Sami Coşar, “27 Mayıs’ın ggerisindeki erisindeki bbeş eş yyılın ılın hhikayesi,” ikayesi,” MilliyetMilliyet, , May 27, 1962, 5.May 27, 1962, 5.
117 Feroz Ahmad, Feroz Ahmad, Turkish Experiment in Democracy 1950Turkish Experiment in Democracy 1950--19751975 (London: C. Hurst & Com-(London: C. Hurst & Com-pany, 1977), 41pany, 1977), 41––43.43.
118 Christopher Gunn, “The 1960 Coup in Christopher Gunn, “The 1960 Coup in Turkey: A U.S. Intelligence Failure or a Successful Turkey: A U.S. Intelligence Failure or a Successful Intervention?” Intervention?” Journal of Cold War StudiesJournal of Cold War Studies 17, no. 2 (April 2015): 10317, no. 2 (April 2015): 103––39.39.
119 Harris, “The Role of the Military in Turkish Politics,” 170.Harris, “The Role of the Military in Turkish Politics,” 170.
120 Ahmad, Ahmad, Turkish Experiment in Democracy 1950Turkish Experiment in Democracy 1950--19751975, 154, 154––55.55.
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fear of ethnical separation, which
fear of ethnical separation, which,, this thesis claimsthis thesis claims,, had a significant im-had a significant im-pact on pact on changing changing popupopulation policy. lation policy.
Iraq was a keystone for the anti
Iraq was a keystone for the anti--communist military alliance in the communist military alliance in the Middle East. The headquarters of the Middle East. The headquarters of the Middle East Treaty OrganizationMiddle East Treaty Organization, a , a semisemi--regional replica of NATOregional replica of NATO,, established established in 1955in 1955 betweenbetween UK, Iraq, UK, Iraq, Iran, Iran, Turkey,Turkey, and Pakistanand Pakistan,, waswas in Iraqin Iraq,, as the as the organization’ organization’ short name, short name, “Baghdad Pact” also “Baghdad Pact” also indicatesindicates. The military . The military coupcoup in Iraq had taken the in Iraq had taken the Western Western ppowers and the members of the organization owers and the members of the organization completely completely by a by a surprise and shocksurprise and shock,, as the as the coupcoup plottersplotters immediately established rela-immediately established rela-tions tions with China, the Soviet with China, the Soviet UnionUnion and other socialist countries.and other socialist countries.121 Ex-Ex-pectedly, the new military government in Iraq pectedly, the new military government in Iraq frozefroze relations with relations with the the pact until announcing the official withdrawal pact until announcing the official withdrawal inin March 1959.March 1959.122
Having the ongoing hegemony
Having the ongoing hegemony--security structure in the Midsecurity structure in the Middle East dle East deeply wounded, deeply wounded, the the USUS and and its its allies turned their attention back to their allies turned their attention back to their forgotten ally Turkey, which they had neglected for some time. The name forgotten ally Turkey, which they had neglected for some time. The name of the organization was changed of the organization was changed to the to the Central Organization Treaty, Central Organization Treaty, (CENTO) and (CENTO) and its its headquarterheadquarterss moved to the Turkish capitalmoved to the Turkish capital ofof Ankara. Ankara.
Furthermore,
Furthermore, in March 1959in March 1959, the, the US government signed US government signed a bilateral a bilateral agreement with agreement with TurkeyTurkey and the and the other other members of members of CENTO, CENTO, pledgingpledging mil-mil-itary and economic itary and economic supportsupport to the governments to the governments in in the event of the event of direct ordirect or indirectindirect aggression from any quarter. The internal discussions in the US aggression from any quarter. The internal discussions in the US foreign relations documents evidence that foreign relations documents evidence that the the US US ggovernment felt overnment felt obliged to sign the documents obliged to sign the documents immediately immediately to preventto prevent communist ele-communist ele-mentsments from flourishingfrom flourishing in the in the region and to save region and to save AmAmerican prestige.erican prestige.123
US economic and political support for Turkish government appears
US economic and political support for Turkish government appears to undermine theories of global hegemonic sphere involvement in Turk-to undermine theories of global hegemonic sphere involvement in Turk-ish coupish coup. Gunn mentions . Gunn mentions that the that the US was not clueless about the US was not clueless about the coupcoup, yet , yet he finds no he finds no convincing evidenceconvincing evidence that the Uthat the USS was in any way involved was in any way involved in in
121 Cihat Göktepe, “The ‘Forgotten AllianCihat Göktepe, “The ‘Forgotten Alliance’? Angloce’? Anglo--Turkish Relations and CENTO, 1959Turkish Relations and CENTO, 1959--65,” 65,” Middle Eastern StudiesMiddle Eastern Studies 35, no. 4 (1999): 10335, no. 4 (1999): 103––29.29.
122 Ibid., 107.Ibid., 107.
123 Foreign RelatForeign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1958ions of the United States (FRUS), 1958--1960, Vol. XII, Near East Region; 1960, Vol. XII, Near East Region; Iraq; Iran; Arabian Peninsula; “Memorandum from Acting Secretary of State Herter to Iraq; Iran; Arabian Peninsula; “Memorandum from Acting Secretary of State Herter to President Eisenhower” (Washington, 1959), Document 268.President Eisenhower” (Washington, 1959), Document 268.
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the planning or execution of
the planning or execution of it.it.124 NNonethelessonetheless, the military junta was ex-, the military junta was ex-tremely cautious about the US reactiontremely cautious about the US reaction,, and so theand so the first statement on the first statement on the coupcoup declaration was declaration was aa commitment to commitment to the principles of the principles of NATO and NATO and CENTOCENTO. . Furthermore, theFurthermore, the military’s military’s wellwell--connected networkconnected network in in NATONATO hehelped to dispellped to dispel mutual doubts and mutual doubts and facilitate facilitate a smoother transitiona smoother transition..
Meanwhile, Kurdish autonomy
Meanwhile, Kurdish autonomy,, exexpandedpanded by the Iraqby the Iraqii regimeregime,, became became a growing concern for the Turkish government. a growing concern for the Turkish government. A fewA few weeks after the weeks after the coupcoup in Iraq, Kurdish tribal leader Mustafa Barzani in Iraq, Kurdish tribal leader Mustafa Barzani returned returned from his from his decadedecade--long exile in long exile in the Soviet Unionthe Soviet Union, where he had sought asylum after , where he had sought asylum after the fall of the Kurdish Mahabad Republthe fall of the Kurdish Mahabad Republic in 1946. His party, the Demo-ic in 1946. His party, the Demo-cratic Party of Kurdistancratic Party of Kurdistan, , was recognized as a legal entity and was recognized as a legal entity and quicklyquickly gained great influence in Iraqi Kurdistan.gained great influence in Iraqi Kurdistan.125 Barzani Barzani attempted attempted to to obtainobtain autonomous status for Iraqi Kurdistan but failed to convince Iraqi Prime autonomous status for Iraqi Kurdistan but failed to convince Iraqi Prime MMinisteinister Abdul Karim Qassem. The stalling of negotiations sparked an r Abdul Karim Qassem. The stalling of negotiations sparked an uprising in September 1961 known as the ‘September Revolutionuprising in September 1961 known as the ‘September Revolution..’ ’ The The unrest unrest did not end untildid not end until 1970, 1970, when when KurdishKurdish autonomy was granted.autonomy was granted.126
The events
The events oon the southern border unearthed the primn the southern border unearthed the primaryary nanational tional hegemonyhegemony--security issue of the republic in the 1920s and 1930ssecurity issue of the republic in the 1920s and 1930s:: the the “Eastern Problem.” “Eastern Problem.” Turkish security authorities Turkish security authorities becamebecame alarmed at the alarmed at the possibility of such unrest spreading to Turkeypossibility of such unrest spreading to Turkey..127 They went to great They went to great lengthslengths to alienate to alienate the the Kurdish uprisingKurdish uprising in Iraqin Iraq. In late 1959, forty. In late 1959, forty--nine nine Kurdish intellectuals, almost half of them students, were arrested for be-Kurdish intellectuals, almost half of them students, were arrested for be-ing involved in separatist and communist activitiesing involved in separatist and communist activities..128 InIn the same yearthe same year, ,
124 Gunn, “The 1960 Coup in Turkey: A U.S. Intelligence Failure or a Successful Interven-Gunn, “The 1960 Coup in Turkey: A U.S. Intelligence Failure or a Successful Interven-tion?” 138.tion?” 138.
125 Beatrice Grapon and Adnan Çelik, “From Tribal Chiefs to Marxist Activists: Kurdistan Beatrice Grapon and Adnan Çelik, “From Tribal Chiefs to Marxist Activists: Kurdistan from 1946 to 1975,” in from 1946 to 1975,” in The Cambridge History of the Kurds,The Cambridge History of the Kurds, ed. Hamit Bozarslan, Cengiz ed. Hamit Bozarslan, Cengiz Gunes, Gunes, and Veli Yadirgi, 1and Veli Yadirgi, 1stst ed. (Cambridge (UK); New York: Cambridge University Press, ed. (Cambridge (UK); New York: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 2292021), 229––4949..
126 Phebe Marr, Phebe Marr, The Modern HistoThe Modern History of Iraqry of Iraq, 3, 3rdrd eded.. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2012), (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2012), 104104––6.6.
127 Metin Heper, Metin Heper, The State and Kurds in Turkey: The Question of Assimilation The State and Kurds in Turkey: The Question of Assimilation (Basingstoke: (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 160.Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 160.
128 Bilal NergBilal Nergı̇z, “Devletin Kürt Politikası ve Kürt Hareketi (1945z, “Devletin Kürt Politikası ve Kürt Hareketi (1945--1960)”1960)” ((PhD PhD Thesis, Thesis, Istan-Istan-bul University, 2019), 172bul University, 2019), 172––79.79.
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it was alleged
it was alleged that boththat both the Chief of General Staff Cemal Gürselthe Chief of General Staff Cemal Gürsel,, who who would also lead the 1960 would also lead the 1960 coupcoup,, and President Celal Bayar and President Celal Bayar hadhad their their own own versions ofversions of the the Kurdish Kurdish rreports on their deskseports on their desks with different recommen-with different recommen-dations dations to increase the “Turkishness” of the citizens in the to increase the “Turkishness” of the citizens in the SSoutheasoutheast.t.129
The issue was at the top of the generals' agenda during the coup of
The issue was at the top of the generals' agenda during the coup of 19601960, , as the 485 Kurdish notables were sent to the camp in Sivas and 55 as the 485 Kurdish notables were sent to the camp in Sivas and 55 of them,of them, accused of advocating the accused of advocating the establishestablishment of a ment of a separate Kurdish separate Kurdish state within the DP government, were existate within the DP government, were exiled.led.130 Furthermore, Furthermore, in the early in the early days of the coupdays of the coup,, General Gürsel personally requested to establish a So-General Gürsel personally requested to establish a So-cial Planning division within the SPO to deal cial Planning division within the SPO to deal mainly mainly with the Kurdish is-with the Kurdish is-sue.sue.131 And a And a subdivisionsubdivision called the called the ‘‘Eastern GroupEastern Group’’ immediately immediately began began preparingpreparing the “Eastern Plan.” The document was classified as a national the “Eastern Plan.” The document was classified as a national security file security file that wouldthat would also to be followed by the forthcoming govern-also to be followed by the forthcoming govern-ments.ments.132
The copy of the document was found in the archive
The copy of the document was found in the archivess of the Minister of of the Minister of Labor of the 1961 government and thLabor of the 1961 government and the e later Plater Prime rime MMinister Bülent Ece-inister Bülent Ece-vit, who had found it on his desk on the day of his avit, who had found it on his desk on the day of his appointmentppointment..133 Re-Re-sembling the sembling the earlierearlier Kurdish reports Kurdish reports fromfrom the 1930s, the 1930s, the Eastern Plan the Eastern Plan enenvisages thevisages the following measures to following measures to change the population structure in change the population structure in favor of the favor of the TurksTurks::
■ Reinforcement of Turkish settlement by influx of people from the over-Reinforcement of Turkish settlement by influx of people from the over-populated Black Sea region and import of Turkish immigrants from the populated Black Sea region and import of Turkish immigrants from the Eastern BalkansEastern Balkans..
■ SStimulating Kurds to migrate to the west by proving incentives and ad-timulating Kurds to migrate to the west by proving incentives and ad-ditional fditional fundingunding..
129 IIbid., 179bid., 179––83.83.
130 “Bir Kürdistan “Bir Kürdistan hhükümeti Için DP ükümeti Için DP ggrubu rubu iiçinde çinde ççalışanlar alışanlar vvarmış,” armış,” CumhuriyetCumhuriyet, May 31, , May 31, 1960.1960.
131 Akçay, Akçay, Kapitalizmi Kapitalizmi PPlanlamaklanlamak, 196., 196. Based on the interview Based on the interview withwith Atilla Karaosmanoğlu, Atilla Karaosmanoğlu, the head of Economic Division of SPO in 1960.the head of Economic Division of SPO in 1960.
132 Hüseyin Yayman, Hüseyin Yayman, Türkiye’nin Kürt Sorunu Hafızası Türkiye’nin Kürt Sorunu Hafızası (Istanbul: Doğan Kitap, 2011), 178(Istanbul: Doğan Kitap, 2011), 178––91.91.
133 Rıdvan Akar and Can Dündar, Rıdvan Akar and Can Dündar, EEcevit ve Gizli Arşivicevit ve Gizli Arşivi, , 22ndnd ed.ed. (Ankara, Turkey: İmge (Ankara, Turkey: İmge kitabevi, 2008), 91.kitabevi, 2008), 91.
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■ A A detailed resettlement plan that woulddetailed resettlement plan that would allowallow the eastern border the eastern border to to be be disconnectdisconnecteded from from the the Iraqi and Iranian Kurds.Iraqi and Iranian Kurds.134
In
In the 1930sthe 1930s,, the Turkish government faced the Turkish government faced aa series of Kurdish uprisings series of Kurdish uprisings for autonomy, for autonomy, andand high level of Kurdish fertility was also mentiohigh level of Kurdish fertility was also mentioned as a ned as a security concern in reports of thsecurity concern in reports of thee time.time.135 By the late 1950sBy the late 1950s,, the issue was the issue was not the not the insurgency,insurgency, but fear of unrest, but fear of unrest, whichwhich led MBK leaders led MBK leaders to consider to consider measures similar to those used in the 1930s: assimilation, mobilization, measures similar to those used in the 1930s: assimilation, mobilization, and forced migrationand forced migration..136 But But diddid they they considerconsider population control as an population control as an additional measure to additional measure to limitlimit Kurdish fertility? Kurdish fertility?
To respond
To respond toto that that questionquestion, the , the MBK MBK minutes of meetings (108 minutes of meetings (108 ses-ses-sionssions of of the the General Assembly and 86 General Assembly and 86 sessionssessions of of the the Council of Minis-Council of Minis-ters) between June 1960 ters) between June 1960 andand November 1961 were tracked November 1961 were tracked with regard with regard to theto the discussion on population policy. The discussion on population policy. The minutesminutes provide no evidence provide no evidence about any intention about any intention toto ususe e population control population control toto limitlimit Kurdish fertilityKurdish fertility. It . It couldcould also also be argued that the antinatalist measures in the ethnic bbe argued that the antinatalist measures in the ethnic baasese wwereere not a traditional tool not a traditional tool ofof the army to deal with fear of unrest or sep-the army to deal with fear of unrest or sep-aration, aration, as these measures have as these measures have longlong--term effects and term effects and have the have the potential potential to further to further reinforcereinforce separatist ideas. separatist ideas.
McDowell thinks the other way, he argues that the state has blocked
McDowell thinks the other way, he argues that the state has blocked the introduction of what he describes the muchthe introduction of what he describes the much--needed family planning needed family planning oon a very limited n a very limited scalescale to stamp out the Kurdish identityto stamp out the Kurdish identity, as , as he believes he believes that family planning that family planning would would be more be more likely tolikely to be adopted in the Turkish be adopted in the Turkish west of the country and thus accelerate the changing demographic bal-west of the country and thus accelerate the changing demographic bal-ance in favor of the Kurds.ance in favor of the Kurds.137
Nevertheless
Nevertheless, the records evidence that the army had the full support , the records evidence that the army had the full support of the antinatalist vision, of the antinatalist vision, thoughthough mostly mostly underunder the guise of the guise of economic con-economic con-cerns. In the course of the discussions on the new Income Tax Law in cerns. In the course of the discussions on the new Income Tax Law in
134 Ibid., 92Ibid., 92––1103.03.
135 Fuat Dundar, “AbidinFuat Dundar, “Abidin Özmen’in ‘Siyah Raporu’ Vesilesiyle ‘Kürt Nüfusu Artışı Sorunu,” Özmen’in ‘Siyah Raporu’ Vesilesiyle ‘Kürt Nüfusu Artışı Sorunu,” Toplumsal TarihToplumsal Tarih 226 (2012): 76226 (2012): 76––82.82.
136 MBK General Meeting (Milli Birlik Komitesi Genel Kurul Toplantısı)MBK General Meeting (Milli Birlik Komitesi Genel Kurul Toplantısı), , (Vol.1, Meeting (Vol.1, Meeting No: No: 24, October 17, 1960).24, October 17, 1960). The discussions of the extension of the Settlement Law of 2510 The discussions of the extension of the Settlement Law of 2510 evidence the similar anxieties and suggestions of the past.evidence the similar anxieties and suggestions of the past.
137 David McDowall, David McDowall, The Modern History of the Kurds The Modern History of the Kurds (I.B.Tauris & Co., 2007(I.B.Tauris & Co., 2007), 404.), 404.
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December 1960,
December 1960, aa proposal to extend tax incentives proposal to extend tax incentives toto families families with more with more than fthan five children was rejected by the committeeive children was rejected by the committee, citing , citing ongoing studies ongoing studies about the harm of population about the harm of population growth to the economy.growth to the economy.138 In addition, the In addition, the 5% bachelor tax, which had long existed in the previous income tax law 5% bachelor tax, which had long existed in the previous income tax law as an incentive to encourage marriage and pronatalist policiesas an incentive to encourage marriage and pronatalist policies,,139 was re-was re-moved in this new Income Tax Law of 1960.moved in this new Income Tax Law of 1960.140
The meeting notes
The meeting notes showshow thathat the notion t the notion of of “overpopulation” was ac-“overpopulation” was ac-cepted as a given fact, and discussions cepted as a given fact, and discussions centered centered on how to on how to dealdeal with that.with that. In September 1960, MBK members enframed one of the key missions of In September 1960, MBK members enframed one of the key missions of the SPO’s to investigatethe SPO’s to investigate whether overpopulation whether overpopulation was harming was harming the Turk-the Turk-ish ecoish economynomy..141 ((NNot to investigate whether Turkey ot to investigate whether Turkey waswas overpopulatedoverpopulated or not.) or not.) SimilarlySimilarly, i, in March 1961, General Gürsel askn March 1961, General Gürsel askeded SPO members to SPO members to consider the burden of the additional five million consider the burden of the additional five million population increase population increase when drafting the NDPwhen drafting the NDP..142
Even m
Even more interestingly, Necmettin Erbakan, who would become the ore interestingly, Necmettin Erbakan, who would become the founder of the first grassroot founder of the first grassroot IslamicIslamic ppartyarty, , Milli Nizam PartisiMilli Nizam Partisi, the politi-, the politi-cal predecessor of cal predecessor of today’s pronatalist champion, Justice and Develop-today’s pronatalist champion, Justice and Develop-ment Party (AKP), ment Party (AKP), also acknowledgealso acknowledgedd populationpopulation growtgrowthh in a Malthusian in a Malthusian fashion during the ministry board meeting he attended as a technical ad-fashion during the ministry board meeting he attended as a technical ad-visor visor for the dfor the developevelopment ofment of a national motor industry.a national motor industry.143 He claimHe claimeded that within ten years, there would be no practical way to cope with the that within ten years, there would be no practical way to cope with the needs and requirements of needs and requirements of the huge population the huge population growth unless growth unless the coun-the coun-try try tooktook measures for high mechanization and heavy industrialization.measures for high mechanization and heavy industrialization.144
138 MBK General Meeting (Milli Birlik Komitesi Genel Kurul Toplantısı), Vol.5, Meeting no: MBK General Meeting (Milli Birlik Komitesi Genel Kurul Toplantısı), Vol.5, Meeting no: 67, December 31, 1960, 2667, December 31, 1960, 26..
139 Turkish Assembly, “Income Tax Law, No:Turkish Assembly, “Income Tax Law, No: 5421,” 5421,” Official Gazette publication on June 4, Official Gazette publication on June 4, 1949, No.7228, enacted on June 3, 1949, article 90.1949, No.7228, enacted on June 3, 1949, article 90.
140 Turkish Assembly, “Income Tax LawTurkish Assembly, “Income Tax Law,," Law No: 193, " Law No: 193, Official Gazette publication on Janu-Official Gazette publication on Janu-ary ary 6, 1961, No: 10700, enacted on December 31, 1960,6, 1961, No: 10700, enacted on December 31, 1960, article 103,104.article 103,104.
141 MBK General Meeting (Milli Birlik Komitesi Genel Kurul Toplantısı),MBK General Meeting (Milli Birlik Komitesi Genel Kurul Toplantısı), October 17, 1960.October 17, 1960.
142 Cemil Koçak, Cemil Koçak, 27 Mayıs Bakanlar Kurulu Tutanakları27 Mayıs Bakanlar Kurulu Tutanakları, vol. 2 (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayın-, vol. 2 (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayın-ları, 2009), Meeting no 69, 992.ları, 2009), Meeting no 69, 992.
143 Ibid., Meeting no 67, 949Ibid., Meeting no 67, 949--958.958.
144 Ibid., 950.Ibid., 950.
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The antinatalist agenda of MBK was further elaborated by the Minis-
The antinatalist agenda of MBK was further elaborated by the Minis-try of Health with some proactive actions between December 1960 and try of Health with some proactive actions between December 1960 and June 196June 1961. 1. On December 12 ,1960, a major birth control seminar was On December 12 ,1960, a major birth control seminar was held for the first time, jointly organized by the Ministry of Health and the held for the first time, jointly organized by the Ministry of Health and the Central Health Institute and attended by all antinatalist champions from Central Health Institute and attended by all antinatalist champions from the health and economy to promote birth controlthe health and economy to promote birth control. The political and reli-. The political and reli-gious advisory was also present for further support.gious advisory was also present for further support.145
For further entrenchment,
For further entrenchment, a a written consent written consent the Ministry of Religious the Ministry of Religious Affairs Affairs was was obtainedobtained from to ensure the morality of birth controlfrom to ensure the morality of birth control..146 In In addition, taddition, the Supreme Council of Health was gathered for reporting the he Supreme Council of Health was gathered for reporting the urgency of the urgency of the issueissue,,147 and a and a letter of letter of recommendation was sent to SPO recommendation was sent to SPO aboutabout population control population control procedures procedures to be to be included inincluded in the firsthe first NDP.t NDP.148
In
In summary, the antinatalist idea, once neglected by the DP govern-summary, the antinatalist idea, once neglected by the DP govern-ment, suddenly gained fullment, suddenly gained full--fledged political support right after the fledged political support right after the coupcoup. . On the surface, MBK members seemed to get triggered by economic con-On the surface, MBK members seemed to get triggered by economic con-ditions and strong need ditions and strong need for for foreign aid foreign aid linked to linked to development planning development planning based on based on population control, the existence of the additional security con-population control, the existence of the additional security con-cern cern aboutabout the Kurdish population was the Kurdish population was unavoidableunavoidable at least at least at the at the higher higher command.command.
In terms of Agamben and Bradley’s life forms, the threat potential of
In terms of Agamben and Bradley’s life forms, the threat potential of unbearableunbearable lives on the hegemonylives on the hegemony--security priorities of the ruling good security priorities of the ruling good lives should also create its own motivation for further embracing the pop-lives should also create its own motivation for further embracing the pop-ulation control policies. ulation control policies.
P
Potential otential voices of voices of opposiopposition totion to population control were either sup-population control were either sup-pressed or pacified duringpressed or pacified during the heyday of the the heyday of the coupcoup, but they , but they diddid have their have their say during say during parliamentaryparliamentary ddiscussions iscussions whenwhen the SPO’s first NDP was the SPO’s first NDP was voted on in late 1voted on in late 1962.962.
145 Üner and FiÜner and Fişşek, ek, Türkiye’de Doğum Kontrolü Uygulaması Üzerine İncelemelerTürkiye’de Doğum Kontrolü Uygulaması Üzerine İncelemeler, 7, 7––23.23.
146 Ibid., 143Ibid., 143––44.44.
147 Ibid., 148.Ibid., 148.
148 Ibid., 145.Ibid., 145.
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3.2.3 National Planning and the Population Control DiscussionsNational Planning and the Population Control Discussions
A new law on the Family Planning
A new law on the Family Planning was onwas on the political agenda the political agenda after the after the 19601960 coupcoup, but the , but the law was not law was not passed untilpassed until April 1965. What was the April 1965. What was the reason reason forfor ththiiss delaydelay,, despite the seemingly strong antinatalist commit-despite the seemingly strong antinatalist commit-ment of MBK leaders? The answer lment of MBK leaders? The answer liesies in the in the parliamentaryparliamentary discussionsdiscussions on on the athe adoption doption of of the the NDP in NovembNDP in November 1962. During the discussionser 1962. During the discussions,, populationpopulation planningplanning,, which was an integral part of the planwhich was an integral part of the plan,, was vetoed was vetoed twtwiceice, and , and this section this section tracks tracks the parliamentary archives to the parliamentary archives to uncoveruncover the the debates and arguments of the debates and arguments of the opposingopposing sidessides..
After
After ensuringensuring peace and order, MBK members had plans to secure peace and order, MBK members had plans to secure the integrity of the regime before leaving it back to the political parties. the integrity of the regime before leaving it back to the political parties. Accordingly, they formed a Accordingly, they formed a CConstituent onstituent AAsssembly to take over the legisla-sembly to take over the legisla-tive function tive function of of the Committee. During the processthe Committee. During the process,, radicradicals within the als within the core who did not wcore who did not wantant to share power were liquidated, to share power were liquidated, and and some 235 some 235 generals and 5generals and 5,,000 officers retired.000 officers retired.149
On the first anniversary of the
On the first anniversary of the coupcoup, the Constitutional Assembly , the Constitutional Assembly promulgated promulgated the new the new CConstitution, onstitution, granting sovereignty entirely to thgranting sovereignty entirely to the e Constitution, with the separation of the legislative, executive and judicial Constitution, with the separation of the legislative, executive and judicial ordersorders..150 Reflecting the Reflecting the wwelfare elfare sstate tendencies, tate tendencies, the the 1961 Constitution 1961 Constitution broughtbrought a a more libermore liberal al and and freedom freedom friendlyfriendly spirit inspirit into the contextto the context with with the introduction of the introduction of syndicate, syndicate, collective bargaining and strike rightscollective bargaining and strike rights..151 Furthermore, political rights were extended Furthermore, political rights were extended oon condition n condition that that the pro-the pro-grams and activities of political parties conform to the principles of a grams and activities of political parties conform to the principles of a democratic and secular republicdemocratic and secular republic..152
Not only
Not only the the context, but context, but also also the the sstructuretructure of the new of the new cconstitution onstitution was was fundamentally fundamentally different from the previous onedifferent from the previous one,, as it as it transformedtransformed the the Grand National Assembly inGrand National Assembly intoto a bicameral parliament. The National a bicameral parliament. The National
149 Ahmad, Ahmad, Turkish Experiment in Democracy 1950Turkish Experiment in Democracy 1950--19751975, 165, 165––68.68.
150 Bülent Tanör,Bülent Tanör, İki Anayasa 1961İki Anayasa 1961--19821982, 5, 5thth ed. (ed. (IIstanbul: Oniki Levha Yayıncılık, 2020), stanbul: Oniki Levha Yayıncılık, 2020), 1212––20.20.
151 Haydar Seçkin Çelik, “Resurgence of the Cold War State of Mind: The Debate on Consti-Haydar Seçkin Çelik, “Resurgence of the Cold War State of Mind: The Debate on Consti-tutional Tolerance of Socialism Vistutional Tolerance of Socialism Vis--àà--Vis the Emerging Left in Turkey (1967Vis the Emerging Left in Turkey (1967––1971),” 1971),” Cold War HistoryCold War History, August 10, 2022, 1, August 10, 2022, 1––22.22.
152 Ibid., 4.Ibid., 4.
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Assembly, co
Assembly, composedmposed of 450 members elected by the of 450 members elected by the popular votepopular vote on the on the basis of basis of proportional representationproportional representation,, and the Senate, with 150 members and the Senate, with 150 members elected by majority vote. Furthermore, the former members of elected by majority vote. Furthermore, the former members of the the MBK MBK were were senators of lifesenators of life and the and the ppresident had resident had the the right to right to appoint another appoint another fifteen senatorsfifteen senators..153 All laws and plAll laws and plans had to pass two chambers ans had to pass two chambers byby ma-ma-jorityjority votevote. The Senate was the higher chamber in laws but the lower for . The Senate was the higher chamber in laws but the lower for plans, whereas the final plans, whereas the final decision to decision to approvapprove plans was made e plans was made in the Na-in the Na-tional Assembly.tional Assembly.
The elections were held on October 15, 1961, and Ismet Inönü an
The elections were held on October 15, 1961, and Ismet Inönü and his d his CHP won 173 oCHP won 173 out out of 450 seats, whf 450 seats, whileile AP, the political heir of DP, AP, the political heir of DP, wonwon 158 158 seatsseats,, which meanwhich meantt that the country was that the country was ruled byruled by coalitions until the next coalitions until the next election in October 1965. election in October 1965. During this During this period there period there were were four govern-four govern-ments and each experienced differements and each experienced different phases of the Population Planning nt phases of the Population Planning Law. The Law. The llaw was drafted during the first Inönü coalition government aw was drafted during the first Inönü coalition government (1961(1961--1962), submitted to parliament during the second Inönü coalition 1962), submitted to parliament during the second Inönü coalition (1962(1962--1963), debated during the third Inönü coalition1963), debated during the third Inönü coalition (1963(1963--1965)1965),, and and enacted during the AP led coalition in April 1965.enacted during the AP led coalition in April 1965.154 But beforeBut before thatthat,, pop-pop-ulation planning ulation planning was hotly debated was hotly debated during the during the promulgation of the promulgation of the NDPNDP in November 1962.in November 1962.
As
As mentioned earliermentioned earlier, , upon recognition by the USD and upon recognition by the USD and its allies, the its allies, the MBK government immedMBK government immediately took the initiative to establish SPO iately took the initiative to establish SPO to cre-to cre-ate ate a development plan in hopea development plan in hopess of of receiving receiving immediate and consistent immediate and consistent financial financial supportsupport. . ColonelColonel Sami Orel was Sami Orel was entrusted entrusted with thwith this taskis task, and he , and he immediately activated the previously assembled but muted plannimmediately activated the previously assembled but muted planners ers guided byguided by Jan Tinbergen and other foreign advisors.Jan Tinbergen and other foreign advisors.
The plan itself was a declaration of
The plan itself was a declaration of a newa new chapter in the Turkish econ-chapter in the Turkish econ-omy. The etatist industrialization until the omy. The etatist industrialization until the WWIIWWII, and the agriculture, and the agriculture--based export economy in the 1950s were about to be transforbased export economy in the 1950s were about to be transformed into med into
153 Ahmad, Ahmad, Turkish Experiment in Democracy 1950Turkish Experiment in Democracy 1950--19751975, 186., 186.
154 Levine and Üner, Levine and Üner, Population Policy Formation and Implementation in TurkeyPopulation Policy Formation and Implementation in Turkey, 59., 59.
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an
an import import substitutionsubstitution--basedbased industrializationindustrialization ((ISI)ISI) inin the early 1960sthe early 1960s,, and the first NDP of 1963 was its systematic introduction.and the first NDP of 1963 was its systematic introduction.155
F
Foreign capital, frustratedoreign capital, frustrated by theby the DP’s unplanned years, was so DP’s unplanned years, was so taken taken with with the news of the Turkish the news of the Turkish pplan, that thlan, that the third major e third major OECD OECD economic economic consortium for a developing countryconsortium for a developing country,, after India in 1958 and Pakistan in after India in 1958 and Pakistan in 19601960,, was set for Turkey in 1962.was set for Turkey in 1962.156 The The cconsortium consisted of fifteen onsortium consisted of fifteen OECD members and representatives OECD members and representatives of thof the IMF, e IMF, the the World BankWorld Bank,, and the and the European Investment BankEuropean Investment Bank as observersas observers.. TThe objective was to harmonize he objective was to harmonize the cooperation and assistance policies of OECD countries that wished to the cooperation and assistance policies of OECD countries that wished to provide develprovide development loans to Turkey. One of the main tasks of the con-opment loans to Turkey. One of the main tasks of the con-sortium was to review and evaluate the fivesortium was to review and evaluate the five--year year NDPNDP and the annual and the annual programs prepared by the Turkish authorities.programs prepared by the Turkish authorities.157
The backbone of the NDP was to
The backbone of the NDP was to achieveachieve 7% annual growth7% annual growth,, and aand all ll other elements andother elements and policies are designed to support thpolicies are designed to support thisis target. The for-target. The for-eign guidance and eign guidance and cconsortium onsortium ensuredensured that the plan wthat the plan was consistent as consistent with with Coale and Hoovers developmentalCoale and Hoovers developmentalist visionist vision, discussed in the previous , discussed in the previous chapter, and the Turkish teachapter, and the Turkish teamm, , which which consisted of the young ecconsisted of the young economists,onomists, also shared thalso shared thisis global vision. global vision. Yet the population growth Yet the population growth was describedwas described not only not only as a usual suspect as a usual suspect impedingimpeding growthgrowth by by the reduction in the gov-the reduction in the gov-ernments savingsernments savings, but also a, but also as as a reality distorting the social orderreality distorting the social order,,158 which which couldcould be be provoked by provoked by military’s hegemonymilitary’s hegemony--security concersecurity concernsns, , andand/or /or urbanurban--rural conflictrural conflict..
In the plan, the accumulation of the young
In the plan, the accumulation of the young workingworking--age age populationpopulation, , defined as defined as the the “demographic window “demographic window ofof opportunity,” was perceived asopportunity,” was perceived as anan excessive labor excessive labor force leading force leading toto undeundesirable unemployment and inter-sirable unemployment and inter-nal migration.nal migration.159 In thIn this is sensesense,, the export of laborthe export of labor to Europe, which to Europe, which had had
155 Sadık Ünay, Sadık Ünay, Neoliberal GNeoliberal Globalization and Institutional Reform : The Political Economy of lobalization and Institutional Reform : The Political Economy of Development and Planning in Turkey Development and Planning in Turkey (New York: Nova Science Publishers Inc., 2006), (New York: Nova Science Publishers Inc., 2006), 5858––59.59.
156 White, White, Pledged to Development,Pledged to Development, 11––41.41.
157 Walter F. Stettner, “The OECD Consortium for Turkey,” Walter F. Stettner, “The OECD Consortium for Turkey,” The OECD ObserverThe OECD Observer, April 1965., April 1965.
158 Prime Ministry and State Planning Organization, Prime Ministry and State Planning Organization, First FiveFirst Five--Year Development Plan Year Development Plan (1963(1963--1967)1967), 35, 35––37.37.
159 Ibid., 454Ibid., 454––55.55.
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already
already begunbegun in September 1961 in September 1961 through through a a bilateral agreement with bilateral agreement with GermanyGermany,, was also inwas also introducedtroduced as one of the key employment policies in as one of the key employment policies in the report.the report.160 ThThe health implications of excessive fertility, maternal mor-e health implications of excessive fertility, maternal mor-tality and abortion wtality and abortion wereere also mentioned in the NDP as ills of overpopula-also mentioned in the NDP as ills of overpopula-tion, but tion, but with lesswith less emphasis.emphasis.161 It should also be It should also be mentionedmentioned thatthat it was a it was a doctor, Dr. Fişek, who drafted the doctor, Dr. Fişek, who drafted the details of the details of the anantinatalist population tinatalist population policpolicyy in the plan. in the plan.
The antinatalist plan mentioned in the NDP, a
The antinatalist plan mentioned in the NDP, a precursor precursor toto the Pthe Popu-opu-lation Planning Law of 1965, lation Planning Law of 1965, proclaimproclaimeded the followingthe following:: the the abandonabandonment ment of of pronatalist population policies and pronatalist population policies and the the immediate immediate transitiontransition to popu-to popu-lation planninglation planning through thethrough the liberalization of the importliberalization of the importationation and sale of and sale of contraceptcontraceptivesives and and theirtheir free distribution if free distribution if necessarynecessary, , as well as as well as educa-educa-tional activities on the family planning.tional activities on the family planning. The plan also The plan also emphasized emphasized that that itit should not be should not be understoodunderstood as a state intervention on fertility, but as grant-as a state intervention on fertility, but as grant-ing a freedom of choice to the parents to have the children.ing a freedom of choice to the parents to have the children.162
A demographic projection for 1985 was also mentioned in the NDP,
A demographic projection for 1985 was also mentioned in the NDP, on the basis of theon the basis of the high, high, moderate,moderate, and low fertility, estimated aand low fertility, estimated att 59, 55 59, 55 and 51 million inhabitantsand 51 million inhabitants,, respectively.respectively.163 InIn 1985, the population barely 1985, the population barely reached 50 million, reached 50 million, belowbelow the low fertility projection. the low fertility projection. However, However, the offi-the offi-cial family planning results were far from the cial family planning results were far from the targets. Thtargets. Thisis dilemma is one dilemma is one of the puzzles that this dissertation of the puzzles that this dissertation seeks to seeks to understand andunderstand and is explored is explored in the last chapterin the last chapter..
The
The NDP NDP was was first first presented in the Senate on November 7presented in the Senate on November 7thth, then in , then in the National Assembly on November 20the National Assembly on November 20thth. And . And on both occasions, on both occasions, popopu-pu-lation control was one of the central debateslation control was one of the central debates. . During the initial discus-During the initial discus-sions in the sions in the ssenate, Macit Zeren, a senator from AP, enate, Macit Zeren, a senator from AP, made it clear that he made it clear that he was not satisfied with the plan. In his opinion, was not satisfied with the plan. In his opinion, the the planners treat popula-planners treat popula-tion as a single variable that mution as a single variable that must be reduced in order to increase na-st be reduced in order to increase na-tional per capita income. He tional per capita income. He added that the issue added that the issue requiresrequires a a
160 Ibid., 456.Ibid., 456.
161 Ibid., 68Ibid., 68––69.69.
162 Ibid., 73.Ibid., 73.
163 Ibid., 70.Ibid., 70.
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comprehensive assessment of the strategy in terms of human resources,
comprehensive assessment of the strategy in terms of human resources, moral values, geography, geopolitical and military imperativesmoral values, geography, geopolitical and military imperatives..164
Furthermore,
Furthermore, Suat SereSuat Seren, former n, former mminister of inister of hhealth and ealth and ssenator from enator from AP, AP, along with fifteen along with fifteen ssenators accompanying him, enators accompanying him, ppetitionetitioneded the the ssenate enate to remove population control from the planto remove population control from the plan,,165 expressing expressing the followingthe following concernsconcerns..
■ TheThe population control declaration anpopulation control declaration and its ad its action plan ction plan areare antianti--demo-demo-cratic. cratic. If the only goal of the plan were free choice of fertility, as claimed, If the only goal of the plan were free choice of fertility, as claimed, legalizlegalization of ation of contraceptives would suffice. But since public education, contraceptives would suffice. But since public education, free distribution of contraceptives, and free distribution of contraceptives, and statestate propaganda are planned, propaganda are planned, there there aare to re to be further repressive measuresbe further repressive measures..
■ The maternal mortality figure cited in the report (12,000 per year) has The maternal mortality figure cited in the report (12,000 per year) has no scientific background, and if it did, the government's priority should no scientific background, and if it did, the government's priority should be to prevent it, not to use it as a justification for family planning.be to prevent it, not to use it as a justification for family planning.
■ The drugs and sterilization equipment are The drugs and sterilization equipment are dangerousdangerous to health and cto health and canan harm the body ifharm the body if they they are notare not conconstantly stantly controlled and controlled and checkedchecked..
■ ContraceptionContraception might might lead to lead to moral corrosion and moral corrosion and prpromoteomote extramarital extramarital affairsaffairs..
Deputy Prime Minister Turhan Feyzioğlu's in
Deputy Prime Minister Turhan Feyzioğlu's initial defense of population itial defense of population control was based on anticontrol was based on anti--communist rhetoric, claiming that neither communist rhetoric, claiming that neither China nor Russia could implement population control because they were China nor Russia could implement population control because they were products of a democratic stateproducts of a democratic state..166 This false argument was also further This false argument was also further spread in the dailyspread in the daily newspapersnewspapers..167 As for As for the the claimsclaims about the biological about the biological and moral ills of population control,and moral ills of population control, he recallhe recalleded the the UN’s health reports UN’s health reports andand thethe Ministry of Religious Affairs consents Ministry of Religious Affairs consents about the about the birth control as birth control as justification. justification.
164 Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi)Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi), (, (Term 2, Term 2, Vol. 6, Meeting No: 4Vol. 6, Meeting No: 4, November 7, 1962), 69, November 7, 1962), 69––72.72.
165 Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi)Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi), , November November 10, 1962), 23710, 1962), 237––39.39.
166 IIbid., 239bid., 239––41.41.
167 “Doğum Kontrolüne Komünistler Karşı,” “Doğum Kontrolüne Komünistler Karşı,” MilliyetMilliyet, December 9, 1962., December 9, 1962.
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As a last resort, Feyzioğlu admit
As a last resort, Feyzioğlu admittedted that the government was under that the government was under constant and constant and intenseintense international pressure from NATO, international pressure from NATO, the the IMF,IMF, and and the the OECD to OECD to lowerlower the high fertility rates. He further sharethe high fertility rates. He further sharedd a personal anec-a personal anec-dote with Thorkil Kristensen, dote with Thorkil Kristensen, the Secretary General of the the Secretary General of the OECD and OECD and head head of of TTurkish Aid Consortium, who persistently told Feyzioğlu urkish Aid Consortium, who persistently told Feyzioğlu during the during the visit in March 1962 visit in March 1962 about theabout the consortium’sconsortium’s concerns on the 3% annual concerns on the 3% annual populationpopulation growthgrowth raterate, which they described as, which they described as a major obstacle to the a major obstacle to the countriescountries to growto growthth and prosperand prosperityity..168
Health Mini
Health Minister Yusuf Azizoğlu further addster Yusuf Azizoğlu further addeded tthe modernist dis-he modernist dis-course on population control course on population control as another as another leverage,leverage, sayingsaying that that the use the use of of ccontraceptive technology is a contemporary method ontraceptive technology is a contemporary method followed by followed by all mod-all mod-ern nationsern nations,, so Turkey shouldso Turkey should notnot lag behind.lag behind.169
Suat
Suat Selen Selen then then ttookook the lead againthe lead again,, askaskinging how a secular government how a secular government could ask for could ask for the approval the approval of a religious authorityof a religious authority. . He He kept kept criticizing the criticizing the Malthusianist, developmentalistMalthusianist, developmentalist,, and modernist approachesand modernist approaches toto popula-popula-tion control, tion control, sayingsaying that the country is fertilethat the country is fertile and capable of feeding mil-and capable of feeding mil-lionslions of peopleof people, and , and that that population control is not a tool for developed population control is not a tool for developed countries, but a mechanism created by them countries, but a mechanism created by them andand applied applied toto others.others.170
In
In the end, Seren’s petition to remove population control from the the end, Seren’s petition to remove population control from the NDP was voted NDP was voted on inon in tthe he ssenate and enate and passed by a vote of passed by a vote of 49 to 32.49 to 32.171 Since Since the constitution the constitution at the at the time allowed for revoting a critical change element time allowed for revoting a critical change element in the plan, a second in the plan, a second meeting meeting was held in the was held in the ssenate to rediscuss popula-enate to rediscuss popula-tion control. And Feyzioğlu intimidated the tion control. And Feyzioğlu intimidated the ssenate that enate that the plan itself was the plan itself was based on projected populationbased on projected population,, and if population planning fallsand if population planning falls, , so does so does the plan. the plan. He He alsoalso claimed that the country wclaimed that the country wouldould have one million fewer have one million fewer unemployed by 1975 if unemployed by 1975 if itit succeedsucceedss in shifting to antinatalist policiesin shifting to antinatalist policies..172
168 TThe OECD Consortium seems he OECD Consortium seems to be to be aware of the possible public and political aware of the possible public and political opposition opposition toto population control infusion population control infusion byby a foreigner, so no written document was found as evi-a foreigner, so no written document was found as evi-dence. Yet, Feyzioğlu’s narrative dence. Yet, Feyzioğlu’s narrative couldcould also bear some exaggeration to convince the sen-also bear some exaggeration to convince the sen-ators for population control. ators for population control.
169 Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi), November Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi), November 10, 1962, 241.10, 1962, 241.
170 IIbid., 24bid., 242.2.
171 IIbid., 224bid., 224--43.43.
172 IIbid., 283bid., 283––89.89.
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As a result of
As a result of the rethe re--vote,vote, the petition was rejected the petition was rejected by a vote of by a vote of 59 to 59 to 4444,, and population planand population plan of the NDPof the NDP was was approvedapproved in the in the SSenate and enate and the the fivefive--yearyear development plan development plan was was sentsent to the National Assembly for the fi-to the National Assembly for the fi-nal approval, where debates onal approval, where debates overver populatiopopulation control n control fufurther intensified.rther intensified.
Saadettin Tosbi, an economist and senator
Saadettin Tosbi, an economist and senator of theof the Republican Villagers Republican Villagers Nation Party (Nation Party (Cumhuriyetçi Köylü PartisiCumhuriyetçi Köylü Partisi),),173 passionately refutepassionately refutess the de-the de-velopmentalist discourse on population growth and sidevelopmentalist discourse on population growth and sided withd with the the mmer-er-cantilist view cantilist view by by mentioning that mentioning that excessexcess labor power is necessary forlabor power is necessary for price competition and capital growth. It is also worth noting thprice competition and capital growth. It is also worth noting thatat even at even at ththiiss early stage early stage Tosbi Tosbi discussediscussess the longthe long--termterm negative negative effectseffects of popula-of popula-tion control tion control on the on the labor market labor market in terms of aging.in terms of aging. LLastly, he strongly ech-astly, he strongly ech-oes the nationalist sentiment on the population planning and asks the oes the nationalist sentiment on the population planning and asks the senate how the planners could think of reducing the potential of the senate how the planners could think of reducing the potential of the Turkish generation, and he further claims that Turkey would be much Turkish generation, and he further claims that Turkey would be much more more prestigious, prestigious, prosperprosperous,ous, and robust with 50 million and robust with 50 million inhabitaninhabitants in-ts in-stead of stead of 30 million.30 million.174
Tahsin Demiray
Tahsin Demiray ofof AP also acknowledges that the population policy AP also acknowledges that the population policy should be revisited to should be revisited to improveimprove the economy and public healththe economy and public health. . However, However, he sees no point to engage in a full force he sees no point to engage in a full force population control activity, as he population control activity, as he predicts that the population was already in declining trend thanks to the predicts that the population was already in declining trend thanks to the labor export and huge rural to urban migration, which he states that wlabor export and huge rural to urban migration, which he states that willill reduce fertility pattern in the future.reduce fertility pattern in the future.175 In retrospectIn retrospect, Demiray was , Demiray was righright t inin his prediction his prediction about theabout the decline decline inin fertility.fertility.
The
The next daynext day,, Demiray, together with Muhiddin GuvenDemiray, together with Muhiddin Guven, delivers, delivers an-an-other petitionother petition, this time to parliement, this time to parliement,, to remove population control to remove population control from the plan.from the plan.176 Reminding Macit Zeren’s discontent during the Reminding Macit Zeren’s discontent during the
173 This party was the predecessor of today’s National Movements Party (This party was the predecessor of today’s National Movements Party (Milliyetçi Hareket Milliyetçi Hareket PartisiPartisi))
174 National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi)National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), , (Term 2, Vol. 9, (Term 2, Vol. 9, Meeting No:6, November 16, 1962), 195Meeting No:6, November 16, 1962), 195––97.97.
175 National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi)National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), , (Term 2, Vol. 9, (Term 2, Vol. 9, Meeting No:7, November 17, 1962), 228Meeting No:7, November 17, 1962), 228––29.29.
176 National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi)National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), , (Term 2, Vol. 9, (Term 2, Vol. 9, Meeting No:10, November 20, 1962), 441.Meeting No:10, November 20, 1962), 441.
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prelimi
preliminary discussions in the senate, they also nary discussions in the senate, they also foundfound the report materi-the report materi-alistalistic ic and oversimplified. Güven further articulates their vision that a and oversimplified. Güven further articulates their vision that a population policy and population policy and the the population optimization population optimization requirerequire detailed and detailed and intensintensiveive planning oplanning off the political, social, dthe political, social, demographic, economic, emographic, economic, moralmoral and strategic aspects of population and strategic aspects of population alongalong with other crucial elements with other crucial elements such as such as the the efficiency and potential of the efficiency and potential of the landland and regional differences, and regional differences, a a detailed analysis of the existing human stock with the cultural, detailed analysis of the existing human stock with the cultural, moralmoral and educatand educational differences.ional differences.177
This time Nusret Fişek,
This time Nusret Fişek, underundersecretary secretary forfor the Ministry of Healththe Ministry of Health, re-, re-sponds to the petition sponds to the petition as he as he summarizes the SPO’s summarizes the SPO’s position and position and under-under-lining lining that this that this is not a is not a planplan,, but abut a matter of matter of freedom freedom and and public health. public health. He provides statistics He provides statistics on on maternal maternal and and infant mortality infant mortality rates andrates and sharesshares his experience on the necessity of the lahis experience on the necessity of the law, w, especially fromespecially from the health per-the health per-spective.spective.178 InIn the end, the offer the end, the offer toto rejectreject thethe antinatalist aspects of the antinatalist aspects of the plan was declined plan was declined once once again andagain and the NDPthe NDP passed inpassed in pparliement the next arliement the next dayday..179
The
The aforementioned senate and aforementioned senate and parliamentary discussions during parliamentary discussions during the NDP approval the NDP approval reveal reveal aa number of number of key hesitations and key hesitations and oppositions re-oppositions re-garding garding population control. Although there was a common sense opopulation control. Although there was a common sense on its n its role as a role as a fundamental fundamental human right preventing womenhuman right preventing women fromfrom suffering, suffering, the the government's involvement in this issue as part of the development dis-government's involvement in this issue as part of the development dis-course generated a great deal of controversy.course generated a great deal of controversy.
The politicians and even the antinatalist activist were
The politicians and even the antinatalist activist were aware of the aware of the delicacy of the matter. Nermin Abadan Unat, a prominent sociologistdelicacy of the matter. Nermin Abadan Unat, a prominent sociologist,, and and the the chairchair of the Turkish University Women Association (of the Turkish University Women Association (Türk Üniversiteli Türk Üniversiteli Kadınlar DerneğiKadınlar Derneği), ), statedstated as early as 1961 that they fullas early as 1961 that they fullyy support freedom support freedom of choice in fertilityof choice in fertility, but the name “, but the name “ppopulation planning” should be opulation planning” should be changed as it has changed as it has aa negative connotationnegative connotation in the public mindin the public mind..180
177 Ibid., 441Ibid., 441––43.43.
178 Ibid., 443Ibid., 443––45.45.
179 National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi)National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), , (Term 2, Vol. 9, (Term 2, Vol. 9, Meeting No:11, November 21, 1962), 552Meeting No:11, November 21, 1962), 552––55.55.
180 “Üniversiteli Kadınlar Derneği “Üniversiteli Kadınlar Derneği ddoğum oğum kkontrolüne ontrolüne hhararetle araretle ttaraftar,” araftar,” MilliyetMilliyet, June 4, , June 4, 1961.1961.
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Furthermore, Ismet Inönü, who was
Furthermore, Ismet Inönü, who was a a championchampion of pronatalistsof pronatalists in the in the 1930s but actively supported population control as a 1930s but actively supported population control as a pprime rime mminister in inister in the 19the 1960s, 60s, responded responded to the initial family to the initial family planning planning presentation he re-presentation he re-ceived from the experts as ceived from the experts as “I understood and “I understood and am am convinced convinced ofof the neces-the neces-sity of population control, but you will have sity of population control, but you will have a a hard time explainhard time explaininging it to it to the public.”the public.” 181 The The elder statesmelder statesmaann was well awwas well aware of the are of the political and political and public prejudicespublic prejudices that the issue might that the issue might entailentail..
After 1962,
After 1962, populationpopulation control was separated from NDP discussions control was separated from NDP discussions and became an independent topic for further legislation. And the prona-and became an independent topic for further legislation. And the prona-talist bloc in the parliament and in the senate divertalist bloc in the parliament and in the senate divergedged and and sharpened sharpened their argumentstheir arguments,, whichwhich will be will be elaborated elaborated in the in the followingfollowing section.section.
3.2.4 AntAntinatalist Preparations inatalist Preparations and further debates until 1965and further debates until 1965
On December 3, 1962,
On December 3, 1962, oneone month after the ratification of month after the ratification of the the NPT, the NPT, the Inönü Inönü ggovernment submitted a proposal to the overnment submitted a proposal to the parliementparliement to to liftlift the re-the re-strictions ostrictions onn the distribution and sale of the contraceptivethe distribution and sale of the contraceptivess that that had been had been iin n placeplace since 1930.since 1930.182 As a resultAs a result,, two commissions were appointed fromtwo commissions were appointed from the the health and justice health and justice departments departments to investigate the implications of the to investigate the implications of the change in the law.change in the law. Both commissions were reportBoth commissions were reported in favor ed in favor ofof the the amendment,amendment, and the and the ggovernment overnment officiallyofficially requestedrequested the legal change the legal change in in the law the law on May 27, 1963.on May 27, 1963.183
Nevertheless
Nevertheless, they , they withwithdrawdraw their petition on July 3, 1963, without their petition on July 3, 1963, without any further explanation.any further explanation. 184 Presumably not only to save some time to ac-Presumably not only to save some time to ac-commodate commodate additional additional antinatalistantinatalist public public supportsupport,, butbut perhapsperhaps as a re-as a re-sult of the Population Council report they received just sult of the Population Council report they received just oneone day after day after
181 Turkish Medical Association, Turkish Medical Association, Nusret Fişek Nusret Fişek iile Söyleşile Söyleşi, 12., 12.
182 National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), “Umumi National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), “Umumi Hıfzıssıhha Kanununun 152. Maddesinin DeğiştHıfzıssıhha Kanununun 152. Maddesinin Değiştirilmesine Dair Kanun Tasarısı ve Sağlık irilmesine Dair Kanun Tasarısı ve Sağlık ve Sosyal Yardım ve Adalet Komisyonları Raporları (1/359),” December 21, 1963.ve Sosyal Yardım ve Adalet Komisyonları Raporları (1/359),” December 21, 1963.
183 National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi)National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), , (Vol.18, Meeting (Vol.18, Meeting No:103, June 27, 1963), 591No:103, June 27, 1963), 591––92.92.
184 National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi)National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), , (Vol.19, Meeting (Vol.19, Meeting No:107, July 3, 1963), 118.No:107, July 3, 1963), 118.
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deli
deliverinvering g he petition on May 28he petition on May 28, , which which revealrevealeded the sophisticated struc-the sophisticated struc-ture ture needed needed to implement population controlto implement population control..
This
This sectionsection discusses discusses the preparations the preparations for for the planning and execu-the planning and execu-tion of the population controltion of the population control, as well as , as well as the the otherother activities to expandactivities to expand antantinatalist support inatalist support among theamong the public. public. Undoubtedly, Undoubtedly, the leadership the leadership of the of the Population Council had the Population Council had the most significant influencemost significant influence inin the policy de-the policy de-sign, sign, as as it has had it has had a similara similar iinfluencenfluence inin many many of the of the other developing other developing countries mentionedcountries mentioned earlier.earlier.
The Council followed a similar methodology in
The Council followed a similar methodology in almost all thealmost all the coun-coun-trtries it supportedies it supported. . In the selfIn the self--confidence of positioning themselves as the confidence of positioning themselves as the sole decisionsole decision--makers for the design and implementation of population makers for the design and implementation of population control policies, the members of the Council dcontrol policies, the members of the Council did not engage in promo-id not engage in promo-tional activities. tional activities. Once a developing country Once a developing country draftsdrafts a foreign guided NDP, a foreign guided NDP, embedded with the antinatalist policy orientation, they embedded with the antinatalist policy orientation, they fell into the fell into the traptrap ofof askinasking the g the Population CouncilPopulation Council for advfor adviceice on on population control population control plan-plan-ning and executning and execution, ion, ofof which they had no practical knowledge about. which they had no practical knowledge about.
In the
In the same fashion, the same fashion, the Ministry of Ministry of Health Health formally requestedformally requested the the Council’s support Council’s support on on January 30, 1963, just two months after the January 30, 1963, just two months after the parlie-parlie-ment ment approved the approved the NDP. The first expedition was NDP. The first expedition was made made by by ChaChairirmanman Notestein Notestein inin midmid--February.February.185 Two months laterTwo months later,, all all of the Council’s of the Council’s heav-heav-yweightsyweights, includin, including the Notestein, Berelson, Mauldin, Balfourg the Notestein, Berelson, Mauldin, Balfour,, and Taylorand Taylor,, were were on a threeon a three--week tour ofweek tour of TurkeyTurkey, , meeting meeting withwith anyoneanyone they they though though wouldwould be be informative and coinformative and cooperative inoperative in prepare their reportprepare their report,, including including statisticians, academicians, economists, statisticians, academicians, economists, politicians,politicians, and health profes-and health profes-sionals.sionals.186
The recipe in the report was also standard in all countries, with
The recipe in the report was also standard in all countries, with mi-mi-nornor nuances. The essential elements of the program werenuances. The essential elements of the program were:: wellwell--estab-estab-lished lished instituinstitutionalization,tionalization, standardstandardizedized continuous and comparable continuous and comparable data production through KAP surveys and its data production through KAP surveys and its institutionalizationinstitutionalization through through the ethe establishment of stablishment of a pa population opulation iinstitute, technical knowledge transfer nstitute, technical knowledge transfer and scholarships in US, financial aand scholarships in US, financial and medical support, nd medical support, massivemassive anti anti
185 “Doğum Kontrolü Için Amerika’dan Teknik Yardım Istedik,” “Doğum Kontrolü Için Amerika’dan Teknik Yardım Istedik,” MilliyetMilliyet, February 24, 1963., February 24, 1963.
186 Population Council, Population Council, PPopulation Council’in Türkiye’deki Nüfus Planlamasına Dair Raporuopulation Council’in Türkiye’deki Nüfus Planlamasına Dair Raporu,, 2020––21.21.
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natalist propaganda, education, and public mobilization including
natalist propaganda, education, and public mobilization including train-train-ing ing of military personnel.of military personnel.187
Immediately
Immediately after the after the submission of the submission of the reportreport, , another foreign another foreign guided team was organized to conduct the first KAP survey guided team was organized to conduct the first KAP survey in the countryin the country during the sduring the summer ummer of of 1963. The survey was conducted 1963. The survey was conducted amongamong 55,,113 peo-113 peo-ple: 2ple: 2,,774 wives 774 wives aged aged twenty to fortytwenty to forty--five and 2five and 2,,372 husbands living in 372 husbands living in 240 villages, 46 towns, 21 cities240 villages, 46 towns, 21 cities,, and three metropoles. Additionallyand three metropoles. Additionally,, po-po-litical leaderlitical leaderss ((168 168 mumukkhtarhtarss in totalin total) and religious leader) and religious leaderss ((138 138 imamimams s in totalin total) were ) were interviewed interviewed in each village in each village to learn their attitudeto learn their attitudess towardstowards birth control.birth control.188
More than 100 questions were asked by interviewers,
More than 100 questions were asked by interviewers, most of most of whowhomm were teachers trained for were teachers trained for the the surveysurvey, about all , about all aspects of fertility behav-aspects of fertility behav-ior, including pregnancy, miscarriage, abortion, infant mortality, attitudeior, including pregnancy, miscarriage, abortion, infant mortality, attitudess toward birth control, toward birth control, kknonowledge wledge ofof contraceptive methods, personal in-contraceptive methods, personal in-terest interest in family planningfamily planning informationinformation, , desired desired number ofnumber of childrenchildren,, etc.etc.189
Berelson
Berelson evaluated the results as public approval of family planning, evaluated the results as public approval of family planning, mentioning that couples were having more children than they wanted mentioning that couples were having more children than they wanted and that they would like to have fewer children. Further, he notes that a and that they would like to have fewer children. Further, he notes that a smaller family norm seems to have already been establismaller family norm seems to have already been established in many shed in many Turkish minds, adding that Turks have little ideological objection to con-Turkish minds, adding that Turks have little ideological objection to con-traception and would like to learn how to use it effectively. According to traception and would like to learn how to use it effectively. According to the report, Turkish families very much want the government to organize the report, Turkish families very much want the government to organize a family planning educata family planning education program.ion program.190 As expected, Berelson's report is As expected, Berelson's report is selective and emphasizes the statistical results that favor birth control.selective and emphasizes the statistical results that favor birth control.
Berelson's colleague Stycos, however,
Berelson's colleague Stycos, however, transparently shares some transparently shares some sketches of the KAP questionnaire and the sketches of the KAP questionnaire and the general reactiongeneral reaction with thewith the rural rural urban distinction in his article urban distinction in his article onon public leaders’ opinion in family public leaders’ opinion in family
187 Ibid., 33Ibid., 33––77.77.
188 Stycos, “The Potential Role of Turkish Village Opinion Leaders in a Program of Family Stycos, “The Potential Role of Turkish Village Opinion Leaders in a Program of Family Planning,” 120Planning,” 120––21.21.
189 Bernard Berelson, “Turkey: National Survey on Population,” Bernard Berelson, “Turkey: National Survey on Population,” Studies in Family Planning Studies in Family Planning 1, no. 5 (1964): 11, no. 5 (1964): 1––5.5.
190 Ibid., 5.Ibid., 5.
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planning.
planning. 191 And the results, selectively And the results, selectively presentedpresented in Table 3.10 in Table 3.10 could could equally be interpreted differently equally be interpreted differently fromfrom Berelson’s Berelson’s claimclaim..
Table 3.
Table 3.1010 Some Some kkey ey rrespesponses in onses in the the Turkish KAP Survey of 1963. Turkish KAP Survey of 1963. (%)(%)
Males
Males
Females
Females
Village
Village
(1294)
(1294)
City
City (312)(312)
Metropol
Metropol (396)(396)
Village
Village
(1294)
(1294)
City
City (312)(312)
Metropol
Metropol (396)(396) Do you favor Do you favor population population growing growing rapidlyrapidly 6868 4141 2323 6464 4747 3131
The ideal family size
The ideal family size ““Less Less than 4 children” than 4 children”
37
37
67
67
82
82
45
45
74
74
87
87 Do you want to learn birth Do you want to learn birth control methodscontrol methods 6262 7777 7878 7272 8686 8989
Would you use pills to pre-
Would you use pills to pre-vent pregnancy vent pregnancy
41
41
61
61
65
65
56
56
76
76
75
75 Do you wish government to Do you wish government to involve in family planning involve in family planning 7171 8484 9393 8686 9494 9696
SOURCE
SOURCE:: Stycos (1965),Stycos (1965),122.122.192
In
In response to the original question “response to the original question “Which do you think would be better Which do you think would be better for Turkey for Turkey inin the next ten yearsthe next ten years:: rapid population growth, slow rapid population growth, slow popula-popula-tion growth, or maintaining the same population size?",tion growth, or maintaining the same population size?", 68% m68% menen and and 64% 64% of womenof women in villages responded in favor of rapid growth, whiin villages responded in favor of rapid growth, while in le in cities cities it was slightly it was slightly less than 50%less than 50%.. The response to that inquiry clearly The response to that inquiry clearly indicates that it was indicates that it was mainly mainly the threthe three metropolitan residents e metropolitan residents who who fefeltlt thethe pressure of the “population problem” inpressure of the “population problem” in thethe near future, presumably due near future, presumably due to the incoming rural migrants. to the incoming rural migrants.
Another interesting depiction was the
Another interesting depiction was the answersanswers about the ideal family about the ideal family size. Some 63% of size. Some 63% of the menthe men and 55% of and 55% of the womenthe women in the villages re-in the villages re-sponded sponded with fwith four our or more or more children to children to the the following questionfollowing question,, ““If you If you were just getting married and could have were just getting married and could have exactly exactly the number of children the number of children you wanted, how many woulyou wanted, how many would be ideal?d be ideal?”, which was still quite high. ”, which was still quite high.
In regard to
In regard to rural public leaders, rural public leaders, the the mukhtars seem to represent the mukhtars seem to represent the average average attitude of male villagers toward attitude of male villagers toward birth controlbirth control. As for the imams. As for the imams, ,
191 Stycos, “The Potential Role of Turkish Village Opinion Leaders in a ProgramStycos, “The Potential Role of Turkish Village Opinion Leaders in a Program of Family of Family Planning.”Planning.”
192 Ibid., 122.Ibid., 122. The questions The questions in Table 3.10in Table 3.10 were selected from this page, shortenedwere selected from this page, shortened,, and and some of them were reversed for a better some of them were reversed for a better illustrationillustration..
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who were said to
who were said to be the main source of influence in birth control bybe the main source of influence in birth control by the the 22% of the 22% of the villagers, villagers, (this ratio was 35% for the doctors)(this ratio was 35% for the doctors), , had more res-had more res-ervations on the issue as 64% of them declared that they disapprove ervations on the issue as 64% of them declared that they disapprove birth control.birth control.193
Nevertheless, the predominant respondents were enthusiastic about
Nevertheless, the predominant respondents were enthusiastic about having information about thehaving information about the birth control and birth control and governmentgovernments s involve-involve-ment ment on the issue, and on the issue, and two thirds of the two thirds of the overall overall respondents said they respondents said they would take the pillwould take the pill,, which Berelson prioritized to promote which Berelson prioritized to promote for for population population planning. planning.
The report was the first installment of one of
The report was the first installment of one of Turkey’s Turkey’s most most enduring enduring statistical surveysstatistical surveys,, which is stillwhich is still conducted conducted everyevery five years. Andfive years. And, as , as in in other parts of the developing world,other parts of the developing world, Turkey’sTurkey’s first KAP survey first KAP survey helped so-helped so-lidify lidify public and political opinion in favor of birth controlpublic and political opinion in favor of birth control by providing by providing scientific justification.scientific justification. The positive news in the press about the reportThe positive news in the press about the report,, such as “the majority favorssuch as “the majority favors birth control,”birth control,”194 and “and “mmukhtars favors birth ukhtars favors birth control control more more than the imams,” than the imams,” 195 also support thalso support thisis assertion.assertion.
Until 1965, the Population Council further reinforced its activities
Until 1965, the Population Council further reinforced its activities bby y providing providing personnel in Turkey for assistance in planning, personnel in Turkey for assistance in planning, field field training,training, and implementation of family planningand implementation of family planning,, and by inviting Turkish academi-and by inviting Turkish academi-cians and health professionals to cians and health professionals to the the US for training US for training inin various aspects of various aspects of family planning.family planning.196 Additionally, tAdditionally, they confirmed to provide monetary aid hey confirmed to provide monetary aid for demographic research activities.for demographic research activities.197
The other international donors were also enthusiastic to assist Tur-
The other international donors were also enthusiastic to assist Tur-key key in its in its population controlpopulation control effortsefforts. The Ministry . The Ministry ofof Health Health had reached had reached an an agreement with USAID to receive a lump sum agreement with USAID to receive a lump sum grantgrant and equipment and equipment support. support. The The Ford Foundation offered Ford Foundation offered itsits support to be materialized support to be materialized
193 Ibid., 126.Ibid., 126.
194 “Ekseriyet “Ekseriyet ddoğum oğum kkontrolünü ontrolünü iistiyor,” stiyor,” MilliyetMilliyet, May 1, 1964., May 1, 1964.
195 “Doğum “Doğum kkontrolünü ontrolünü mmuhtalar uhtalar iimamlardan mamlardan ddaha aha ççok ok iistiyor,” stiyor,” CumhuriyetCumhuriyet, April 30, 1964., April 30, 1964.
196 Turgut Metiner, “Turkey,” in Turgut Metiner, “Turkey,” in Family Planning and Population Family Planning and Population Programs; a Review of Programs; a Review of World DevelopmentsWorld Developments, ed. Bernard Berelson (Chicago ; London: The University of Chicago , ed. Bernard Berelson (Chicago ; London: The University of Chicago Press, 1966), 135Press, 1966), 135––43.43.
197 Nusret Fişek, “Türkiye’de Nüfus Sorunlarının Ele Alınış Tarzı ve Planlar,” Nusret Fişek, “Türkiye’de Nüfus Sorunlarının Ele Alınış Tarzı ve Planlar,” Sağlık DergisiSağlık Dergisi 38, no. 338, no. 3––4 (1964): 54 (1964): 5––18.18.
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during the implementation phase.
during the implementation phase. The The British and Swedish British and Swedish ggovernments overnments also offered their expertise and scholarship opportunitialso offered their expertise and scholarship opportunities to the Turkish es to the Turkish government.government.198 On the other handOn the other hand,, IPPF was interested in empowering IPPF was interested in empowering local NGOs local NGOs in this field in this field and allocated grant to the newly established insti-and allocated grant to the newly established insti-tution, tution, the the Turkish Family Planning Association, Turkish Family Planning Association, Türkiye Türkiye Aile Planlaması Aile Planlaması DerneğiDerneği (TAPD)(TAPD)..199
TAPD was founded in late 1963 by prominent local population control
TAPD was founded in late 1963 by prominent local population control advocatesadvocates from thefrom the health professionals, economists, journalists, health professionals, economists, journalists, acade-acade-micians,micians, and politicians.and politicians.200 The association actively promoted family The association actively promoted family planning and organized planning and organized numerous conferences and numerous conferences and seminars on birth seminars on birth control control until the Population Planning Law until the Population Planning Law went into effect iwent into effect in April 1965. n April 1965. A major one was held A major one was held on on November 26November 26--28,28, 1964, 1964, attended by the Minis-attended by the Minis-ter of Health, the Minister of Agriculture, and prominent antinatalists ter of Health, the Minister of Agriculture, and prominent antinatalists from the health and econofrom the health and economic sectors to emphasize the importance of mic sectors to emphasize the importance of birth controlbirth control..201 The seminar concThe seminar concluded with luded with aa statement of statement of consensus consensus on the merits of population planning.on the merits of population planning. OOnly three delegates out of thirty nly three delegates out of thirty had spoken against the birth control had spoken against the birth control but unable to but unable to provide convincing provide convincing eevidence.vidence.202
Meanwhile
Meanwhile, birth control became more integrated , birth control became more integrated intointo the public the public health debate. During the 1health debate. During the 1stst Maternal and Child Health Seminar of Istan-Maternal and Child Health Seminar of Istan-bul bul (1. Istanbul Ana Çocuk Sağlığı Semineri)(1. Istanbul Ana Çocuk Sağlığı Semineri) held as early as July 2held as early as July 2--77, 1962, , 1962, Nusret Fişek enumerated the ecoNusret Fişek enumerated the economic and health arguments nomic and health arguments to to under-under-linlinee the necessity of population controlthe necessity of population control,, especially in rural areas.especially in rural areas.203
198 Ibid., 13Ibid., 13––17.17.
199 International Planned Parenthood Federation, International Planned Parenthood Federation, “IPPF Europe: Reginal Information Bul-“IPPF Europe: Reginal Information Bul-letin,” April 2, 1979, 8.letin,” April 2, 1979, 8.
200 Türkiye Türkiye AAile Planlaması Derneği, ile Planlaması Derneği, AAile Planlaması Derneği Yönetmeliğiile Planlaması Derneği Yönetmeliği (Ankara: Bal-(Ankara: Bal-kanoğlu Matbaası, 1963).kanoğlu Matbaası, 1963).
201 Türkiye Aile Planlaması Derneği, Türkiye Aile Planlaması Derneği, Aile Planlaması Konferansı 26Aile Planlaması Konferansı 26--28 Kasım 196428 Kasım 1964 (Ankara: (Ankara: Türkiye Aile Planlaması Derneği Yayınları, 1964).Türkiye Aile Planlaması Derneği Yayınları, 1964).
202 Ibid., 4.Ibid., 4.
203 Nusret FiNusret Fişşek, “Köylerde Sağlık Hizmetleri” (ek, “Köylerde Sağlık Hizmetleri” (IIstanbul 1. stanbul 1. Ana Çocuk Sağlığı Semineri 2Ana Çocuk Sağlığı Semineri 2--7 7 Temmuz, 1962Temmuz, 1962, Istanbul: TC. Sağlık ve Sosyal yardım Bakanlığı Ana, Istanbul: TC. Sağlık ve Sosyal yardım Bakanlığı Ana--Çocuk Sağlığı Çocuk Sağlığı Müdürlüğü, Müdürlüğü, 19621962), 13), 13––26.26.
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But
But this time the pronatalists were this time the pronatalists were under pressureunder pressure from from the the govern-govern-mentment. In his speech about the impacts of the birth control on . In his speech about the impacts of the birth control on the the popula-popula-tion and the economytion and the economy during the 2during the 2ndnd Maternal and Child Health Seminar Maternal and Child Health Seminar of Istanbul in July 1963, Professor Sezai Bedrettin Tumay of Istanbul in July 1963, Professor Sezai Bedrettin Tumay portrayedportrayed a a pronatalist picture, claiming that the country wpronatalist picture, claiming that the country was still as still underpopulated,underpopulated, and and that the that the promotipromotion of pon of population control opulation control could irrevocably reduce could irrevocably reduce the fertility of the nationthe fertility of the nation..204 In response to the harsh criticIn response to the harsh criticiissmm,, he re-he re-ceived during the discussion ceived during the discussion sessionsession, Tumay mentioned that he , Tumay mentioned that he had al-had al-ready ready presentedpresented similsimilar arguments in last ar arguments in last year'syear's seminar butseminar but was cen-was cen-sored and neisored and neither his name nor his opinion were mentioned in the ther his name nor his opinion were mentioned in the seminar report.seminar report.205
However, the c
However, the competing ideas on birth control were still ompeting ideas on birth control were still discernable discernable in thein the press. press. In March 1963, Suat Seren, the leader of thIn March 1963, Suat Seren, the leader of the natalist coalition e natalist coalition in the in the ssenate, and Professor Naşit Erez, founder of Istanbul University Gy-enate, and Professor Naşit Erez, founder of Istanbul University Gy-necology Clinic and conecology Clinic and co--founder of the Family Planning Association, at-founder of the Family Planning Association, at-tacked each other with tacked each other with a a series of articles in the same daily newspaper series of articles in the same daily newspaper MilliyetMilliyet. .
On March 4, 1963, Seren
On March 4, 1963, Seren statesstates that the government has no capacity that the government has no capacity to allocate to allocate necessarynecessary financialfinancial resources and establish resources and establish anan organization organization for the population control activityfor the population control activity. . TTo o achieve aachieve a similar esimilar effect ffect in reducing in reducing fertility without additional cost and organization, fertility without additional cost and organization, he proposes that early he proposes that early marriages and marriages and polygamy polygamy be prevented by law and strictly controlledbe prevented by law and strictly controlled. . Po-Po-lygamy, in particular, is a pressing concern for Seren, who says that 3.7 lygamy, in particular, is a pressing concern for Seren, who says that 3.7 million men are marmillion men are married to 4.2 million women.ried to 4.2 million women.206 Two weeks later, Erez Two weeks later, Erez respondedresponded that rising abortion rates are proof that the public favors pop-that rising abortion rates are proof that the public favors pop-ulation control and that early marriages and polygamy cannot be pre-ulation control and that early marriages and polygamy cannot be pre-vented by legal and autocratic measures, but by increasing incomevented by legal and autocratic measures, but by increasing income and and social welfare.social welfare.207
204 Sezai Bedreddin Tümay, “Doğum Kontrolünün Nüfus ve Ekonomi Üzerindeki EtkiSezai Bedreddin Tümay, “Doğum Kontrolünün Nüfus ve Ekonomi Üzerindeki Etkileri” leri” ((IIstanbul 2. Ana Çocuk Sağlığı Semineri 12stanbul 2. Ana Çocuk Sağlığı Semineri 12--16 Temmuz, 196316 Temmuz, 1963, Istanbul: TC. Sağlık ve , Istanbul: TC. Sağlık ve Sosyal yardım Bakanlığı AnaSosyal yardım Bakanlığı Ana--Çocuk Sağlığı Müdürlüğü, Çocuk Sağlığı Müdürlüğü, 19631963), 145), 145––62.62.
205 Ibid., 160.Ibid., 160.
206 Suat Seren, “Doğum Suat Seren, “Doğum kkontrolü,” ontrolü,” MilliyetMilliyet, March 4, 1963., March 4, 1963.
207 Naşid Erez, “Doğumların Naşid Erez, “Doğumların ddüzenlenmesi,” üzenlenmesi,” MilliyetMilliyet, March 15, 1963., March 15, 1963.
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On the other hand, Seren claims that abortion would become more
On the other hand, Seren claims that abortion would become more widespreadwidespread with the new lawwith the new law,, as it gives the doctor as it gives the doctor the right to the right to abort on abort on safetysafety--critical issues critical issues that that can can be be easily manipulated by doctorseasily manipulated by doctors,, and the and the reproduction of reproduction of wealwealthy families would continue to decline accord-thy families would continue to decline accord-inglyingly..208 While Erez still insists that the While Erez still insists that the llaw would aw would bring about a reduc-bring about a reduc-tion in abortionstion in abortions,,209 Dr. Sait Kırmızıtoprak, provocatively calls for free Dr. Sait Kırmızıtoprak, provocatively calls for free abortion to achieve social justice by letting the poor benefit frabortion to achieve social justice by letting the poor benefit from itom it..210
Indeed, the author or law, Fişek, who also creat
Indeed, the author or law, Fişek, who also createded the Law for Social-the Law for Social-ization of the Health Services to provide social justice in public health,ization of the Health Services to provide social justice in public health,211 also admits in his memoirs that, also admits in his memoirs that, he had always thought of including the he had always thought of including the right to free abortion in the Population Planning Law, but hesitated to add right to free abortion in the Population Planning Law, but hesitated to add it because he feared a total rejection of the law, it because he feared a total rejection of the law, so he included so he included the the right right to to abortion for the safety critical abortion for the safety critical points points as a safety belt for das a safety belt for doctors to im-octors to im-plement it. plement it. Nonetheless, it took months, Nonetheless, it took months, Fisek says, before he was able toFisek says, before he was able to convince the head of SPOconvince the head of SPO Ziya Müezzinoğlu, to approve that inclusion.Ziya Müezzinoğlu, to approve that inclusion.212
By the end of 1964, the government had already established a Family
By the end of 1964, the government had already established a Family Planning Organization under tPlanning Organization under the Ministry of Health and appointed Dr. he Ministry of Health and appointed Dr. Turgut Metiner as the director.Turgut Metiner as the director.213 Furthermore some 220 personnel (168 Furthermore some 220 personnel (168 health personnel, 52 health personnel, 52 statisticiansstatisticians) and 3) and 3,,940940,,000 TL amount 000 TL amount had had alreadyalready been been allocated fallocated fromrom the 1964 budget for population control measuresthe 1964 budget for population control measures..214
Af
Afterter all all the the preparations and propagandapreparations and propaganda,, antinatalist plan was antinatalist plan was sub-sub-mitted to mitted to the the parliament and senate forparliament and senate for legalizatiolegalization. Yet the strong oppo-n. Yet the strong oppo-sition that had been evident during sition that had been evident during the the NPDNPD vote was still present, with vote was still present, with muchmuch elaborateelaboratedd arguments that arguments that will be will be discussed idiscussed in the n the next sectinext section.on.
208 Suat Seren, “NüfusSuat Seren, “Nüfus pplanlamasılanlaması mımı? Kürtaj ? Kürtaj kkanunu anunu mmu?,” u?,” MilliyetMilliyet, January 31, 1964., January 31, 1964.
209 Naşid Erez, “Nüfus Naşid Erez, “Nüfus pplanlaması lanlaması ttatbikatı,” atbikatı,” MilliyetMilliyet, April, April 29, 1964.29, 1964.
210 Sait Kırmızıtoprak, “Kürtaj Sait Kırmızıtoprak, “Kürtaj sserbest erbest oolmalıdır,” lmalıdır,” MilliyetMilliyet, A, April 30, 1964.pril 30, 1964.
211 Turkish Assembly, “Socialization of the HeaTurkish Assembly, “Socialization of the Health Services Law, No: 224,” Official Gazette lth Services Law, No: 224,” Official Gazette publication on January 12, 1961, No : 10705, enacted on January 5, 1961.publication on January 12, 1961, No : 10705, enacted on January 5, 1961.
212 Turkish Medical Association, Nusret Fişek Turkish Medical Association, Nusret Fişek iile Söyleşi, 14.le Söyleşi, 14.
213 Ayşe Akin, “Türkiye’de Değişen Nüfus ve SağlıAyşe Akin, “Türkiye’de Değişen Nüfus ve Sağlık Politikaları Doğrultusunda, İsteyerek k Politikaları Doğrultusunda, İsteyerek Düşükler ve Üreme Sağlığı Hizmet Sunumunda Geleceğe Bakış,” Düşükler ve Üreme Sağlığı Hizmet Sunumunda Geleceğe Bakış,” Türkiye Halk Sağlığı Türkiye Halk Sağlığı DergisiDergisi, Ozel Sayı: Düşükler, no. 10 (2012): 43, Ozel Sayı: Düşükler, no. 10 (2012): 43––60.60.
214 Turkish Assembly, “1964 Budget Law, No: 438,” Official Gazette publiTurkish Assembly, “1964 Budget Law, No: 438,” Official Gazette publication on March 2, cation on March 2, 1964, No: 11645, enacted on February 29, 1964, 663,767,772.1964, No: 11645, enacted on February 29, 1964, 663,767,772.
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3.2.5 The Parliementary Discussions The Parliementary Discussions
On December 8, 1964, the
On December 8, 1964, the draft population planning lawdraft population planning law was submittedwas submitted to the to the parliementparliement for approvafor approvall. After approval. After approval,, it was sent to the it was sent to the ssenate enate on February 18, 1965, on February 18, 1965, for the initial voting and then refor the initial voting and then returnedturned to the to the par-par-liementliement for for a a final vofinal votete. Almost all . Almost all of of the wording of the first draft was the wording of the first draft was accepted and legalized after the final votaccepted and legalized after the final votee in the in the parliementparliement on April 1, on April 1, 1965, but the parliamentary archives evidence some major1965, but the parliamentary archives evidence some major debates and debates and discussions during the legalization process. discussions during the legalization process.
In this dissertation,
In this dissertation, the variousthe various views and arguments of deputies and views and arguments of deputies and senators been expressed during the senators been expressed during the parliamentary and senate discus-parliamentary and senate discus-sions between December 8, 1964, sions between December 8, 1964, andand April 5, 1965,April 5, 1965, were trackwere tracked ed inin thethe parliamentary parliamentary archives and classified based on the core themes of the de-archives and classified based on the core themes of the de-bates. Accordingly, the following topics were identified as the bates. Accordingly, the following topics were identified as the major major dis-dis-cussion pointscussion points:: public health, public health, the the Malthusian debate, Malthusian debate, biopolitics, biopolitics, moral moral discourse, developmentalist discourse, developmentalist discoursediscourse, , the the military military debate,debate, and and discus-discus-sions on the sions on the quality of the planquality of the plan. .
Table 3.
Table 3.1111 Discussion Discussion ttopics during the Population Planning Law opics during the Population Planning Law
Comments
Comments
For
For Bill Bill
Against
Against BillBill
Total
Total Health IssueHealth Issue Health improvement vs harmful medicationHealth improvement vs harmful medication 13 13 26
Malthusian Debate
Malthusian Debate Lack of resources vs huge potentialLack of resources vs huge potential
4
12
16 Freedom DebateFreedom Debate Freedom of rights vs State InterventionFreedom of rights vs State Intervention 10 15 25
Moral Ground
Moral Ground
Moral family vs moral erosion
Moral family vs moral erosion
6
20
26 Development DiscourseDevelopment Discourse Growth with lower vs higher population Growth with lower vs higher population 14 9 23
Security discourse
Security discourse
No need vs urgent need for military reserve
No need vs urgent need for military reserve
2
7
9 Planning and controlPlanning and control Good planning vs lack of planning and controlGood planning vs lack of planning and control 5 13 18
TOTAL
TOTAL
54
54
89
89
143
143
SOURCE
SOURCE:: Discussions on Parliement anDiscussions on Parliement and Senated Senate ((December 1964December 1964 -- April 1965)April 1965)
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
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The breakdown of these arguments is based on the views of speakers
The breakdown of these arguments is based on the views of speakers who took the floor during the House and Senate debates and is grouped who took the floor during the House and Senate debates and is grouped in Table 3.11 as for and against the bill.in Table 3.11 as for and against the bill. The numbeThe numbers below do not reflect rs below do not reflect the number of speakers, but the number of arguments declared, where the number of speakers, but the number of arguments declared, where each speaker could declare more than one.each speaker could declare more than one.
As shown above, the pronatalist bloc put forward more arguments
As shown above, the pronatalist bloc put forward more arguments against the law than the antinatalist group as a whole (8against the law than the antinatalist group as a whole (89 to 59), espe-9 to 59), espe-cially on moral grounds and on anticially on moral grounds and on anti--Malthusian stance. The only issue on Malthusian stance. The only issue on which the antinatalists had the upper hand was the developmentalist dis-which the antinatalists had the upper hand was the developmentalist dis-course. Interestingly, there were equal pronatalist and antinatalist argu-course. Interestingly, there were equal pronatalist and antinatalist argu-ments in the area of publments in the area of public health, where the main point of antinatalist ic health, where the main point of antinatalist justification was lied upon.justification was lied upon.
A full
A full translation of the Law, consisting of eleven articlestranslation of the Law, consisting of eleven articles,, was shown was shown in Appendix in Appendix AA. Yet, the first two articles, where most of the debates arose . Yet, the first two articles, where most of the debates arose from was copied below.from was copied below.
Article 1
Article 1. Population planning means that individuals can have . Population planning means that individuals can have as many children as they wish whenever they want to. This can as many children as they wish whenever they want to. This can be ensured through preventive measures taken against preg-be ensured through preventive measures taken against preg-nancy. Castration, sterilization, nor the ending of pregnancies nancy. Castration, sterilization, nor the ending of pregnancies shall not shall not be undergone unless medical necessities require it.be undergone unless medical necessities require it.
Article 2
Article 2. Divulging the necessity of Family Planning to the pub-. Divulging the necessity of Family Planning to the pub-lic and training, education, and application connected with it, lic and training, education, and application connected with it, shall be carried out with the collaboration of military, official shall be carried out with the collaboration of military, official and volunand volunteer organizations according to the regulations pre-teer organizations according to the regulations pre-pared by the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare.pared by the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare.
For this purpose, Ministry of Health and Social Welfare is For this purpose, Ministry of Health and Social Welfare is aauuthorized to establish organizations and to take measures to thorized to establish organizations and to take measures to distribute freely, or distribute freely, or sell at a lower price, or have sold at a lower sell at a lower price, or have sold at a lower price to needy, contraceptive materials and drugs. price to needy, contraceptive materials and drugs.
The quality of drugs and materials to be used in popula-The quality of drugs and materials to be used in popula-tion planning, and regulation concerning its application shall tion planning, and regulation concerning its application shall be determined by the Ministry be determined by the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare of Health and Social Welfare
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after receiving the written opinion of a commission which will
after receiving the written opinion of a commission which will also include members of the teaching staff of medical schools. also include members of the teaching staff of medical schools.
Biopolitics
Biopolitics, in the Foucauldian sense, was , in the Foucauldian sense, was one of the one of the hottest hottest debatesdebates throughout the throughout the sessionssessions. What was the nature of the law? Was it a useful . What was the nature of the law? Was it a useful tool to enhance the freedom tool to enhance the freedom in in fertility and improve public health by re-fertility and improve public health by re-ducing maternal mortalityducing maternal mortality,, or a repressive measure or a repressive measure byby the state to limit the state to limit fertility fertility in in Turkish society and Turkish society and interfere with familinterfere with family privacyy privacy? ? GGovernment overnment representatives repeatedly staterepresentatives repeatedly statedd that the law was for public health and that the law was for public health and freedom of choice, but many deputies and senators had solid arguments freedom of choice, but many deputies and senators had solid arguments for for a broader agenda behinda broader agenda behind it.it.
Some seven deputies and senators (Celal Ertuğ, Hüsnü Dikeçl
Some seven deputies and senators (Celal Ertuğ, Hüsnü Dikeçligil, Ali igil, Ali İhsan Balım, Tahsin Bangılıoğlu, Ahmet Bilgin, Fethi Tevetoğlu, Ruhi İhsan Balım, Tahsin Bangılıoğlu, Ahmet Bilgin, Fethi Tevetoğlu, Ruhi Soyer) argueSoyer) arguedd that the general and humanitarian definition of the popu-that the general and humanitarian definition of the popu-lation control lation control mentioned mentioned in Article 1 was in Article 1 was misleadingmisleading and the and the truetrue inten-inten-tion lies in Article 2tion lies in Article 2,, which which defindefineess the mission as “divulging the necessity the mission as “divulging the necessity of Family Planning to the public” with the full force of Family Planning to the public” with the full force of the of the state apparatusstate apparatus, , including a new organization, education, free distribution of contracep-including a new organization, education, free distribution of contracep-tives and nationwide propagandatives and nationwide propaganda,, even even in in collaboration collaboration with with the mthe military ilitary personnel.personnel.215
Bangıoğlu, further provokes the senate to
Bangıoğlu, further provokes the senate to amendamend the definition the definition of of populationpopulation planning in Article 1 as “population planning means that in-planning in Article 1 as “population planning means that in-dividuals can have the dividuals can have the numbernumber of children of children that corresponds to the state that corresponds to the state ddesire.”esire.”216 In connection wIn connection with this discussion, there were calls to change ith this discussion, there were calls to change the name of the law from population planning to family planning to re-the name of the law from population planning to family planning to re-duce the totalitarian implication of the law, which was also rejectedduce the totalitarian implication of the law, which was also rejected. . 217
One of the main reasons for the strong opposition to government in-
One of the main reasons for the strong opposition to government in-tervention was that Malthusian and developmental fears about high birth tervention was that Malthusian and developmental fears about high birth rates were not present among many congressmen and senators. On the rates were not present among many congressmen and senators. On the
215 Republic Senate Minutes ofRepublic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi)Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi), , (Term 4, (Term 4, Vol. 26, Meeting No: 57, March 19, 1965), 169Vol. 26, Meeting No: 57, March 19, 1965), 169––93.93.
216 Ibid., 170.Ibid., 170.
217 National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi)National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), , (Term 4, Vol. (Term 4, Vol. 34, Meeting No:25, December 17, 1964), 213.34, Meeting No:25, December 17, 1964), 213.
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
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contrary, many of them favored continued population
contrary, many of them favored continued population growth to spur de-growth to spur de-velopment. Vedat Ali Ozkan, who is familiar with the original version of velopment. Vedat Ali Ozkan, who is familiar with the original version of the theory of demographic transition before its political orientation men-the theory of demographic transition before its political orientation men-tioned in Chapter 2, asks the deputies not to worry about the population tioned in Chapter 2, asks the deputies not to worry about the population increase in Turkey,increase in Turkey, which he believes is a natural result of decreasing which he believes is a natural result of decreasing mortality, and he confidently predicts that the country wmortality, and he confidently predicts that the country wouldould experience experience a decreasing trend as it develops, like the a decreasing trend as it develops, like the otherother developed countries.developed countries. 218
Ozkan goes on to explain that the Anatolian peninsula,
Ozkan goes on to explain that the Anatolian peninsula, with its very with its very low population density, low population density, isis still deserted and there still deserted and there isis no reason for the no reason for the Malthusian fears of scarcity of subsistence as long as intensive agricul-Malthusian fears of scarcity of subsistence as long as intensive agricul-tural techniques tural techniques areare used. Instead of spending energy and resources on used. Instead of spending energy and resources on reducing population, he sureducing population, he suggests focusing on maximizing agricultural ef-ggests focusing on maximizing agricultural ef-ficiency and finding ways to prevent erosionficiency and finding ways to prevent erosion..219
Ruhi Soyer points out that European countries have achieved their
Ruhi Soyer points out that European countries have achieved their development progress based on labor, and he adds that Germany, despite development progress based on labor, and he adds that Germany, despite its large population, stilits large population, still needs additional labor from Turkey to continue l needs additional labor from Turkey to continue growing. And he underscores a simple but questioning argument about growing. And he underscores a simple but questioning argument about the development discourse: "No country can develop if it reduces its pop-the development discourse: "No country can develop if it reduces its pop-ulation."ulation."220 Sabahattin Savcı supports the claims of Ozkan and SoyerSabahattin Savcı supports the claims of Ozkan and Soyer, , quoting from the very first version of the demographic transition theory quoting from the very first version of the demographic transition theory that population that population would be would be reduced by development, but developmentreduced by development, but development cannot becannot be achieved by reducing populationachieved by reducing population..221
Health Minister Kemal Demir's response to this pronatalist attack
Health Minister Kemal Demir's response to this pronatalist attack waswas to repeat the developmental discourse of overpopulation, with to repeat the developmental discourse of overpopulation, with higher population numbers causing the government to spend more on higher population numbers causing the government to spend more on basic services and less on savings and more productive investments. And basic services and less on savings and more productive investments. And he adds that the government has not been able to absorbhe adds that the government has not been able to absorb the higher the higher
218 Ibid., 223Ibid., 223––24.24.
219 National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi)National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), , (Term 4, Vol. 33, (Term 4, Vol. 33, Meeting No:19, December 8, 1964), 745Meeting No:19, December 8, 1964), 745––47.47.
220 National Assembly MinuNational Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), December 17, tes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), December 17, 1964, 2081964, 208––9.9.
221 National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi),National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), December 8, December 8, 1964, 7471964, 747––49.49.
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unemployment rate
unemployment rate..222 ThThoseose arguments have not satisfied the pronatal-arguments have not satisfied the pronatal-ists, as Ahmet Bilgin calls on the government to find ways to increase em-ists, as Ahmet Bilgin calls on the government to find ways to increase em-ployment, not to decrease population, ployment, not to decrease population, and and he also he also recalls the mercantilist recalls the mercantilist vision of population as the vision of population as the mmain source of developmentain source of development..223
The developmentalist debate in the senate took different forms, as
The developmentalist debate in the senate took different forms, as Mehmet Nuri Ademoğlu, who puts it in the family perspective, recounts Mehmet Nuri Ademoğlu, who puts it in the family perspective, recounts that rural families were starving and most of them had to leave their that rural families were starving and most of them had to leave their ninth or tenth child to die, and that the law ninth or tenth child to die, and that the law wouwould ld serve their own pros-serve their own pros-perity and developmentperity and development..224 But Vedat Ali Ozkan insists that one less child But Vedat Ali Ozkan insists that one less child to feed will not help families end their suffering unless the government to feed will not help families end their suffering unless the government provides education, health, and new job opportunities, and urges them provides education, health, and new job opportunities, and urges them to prioritize thto prioritize these services over birth controlese services over birth control..225
Although the
Although the primaryprimary motivation of the law was tmotivation of the law was the he economy and economy and developmentdevelopment,, the longest dthe longest debates ebates were were over over its implications its implications onon health. health. Antinatalists'Antinatalists' argumentsarguments thatthat thethe newnew lawlaw wouldwould reducereduce maternalmaternal mor-mor-tality,tality, highhigh abortionabortion rates,rates, childchildcarecare shortages,shortages, andand unmetunmet needneed forfor con-con-traceptiontraception basedbased onon thethe KAPKAP surveysurvey found common support. Yet the pro-found common support. Yet the pro-natalists also had some arguments to challenge. natalists also had some arguments to challenge.
The reliability of medical devices was the main concern. Bilgin ar-
The reliability of medical devices was the main concern. Bilgin ar-gues that the imported devices have not been adequately tested in Eu-gues that the imported devices have not been adequately tested in Eu-rope and the United States and warns ofrope and the United States and warns of their side effects.their side effects.226 Kınayturk Kınayturk criticizes the mass distribution of contraceptives without any control, as criticizes the mass distribution of contraceptives without any control, as he explains that the distribution in the U.S. was done after several inter-he explains that the distribution in the U.S. was done after several inter-views with the couples and further analysis of their economic and social views with the couples and further analysis of their economic and social sstatustatus..227 Ozkan also warns that Ozkan also warns that the the mass promotion and distribution of mass promotion and distribution of contraceptive technology could reduce fertility down to irreversible contraceptive technology could reduce fertility down to irreversible
222 Ibid., 752Ibid., 752––59.59.
223 Ibid., 749Ibid., 749––51.51.
224 Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi), March 19, Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi), March 19, 1965, 1801965, 180––82.82.
225 National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), December 17, National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), December 17, 1964, 2231964, 223––24.24.
226 Ibid., 219Ibid., 219––20.20.
227 Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi)Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi),, (Term 4, (Term 4, Vol. 26, MVol. 26, Meeting No: 55, March 17, 1965), 115.eeting No: 55, March 17, 1965), 115.
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levels.
levels.228 Both Fişek and Demir as health expertsBoth Fişek and Demir as health experts,, have made commit-have made commit-ments for strict control for licensing and distribuments for strict control for licensing and distribution of tion of contraceptivescontraceptives, , but also but also rereject ject applyingapplying any selective process.any selective process.229
One of the main attacks of the pronatalists on the law was on the
One of the main attacks of the pronatalists on the law was on the moral ground where about fifteen speakers had moral ground where about fifteen speakers had complaintscomplaints. One of the . One of the fears was the removal of a moral barrier by liffears was the removal of a moral barrier by lifting the ban on contracep-ting the ban on contracep-tiontion..230 Tevetoglu claims that the free distribution of contraceptives en-Tevetoglu claims that the free distribution of contraceptives en-courages immoral relationships, and he urges the government to prevent courages immoral relationships, and he urges the government to prevent early marriages insteadearly marriages instead..231 These claims were harshly rejected by the These claims were harshly rejected by the government, and thegovernment, and the petitioners were accused of having no faith in the petitioners were accused of having no faith in the moral virtues of Turkish womenmoral virtues of Turkish women..232
Another opposition on moral grounds was related to the definition
Another opposition on moral grounds was related to the definition of population planning mentioned in Article 1.of population planning mentioned in Article 1. The right The right ofof “individuals” “individuals” to to population planning was aspopulation planning was asked to change as right ked to change as right ofof “famil“familiesies” ” to en-to en-sure that the contraceptives would be distributed only to familiessure that the contraceptives would be distributed only to families..233 However, However, thatthat group proposal was found to be inapplicable primarily be-group proposal was found to be inapplicable primarily be-cause of the illegal status of widespread polygamycause of the illegal status of widespread polygamy..234
On the other hand, Ömer Faruk Kınaytürk, shares his doubts on the
On the other hand, Ömer Faruk Kınaytürk, shares his doubts on the population planning population planning as he believes as he believes itit is a plot by developed nations to is a plot by developed nations to reduce reduce the population of underdeveloped countries the population of underdeveloped countries toto counterbalancecounterbalance their declining demographic trend. He cites as an example the their declining demographic trend. He cites as an example the
228 National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), December 17, National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), December 17, 1964, 2231964, 223––24.24.
229 Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi), March 17, Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi), March 17, 1965, 1271965, 127––30.30.
230 Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi), March 19, Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi), March 19, 1965, 1731965, 173––75.75.
231 Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi), March 17, Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi), March 17, 1965, 1211965, 121––24.24.
232 National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), December National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), December 17, 17, 1964, 2201964, 220––21.21.
233 Ibid., 213.Ibid., 213.
234 Ibid., 220.Ibid., 220.
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
169
demographic
demographic catastrophecatastrophe in Hungary, where the in Hungary, where the right right toto contraception contraception and abortion and abortion has has halved the halved the fertility rate fertility rate in just in just eight yearseight years..235
Moreover, several senators and deputies mentioned population as a
Moreover, several senators and deputies mentioned population as a crucial necessity for military purposes. Bilgin considers it unacceptable crucial necessity for military purposes. Bilgin considers it unacceptable to think of population planning for a country surrounded by countries to think of population planning for a country surrounded by countries with a higher population density, especiallwith a higher population density, especially the Soviet Union with about y the Soviet Union with about 200 million inhabitants200 million inhabitants..236 Tevetoglu recalls the hot Cyprus debate, in Tevetoglu recalls the hot Cyprus debate, in which the ratio of population density on the island was which the ratio of population density on the island was decisive anddecisive and claims that the country needs a hundred million inhabitants for military claims that the country needs a hundred million inhabitants for military deterrence.deterrence.
In response, Zeyyad Kocamemi, mentions
In response, Zeyyad Kocamemi, mentions that the habit of establish-that the habit of establish-ing a relationship between the military power and the higher population ing a relationship between the military power and the higher population is outdatedis outdated..237 His point of reference was clearly the second His point of reference was clearly the second Arab IsraeliArab Israeli war of 1956, in which the Jews occupied Egypwar of 1956, in which the Jews occupied Egypt's Sina Peninsula with a t's Sina Peninsula with a smaller but wellsmaller but well--equipped force. And the claim that the larger population equipped force. And the claim that the larger population required a stronger army was to be disproved two years later in the 1967 required a stronger army was to be disproved two years later in the 1967 SixSix--Day War between Arabs and Israel, which ended with the outnum-Day War between Arabs and Israel, which ended with the outnum-bered Arab forces bered Arab forces humiliated vishumiliated vis--àà--vis Israel.vis Israel.
The above issues reflect the main points of discussion in the senate
The above issues reflect the main points of discussion in the senate and parliament. However, many other issues were also discussed during and parliament. However, many other issues were also discussed during the legalization process, such as the relationship between population and the legalization process, such as the relationship between population and crime, populatcrime, population and aging, population and education, costs of popula-ion and aging, population and education, costs of popula-tion planning, etc. It is worth noting, however, that there was no signifi-tion planning, etc. It is worth noting, however, that there was no signifi-cant discussion of any form of segregation in the implementation of pop-cant discussion of any form of segregation in the implementation of pop-ulation control by class or ethnicity.ulation control by class or ethnicity.
The distribution
The distribution of the votes was available only in the senate and is of the votes was available only in the senate and is shown in Table 3.12. The antinatalist bloc consisted of the statist CHP and shown in Table 3.12. The antinatalist bloc consisted of the statist CHP and
235 Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi)Republic Senate Minutes of Meeting (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi), , (Term 4, (Term 4, Vol. 26Vol. 26, Meeting No: 56, March 18, 1965), 113, Meeting No: 56, March 18, 1965), 113––18.18.
236 National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), December 8, National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), December 8, 1964, 7511964, 751––52.52.
237 National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), December 17, National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), December 17, 1964, 2171964, 217––18.18.
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
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the natural and contingent senators loyal to the military regime, while
the natural and contingent senators loyal to the military regime, while the pronatalists were clearly the governing AP.the pronatalists were clearly the governing AP.
Table 3.
Table 3.1212 Composition of Composition of vvototeses in the Senatein the Senate, , March 23, 1965March 23, 1965
Group
Group
For
For Bill Bill
Against
Against BillBill
Not
Not Voted Voted
Total
Total Seats Seats AP AP 3 40 3434 7777
CHP
CHP
36
1
8
8
45
45 Other Parties Other Parties 5 1 9 1515
Independent
Independent
3
2
6
11
11 Contingent SenatorsContingent Senators 1717 - 2 1919
Natural Senators
Natural Senators
7
-
-
8
15 TOTALTOTAL 7171 4444 6767 182182
SOURCE
SOURCE: : Population Policy Formation and Implementation in Turkey.Population Policy Formation and Implementation in Turkey.238
During the negotiations, the second Inonu coalition collapsed, and on
During the negotiations, the second Inonu coalition collapsed, and on February 20, 1965, a rightFebruary 20, 1965, a right--wing coalition led by AP was formed. And the wing coalition led by AP was formed. And the new government was reluctant to get deeply involved in an issue that its new government was reluctant to get deeply involved in an issue that its traditional voters could resist. Furthermtraditional voters could resist. Furthermore, the topic contained many ore, the topic contained many technical aspects, so they kept the response low profile and, contrary to technical aspects, so they kept the response low profile and, contrary to parliamentary tradition, they appointed Nusret Fişek, who was not nei-parliamentary tradition, they appointed Nusret Fişek, who was not nei-ther member of the parliament nor the senate but the ther member of the parliament nor the senate but the underundersecretary secretary forfor the Ministrthe Ministry of Healthy of Health, as the government’s spokesman in two major , as the government’s spokesman in two major cases.cases.239
Fişek, clarifies the dilemma of the AP in his memoirs. Sensing the dis-
Fişek, clarifies the dilemma of the AP in his memoirs. Sensing the dis-trust of the new government, Fişek visits the party leader of AP, Suleyman trust of the new government, Fişek visits the party leader of AP, Suleyman Demirel, and gets a personal promise from DemDemirel, and gets a personal promise from Demirel that he would make irel that he would make sure that the group would vote for the billsure that the group would vote for the bill..240 But it seems that the party But it seems that the party had no desire to compromise from their pronatalist stancehad no desire to compromise from their pronatalist stance. Nevertheless,. Nevertheless, they balancethey balancedd the military pressure by not activating thethe military pressure by not activating the entireentire opposi-opposi-tiontion,, as someas some 34 senators did not show up 34 senators did not show up for the votefor the vote..
238 Ibid.,65.Ibid.,65.
239 Levine and Üner, Levine and Üner, PopulatiPopulation Policy Formation and Implementation in Turkeyon Policy Formation and Implementation in Turkey, 60., 60.
240 Turkish Medical Association, Turkish Medical Association, Nusret Fişek ile SöyleşiNusret Fişek ile Söyleşi, 12., 12.
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
171
The law was passed by a majority in Parliament on April 5, 1965, but
The law was passed by a majority in Parliament on April 5, 1965, but this did not dispel the public and political reservations that became ap-this did not dispel the public and political reservations that became ap-parent during its implementation.parent during its implementation.
Summary of
Summary of 33..22
This
This section section analyzed analyzed economic and political transformationeconomic and political transformation of Turkey, of Turkey, along along with the economic and technical infusion of the global sphere. with the economic and technical infusion of the global sphere. As As in thein the other developing countries other developing countries that introducedthat introduced ppopulation opulation pplanning lanning llaws in the 1960s, the economic crisis and political turaws in the 1960s, the economic crisis and political turmoil in Turkey moil in Turkey paved the way for orientation tpaved the way for orientation toward oward globally supported ideologies such globally supported ideologies such as developmentalization and population control, as developmentalization and population control, as well as as well as tools such as tools such as NDPs embedded NDPs embedded inin population control, and national KAP surveys. In population control, and national KAP surveys. In this this regardregard,, the global infusithe global infusion on onon population control population control has been has been revisited in revisited in ththiiss section exclusively for the Turkish case.section exclusively for the Turkish case.
In addition, this part also highlighted the local
In addition, this part also highlighted the local conditionalities that conditionalities that facilitated tfacilitated the shift tohe shift to antinatalist policies, such as the military antinatalist policies, such as the military coupcoup and and security consecurity concerns on the southeastcerns on the southeastern ern border, and the urgent need to re-border, and the urgent need to re-store political and economic stabilitystore political and economic stability..
However, the global and national consensus on population control
However, the global and national consensus on population control was seriously challenged by the pronatalist bloc in the was seriously challenged by the pronatalist bloc in the hhouse and ouse and ssenate, enate, which represented which represented public prejudices and reservations on the subject. public prejudices and reservations on the subject. This political resistance not only delayed the legalization process but also This political resistance not only delayed the legalization process but also sabotaged the implementation of the policy, which sabotaged the implementation of the policy, which will bewill be explored in the explored in the next section.next section.
§ 3.3 TThe Population Control he Population Control Policy Policy ImplementaImplementatiotionn
The passage of the hotly debated Population Planning Law did not end
The passage of the hotly debated Population Planning Law did not end the discussions as expected but led to a vigorous nationwide campaign the discussions as expected but led to a vigorous nationwide campaign and mobilization to promote family planning, including training of medi-and mobilization to promote family planning, including training of medi-cal personnel and investment in family plannincal personnel and investment in family planning clinics. But the initial re-g clinics. But the initial re-sults fell far short of the sults fell far short of the targets.targets.
This section
This section traces the government’s investments in population con-traces the government’s investments in population con-trol trol and and the policy implementationthe policy implementation in four subsections. in four subsections. The The first first section section
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tracks the
tracks the public and political reactions of the first public and political reactions of the first three monththree months ins in vari-vari-ous newspapers of the eraous newspapers of the era, , rrepresenting diepresenting differentfferent political viewpolitical views.s. The The contradictory reactions hinder the fact that the debate on population contradictory reactions hinder the fact that the debate on population control was still ongoing.control was still ongoing.
In the second part, the
In the second part, the work on population control and the invest-work on population control and the invest-ments of the Ministry of Health and the Population Planning Directorate ments of the Ministry of Health and the Population Planning Directorate are listed together with the financial and technical support from abroad. are listed together with the financial and technical support from abroad. However, the global and national spheres were not always in consensusHowever, the global and national spheres were not always in consensus on the population control planning and implementation on the population control planning and implementation and that and that is is shownshown the third partthe third part through some key encounters.through some key encounters.
In the fourth part, the direction of this investment in population plan-
In the fourth part, the direction of this investment in population plan-ning is analyzed ning is analyzed through the establishment of the Family Planning Clthrough the establishment of the Family Planning Clin-in-ics, ics, tto o see tsee to what extent o what extent the motivations for population control, which the motivations for population control, which were were already revealed ialready revealed in the parliamentary discussionn the parliamentary discussions s influenced influenced the the investment decision.investment decision.
Lastly the
Lastly the public’s public’s response to family planning investmentresponse to family planning investments, as deter-s, as deter-minedmined by the politicaby the political priorities of the national spherel priorities of the national sphere, is , is analyzed analyzed ususing ing the geographical distribution of the geographical distribution of IUDIUD insertion. The last two analyinsertion. The last two analysissis are are based on based on demonstration of descriptive statistical demonstration of descriptive statistical variables per variables per provincial provincial district. district.
3.3.1 Initial Reactions Initial Reactions
In order to check the initial reactions of the Population
In order to check the initial reactions of the Population PlanningPlanning Law in Law in the press, some eight nationwide daily newspapers namely, the press, some eight nationwide daily newspapers namely, Cumhuriyet, Cumhuriyet, Milliyet, Akşam, Tercuman, Ulus, Son Havadis, DünyaMilliyet, Akşam, Tercuman, Ulus, Son Havadis, Dünya,, and and İşçi Postasıİşçi Postası were were selected and every single news selected and every single news item item aand article about the law and popu-nd article about the law and popu-lation control wlation control wasas scanned scanned over a period of over a period of three months period between three months period between April 5April 5thth and June 31and June 31st,st, 1965. 1965. In addition to the archival constraints, the In addition to the archival constraints, the selection of newspapers was also based on a fair representation of the selection of newspapers was also based on a fair representation of the diffdifferent political viewpoints.erent political viewpoints.
A
At first glancet first glance, the law was , the law was not on not on the front agenda of the press, which the front agenda of the press, which preoccupiedpreoccupied with some leading events with some leading events such assuch as the growing international the growing international tensiontensionss in Cyprus, the coalition in Cyprus, the coalition debatesdebates,, and and accusations between the accusations between the partiesparties. . NeveNevertheless, rtheless, each of the newspapereach of the newspapers s tracked, had tracked, had publishedpublished at at
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least one news
least one news item item or article about the law and birth control or article about the law and birth control during during ththeese three monthsse three months, which p, which providrovideses some some cluesclues about the political stance about the political stance of of theirtheir editorial board.editorial board. The promulgation of the law was heralded The promulgation of the law was heralded in in only only one out of eightone out of eight newspapersnewspapers, , UlusUlus, , the CHP’s the CHP’s press organ.press organ.241 As men-As men-tioned tioned earlierearlier, the party took the main initiative during the legalization , the party took the main initiative during the legalization process and felt obliged to spread the positive news about the lawprocess and felt obliged to spread the positive news about the law and and birth control. In tbirth control. In this regard, his regard, Professor Rasim Adasal,Professor Rasim Adasal, in his article on April in his article on April 1818th,th, enumerated the positive impacts of family planning for familiesenumerated the positive impacts of family planning for families,, such such as maintaining as maintaining a a better life quality, better life quality, betterbetter childcare, less stresschildcare, less stress,, and and mitigating economic burmitigating economic burdenden..242
The opposing side for the birth control was represented in
The opposing side for the birth control was represented in TercumanTercuman with its conservative and nationalist view. In his article on April 7with its conservative and nationalist view. In his article on April 7thth, Is-, Is-mail Hakkı Baltacıoğlu, mail Hakkı Baltacıoğlu, reiteratedreiterated the mercantilist approachthe mercantilist approach by by relating relating development development to to population density and further statpopulation density and further statinging that the popula-that the popula-tion of the country should be increased to seventy or eighty million. He tion of the country should be increased to seventy or eighty million. He has also accused the government has also accused the government of of fomentingfomenting hostility hostility among the popu-among the popu-lation with lation with this law and this law and urgedurged them to find ways to activatethem to find ways to activate the under-the under-ground and overground rich potential instead.ground and overground rich potential instead.243 In In otherother negative news negative news fromfrom TercumanTercuman about birth control, a village in Izmir was in the about birth control, a village in Izmir was in the headlines headlines on June 13on June 13thth, where the villagers had successfully prepar, where the villagers had successfully prepareded medicinal medicinal herbs to prevent fertility forherbs to prevent fertility for a decade, yet most of them became infer-a decade, yet most of them became infer-tile.tile.244 The The idea of idea of birth control was further snubbed in another headlinebirth control was further snubbed in another headline,, mentioning the gathering of mentioning the gathering of ministers'ministers' wives to discuss the birth control, wives to discuss the birth control, which which was was portrayed portrayed in the in the news as a charity news as a charity eventevent..245
T
The press ofhe press of the ruling government AP, the ruling government AP, Son HavadisSon Havadis, , was silent on the was silent on the issue of birth control, and none of the columnists commented on it.issue of birth control, and none of the columnists commented on it. Their Their stance during the voting process was clearly against the law, but since the stance during the voting process was clearly against the law, but since the law was legalized during the AP led coalition, tlaw was legalized during the AP led coalition, they were unable to hey were unable to
241 “Nüfus planlaması yürürlükte“Nüfus planlaması yürürlükte,," " UlusUlus, April 10, 1965., April 10, 1965.
242 Rasim Adasal, “Psikolojik Rasim Adasal, “Psikolojik yyönden önden aaileile planlamasıplanlaması,,” ” UlusUlus, April 18, 1965, 2, April 18, 1965, 2..
243 Ismail Hakkı Baltacıoğlu, “Türkiye’nin Ismail Hakkı Baltacıoğlu, “Türkiye’nin nufusunufusu 7070--80 milyona çıkarılmalıdır80 milyona çıkarılmalıdır,,” ” TercumanTercuman, , April 7, 1965, 2April 7, 1965, 2..
244 “Bizim köyde 10 yıldır doğum kontrolü var“Bizim köyde 10 yıldır doğum kontrolü var,,” ” TercumanTercuman, June 13, 1965, , June 13, 1965, 1.1.
245 “Dişi kabinede önemli bir toplantı yapıldı“Dişi kabinede önemli bir toplantı yapıldı,,” ” TercumanTercuman, April 10, 1965, 1., April 10, 1965, 1.
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criticize afterwards. And the party along with its newspaper
criticize afterwards. And the party along with its newspaper pretended pretended as if the law as if the law diddid not not existexist..
The news on birth control in the mainstream press,
The news on birth control in the mainstream press, represented by represented by CumhuriyetCumhuriyet and and MilliyetMilliyet wwasas as follows. Dr. Osman Koçtürk as follows. Dr. Osman Koçtürk of of CumhuriyetCumhuriyet was highly critical about was highly critical about perceivinperceiving the excessive birth g the excessive birth rate rate as an addi-as an addi-tional cost, and not mentioning its potential contribution to develop-tional cost, and not mentioning its potential contribution to develop-ment. And for him, birth control was nothing but a plot of the Westernment. And for him, birth control was nothing but a plot of the Western powers powers against theagainst the developing countries to stop their sexual power, that developing countries to stop their sexual power, that he provocatively he provocatively callscalls as the as the onlyonly source of the nonsource of the non--developed world to developed world to stop the atomic power.stop the atomic power.246
Milliyet
Milliyet was the newspaper where the was the newspaper where the news about news about birth control wasbirth control was most frequent. On most frequent. On tthe he one hand, one hand, itit actively supported actively supported the the antinatalist antinatalist stance for health and development purposes. On April 9stance for health and development purposes. On April 9th,th, an interview an interview was was publishedpublished with a womanwith a woman who recently gave who recently gave birthbirth to her twentyto her twenty--sec-sec-ond childond child in a hospital in in a hospital in eeastern provinceastern province, with only nine still, with only nine still alivealive. In . In the interviewthe interview,, she begs for she begs for having having the pills to the pills to avoid gettingavoid getting pregnant pregnant again.again.247 On April 12On April 12thth, the first demonstration of the birth control meth-, the first demonstration of the birth control meth-ods in ods in the suburbs of the suburbs of Ankara was Ankara was iin the headlines of n the headlines of MilliyetMilliyet..248 On June On June 44thth, Haluk Cillov, the economist and the , Haluk Cillov, the economist and the pioneer pioneer antinatalist, repeated his antinatalist, repeated his arguments about the arguments about the meritsmerits of population planning in economy and so-of population planning in economy and so-cial justice.cial justice.249
O
On the other hand, the issue was hn the other hand, the issue was heavilyeavily satirized and caricatursatirized and caricatureded by by many columnists in many columnists in MilliyetMilliyet totoo, as they o, as they criticizedcriticized the the government’s in-government’s in-terference interference in fertilityfertility,, which was still which was still considered aconsidered a private matter for the private matter for the public. public. For example, in an For example, in an interview with the head of interview with the head of the the Midwives Asso-Midwives Asso-ciation, Sekine Arcan, who ciation, Sekine Arcan, who spoke out aspoke out against birth control and was gainst birth control and was tauntedtaunted by the reporter by the reporter with the with the panic of losing panic of losing herher pregnant “clientspregnant “clients,,””250 Mete Akyol satirically Mete Akyol satirically accusesaccuses the imaginary father the imaginary father who has who has four childrenfour children
246 Osman Nuri Koçtürk, “Atom Osman Nuri Koçtürk, “Atom ggücü ve ücü ve sseksüel eksüel ggüçüç,,” ” CumhuriyetCumhuriyet, June 18, 1965, 2, June 18, 1965, 2..
247 “Dağda Sosyalizasyon, ‘Yeter artık çocuk istemiyorum,” “Dağda Sosyalizasyon, ‘Yeter artık çocuk istemiyorum,” MilliyetMilliyet, April 9, 1965, April 9, 1965
248 “Gecekondu’da doğum kontrol usülleri anlatıldı“Gecekondu’da doğum kontrol usülleri anlatıldı,,” ” MilliyetMilliyet, April 12, 1965, April 12, 1965
249 Haluk Cillov, “Nüfus Haluk Cillov, “Nüfus pplanlamasılanlaması,,” ” MilliyetMilliyet, June 4, 1965, 2, June 4, 1965, 2
250 “Ebeler Derneği başkanı doğumun ko“Ebeler Derneği başkanı doğumun kontrolüne taraftar değilntrolüne taraftar değil,,” ” MilliyetMilliyet, April 28, 1965,, April 28, 1965, 11
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of
of ruinruininging the governments the governments entire entire investment investment inin birth control.birth control.251 Halit Halit Kıvanç, even exaggerates the humorKıvanç, even exaggerates the humor by by claiming that birth control offic-claiming that birth control offic-ers would seek out the mothers who ers would seek out the mothers who are unare unwilling to ask for birth con-willing to ask for birth con-trol.trol.252
The
The leftleft--leaningleaning press was represented by the daily Labor Post, press was represented by the daily Labor Post, İşci İşci PostasıPostası. The four. The four--page newspaper consisted page newspaper consisted mainly mainly of labor news, labor of labor news, labor healthhealth,, and strikes, but the editorial board did not turn and strikes, but the editorial board did not turn away from away from birth birth control. In line with their Marxist view, they were not incontrol. In line with their Marxist view, they were not interested terested in pro-in pro-moting or rebuking moting or rebuking the lawthe law, but in exposing the classes trying to exploit , but in exposing the classes trying to exploit it.it. Doctor Adnan Zentürk, Doctor Adnan Zentürk, calls the pronatalist doctors who oppose birth calls the pronatalist doctors who oppose birth control and defame it on medical grounds traitors and accuses them of control and defame it on medical grounds traitors and accuses them of looking after their own looking after their own interests so as not to lose revenue from induced interests so as not to lose revenue from induced abortionabortion..253
Two other nationwide newspapers,
Two other nationwide newspapers, AkşamAkşam and and Dünya Dünya were also were also monitored for monitored for their their birth control birth control news. news. The editorial board of The editorial board of AkşamAkşam,, un-un-der the influential editor Çetin Altander the influential editor Çetin Altan,, was in socialist tendencwas in socialist tendency, and no y, and no news or commentnews or commentary on the birth control wasary on the birth control was detected. detected. DünyaDünya, followed , followed a stricta strictlyly Kemalist path, under the authorship of the senior editorKemalist path, under the authorship of the senior editor--inin--chiefchief Falih Rıfkı AtayFalih Rıfkı Atay,, who was alsowho was also a close a close friend friend of Atatürkof Atatürk. Although . Although it did it did nonot clearly t clearly toe the toe the antinantinatalist line atalist line asas UlusUlus did, it did, it closely closely followed govern-followed govern-ment’s ment’s birth control activities and birth control activities and provided provided informinformationation on on medical an-medical an-nouncements. On May 19nouncements. On May 19thth, they informed about the , they informed about the meeting meeting of of state state health secretaries and the announcement health secretaries and the announcement ofof the the birth control birth control roadmap roadmap for. for. The The plan plan called for selecting called for selecting plot cities and villages for plot cities and villages for a sixa six-- month month contraceptive trialcontraceptive trial,, and theand then n starting to apply starting to apply nationwide birth control nationwide birth control afterwards.afterwards.254
Not the law itself but
Not the law itself but the first application in the plot cities was re-the first application in the plot cities was re-ported in most of ported in most of the the aboveabove--mentionedmentioned newspapers with different con-newspapers with different con-tenttentss reflecting their political stance. In reflecting their political stance. In AkşamAkşam and and DünyaDünya, the news was , the news was reported reported on June 13on June 13thth without further comment as without further comment as follows, follows, “The first“The first
251 Mete Akyol, “İsteyerek olmadıMete Akyol, “İsteyerek olmadı,,” ” Milliyet,Milliyet, May 5, 1965, 3May 5, 1965, 3..
252 Halit Kıvanç, “Kontrol, kontrolHalit Kıvanç, “Kontrol, kontrol,,” ” MilliyetMilliyet, June 13, 1965, 4, June 13, 1965, 4..
253 Adnan Zentürk, “Doğum Adnan Zentürk, “Doğum kkontrolü ontrolü aarpalık rpalık oolamazlamaz,,”” İşçi Postasıİşçi Postası, April , April 30, 1965, 130, 1965, 1..
254 “Doğum kontrolde tek tip ilaç isteniyor“Doğum kontrolde tek tip ilaç isteniyor,,” ” DünyaDünya, May 19, 1965, 1, May 19, 1965, 1..
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birth control trials will
birth control trials will beginbegin in Istanbul in Zeynep Kamil Hospital with in Istanbul in Zeynep Kamil Hospital with the medical contraceptive devices provided the medical contraceptive devices provided by by the Ministry of Health. the Ministry of Health. The pills and The pills and IUDIUD devices devices will be administered to volunteers by a medical will be administered to volunteers by a medical teamteam.”.”
Ulus
Ulus heralds the news with a pheralds the news with a positive packageositive package: : “The women “The women who do who do not wnot want to ant to get pregnant have started to consult to the hospitals by yes-get pregnant have started to consult to the hospitals by yes-terday.”terday.”255 In In TercumanTercuman, on the other hand, , on the other hand, the headline the headline readread “35 million “35 million children wchildren will notill not be born be born inin 35 years35 years,,” and ” and went on to say twent on to say that nohat not at a single single women asked for the contraceptive device women asked for the contraceptive device oon the first day due to the fear n the first day due to the fear of of becomingbecoming infertile.infertile.256
The editors of
The editors of Son HavadisSon Havadis were cautious in framing the news. The were cautious in framing the news. The aim, public will, time period and foreign aid waim, public will, time period and foreign aid wereere carefully stated to show carefully stated to show that ithat it was not their will but the duty. The news sat was not their will but the duty. The news saidid “The population “The population planning drill was introduced in a press conference. The planning drill was introduced in a press conference. The goal goal stated was stated was to endto end 500500,,000 abortion000 abortionss and 10and 10,,000 maternal 000 maternal deathsdeaths within five years. within five years. The public will not be forced The public will not be forced intointo population cpopulation control and the nationwide ontrol and the nationwide program will only program will only be launched be launched if the initial result of the drill is successful. if the initial result of the drill is successful. No license will be No license will be issuedissued without without committee committee approvalapproval,, and the full cost of and the full cost of the contraceptive devices will be the contraceptive devices will be covered covered by tby the American aid.” he American aid.” 257
As shown
As shown above, the nationwide press was above, the nationwide press was biased due to their biased due to their polit-polit-ical stance and ical stance and closely closely monitormonitoreded the the government'sgovernment's preparations and preparations and mobilizations about the Population Planning Law, which mobilizations about the Population Planning Law, which will be will be dis-dis-cussedcussed in the in the followingfollowing section.section.
3.3.2 Preparations and the Preparations and the MobilizationsMobilizations
This section examines the preparations and activities of family planning.
This section examines the preparations and activities of family planning. As mentioned earlier, the very first implementation of the law was the As mentioned earlier, the very first implementation of the law was the sixsix--month testmonth testing ing phase in four hospitals, namely Zeynep Kamil Mater-phase in four hospitals, namely Zeynep Kamil Mater-nity Hospital and Çapa Medicanity Hospital and Çapa Medical Faculty in Istanbul, and Hacettepe and l Faculty in Istanbul, and Hacettepe and
255 “Doğum kontrolü için gerekli ilaçlar dağıtılıyor“Doğum kontrolü için gerekli ilaçlar dağıtılıyor,,” ” UlusUlus, June 8, 1965,, June 8, 1965, 11..
256 “35 yılda 35 milyon çocuk doğmayacak“35 yılda 35 milyon çocuk doğmayacak,,” ” TercümanTercüman, June 15, 1965, , June 15, 1965, 1.1.
257 “Doğum kontrolü Haziran’“Doğum kontrolü Haziran’da başlıyorda başlıyor,,” ” Son HavadisSon Havadis, May 30, 1965. , May 30, 1965. 1.1.
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Ankara Medical Faculties in Ankara.
Ankara Medical Faculties in Ankara. And dAnd during the testuring the testing perioding period, , somesome 7,000 women applied for a 7,000 women applied for a contraceptive methodcontraceptive method..258
The detailed report o
The detailed report onn the testing period is not available, the testing period is not available, butbut the re-the re-sults of a sample sults of a sample survsurveyey conducted conducted amongamong 996 women who applied to 996 women who applied to ththeese four hospitals between November 1965 se four hospitals between November 1965 andand October 1966October 1966 werewere published by economist Haluk Cillov published by economist Haluk Cillov inin two consecutive articles.two consecutive articles.259 Re-Re-garding cumulative outcomes, about 57% of women who requested con-garding cumulative outcomes, about 57% of women who requested con-traception wetraception were under 30 years of age, and 64% of these applicants had re under 30 years of age, and 64% of these applicants had three or more children. three or more children.
Regarding employment level, only 71 of the 996 women were em-
Regarding employment level, only 71 of the 996 women were em-ployed, and the rest were housewives. And about 50% of the women ap-ployed, and the rest were housewives. And about 50% of the women ap-plicants were illiterate. Thus, the survey conplicants were illiterate. Thus, the survey confirms that the higherfirms that the higher--status status women were not interested in applying for the governmentwomen were not interested in applying for the government--sponsored sponsored FPP because they already had this privilege through their own initiative.FPP because they already had this privilege through their own initiative.
After the testing period which
After the testing period which proved sproved successful, the Family Planning uccessful, the Family Planning General DirectorGeneral Directorateate, establis, established under the Ministry of Health immedi-hed under the Ministry of Health immedi-ately ately began setting up began setting up Family Planning Clinics (FPC) in hospitalFamily Planning Clinics (FPC) in hospitalss, mater-, mater-nity clinics, health centersnity clinics, health centers,, and in mother and childcare centers. and in mother and childcare centers.
Additionally, mobile teams were organized to reach remote villag
Additionally, mobile teams were organized to reach remote villages. es. Table 3.13Table 3.13 demonstratesdemonstrates the number of clinics established between 1965 the number of clinics established between 1965 and 197and 19711,, together with together with IUDIUD insertions by clinics, mobile insertions by clinics, mobile teams,teams, and in-and in-spectionsspections. And. And within swithin seveneven years, the number of clinics years, the number of clinics rose rose toto 506506, and , and the the IUDIUD insertions to insertions to 309309,,977977..
Furthermore, a
Furthermore, a series of nationwide and local seminars and work-series of nationwide and local seminars and work-shops were also organized to train health personnel to work in these clin-shops were also organized to train health personnel to work in these clin-ics and mobile teams. By the end of 1967, 267 physicians, 455 ics and mobile teams. By the end of 1967, 267 physicians, 455
258 “Yedi bin kadın doğum kontrolünden geçti“Yedi bin kadın doğum kontrolünden geçti,,” ” MilliyetMilliyet, November 17, 1965, November 17, 1965
259 Haluk Cillov, “Aile Planlaması Eğiliminde Yeni Gelişmeler," Haluk Cillov, “Aile Planlaması Eğiliminde Yeni Gelişmeler," Istanbul Üniversitesi İktisat Istanbul Üniversitesi İktisat Fakültesi MecmuasıFakültesi Mecmuası, 25, no. 3 (1966): 138, 25, no. 3 (1966): 138--167; Haluk Cillov, “Aile Plan167; Haluk Cillov, “Aile Planlaması Eğilimin-laması Eğilimin-deki Gelişmeler Hakkında Anket Sonuçları,"deki Gelişmeler Hakkında Anket Sonuçları," Istanbul Üniversitesi İktisat Fakültesi Mec-Istanbul Üniversitesi İktisat Fakültesi Mec-muasımuası, 25, no. 4 (1966): 1, 25, no. 4 (1966): 1--25;25;
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gynecologists, 2
gynecologists, 2,,712 midwives, 2712 midwives, 2,,022 health officials, and 790 nurses had 022 health officials, and 790 nurses had been trained to been trained to apply apply family planning methodsfamily planning methods..260
Table 3.
Table 3.1313 Family Family pplanning lanning cclinics and linics and IUDIUD insertioninsertionss 19651965--19719711. .
IUD
IUD InsertionsInsertions YearYear Number of Number of ClinicsClinics By Clinics By Clinics By Mobile By Mobile TeamsTeams By By InspectionInspection TOTALTOTAL 19651965 1010 5,1935,193 -- -- 5,1935,193 19661966 243243 31,34931,349 683683 1,0301,030 33,06233,062 19671967 308308 37,01237,012 6,6826,682 2,2362,236 46,03046,030 19681968 462462 49,29749,297 7,6457,645 1,6691,669 58,59358,593 19691969 490 49,71149,711 9,0949,094 1,5261,526 60,33160,331 19701970 499499 50,46250,462 5,2385,238 1,4601,460 57,18057,180 19711971 506 4411,,451451 66,,207207 1,1,933933 4949,,591591 TOTALTOTAL -- 226464,,475475 3535,,549549 88,,854854 309309,,977977
SOURCE
SOURCE: : Annual Health Statistics 1964Annual Health Statistics 1964--1967, 19681967, 1968--1972.1972.261
On the promotion side, a nationwide family planning
On the promotion side, a nationwide family planning advertising cam-advertising cam-paign paign was conducted through the was conducted through the distribution of brochures, posters, bul-distribution of brochures, posters, bul-letins, and radio broadcasts (see Table 3.14)letins, and radio broadcasts (see Table 3.14), whereas t, whereas the distribution of he distribution of ththeese brochures, postersse brochures, posters,, and bulletins reached 745and bulletins reached 745,,672 units 672 units over over five five years. years. Moreover, in 1968, Moreover, in 1968, aa 3030--minute propaganda movie, namely “Elif’sminute propaganda movie, namely “Elif’s MiseryMisery,,” was shot as a harsh demonstration of a deep contrast between ” was shot as a harsh demonstration of a deep contrast between users and nonusers and non--users of family planningusers of family planning..262
The Ministry of Education planned to emphasize human reproduc-
The Ministry of Education planned to emphasize human reproduc-tion in middle and high school biology courses beginning in the 1965tion in middle and high school biology courses beginning in the 1965--66 66 school yeschool year, and to include the social, economic, and political implications ar, and to include the social, economic, and political implications of rapid growth in social studies classes.of rapid growth in social studies classes. In addition, tIn addition, two educational pro-wo educational pro-grams were provided for members of the armed forces, one for married grams were provided for members of the armed forces, one for married
260 Ministry of Health, Population Planning Directorate, Ministry of Health, Population Planning Directorate, Nüfus Plânlaması Çalışmaları: Nüfus Plânlaması Çalışmaları: 19661966--1967 yılları faaliyetlerinin t1967 yılları faaliyetlerinin tahlilleri ve 1968 yılı faaliyet programahlilleri ve 1968 yılı faaliyet programıı (Ankara: Sağlık(Ankara: Sağlık ve Sosyal Yardım Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1968), 21.ve Sosyal Yardım Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1968), 21.
261 Ministry of Health, Ministry of Health, ““Tıbbi İstatistik Yıllığı 1964Tıbbi İstatistik Yıllığı 1964--19671967,”,” 300300,, and Ministry of Health, and Ministry of Health, ““TıbTıbbi bi İstatistik Yıllığı 1968İstatistik Yıllığı 1968--19721972,,"" 333333..
262 “Elif’in “Elif’in ççilesi ilesi ffilminin ilminin ççekimleri ekimleri ttamamlandıamamlandı,”,” Nüfus Planlaması HaberleriNüfus Planlaması Haberleri, 18, (1968), 3., 18, (1968), 3.
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soldiers and one for all
soldiers and one for all soldiers to be condsoldiers to be conducted shortly before their re-ucted shortly before their re-lease from active duty.lease from active duty.263
Table 3.
Table 3.1414 Promotional Promotional aactivities octivities onn ppopulation opulation ccontrol 1966ontrol 1966--1970. 1970.
Publications Distributed
Publications Distributed
Year
Year
Radio
Radio TalksTalks
Seminars
Seminars
Brochures
Brochures
Posters
Posters
Bulletins
Bulletins 19661966 44 22 50,00050,000 25,00025,000 --
1967
1967
4
4
4
4
100,000
100,000
50,000
50,000
65,000
65,000 19681968 55 44 58,71758,717 3,2893,289 91,80091,800
1969
1969
6
6
5
5
46,974
46,974
2,634
2,634
93,000
93,000 19701970 5 66 60,71960,719 3,7893,789 94,75094,750
TOTAL
TOTAL
24
24
21
21
316,410
316,410
84,712
84,712
344,550
344,550
SOURCE
SOURCE: : AnnualAnnual Health Statistics 1964Health Statistics 1964--1967, 19681967, 1968--1972.1972.264
Furthermore, the first National Family Planning Seminar was held in June
Furthermore, the first National Family Planning Seminar was held in June 1967, 1967, with the participation of 39 public and private institutions.with the participation of 39 public and private institutions.265 Turk-Turk-ish Family Planning Association too institutionalized in 25 cities, opened ish Family Planning Association too institutionalized in 25 cities, opened 13 clinics13 clinics,, and held seminars and training activitiesand held seminars and training activities nationwidenationwide..266 As As forfor periodical periodical publicationspublications,, a monthly a monthly ffamily amily pplanning lanning pperiodical, namely eriodical, namely Nüfus Planlaması Haberleri,Nüfus Planlaması Haberleri, waswas launched launched inin December 1966December 1966,, with with 1010,000,000 copies copies to disseminate to disseminate population planning achievements and best population planning achievements and best practices.practices.267
Regarding
Regarding the production and distribution of the production and distribution of contraceptivecontraceptive materi-materi-als, the als, the IUDIUD’s w’s wereere started to be produced locally and half started to be produced locally and half a a million con-million con-traceptive pills were distributed traceptive pills were distributed free of charge in the clinics along with free of charge in the clinics along with
263 Ayşe Akın, “Emergence of the Family Planning Program in Turkey,” in Ayşe Akın, “Emergence of the Family Planning Program in Turkey,” in The Global Family The Global Family Planning Revolution: Three Decades of Population PoliciePlanning Revolution: Three Decades of Population Policies and Programss and Programs, ed. Warren A. , ed. Warren A. Robinson and John A. Ross (Washington D.C.: The World Bank, 2007), 85Robinson and John A. Ross (Washington D.C.: The World Bank, 2007), 85--101.101.
264 Ministry of Health, Ministry of Health, ““Tıbbi İstatistik Yıllığı 1964Tıbbi İstatistik Yıllığı 1964--19671967,,” 300” 300, , and and Ministry of Health, Ministry of Health, “Tıb“Tıbbi bi İstatistik Yıllığı 1968İstatistik Yıllığı 1968--1972,1972,"" 333.333.
265 Aile Planlaması Birinci Milli Semineri Tanıtım Kitapçığı, 15Aile Planlaması Birinci Milli Semineri Tanıtım Kitapçığı, 15--17 Haziran 1967.17 Haziran 1967.
266 “Türkiye “Türkiye AAile ile PPlanlaması Derneğilanlaması Derneği’’nin nin ççalışmaları alışmaları hhızla ızla ggelişmekteelişmekte,”,” Nüfus Planlaması Nüfus Planlaması Haberleri,Haberleri, 37, (1970), 3.37, (1970), 3.
267 Ministry of Health, Population Planning Directorate, Ministry of Health, Population Planning Directorate, Nüfus Plânlaması Çalışmaları : Nüfus Plânlaması Çalışmaları : 19661966--1967 yılları faaliyetlerinin tahlilleri ve 19681967 yılları faaliyetlerinin tahlilleri ve 1968 yılı faaliyet programıyılı faaliyet programı, , 2277--30.30.
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the 1.5 million tablets.
the 1.5 million tablets.268 For all thFor all theese equipment’s and expenditures se equipment’s and expenditures onon population control, the government allocated some 2population control, the government allocated some 2..3%3% of the annual of the annual health budget.health budget.269
In terms of the
In terms of the production of knowledge, production of knowledge, as inas in many other develop-many other develop-ing countries, a population institute, HUNEE, was established in 1968ing countries, a population institute, HUNEE, was established in 1968 with foreign with foreign assistance. assistance. The Ford Foundation granted The Ford Foundation granted $$ 375375,,000 between 000 between 1967 and 1970 for1967 and 1970 for the institute,the institute,270 whwhich ich conductedconducted scientific studies on scientific studies on population and family planningpopulation and family planning, together with , together with periodical KAP surveysperiodical KAP surveys. .
Foreign
Foreign aidaid for population control was further generated from sev-for population control was further generated from sev-eral sources. eral sources. In early 1967, TIn early 1967, The he Population Council granted Population Council granted $ $ 252500,,000 to 000 to Hacettepe Science CenteHacettepe Science Centerr for use over a for use over a fourfour--yearyear period period to establish fam-to establish fam-ily planning clinics for research, training, and demonstration in the field ily planning clinics for research, training, and demonstration in the field of population controlof population control..271
In January 1967, a
In January 1967, a $ $ 33,,600600,,000 loan agreement was signed between 000 loan agreement was signed between USAID and the Turkish USAID and the Turkish ggovernment for the purchase of 1,400 jeeps to be overnment for the purchase of 1,400 jeeps to be used used for mobile for mobile population control population control team.team.272 However, this firstHowever, this first--ever ever USAID global population control initiative failed due to lack of coordina-USAID global population control initiative failed due to lack of coordina-tion ation and cumbersome bureaucracynd cumbersome bureaucracy and and only 650 of these jeeps were pur-only 650 of these jeeps were pur-chased in 1970chased in 1970..273 This bureaucratic incident This bureaucratic incident may may be the reason why be the reason why USAID invited about twenty Turkish deputies to the US and Western USAID invited about twenty Turkish deputies to the US and Western
268 Ibid., 21.Ibid., 21.
269 Ibid., 33Ibid., 33--35.35.
270 The Ford FaundationThe Ford Faundation, , Annual ReportsAnnual Reports (1967(1967--1970)1970), , .1967(p.117) 1968(p.126), .1967(p.117) 1968(p.126), 1969(p.139), 1970(p.70).1969(p.139), 1970(p.70).
271 Murat Erden and Kenneth W.Murat Erden and Kenneth W. Rose, "American Philanthropy Rose, "American Philanthropy iin Republican Turkey; The n Republican Turkey; The Rockefeller and Ford FoundationsRockefeller and Ford Foundations,," " The Turkish Yearbook of International Relations The Turkish Yearbook of International Relations (2000)(2000),, 131131--157.157.
272 Prime Ministry, “Hükümetimizle AID arasında imzalanan Karayolları Ekipmanı 2. Prime Ministry, “Hükümetimizle AID arasında imzalanan Karayolları Ekipmanı 2. Kredisi ve Nüfus Planlaması ve Köy Sağlık Ocaklarına yardım anlaşmalarının Kredisi ve Nüfus Planlaması ve Köy Sağlık Ocaklarına yardım anlaşmalarının onaylanması" (Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30.18.1.2 / 202.1.16, January 4, 1967)onaylanması" (Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30.18.1.2 / 202.1.16, January 4, 1967)..
273 Prime Ministry, “Milletlerarası Kalkınma Teşkilatı (AID)'ndan sağlanan krediyle finanse Prime Ministry, “Milletlerarası Kalkınma Teşkilatı (AID)'ndan sağlanan krediyle finanse edilmek ve nüfus planlaması ve köy sağlık ocakları hizmetlerinde kullanılmak üzere edilmek ve nüfus planlaması ve köy sağlık ocakları hizmetlerinde kullanılmak üzere araç satınalınması." (Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30.18.1.2 / 250.33.19, Maaraç satınalınması." (Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30.18.1.2 / 250.33.19, May 9, y 9, 1970).1970).
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Europe
Europe a year latera year later to to eeducateducate tthem hem about the world populatioabout the world population problem n problem and contraceptive and contraceptive technologies andtechnologies and papaidid all the all the expensesexpenses..274
Not only the US, but also
Not only the US, but also thethe SSwedish government was keen to sup-wedish government was keen to sup-port the country port the country withwith population control, population control, having having donated 500donated 500,000,000 SwedishSwedish krona krona worth of contraceptive materials to worth of contraceptive materials to the the TuTurkish govern-rkish govern-ment by 1967.ment by 1967.275
The above
The above--mentioned coordination demonstrates a mutual consen-mentioned coordination demonstrates a mutual consen-sus between the global and national spheres on population control activ-sus between the global and national spheres on population control activ-ities, but ities, but only only as long as it serveas long as it servess the purpose of each the purpose of each spheresphere. These dif-. These dif-ferferinging views views areare illustrated illustrated with some key encountwith some key encounters in the next section.ers in the next section.
3.3.3 Key EncountersKey Encounters
During the implementation phase of the Population Planning Law, indi-
During the implementation phase of the Population Planning Law, indi-viduals, viduals, groupsgroups and institutions of the global, national and individual and institutions of the global, national and individual spheres have interacted and interinfluenced with the different life forms spheres have interacted and interinfluenced with the different life forms ofof the other spheres in the other spheres in the the Foucauldian and Agambenian sense. ThFoucauldian and Agambenian sense. Theese se encounters also crystallize the intentions, hidden encounters also crystallize the intentions, hidden agendas,agendas, and negotia-and negotia-tions that this dissertation tions that this dissertation seeks to uncoverseeks to uncover. Therefore. Therefore, this section, this section ex-ex-plores plores some key encounters some key encounters that underliethat underlie variovarious, us, mostly conflicting po-mostly conflicting po-litical, litical, economic,economic, and social and social positions positions on population policon population policy.y.
A
A very very specialspecial encounter between the global and the national encounter between the global and the national spherespheress was the was the exchange of lettersexchange of letters between John D. Rockefeller 3between John D. Rockefeller 3rdrd and and the Turkish Prime Minister Suleymanthe Turkish Prime Minister Suleyman Demirel Demirel between November 1966 between November 1966 and January 1967and January 1967. . Hoping to initiate an institutionalization of population Hoping to initiate an institutionalization of population control within the UN, John D. Rockefeller 3control within the UN, John D. Rockefeller 3rdrd drafted a statement on the drafted a statement on the global need and willingness for family planning and sent it to the heads global need and willingness for family planning and sent it to the heads
274 Prime Ministry, “Miletlerarası Kalkınma Teşkilatı (AID)nın daveti üzerine Dünya Nüfus Prime Ministry, “Miletlerarası Kalkınma Teşkilatı (AID)nın daveti üzerine Dünya Nüfus Sorunu ve Aile Planlaması Metodları Teknolojisi konularında Amerika'da inceleme yap-Sorunu ve Aile Planlaması Metodları Teknolojisi konularında Amerika'da inceleme yap-mak üzere 20 kişinin gönderilmesi." (Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30mak üzere 20 kişinin gönderilmesi." (Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30.18.1.2 / .18.1.2 / 271.67.5, September 10, 1971).271.67.5, September 10, 1971).
275 Prime Ministry, “Nüfus Planlama Programı için Sağlık Bakanlığı'na ve Prime Ministry, “Nüfus Planlama Programı için Sağlık Bakanlığı'na ve IIstanbul Yapağı stanbul Yapağı Muayene ve Araştırma Laboratuvarlarına gönderilen malzemenin her türlü vergiden Muayene ve Araştırma Laboratuvarlarına gönderilen malzemenin her türlü vergiden muaf tutulması." (Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30.18.1.2 / 209.53.4, July 5, 1967). muaf tutulması." (Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30.18.1.2 / 209.53.4, July 5, 1967).
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of
of state of developing countries where population control had already be-state of developing countries where population control had already be-gun, and he asked them to sign itgun, and he asked them to sign it. .
When Rockefeller made known his high hopes for Turkish leadership
When Rockefeller made known his high hopes for Turkish leadership in the Muslim world on population control during his February 1966 in the Muslim world on population control during his February 1966 visitvisit,,276 he had nhe had no doubt that Turkish Prime Minister Suleyman Demirel o doubt that Turkish Prime Minister Suleyman Demirel would approve the letter sent on September 26, 1966.would approve the letter sent on September 26, 1966. Yet, Yet, after after learninglearning from the Turkish from the Turkish aambassador mbassador that thethat the Turkish governments Turkish governments was reluc-was reluc-tanttant to sign tto sign the declaration, Rockefeller sent another he declaration, Rockefeller sent another letter to Demirelletter to Demirel further elaboratfurther elaborating on ing on the urgency of the matter on November 30,the urgency of the matter on November 30, 1966. 1966.
Demirel’s
Demirel’s official response was received official response was received onon January 7, 1967, stating January 7, 1967, stating that although the government warmly sharethat although the government warmly sharedd the population control ob-the population control ob-jectives, the time jectives, the time waswas not not yet yet ripe for a global consensus and ripe for a global consensus and that that private private initiatiinitiativesves with a marginal support could with a marginal support could exacerbate exacerbate the controversy. the controversy. Rockefeller thenRockefeller then sensentt another letter to Demirel on January 31,another letter to Demirel on January 31, 1967,1967, ex-ex-pressing pressing his disappointment. The original his disappointment. The original correspondence iscorrespondence is demon-demon-strated in Attachment II.strated in Attachment II.
In hindsight, Demirel was not correct in his assertion about marginal
In hindsight, Demirel was not correct in his assertion about marginal support that might increase the controvesupport that might increase the controversy. The original declaration, rsy. The original declaration, signed by twelve heads of state and government on December 9, 1966, signed by twelve heads of state and government on December 9, 1966, was warmly welcomed at was warmly welcomed at the UNthe UN..277 A week laterA week later, a draft resolution on , a draft resolution on economic development and population controleconomic development and population control, inten, intendded ed to beto be a break-a break-through for the UN pothrough for the UN population control pulation control activitiesactivities,, was unanimously was unanimously adoptedadopted.. 278 A year later, on December 11, 1967, 18 new signatories were A year later, on December 11, 1967, 18 new signatories were added to the declaration, including the other CENTO members Iran and added to the declaration, including the other CENTO members Iran and Pakistan,Pakistan,279 but Turkeybut Turkey’s signature was still ’s signature was still missing.missing.
So why has the Turkish government hesitated to side with the inter-
So why has the Turkish government hesitated to side with the inter-national antinatalist bloc, even though the population planning law was national antinatalist bloc, even though the population planning law was
276 “Rockefeller 'Türkiye doğum kontrolünde önderlik edebilir'” “Rockefeller 'Türkiye doğum kontrolünde önderlik edebilir'” MilliyetMilliyet, February 25, , February 25, 1966.1966.
277 Stanley P. Johnson, Stanley P. Johnson, World Population and the United NatioWorld Population and the United Nationn (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-(Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-versity Press, 1987), 24versity Press, 1987), 24--25.25.
278 United Nations GeneralUnited Nations General Assembly, “Population Control and Economic DevelopmentAssembly, “Population Control and Economic Development,”,” A/RES/2211(XXI)A/RES/2211(XXI) E/SR.1480, 43E/SR.1480, 43rdrd Session (Geneva, December 17, 1966).Session (Geneva, December 17, 1966).
279 Ayala and Caradon, “DAyala and Caradon, “Declaration on Population: The World Leaders Statement.”eclaration on Population: The World Leaders Statement.”, 1., 1.
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officially passed a year ago?
officially passed a year ago? As mentioned in the previous section, AP was As mentioned in the previous section, AP was the main source of resistance to populationthe main source of resistance to population control, because the political control, because the political root of AP, as root of AP, as ofof DP before them, was based on rural voters among whom DP before them, was based on rural voters among whom nationalist and religious sentiments against antinatalist policies were nationalist and religious sentiments against antinatalist policies were still strong. still strong. And thus, And thus, Demirel, who was known as a proDemirel, who was known as a pro--American politi-American politi-cian,cian,280 wawas s wary of engaging in wary of engaging in population controlpopulation control,, despite economic despite economic and political pressures from abroad, as well as military coercion and legal and political pressures from abroad, as well as military coercion and legal obligations.obligations.
Another global national interaction on population control
Another global national interaction on population control took place took place in a scientific venuein a scientific venue. . TThe Second Worldhe Second World Population ConferencePopulation Conference was held was held in in Belgrade in September 1965, Belgrade in September 1965, only only a few months after the a few months after the law was law was passedpassed,, and the and the Turkish delegation Turkish delegation had a strong presence with nine had a strong presence with nine prominent figuresprominent figures from from the fields of the fields of statistics, economstatistics, economicsics, demography, demography,, and planning.and planning.281
H
However, the only presentation by Turkish participants, given by Ke-owever, the only presentation by Turkish participants, given by Ke-mal mal ÖzÖzok, ok, was not relatedwas not related to the discourse on overpopulation or popula-to the discourse on overpopulation or popula-tion control measures, but to urbanization causing additional tion control measures, but to urbanization causing additional costscosts and and inefficiencinefficiencies inies in services,services, where he recommendedwhere he recommended iincreasncreasinging nonnon--agri-agri-cultural and agricultural investments in rural areas to prevent further mi-cultural and agricultural investments in rural areas to prevent further mi-gration flowgration flowss..282 Apparently, the global national divide Apparently, the global national divide on the overpopu-on the overpopu-lation discourse lation discourse was was felt notfelt not only in the political arena but also only in the political arena but also among among the the scientific scientific cadrecadre,, as they as they too weretoo were reluctant to reluctant to taketake a clear a clear antinatalist antinatalist stance. stance.
280 Demirel's proDemirel's pro--Americanism was nicknamed "Morrison Suleyman" in the press, alluding Americanism was nicknamed "Morrison Suleyman" in the press, alluding to his previous job before joining AP as to his previous job before joining AP as distributor ofdistributor of an American company in Turkey.an American company in Turkey.
281 Sabahaddin Alpat, (President, State Institute of Statistics), Ratip Yüceuluğ (Head of re-Sabahaddin Alpat, (President, State Institute of Statistics), Ratip Yüceuluğ (Head of re-search, State Institute of Statistics), Aydin Akad (Director, State Institute of Statistics), search, State Institute of Statistics), Aydin Akad (Director, State Institute of Statistics), Turgut Metiner (Director, Ministry of HTurgut Metiner (Director, Ministry of Health Population Planning), Sevket Eker (Direc-ealth Population Planning), Sevket Eker (Direc-tor, Ministry of Internal Affairs), Kemal Özok (Demographer, Ministry of Reconstruction tor, Ministry of Internal Affairs), Kemal Özok (Demographer, Ministry of Reconstruction and Resettlement), Haluk Cillov, (Professor in economics), Kenan Gürtan, (Assistant and Resettlement), Haluk Cillov, (Professor in economics), Kenan Gürtan, (Assistant Professor in economics), Orhan Türkay Professor in economics), Orhan Türkay (Assistant Professor in political sciences),(Assistant Professor in political sciences),
282 United Nations, United Nations, “Proceedings of the World Population Conference, Belgrade 1965, Vol-“Proceedings of the World Population Conference, Belgrade 1965, Vol-ume IV: Migration, Urbanization, Economic Development ‘Urbanization and internal mi-ume IV: Migration, Urbanization, Economic Development ‘Urbanization and internal mi-gration in Turkey’ by Kemal Özok,” E/CONF.41/5 (New York: United Nations, 1967), 466.gration in Turkey’ by Kemal Özok,” E/CONF.41/5 (New York: United Nations, 1967), 466.
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The last selection of encounters were the CENTO conferences on FPP.
The last selection of encounters were the CENTO conferences on FPP. As mentioned earlier, CENTO was a military organization bAs mentioned earlier, CENTO was a military organization between Tur-etween Tur-key, Iran, and Pakistan under the auspices of the US and UK to shield the key, Iran, and Pakistan under the auspices of the US and UK to shield the communist threatcommunist threat..283 However, it soon evolved into a technical coopera-However, it soon evolved into a technical coopera-tion, implementing and funding hundreds of projects in the fields of com-tion, implementing and funding hundreds of projects in the fields of com-munications, infrastructure, agmunications, infrastructure, agriculture, and health. In addition, technol-riculture, and health. In addition, technol-ogy and knowledge were exchanged through conferences and seminars, ogy and knowledge were exchanged through conferences and seminars, and family planning was no exceptionand family planning was no exception..284
The security fears of NATO regarding rapid population growth in the
The security fears of NATO regarding rapid population growth in the developing world as a breeding ground developing world as a breeding ground for communism were fully shared for communism were fully shared by his semiby his semi--governmental replica, CENTO, and its membersgovernmental replica, CENTO, and its members..285 Therefore, Therefore, population control was gradually integrated into the organization's population control was gradually integrated into the organization's health and statistics conferences and then became a topic of discussion health and statistics conferences and then became a topic of discussion in its own riin its own right.ght.
In November 1968, Yaşar Yaşe
In November 1968, Yaşar Yaşerr, the secretary of the Turkish Statisti-, the secretary of the Turkish Statisti-cal Institute, made a presentation on cal Institute, made a presentation on ffamily amily pplanning lanning mmethods ethods atat a a CENTO Symposium on CENTO Symposium on ststatistical atistical ddemography in Karachi, Pakistanemography in Karachi, Pakistan, in , in which he reported which he reported the initial outcomes of the popthe initial outcomes of the population control imple-ulation control imple-mentation through surveymentation through surveyss in Etimesgut district and Ankara Maternity in Etimesgut district and Ankara Maternity Hospital.Hospital.286
In the spring of 1971, family planning became a topic in its own right
In the spring of 1971, family planning became a topic in its own right for a series of workshops in Ankara, Tehran, and Lahore, at which many for a series of workshops in Ankara, Tehran, and Lahore, at which many aspects of faspects of family planning methods, goals, and results were presented amily planning methods, goals, and results were presented from each countryfrom each country..287 Yet, all the presentations shared a common theme, Yet, all the presentations shared a common theme, the virtue of population controlthe virtue of population control, , without questioning it.without questioning it.
283 Behçet Kemal Yeşilbursa, “CENTO: Behçet Kemal Yeşilbursa, “CENTO: TThe he FForgotten orgotten AAlliance in the Middle East (1959lliance in the Middle East (1959--1979,” 1979,” Middle Eastern StudiesMiddle Eastern Studies 56, no. 6 (2020): 85456, no. 6 (2020): 854––877.877.
284 Ibid., 862Ibid., 862--868.868.
285 NATO, “Basic Assumptions for Long Term Threat AssessmentNATO, “Basic Assumptions for Long Term Threat Assessment,”,” LOM 87/62, (Paris, May LOM 87/62, (Paris, May 18, 1962).18, 1962).
286 Yaşar Yaşar YaşeYaşerr, “Family Planning Practices,", “Family Planning Practices," Symposium on Demographic Statistics,Symposium on Demographic Statistics, Karachi Karachi Pakistan, November 5Pakistan, November 5--12, 1968.12, 1968.
287 CENTO Workshop Series on Clinical and Applied Research in Family Planning, Ankara CENTO Workshop Series on Clinical and Applied Research in Family Planning, Ankara Turkey, February 23Turkey, February 23--26, Tehran Iran, March 126, Tehran Iran, March 1--4, Lahore Pakistan, March 12, 1971. 4, Lahore Pakistan, March 12, 1971.
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Those three sample encounters
Those three sample encounters were selected to were selected to revealreveal the diver-the diver-gencesgences and intersections and intersections between the global and national spheres in between the global and national spheres in terms of the political, scientific, and security aspects of population con-terms of the political, scientific, and security aspects of population con-trol, trol, whichwhich this dissertation claims that it varies on the basis of the capa-this dissertation claims that it varies on the basis of the capa-bility and the functioning of each sphere. bility and the functioning of each sphere.
The next two sections address the extent to which the national
The next two sections address the extent to which the national sphere's motivation and rhetoric regarding population control influ-sphere's motivation and rhetoric regarding population control influ-enced the investment decision and individual response to the population enced the investment decision and individual response to the population planning work planned and carried out by the national planning work planned and carried out by the national sphere.sphere.
3.3.4 PPolitical Orientation olitical Orientation in Population Control Investment andin Population Control Investment and Public Public ReactionReaction..
In this section, the political orientation of the population control invest-
In this section, the political orientation of the population control invest-ment will be utilized to verify whether the arguments been discussed in ment will be utilized to verify whether the arguments been discussed in the previous the previous sectionssections,, such as Malthusianism, public health, developmen-such as Malthusianism, public health, developmen-talism, urbanizationtalism, urbanization,, and security concernsand security concerns,, had had a a notablenotable impact on the impact on the policy implementation process.policy implementation process. Moreover, Moreover, public reaction to those invest-public reaction to those invest-ments will be tracked to explore whether ments will be tracked to explore whether contraceptivcontraceptive use we use wasas in line in line with the with the governmental investment on the population controlgovernmental investment on the population control..
For this purpose, a
For this purpose, a combination of dataset was gathered combination of dataset was gathered per provin-per provin-cial district cial district as enlisted in Appendix C. In terms of the as enlisted in Appendix C. In terms of the political orientation political orientation population controlpopulation control, , FPCFPC investment per provincial district was selected investment per provincial district was selected as the as the dependent variabledependent variable. . The FPCs established throughout the country The FPCs established throughout the country were the epicenter of population planning activities and main population were the epicenter of population planning activities and main population control investment items. According to the Family Planning Direcontrol investment items. According to the Family Planning Directorate’s ctorate’s activity report, the annual cost of each FPC was 7,000 TL as of 1967, activity report, the annual cost of each FPC was 7,000 TL as of 1967, whereas the total cost of nationwide FPCs accounted for 52% of annual whereas the total cost of nationwide FPCs accounted for 52% of annual family planning budget.family planning budget.288
288 Ministry of Health, Population Planning Directorate, Ministry of Health, Population Planning Directorate, Nüfus Plânlaması Çalışmaları: Nüfus Plânlaması Çalışmaları: 19661966--11967 yılları faaliyetlerinin tahlilleri ve 1968 yılı faaliyet Programı967 yılları faaliyetlerinin tahlilleri ve 1968 yılı faaliyet Programı, 30, 30--35.35.
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THE DATA
THE DATA
The number of FPCs per provincial district was derived from
The number of FPCs per provincial district was derived from the the MinistrMinistry y of Health inventory list of 1971. FPC investmentsof Health inventory list of 1971. FPC investments first started in a small first started in a small scale right after the legalization of population planning in 1965 and then scale right after the legalization of population planning in 1965 and then increased exponentially as shown in Table 3.13. The Health Ministry pub-increased exponentially as shown in Table 3.13. The Health Ministry pub-lication on the FPC location per lication on the FPC location per provincial district was available for the provincial district was available for the year 1971,year 1971,289 therefore the analysis is based on a seventherefore the analysis is based on a seven--year investment year investment period. The available data did not allow further analysis to distinguish period. The available data did not allow further analysis to distinguish between rural and urban areas, which could have enriched the results.between rural and urban areas, which could have enriched the results.
For the public reaction to FPC investments, the key outcome of the
For the public reaction to FPC investments, the key outcome of the population control investment, the population control investment, the IUDIUD insertionsinsertions,, wwereere tracked pertracked per pro-pro-vincial districtvincial district. . The Population Planning Directorate has conducted peri-The Population Planning Directorate has conducted peri-odical odical IUDIUD followfollow--up surveys to identify the demographic and social char-up surveys to identify the demographic and social char-acteristics of acteristics of IUDIUD users across the country and published them users across the country and published them annually.annually.290 Another aim of these surveys was to gather information Another aim of these surveys was to gather information on on IUDIUD extractions. Results of the 1969 followextractions. Results of the 1969 follow--up survey evidenced that up survey evidenced that 38% of 38% of IUDIUD users had the device extracted within twelve months, mostly users had the device extracted within twelve months, mostly because of side effects. Yet these data were nationwide and could not be because of side effects. Yet these data were nationwide and could not be broken down by provincial district. broken down by provincial district.
On
On the other hand, the other hand, IUDIUD insertions were published on insertions were published on Nüfus Planla-Nüfus Planla-ması Haberleriması Haberleri Periodical Periodical on a monthly basis and per provincial district on a monthly basis and per provincial district between August 1967 and September 1970. The figures also included the between August 1967 and September 1970. The figures also included the mobile team’s insertion as well, which provides a momobile team’s insertion as well, which provides a more comprehensive re comprehensive view of the implementation.view of the implementation.291 Therefore, Therefore, similar to FPCs similar to FPCs these monthly these monthly IUDIUD insertion data was insertion data was also also tabulated and paired with the number of clin-tabulated and paired with the number of clin-ics in the per 67 provincial districts to track four years of population con-ics in the per 67 provincial districts to track four years of population con-trol investment and trol investment and implementation between 1967 and 1970. As with the implementation between 1967 and 1970. As with the
289 MinMinistry of Health, Population Planning Directorate, istry of Health, Population Planning Directorate, Sağlık ve Sosyal Yardım Bakanlığı Sağlık ve Sosyal Yardım Bakanlığı ile Çeşitli Kuruluşlara ait Sağlık, Sağlık Öğretimi ve Sosyal Hizmet Tesisleriile Çeşitli Kuruluşlara ait Sağlık, Sağlık Öğretimi ve Sosyal Hizmet Tesisleri (A(Ankara, Janu-nkara, Janu-ary 1, 1972).ary 1, 1972).
290 Ministry of Health, Population Planning Directorate, Ministry of Health, Population Planning Directorate, 1969 Yılı Rahim İçi Takip Araştır-1969 Yılı Rahim İçi Takip Araştır-masıması
291 Ministry of Health, Population Planning Directorate, Ministry of Health, Population Planning Directorate, Nüfus Planlaması HaberleriNüfus Planlaması Haberleri, 1, 1--44, 44, (Ankara, 1966(Ankara, 1966--1970).1970).
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FPC investment,
FPC investment, IUDIUD insertion data are only available on a provincial dis-insertion data are only available on a provincial dis-trict basis, with no distinction between urban and rural. trict basis, with no distinction between urban and rural.
As to the criteria for the investment of these
As to the criteria for the investment of these FPCsFPCs and and the the use of use of IUDIUDss, , sseveral everal variables were gathered reflectvariables were gathered reflectinging the combination of the parlia-the combination of the parlia-mentary discussions during the voting process mentioned in Table 3.11 mentary discussions during the voting process mentioned in Table 3.11 (Malthusian debate, development discourse(Malthusian debate, development discourse, health issue,, health issue,) and the coun-) and the coun-try specific vulnerabilities (urbanization antry specific vulnerabilities (urbanization and ethnic conflicts) mentioned d ethnic conflicts) mentioned in Chapter 2.3. in Chapter 2.3. These “These “independent variablesindependent variables”” are total population with are total population with urban rural distinction, migration to the three metropolitan cities, devel-urban rural distinction, migration to the three metropolitan cities, devel-opment index, fertility, infant mortality, abortion, and the Kurdish opment index, fertility, infant mortality, abortion, and the Kurdish minor-minor-ity.ity. Like the FPCs and IUDs, all of these independent variables are consol-Like the FPCs and IUDs, all of these independent variables are consol-idated by 67 provincial districts. Table 3.15 depicts the definitions and idated by 67 provincial districts. Table 3.15 depicts the definitions and abbreviations of the dependent variable (FPCs and IUDs) and explana-abbreviations of the dependent variable (FPCs and IUDs) and explana-tory (independent) variables. tory (independent) variables.
Table
Table 3.3.1515 Summary of variables, abbreviations, and definitionsSummary of variables, abbreviations, and definitions
Variables
Definition and source
Definition and source Dependent VariableDependent Variable
Family Planning Clinics
Family Planning Clinics
Number of FPC per
Number of FPC per provincial district as of 1971provincial district as of 1971
IUD
IUD insertionsinsertions
Number of
Number of IUD insertions IUD insertions per provincial district per provincial district between Au-between Au-gust 1967 and September 1970gust 1967 and September 1970.. Explanatory Explanatory VariablVariableses
Population
Population
P
Population per provincial district based on 1965 censuopulation per provincial district based on 1965 censuss Development indexDevelopment index TThe he development index of each provincial district enlisted by development index of each provincial district enlisted by SPO as of 1965 SPO as of 1965 Metropolitan migrationMetropolitan migration Number of lNumber of lifetime migraifetime migrantsnts to three metropoles per provin-to three metropoles per provin-cial district as of 1965cial district as of 1965 censuscensus AbortionAbortion Number of abortions per Number of abortions per provincial district provincial district as toas to 1961968 KAP 8 KAP surveysurvey Total Fertility rateTotal Fertility rate Average number of children per woman in childbearing age, Average number of children per woman in childbearing age, enlisted per provincial enlisted per provincial district for mid 1960sdistrict for mid 1960s Infant mortality rateInfant mortality rate TThe number of infant deaths for every 1,000 live birthshe number of infant deaths for every 1,000 live births, en-, en-listed per provincial district for mid 1960slisted per provincial district for mid 1960s
Kurdish density
Kurdish density
The density of Kurdish speaking people per provincial dis-
The density of Kurdish speaking people per provincial dis-trict as to 1965 censustrict as to 1965 census
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The
The population of the provincial districts wpopulation of the provincial districts wasas derived from the 1965 cen-derived from the 1965 cen-sus resultssus results with urban and local distinction.with urban and local distinction.292 This dissertation asserts This dissertation asserts that migration to metropoles that migration to metropoles may have may have worsened the distribution of the worsened the distribution of the resources resources relative to relative to locallocals, which s, which exacerbexacerbatedated the population control the population control discussions. discussions. And did the government particularly consider reducing the And did the government particularly consider reducing the fertility rates in those provincial districts where the highest number of fertility rates in those provincial districts where the highest number of migrants come from? migrants come from? Or wasOr was it not the concern?it not the concern?
Determining internal migration per provincial district is challenging
Determining internal migration per provincial district is challenging due to the nature of the census method. due to the nature of the census method. Ideally, the migration data could Ideally, the migration data could be obtained from the difference between two censuses in terms of per-be obtained from the difference between two censuses in terms of per-manent residency data, which became availablmanent residency data, which became available after e after the 1970 centhe 1970 census sus when the method of enumeration changed to when the method of enumeration changed to de jurede jure basis, basis, meaning,meaning, res-res-idencyidency--based enumeration.based enumeration.293
The
The earlier earlier cencensussuseses wwereere on on a a de factode facto basbasis,is, which which enumeratenumerateedd in-in-dividuals as of where they dividuals as of where they werewere found found during thduring the census, regardless e census, regardless of of where they normally residewhere they normally residedd. . In the absence of permanent residenceIn the absence of permanent residence, es-, es-timation otimation off internal migration could only be achieved internal migration could only be achieved by identby identifying “ifying “life-life-time migrantstime migrants”” using using “place of birth” “place of birth” information, whichinformation, which is is trtraceable aceable since tsince the 1935 census.he 1935 census.294 Therefore, thTherefore, thoosese lifetime migrants in three lifetime migrants in three metropoles (Istanbul, Ankara, İzmir) metropoles (Istanbul, Ankara, İzmir) werewere derived from derived from the the 1965 census 1965 census per provincial district and utilized per provincial district and utilized forfor the analysis.the analysis.295
The fertility The fertility aand infant mortality ratend infant mortality ratess per provincial district wper provincial district wereere derived from Shorter and Macura’s calculationsderived from Shorter and Macura’s calculations for the midfor the mid--1960s.1960s.296 No No abortion data abortion data per provincial district was per provincial district was available for 1965available for 1965, which was, which was approximated with the support of 1968 KAP survey, of which the approximated with the support of 1968 KAP survey, of which the abor-abor-tiontion ratesrates per 100 live births were revealed per 100 live births were revealed per per five regional districtsfive regional districts
292 Prime Ministry Statistical General Directorate,Prime Ministry Statistical General Directorate, Genel Nüfus Sayımı, Nüfusun Sosyal ve Genel Nüfus Sayımı, Nüfusun Sosyal ve Ekonomik Nitelikleri 24.10.1965Ekonomik Nitelikleri 24.10.1965 (Ankara: Devlet İstatistik (Ankara: Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü Matbaası. 1965), 7Enstitüsü Matbaası. 1965), 7--26.26.
293 Erol Tümertekin, Erol Tümertekin, Türkiye’de İç GöçlerTürkiye’de İç Göçler, 8, 8––18.18.
294 Sevil Cerit, "Türkiye’de İller Arası Göçler (1950Sevil Cerit, "Türkiye’de İller Arası Göçler (1950--1980)1980),”,” NüfusBilim DergNüfusBilim Dergisiisi (The Turkish (The Turkish Journal of Population Studies), no.8 (1986): 81Journal of Population Studies), no.8 (1986): 81--103.103.
295 Prime Ministry Statistical General Directorate,Prime Ministry Statistical General Directorate, Genel Nüfus Sayımı, Nüfusun Sosyal ve Genel Nüfus Sayımı, Nüfusun Sosyal ve Ekonomik Nitelikleri 24.10.1965Ekonomik Nitelikleri 24.10.1965, 77, 77--98.98.
296 Shorter and Macura, Shorter and Macura, Trends in Fertility and MortalityTrends in Fertility and Mortality iin Turkey, 1935n Turkey, 1935--1975, 841975, 84--85.85.
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
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(
(central, northcentral, northernern, west, westernern, south, southern,ern, andand the the easteasternern), together with), together with ur-ur-ban rural distinction per region ban rural distinction per region and the and the abortion rates of three abortion rates of three metropolmetropoleses..297
The
The abortion ratios per abortion ratios per regional district wregional district wereere transftransferrederred to to provin-provin-cial dicial districts stricts with speciwith special consideration given al consideration given to to the the urban/rural distinc-urban/rural distinc-tion and tion and multiplied with live birthmultiplied with live births s to find out the approximate abortion to find out the approximate abortion cases per provincial district. cases per provincial district. The live birthThe live birth data data per provincial district per provincial district was taken from 1970 census, was taken from 1970 census, of which theof which the data data bbecame ecame available for the available for the first time. first time.
The SPO published a development index per provincial district start-
The SPO published a development index per provincial district start-ing from 1963, so the 1965 data was utilized to find out the relationship ing from 1963, so the 1965 data was utilized to find out the relationship between the development per provincial district and FPC investment.between the development per provincial district and FPC investment.298
Regarding
Regarding security concerns on security concerns on anan ethnic basis, the Kurdish ethnic basis, the Kurdish popula-popula-tion density per provincial district is calculated from the tion density per provincial district is calculated from the mother tongue mother tongue and second language and second language information available in the 1965 census information available in the 1965 census in which in which the people who can speak the people who can speak Kurdish andKurdish and/or /or Zaza Zaza languages as mother or languages as mother or second language in each provincial district were second language in each provincial district were incorporated.incorporated.299
THE ANALYSIS
THE ANALYSIS
The initial aim was to assess a linear regression model to analyze the de-
The initial aim was to assess a linear regression model to analyze the de-gree of gree of dependence of the FPCs dependence of the FPCs and IUDs and IUDs on the explanatory variables on the explanatory variables introducedintroduced. . However, However, as as the the limitations limitations duringduring the datathe data collectioncollection pro-pro-cess prevented cess prevented gathergatheringing a unified and a unified and synchronized datasynchronized datasetset, such an at-, such an at-tempt tempt could could reduce the reduce the reliability and credibility of the analysis. There-reliability and credibility of the analysis. There-forefore, the evaluation of the data was limited , the evaluation of the data was limited toto the the dedescriptivescriptive
297 Nusret Fişek, “Epidemiological Study on Abortion in TurNusret Fişek, “Epidemiological Study on Abortion in Turkeykey,”,” in in Induced Abortion, A Haz-Induced Abortion, A Haz-ard to Health, Proceedings of the First Conference of the IPPF Middle East and Nort Africa ard to Health, Proceedings of the First Conference of the IPPF Middle East and Nort Africa RegionRegion, ed. Isam R. Nazer (Beirut, 1971), 264, ed. Isam R. Nazer (Beirut, 1971), 264--285.285.
298 Prime Ministry and State Planning Organization, Prime Ministry and State Planning Organization, Türkiye'de İller İtibariyle Türkiye'de İller İtibariyle SosyoSosyo--Ekonomik Gelişmişlik Endeksi (1963Ekonomik Gelişmişlik Endeksi (1963--1968)1968), DP, DPTT: 900, SPD:207 (Ankara, Turkey: State : 900, SPD:207 (Ankara, Turkey: State Planning Organization, 1969), 46Planning Organization, 1969), 46––48.48.
299 Prime Ministry Statistical General Directorate, Prime Ministry Statistical General Directorate, Genel Nüfus Sayımı, Nüfusun Sosyal ve Genel Nüfus Sayımı, Nüfusun Sosyal ve Ekonomik Nitelikleri 24.10.1965Ekonomik Nitelikleri 24.10.1965, , 166166--224.224.
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
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demonstration
demonstration, , showingshowing FPC and IUD average FPC and IUD average of the provincial districts of the provincial districts per data range of per data range of the related determinantsthe related determinants as shown in Table 3.16. as shown in Table 3.16.
Table 3.
Table 3.1616 Key determinantsKey determinants of of FPC Investment and IUD Use FPC Investment and IUD Use
Key
Key DeterminantDeterminantss
Number of
Number of Provincial Provincial DistrictDistrict
Average number of
Average number of FPCFPC per Provincial per Provincial DistrictDistrict
Average number of
Average number of IUD insertionIUD insertions per s per Provincial DistrictProvincial District
Population
Population <200<200,,000000 99 44..66 660660
200
200,,000000 –– 299299,,999999
15
15
5
5..11
1
1,,391391 300300,,000000 –– 399399,,000000 99 77..00 11,,823823
400
400,,000000 –– 499499,,000000
13
13
5
5..55
1
1,,623623 500500,,000000 –– 599599,,000000 88 55..33 22,,222222 ≥ 600≥ 600,,000000 1313 1616..11 77,,049049
Development Index
Development Index <50<50 1111 5.65.6 622622
50
50 –– 6969
15
15
6.3
6.3
1,642
1,642 70 70 –– 8989 1717 5.25.2 1,6031,603
90
90 –– 109109
11
11
8.3
8.3
3,315
3,315 110 110 –– 129129 55 7.07.0 2,5762,576 ≥ 130≥ 130 88 16.516.5 8,2048,204
Number of
Number of AbortionAbortionss <1,000<1,000 66 3.73.7 584584
1,000
1,000 -- 1,9991,999
17
17
6.0
6.0
1,400
1,400 2,0002,000 -- 2,9992,999 1414 5.45.4 1,9031,903
3,000
3,000 -- 3,9993,999
14
14
6.4
6.4
1,470
1,470 4,0004,000 -- 4,9994,999 66 5.35.3 2,7652,765 ≥ 5,000≥ 5,000 1010 17.517.5 8,2598,259
TFR
TFR ((number of children per woman)number of children per woman) <5<5 1010 13.013.0 3,3933,393
5
5 –– 5.95.9
15
15
6.6
6.6
3,819
3,819 6 6 –– 6.96.9 1010 3.83.8 1,7681,768
7
7 –– 7.97.9
17
17
7.1
7.1
3,021
3,021 8 8 –– 8.98.9 88 8.08.0 1,1811,181 ≥ 9≥ 9 77 7.37.3 3,9873,987
Infant Mortality Rate
Infant Mortality Rate (per 1000 live births)(per 1000 live births) <125<125 1111 5.35.3 1,8351,835
125
125 –– 139139
19
19
9.5
9.5
2,123
2,123 140 140 –– 154154 1414 9.09.0 4,2034,203
155
155 –– 169169
10
10
7.2
7.2
3,144
3,144 170 170 –– 184184 99 4.04.0 1,0411,041 ≥ 185≥ 185 44 7.87.8 3,3763,376
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
191
Key
Key DeterminantDeterminant
Number of
Number of Provincial Provincial DistrictDistrict
Average number of
Average number of FPC per Provincial FPC per Provincial DistrictDistrict
Average number of
Average number of IUD insertions per IUD insertions per Provincial DistrictProvincial District
Number of Metropolitan Migration
Number of Metropolitan Migration <10<10,,000000 1515 1515.0.0 672672
10
10,,000000 –– 1919,,999999
14
14
5
5..99
2
2,,018018 2020,,000000 –– 2929,,999999 1313 55..33 22,,306306
30
30,,000000 –– 3939,,999999
9
9
6
6..33
1
1,,414414 4040,,000000 –– 4949,,999999 66 1212..66 55,,008008 ≥ 50≥ 50,,000000 77 55.0.0 11,,433433
Kurdish Density in Provincial District %
Kurdish Density in Provincial District % <5<5 4747 7.47.4 3,2003,200
5
5 –– 1919
6
6
7.8
7.8
2,026
2,026 2020 –– 3939 33 8.68.6 1,8821,882
40
40 –– 5959
5
5
7.4
7.4
460
460 6060 –– 7979 55 8.48.4 577577 ≥ 80≥ 80 11 3.03.0 298298
As per to the
As per to the population population breakdown of the provincial districtsbreakdown of the provincial districts, the , the aver-aver-age age of both of both FPC investment FPC investment andand IUD useIUD use per provincial district wper provincial district wereere low-low-est est in in the the least populated provincesleast populated provinces and and hhighest in the most populated ighest in the most populated provinces.provinces. TheThe Development indexDevelopment index also followalso follows as a similar patternsimilar pattern,, as as both both FPC investment and IUD use FPC investment and IUD use change change in parallel in parallel with the with the changechange in the in the development development index of the provincial districtindex of the provincial districts.s.
The
The health determinantshealth determinants of FPC investment and UID useof FPC investment and UID use in Table 3.16 in Table 3.16 werewere abortion, TFRabortion, TFR, , and infant and infant mortalitymortality. . The number of The number of abortionabortion cases cases generally follows generally follows a a similar trend similar trend with with population population and and development indexdevelopment index.. FPC investment and UID useFPC investment and UID use per provincial district were lowestper provincial district were lowest in in prprov-ov-inces inces having having the fewestthe fewest abortionabortionss ((fewerfewer than 1,000 abortionthan 1,000 abortionss per prov-per prov-ince) and highest in ince) and highest in pprovinces rovinces having having the the most most abortion cases (abortion cases (withwith more more than 5than 5,,000 000 abortionsabortions)). .
Regarding
Regarding infant mortalityinfant mortality, the figures indicate that , the figures indicate that investment in investment in FPC and FPC and use ofuse of IUD were comparatively low in the provincial dIUD were comparatively low in the provincial districtsistricts having having the lowest infant mortality rates. However, the the lowest infant mortality rates. However, the figures dofigures do not fol-not fol-low a consistent path, as nine provincial districtlow a consistent path, as nine provincial districts had s had infant mortality infant mortality rates in the second highest data range (170rates in the second highest data range (170--184 infant mortalit184 infant mortalities ies per per 1000 live births), but FPC inv1000 live births), but FPC investments and estments and average use of average use of IUD were the IUD were the lowest lowest in the entirein the entire dataset. dataset.
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With respect to
With respect to TFRTFR, , it it appearsappears that FPCs were not invested in the that FPCs were not invested in the provinces provinces which have which have the the highest highest fertility fertility rates, on contrary the FPCs rates, on contrary the FPCs were more widespread in the were more widespread in the provinces provinces having the lowest fertilihaving the lowest fertility level. ty level. The number of FPC investmentThe number of FPC investmentss for the provincial districts having less for the provincial districts having less than than five childfive childrenren per family average was 13, per family average was 13, where it was where it was 7.7.33 in in thethe prov-prov-inces havinginces having more than 9 childmore than 9 childrenren per family average. per family average. The The IUD use, on the IUD use, on the otother hand, was her hand, was at the highest levelat the highest level in in those provinces having those provinces having the the highest highest TFR. TFR. No consistent trend was observed inNo consistent trend was observed in thethe infant mortalityinfant mortality rateratess of the of the provincial districts forprovincial districts for both FPC investment both FPC investment and IUD use.and IUD use.
As
As for for the the metropolitan migrationmetropolitan migration, , it is interestit is interesting to note that FPC ing to note that FPC investment was at the lowest level for the investment was at the lowest level for the provincial districts where the provincial districts where the highest number of people migrated from. highest number of people migrated from. This may be due to fThis may be due to family plan-amily plan-ning investment decision makers ning investment decision makers consideredconsidered that fertile elements had al-that fertile elements had al-ready migrated out of the cities and therefore further FPC investment in ready migrated out of the cities and therefore further FPC investment in migrants’ hometownsmigrants’ hometowns was no longer needed.was no longer needed.
On the
On the Kurdish densityKurdish density, , the average number of FPC the average number of FPC per per twenty twenty dis-dis-tricts tricts having Kurdish speaking population having Kurdish speaking population above above 55% % was was 77..88, which was , which was higher higher than the remaining 47 districts than the remaining 47 districts having having Kurdish density lower than Kurdish density lower than 5%5% (7(7..4 clinics per provincial district)4 clinics per provincial district).. Since these Since these provincial provincial districts districts with high Kurdish density werewith high Kurdish density were also known with higher fertility, lower also known with higher fertility, lower education and education and iincome levelncome level;; this dissertation does not claim that the eth-this dissertation does not claim that the eth-nic concerns were the sole factor of higher investment in Kurdish speak-nic concerns were the sole factor of higher investment in Kurdish speak-ing provinces but might be an additional governmental motivation. ing provinces but might be an additional governmental motivation.
T
The he average number ofaverage number of IIUUD useD use in thein the samesame twenty twenty Kurdish speaking Kurdish speaking districts districts wwasas 11,,164 164 perper provincial provincial districtdistrict which was which was much less much less than the than the other provinces other provinces with less than 5% Kurdish density with less than 5% Kurdish density (3.200) (3.200) indicating indicating that the that the FPC investment in these provinces had no short terms impact in FPC investment in these provinces had no short terms impact in terms of IUD use.terms of IUD use. With thWith these new insights, McDowell’s previously men-ese new insights, McDowell’s previously men-tioned assertion should be revisited. In his view, the state blocked the in-tioned assertion should be revisited. In his view, the state blocked the in-troduction of family planning as he believed that would accelerate the troduction of family planning as he believed that would accelerate the demographic balance in favor of the Kurdish populationdemographic balance in favor of the Kurdish population due to his adue to his as-s-sumption that the sumption that the population control penetration in population control penetration in nonnon--Kurdish Kurdish
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
193
population would
population would be higher.be higher.300 The figures confirm that the state has in-The figures confirm that the state has in-vested vested notablynotably on the family planning in the Kurdish speaking territorieson the family planning in the Kurdish speaking territories.. Although the Although the introduction was not blocked, thintroduction was not blocked, the discouraging outcomes e discouraging outcomes in the use of IUD may indeed in the use of IUD may indeed have have lead the governors to believe that the lead the governors to believe that the additional investment on the population planning could additional investment on the population planning could distortdistort the eth-the eth-nic balance against the state’s will.nic balance against the state’s will.
Summary of
Summary of 33..33
This section covers the
This section covers the efforts to implement Family Planning Lawefforts to implement Family Planning Law, to-, to-gether with the resistance and outcomesgether with the resistance and outcomes. The . The initial initial reactionreaction for the law for the law also hints the failure of the programalso hints the failure of the program, as the , as the rightright--wingwing newspapersnewspapers were were against, and the leftagainst, and the left--wing supported the law, the AP governmentwing supported the law, the AP government aand its nd its media channels media channels hesitated to bring up the subject not hesitated to bring up the subject not to provoke their to provoke their rightright--wingwing voters. voters.
Th
Thisis complicatecomplicatedd view oview off the the FFamily amily PPlanning lanning LLaw waaw was s evident evident not not only only in the correspondence between Demirel and Rockefellerin the correspondence between Demirel and Rockefeller,, but also in but also in the nationwidethe nationwide campaigcampaigns and ns and investmentsinvestments,, especially especially iin the n the FPCFPC. The . The enthusiastic startenthusiastic start toto global financial support global financial support did not did not seem seem to to match the match the expectations of the global and individual sphereexpectations of the global and individual spheress. . The depiction of the The depiction of the dataset about the determinants dataset about the determinants of of FPC FPC investments and investments and IUDIUD usage rates usage rates indicatesindicates that that the investment decision the investment decision of FPC’s of FPC’s may not be may not be based on the based on the factors discussed factors discussed in the parliemenin the parliementt, , while while IUDIUD usage rates per provincial usage rates per provincial district district may may revealreveal other priorities.other priorities.
Conclusion
Conclusion of Chapter 3of Chapter 3
The third chapte
The third chapter was devoted to the national spherer was devoted to the national sphere,, where legislation, where legislation, investment,investment, and implementation of antinatalist policies and implementation of antinatalist policies took placetook place.. As As demonstrated in the second chapterdemonstrated in the second chapter,, the the ideology of ideology of population control population control conceivedconceived in the in the WesternWestern spheresphere spreadspread to developing to developing councountriestries in the in the earlyearly 1960s, but 1960s, but only only as long as local as long as local conditions permittedconditions permitted..
Similar to a century earlier in the
Similar to a century earlier in the WesternWestern world, public resentment world, public resentment overover the flooding migrants created fertile ground for antinatalist the flooding migrants created fertile ground for antinatalist
300 McDowall, McDowall, The Modern History of the Kurds,The Modern History of the Kurds, 404.404.
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discussions in Turkey
discussions in Turkey in the midin the mid--1950s1950s. . MoreoverMoreover, the economy, the economy made the made the country more vulnerable country more vulnerable toto foreign foreign interventionintervention and ideologies such as and ideologies such as developmentalismdevelopmentalism and and planning embedded with populatplanning embedded with population control. ion control. In In addition, the military regime of the 1960 addition, the military regime of the 1960 coupcoup had some had some security con-security con-cerns cerns amongamong the population. the population. Nevertheless, a considerable pronatalist op-Nevertheless, a considerable pronatalist op-position was still intact, which caused heated controversy during the par-position was still intact, which caused heated controversy during the par-liamentary discussions and aliamentary discussions and afterwards.fterwards.
The findings on the implementation
The findings on the implementation phasephase confirmconfirm that the consen-that the consen-sus of the global and national sus of the global and national spheresspheres does not have the capacity to does not have the capacity to achieve the antinatalist targets as the achieve the antinatalist targets as the individualindividual and familand familiesies have the fi-have the fi-nal authority nal authority inin the implementation the implementation pphasehase.. TThe final chapter he final chapter highlightshighlights the transformation of the individual and familythe transformation of the individual and family, leading them to take , leading them to take ownership of family planning and adopt their own methods.ownership of family planning and adopt their own methods.
195
4 The New Family and Women: Between Changes and The New Family and Women: Between Changes and PracticesPractices......
he
he corecore messagemessage of this dissertation is thof this dissertation is that there wasat there was aa simultane-simultane-ous interaction and consensus ous interaction and consensus betweenbetween the global, nationalthe global, national,, and in-and in-dividual spheres dividual spheres in the 1960s regarding in the 1960s regarding the idea of the idea of population controlpopulation control.. The preceding chapters have analyzed some The preceding chapters have analyzed some of the key motivations and of the key motivations and initiatives initiatives atat the global and national spheresthe global and national spheres to reveal how the to reveal how the "unmet "unmet need" for need" for contraceptcontraceptivesives was was created and how it was communicated and created and how it was communicated and delivered delivered toto the the public.public. This final chapter aThis final chapter addresses the problem of pop-ddresses the problem of pop-ulation control ulation control in the individual spherein the individual sphere,, from the perspective of women, from the perspective of women, men, and familiesmen, and families.. Their priorities, positions, actions, reactions, and ne-Their priorities, positions, actions, reactions, and ne-gotiations on family planning will be covered to gotiations on family planning will be covered to reach the reach the full circle. full circle.
This chap
This chapter ter consists of consists of three sectionsthree sections. The. The first section first section addressesaddresses the main the main drivedriverrs s and motivations and motivations forfor fertility reductionfertility reduction in the in the context of context of land land regimeregime transfortransformationmation and rapidand rapid urbanizationurbanization.. In this sense, the In this sense, the changing family structure, status of women, and changing family structure, status of women, and value of children avalue of children ae dis-e dis-cussed cussed along with other changing demographic elements between 1950 along with other changing demographic elements between 1950 and 1965.and 1965.
The second section examines women's and famil
The second section examines women's and familiesies use of use of contracecontracep-p-tiontion to determine how they managed to lower fertility and how they re-to determine how they managed to lower fertility and how they re-sponded to the introdsponded to the introduction of stateuction of state--sponsored modern contraceptive sponsored modern contraceptive
T
T
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methods. Women's
methods. Women's shiftingshifting choices between modern and traditional choices between modern and traditional methods and abortion are traced through newspapers and medical re-methods and abortion are traced through newspapers and medical re-ports.ports.
The
The finalfinal section section deals with deals with the the aftermath of the Family Planning aftermath of the Family Planning ActAct, , aand nd the transformation of the family is tracked until the midthe transformation of the family is tracked until the mid--1980s. 1980s. This This section addresses not section addresses not only fertility preferences and contraceptive use, only fertility preferences and contraceptive use, but also but also their their interrelationinterrelationshipship and interdependency with the changing and interdependency with the changing status of women and familystatus of women and family..
§ 4.1 Women and thWomen and the Family in Transition…e Family in Transition…
As briefly
As briefly discussed discussed in Chapter 2, the post WWIIin Chapter 2, the post WWII periodperiod, followed by , followed by dde-e-colonization and colonization and the the Cold War, accelerated the transformation of the Cold War, accelerated the transformation of the Third World Third World not only not only politicallypolitically but also but also economicallyeconomically,, and sociallyand socially. The . The common social common social phenphenomenaomena of this period such of this period such as as agricultural mechani-agricultural mechani-zation, changing land regime and rapid urbanization have zation, changing land regime and rapid urbanization have fundamentally fundamentally transformed transformed the family, women, and their fertility behavior. the family, women, and their fertility behavior.
This section examines the root causes of the
This section examines the root causes of the motivations for motivations for the the fer-fer-tility reduction tility reduction through changing family through changing family structurestructure, , status of status of womenwomen, , value of value of children children and other changing social and demographic elements and other changing social and demographic elements in in Turkey in the 1950s and 1960s. Turkey in the 1950s and 1960s.
4.1.1 The The Family in Transformation?Family in Transformation?
The family and its trans
The family and its transformationformation hahaveve long been foreseenlong been foreseen by the struc-by the struc-tural functionalist schooltural functionalist school as one of the as one of the major major outcomes of industrialioutcomes of industrializa-za-tion, modernization, and development. Goodetion, modernization, and development. Goode assertsasserts, without neglecting , without neglecting the exceptions, that industrialization, mechanization, increasthe exceptions, that industrialization, mechanization, increaseded commu-commu-nicationnication, , and mobility and mobility have caused have caused societsocietiesies and the family to and the family to change change from traditionfrom traditionalal to modern, from patriarchto modern, from patriarchal to nuclear.al to nuclear.1 Therefore, this Therefore, this section will deal with the changsection will deal with the changes in es in family structure in Turkey in the family structure in Turkey in the 1950s and 1960s.1950s and 1960s.
1 WilliamWilliam J. J. Goode, Goode, The Family,The Family, 22ndnd ed.ed. (New Jersey(New Jersey:: Prentice Hall, 1982), 175Prentice Hall, 1982), 175--178.178.
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
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As Rasuly
As Rasuly--Paleczek observes, many studies consider the patrilineal Paleczek observes, many studies consider the patrilineal extended family as extended family as a fundamental a fundamental and characteristic feature of theand characteristic feature of the social social settings settings in Turkey in Turkey without without much much investigating the validity of this assump-investigating the validity of this assump-tiontion..2 TheThesese protagonists, protagonists, she identifies, she identifies, including most sociologists of including most sociologists of the 1950s and 1960s the 1950s and 1960s who studied who studied village and town ethnographies in Tur-village and town ethnographies in Tur-key, supportkey, supporteded Goodes view thatGoodes view that industrialization andindustrialization and urbanization urbanization transformed the family to dissolve from the patrilineal into transformed the family to dissolve from the patrilineal into a Wa Western estern type type ofof nuclear family, whnuclear family, while ile the the other scholars other scholars dendeniedied the evolutionary the evolutionary transformation and claimtransformation and claimeded that the nuclear family prethat the nuclear family precededceded industrial-industrial-izatioization or urbanizationn or urbanization. And this . And this dissertation dissertation attemptsattempts to to developdevelop a more a more nuanced approachnuanced approach toto the debate.the debate.
Disproving the patrilineal stereotype, Duben and Behar have already
Disproving the patrilineal stereotype, Duben and Behar have already demonstrateddemonstrated, using the results of the , using the results of the 1907 census1907 census,, that 40% that 40% households households inin Istanbul consisted of the nuclear family, even Istanbul consisted of the nuclear family, even in in the late Ottoman Era.the late Ottoman Era.3 However, another However, another study study fromfrom 1968 provide1968 providess more farmore far--reaching reaching insights insights intointo the the changing family structure.changing family structure.
T
The 1968 KAP surveyhe 1968 KAP survey also conducted also conducted the first nationwide quantita-the first nationwide quantita-tive study tive study of of Turkish family structure Turkish family structure to explore to explore the factors and forces the factors and forces influencing changes in family formsinfluencing changes in family forms. . In In the surveythe survey,, about about 4500 house-4500 house-holdsholds were interviewed in detail were interviewed in detail about their family structures.about their family structures.4
In the
In the studystudy, family typ, family types es are divided intare divided into four segments. o four segments. The “nu-The “nu-clear familyclear family,,” consisting of husband, wife, and their unmarried children” consisting of husband, wife, and their unmarried children;; the “patriarchal extended familythe “patriarchal extended family,,” co” consisting nsisting of husband, wife, their mar-of husband, wife, their mar-ried son(s)ried son(s),, and wife(s) with their childrenand wife(s) with their children;; and and the the unmarried children unmarried children of the of the head of head of household. Thehousehold. The “transient extended family“transient extended family,,” in which the ” in which the mamann, who is the , who is the head of head of householdhousehold,, his wifehis wife,, and his unmarried child(ren) and his unmarried child(ren) live together with either the man’s widowed parent(s)live together with either the man’s widowed parent(s) or his wife or his wife and/or and/or
2 GabriellaGabriella RasulyRasuly--Paleczek,Paleczek, “Some Remarks on the Study of Household Composition and “Some Remarks on the Study of Household Composition and IntraIntra--Family Relations in Rural and Urban Turkey,” in Family Relations in Rural and Urban Turkey,” in Turkish Families in TransitionTurkish Families in Transition, ed. , ed. Gabriella RasulyGabriella Rasuly--Paleczek (FrankfurtPaleczek (Frankfurt:: Peter Lang, 1996), 1Peter Lang, 1996), 1--45.45.
3 Alan Alan Duben Duben and Cemand Cem Behar, Behar, Istanbul HousehoIstanbul Householdslds (Cambridge, Cambridge University (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991), 49.Press, 1991), 49.
4 Serim Timur, Serim Timur, Türkiye’de Aile YapısıTürkiye’de Aile Yapısı (Ankara: Hacettepe University Publications, 1972), (Ankara: Hacettepe University Publications, 1972), No:15.No:15.
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their unmarried sibling(s).
their unmarried sibling(s). FFinally, in the “dissolved familyinally, in the “dissolved family,,” ” aa spouse is spouse is missing due to separation, divorce, deathmissing due to separation, divorce, death,, etc.etc.,, or nonor non––family households.family households.
As the
As the resultsresults in Table 4.1in Table 4.1 depictdepictss, , about about 60% of Turkish families60% of Turkish families livedlived in a nuclear family, whin a nuclear family, whileile thisthis proportionproportion was no less than 55% in was no less than 55% in villages, evidencing that the nuclear family was not a byvillages, evidencing that the nuclear family was not a by--product of in-product of in-dustrialization or migration, but was already the most preferred familydustrialization or migration, but was already the most preferred family formform in Turkey in the 1960s. in Turkey in the 1960s. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, the patriarchal family struc-the patriarchal family struc-ture ture was was five timfive times higher es higher in villages that in villages that in metropoles (25% to 5%). in metropoles (25% to 5%).
Table 4.
Table 4.11 Turkish Turkish ffamily amily sstructure based on 1968 tructure based on 1968 ssurvey. (%)urvey. (%) Family Type Family Type MetropolMetropoleses CitiesCities TownsTowns VillagesVillages Turkey Turkey AverageAverage NuclearNuclear 67.967.9 63.363.3 61.561.5 55.455.4 59.759.7 PatriarchalPatriarchal 4.64.6 9.59.5 20.020.0 25.425.4 19.019.0 Transient 12.412.4 15.015.0 12.712.7 13.313.3 13.113.1 Dissolved 15.015.0 11.911.9 5.75.7 5.95.9 8.38.3 TOTALTOTAL 100.0100.0 100.0100.0 100.0100.0 100.0100.0 100.0100.0
SOURCE
SOURCE: : Türkiye’de Aile YapısıTürkiye’de Aile Yapısı,,5
In retrospect
In retrospect, the continu, the continuinging data series odata series onn family structures from 1968 family structures from 1968 ononwardswards demonstratesdemonstrates a slow buta slow but steady transition in family structure in steady transition in family structure in favor of the nuclear type, driven by the erofavor of the nuclear type, driven by the erosion of the sion of the patriarchal family patriarchal family structure.structure.6 Indeed, Indeed, in the in the surveysurvey, about , about 48% of nuclear family members48% of nuclear family members indicated thatindicated that they were part of an extended family before they were part of an extended family before they they married.married.7
So, what was the reason
So, what was the reason forfor leaving the paternal household after mar-leaving the paternal household after mar-riage? riage? About About 16% of 16% of households with a former households with a former extended family extended family roots roots re-re-sponded thsponded thisis questionquestion with the with the death of thedeath of the elder, 25% elder, 25% withwith migration, migration, 17% 17% withwith intintrara family conflictfamily conflictss, and 42% , and 42% with with financial difficulties.financial difficulties.8 ThThusus, , adding the economic causes of the migration and the intadding the economic causes of the migration and the intrara family con-family con-flictflictss, poverty , poverty seems to be by far the main reason seems to be by far the main reason for leaving the parental for leaving the parental househhousehold shortold shortlyly after marriage. In other words, theafter marriage. In other words, the patriarchalpatriarchal
5 Ibid.,31.Ibid.,31.
6 Sutay Yavuz, Murat Yüceşahin, “Türkiye’de Hanehalkı Kompozisyonlarında Değişimler Sutay Yavuz, Murat Yüceşahin, “Türkiye’de Hanehalkı Kompozisyonlarında Değişimler veve Bölgesel FarklılaşmalarBölgesel Farklılaşmalar,”,” Sosyoloji Araştırmaları Dergisi Sosyoloji Araştırmaları Dergisi 15, no.1, (2012): 7615, no.1, (2012): 76--118.118.
7 Timur, Timur, Türkiye’de Aile YapısıTürkiye’de Aile Yapısı, 47., 47.
8 Ibid., 52.Ibid., 52.
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
199
extended
extended family can survive as long as its land and wealth family can survive as long as its land and wealth provide provide ade-ade-quate opportunities quate opportunities forfor younger generations. younger generations.
In
In the 1968 survey, some key socioeconomic variablesthe 1968 survey, some key socioeconomic variables,, such as edu-such as edu-cation and incocation and income levelme level, , showshow nono consistent relationship with changing consistent relationship with changing family type,family type,9 whwhileile land land tenuretenure pattern pattern provedproved to be the key catalyto be the key catalystst. The . The relationship between family type and land ownership structure relationship between family type and land ownership structure isis re-re-vealed vealed iin Table 4.2 where the average farm size of nuclean Table 4.2 where the average farm size of nuclear families r families isis 30 30 decares, whdecares, whileile it it increases increases to 127 decares in patriarchal extended fami-to 127 decares in patriarchal extended fami-lies. As shown below, some 59% of lies. As shown below, some 59% of the familiesthe families that owned that owned less than 10 less than 10 decares decares of land of land were nuclear were nuclear families families and only 23% of them were mem-and only 23% of them were mem-berberss of patriarchal families, and this relationship was completely re-of patriarchal families, and this relationship was completely re-versed versed inin the the land land ownership above 100 decares per family. In thownership above 100 decares per family. In thiiss type type of large landof large landholdingholding, only 22% of the families were nuclear , only 22% of the families were nuclear families families and and 59% of them were patriarchal.59% of them were patriarchal.10
Table 4.
Table 4.22 Family Family ttypes and ypes and lland and oownership based on 1968 wnership based on 1968 ssurvey. (%)urvey. (%)
Family Type
Family Type
Land Ownership
Land Ownership (decares)(decares)
Nuclear
Nuclear
Transient
Transient
Patriarchal
Patriarchal
TotalTotal 11--1010 58.658.6 18.218.2 23.323.3 100.0100.0
11
11--2424
45.9
45.9
19.6
19.6
34.5
34.5
100.0
100.0 2525--5050 42.042.0 12.5 45.545.5 100.0100.0
51
51--100100
36.3
36.3
12.2
51.3
51.3
100.0
100.0 >100>100 22.622.6 19.2 58.158.1 100.0100.0
SOURCE
SOURCE:: Timur (19Timur (198181)), 66., 66.
A
A similar trend was observed in rural similar trend was observed in rural laborlabor, while , while the nuclear family in-the nuclear family in-creasecreasedd inin ruralrural occupationsoccupations not not associated with associated with land ownership. The land ownership. The proportion of proportion of the the nuclear family was anuclear family was aboutbout 44% among farmers, 44% among farmers, in-in-creased creased to 64% among sharecroppersto 64% among sharecroppers,, and and was was highest highest at 70% at 70% among among farmfarm workers who did not workers who did not ownown land.land.11
9 Ibid., 60Ibid., 60--62. 62.
10 Serim Timur, “Determinants in Family Structure in TurkeySerim Timur, “Determinants in Family Structure in Turkey,”,” in in Women in Turkish SocWomen in Turkish Sociietyety, , ed. ed. NerminNermin AbadanAbadan--Unat (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1981), 59Unat (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1981), 59--73.73.
11 Ibid., 63Ibid., 63--64.64.
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Regarding
Regarding the regional distribution of family structure, the regional distribution of family structure, the the Black Sea Black Sea region had the highest patriarchal family structure with 34% of the region had the highest patriarchal family structure with 34% of the totaltotal family types, tfamily types, twice as wice as highhigh as the eastern and southeastern as the eastern and southeastern regionsregions,, where one where one wouldwould expect to expect to seesee more traditional familmore traditional family structurey structuress due to due to its tribal nature.its tribal nature.12 The region had the lowest land ownership per family The region had the lowest land ownership per family (42(42..6 decares) yet 6 decares) yet a verya very diversified ownership structurediversified ownership structure,, which was de-which was de-fined as another characteristic of the patriarchal family.fined as another characteristic of the patriarchal family.13 The very same The very same Black Sea region Black Sea region was also the driving was also the driving force behindforce behind the first wave of im-the first wave of im-migration in the 1950s and 1960s, whemigration in the 1950s and 1960s, whenn the onethe one--third of the immigrants third of the immigrants to the metropolto the metropoleses came came from the Black Sea and from the Black Sea and was was in ain a sensesense, , the the center center of the of the disintegrationdisintegration of the family structure.of the family structure.14
The key d
The key difference ifference between between the patriarchal and nuclear family is pat-the patriarchal and nuclear family is pat-ronage. ronage. AboutAbout 65% of male, and 54% of female respondents in65% of male, and 54% of female respondents in thethe patri-patri-archal family named the elder (predominantly the archal family named the elder (predominantly the husband’shusband’s father) as father) as the head of the family, whthe head of the family, whileile it was less than 1% among it was less than 1% among memembers of the mbers of the nuclear familynuclear family,, of of whom 95% of mwhom 95% of menen and 88% of and 88% of womenwomen named the named the hus-hus-band as the band as the head head of the familyof the family..15
Th
Thusus, the survey indicates a significant dec, the survey indicates a significant decline inline in paternal control in paternal control in nuclear familiesnuclear families.. Kandiyoti summarizes the family transformation stere-Kandiyoti summarizes the family transformation stere-otype otype with with aauuthority relations between older and younger men in gen-thority relations between older and younger men in gen-eral, and fathers and sons in particulareral, and fathers and sons in particular,, declindeclininging asas younger generation younger generation createscreates independent sources of incoindependent sources of income. And once married, the yme. And once married, the young oung coupcoupleless look forward to a certain look forward to a certain degreedegree of independence from their el-of independence from their el-ders in terms of budget allocation and daders in terms of budget allocation and dayy--toto--day day decisiondecisionss, which , which would would inevitablinevitably lead to ay lead to a separation from the patriarchal extended family.separation from the patriarchal extended family.16
Patronage in daily life was defined
Patronage in daily life was defined in the survey using the following in the survey using the following criteriacriteria: W: Who ho decides decides which friends and relatives to associate with,which friends and relatives to associate with, what what
12 Timur, Timur, Türkiye’de Aile YapısıTürkiye’de Aile Yapısı, 33., 33.
13 Ibid.,59.Ibid.,59.
14 The data is derived from Appendix The data is derived from Appendix CC..
15 Timur, Timur, Türkiye’de Aile YapısıTürkiye’de Aile Yapısı, 103., 103.
16 Deniz Kandiyoti, “Women and Household ProductiDeniz Kandiyoti, “Women and Household Production: The Impact of Rural Transfor-on: The Impact of Rural Transfor-mation in Turkeymation in Turkey,”,” in in The Rural Middle EastThe Rural Middle East, ed. Kathy & Pandeli Glavanis (London: Zed , ed. Kathy & Pandeli Glavanis (London: Zed Books, 1990), 183Books, 1990), 183--194.194.
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
201
furniture to
furniture to buybuy,, what food to buy, and what to spend the family income what food to buy, and what to spend the family income on.on. OOn averagen average,, more than half of the more than half of the members of the pmembers of the patriarchal familyatriarchal family namenamed d the elders as decisionthe elders as decision--makers, and in makers, and in the the nuclear family it was nuclear family it was only the only the husband (65%) or both (26%). husband (65%) or both (26%).
However, women in the nuclear family
However, women in the nuclear family had had almost no right to make almost no right to make individual individual decisions anddecisions and were restricted were restricted even in basic food even in basic food spendingspending (the (the proportion of proportion of women women who who declared declared having full chaving full control ontrol over over food food spend-spend-inging was only 29%).was only 29%).17
As for modernity defined in the survey with the permission of the
As for modernity defined in the survey with the permission of the husband to the wife for the following things: husband to the wife for the following things: SpousesSpouses sitting together on sitting together on visits, going out without avisits, going out without a scarf, wearing short sleeves, going shopping scarf, wearing short sleeves, going shopping alone, or going anywhere else, the changing family type is not significant alone, or going anywhere else, the changing family type is not significant in the rural setting. Only about 4% of nuclear families in villages belonged in the rural setting. Only about 4% of nuclear families in villages belonged to the "modern" type, rising to 40% in cities and 69% in tto the "modern" type, rising to 40% in cities and 69% in the three major he three major metropolitan areas.metropolitan areas. 18
Regarding the final decision making on marriage, 50% of patriarchal
Regarding the final decision making on marriage, 50% of patriarchal family members indicated that it is the elder who makes the final decision family members indicated that it is the elder who makes the final decision on marriage.on marriage.19 Moreover, as expected, kinship marriage was more com-Moreover, as expected, kinship marriage was more com-mon in pmon in paternal families (34%) than in nuclear families (20%).aternal families (34%) than in nuclear families (20%).20 Never-Never-theless, there were no major differences in the age of first marriage theless, there were no major differences in the age of first marriage among women in terms of family structure, which was 17 years in the among women in terms of family structure, which was 17 years in the paternal family and 17.7 years in the nuclear family.paternal family and 17.7 years in the nuclear family.21
Among the role of elders in controlling the functions of the patriarchal
Among the role of elders in controlling the functions of the patriarchal extended family, Caldwell grants them a key role in extended family, Caldwell grants them a key role in making making reproductive reproductive decisiondecisionss forfor younger younger coupcouples.les.22 Reproductive decisions, he contends, Reproductive decisions, he contends, cannot be separated from economic decisiocannot be separated from economic decisions, since the reproductive ns, since the reproductive pattern is nepattern is necessary tcessary to support the economic one and to maintain the o support the economic one and to maintain the
17 Timur, Türkiye’de Aile Yapısı, 105Timur, Türkiye’de Aile Yapısı, 105--108.108.
18 Ibid., 111.Ibid., 111.
19 Ibid., 74.Ibid., 74.
20 Ibid., 80.Ibid., 80.
21 Ibid., 98.Ibid., 98.
22 John C. Caldwell, “A Theory of Fertility: From High Plateau to DestabilizationJohn C. Caldwell, “A Theory of Fertility: From High Plateau to Destabilization,”,” Population Population and Development Review and Development Review 4, no. 4, (1978): 5534, no. 4, (1978): 553--7777
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
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existing
existing calibrationcalibration of material advantage within the family.of material advantage within the family. 23 Because Because the patriarch owns or manages the means of production, he is virtually the patriarch owns or manages the means of production, he is virtually unchallenged in unchallenged in economic decisions. His control over reproductive deci-economic decisions. His control over reproductive deci-sions is less direct and potentially less secure, but economic power has sions is less direct and potentially less secure, but economic power has traditionally traditionally provided him with sufficient reproductive control.provided him with sufficient reproductive control.
In
In summary, the dissolution summary, the dissolution ofof land ownership structure, triggered land ownership structure, triggered primarily primarily by the mechanization by the mechanization of agricultural of agricultural for for the the national market national market economy, not only caused the internal migration but also undermined the economy, not only caused the internal migration but also undermined the patriarchal extended family structure patriarchal extended family structure as a wholeas a whole and in rural areasand in rural areas in in partiparticularcular..24 Yet, theYet, the emancipatory emancipatory potential ofpotential of the the dissolution of the dissolution of the pa-pa-triarchal triarchal extended extended family for women does not family for women does not seemseem to have to have materializedmaterialized,, as the wives of the nuclear family as the wives of the nuclear family are are still still not involved in not involved in decisiondecision--making making and modernization processesand modernization processes,, especiallespecially in rural areas. y in rural areas. The very same mechanism mentioned above also distorted the nature The very same mechanism mentioned above also distorted the nature of occupation structure in general and female labor in particularof occupation structure in general and female labor in particular,, both in both in rural and urban settingrural and urban settings,s, and and inevitably inevitably changed the role of women which changed the role of women which will be will be discussed discussed in thin the next section.e next section.
4.1.2 The The Changing Role of the WomenChanging Role of the Women
This section
This section is about tis about the economic and occupational transformation ofhe economic and occupational transformation of women in women in urban and rural urban and rural areasareas. . The very first The very first observationobservation is the funda-is the funda-mental mental declinedecline inin female labor force participation between 195female labor force participation between 19500 and and 1970 from 71970 from 744% to 51%% to 51%,, as mentioned in Table 4.3, which was demon-as mentioned in Table 4.3, which was demon-strated in the literature as a side effect of the key phenomenon of the strated in the literature as a side effect of the key phenomenon of the pe-pe-riodriod, internal migration., internal migration.25
The
The movement from movement from rural to urban not only rural to urban not only affectedaffected the the transfor-transfor-mation mation of the family of the family from patriarchal to from patriarchal to the the nuclear but also nuclear but also led led womenwomen to to withdraw from production withdraw from production andand confine themconfine themselves toselves to domestic tasks. domestic tasks. RRapid urbanization apid urbanization pushed labor out of pushed labor out of agriculture faster than agriculture faster than it was it was
23 Ibid.,566.Ibid.,566.
24 Kandiyoti, “Women and Household ProductionKandiyoti, “Women and Household Production,”,” 188.188.
25 Gülten Kazgan, “Labor Force Gülten Kazgan, “Labor Force Participation, Occupational Distribution, Educational At-Participation, Occupational Distribution, Educational At-tainment and Sociotainment and Socio--Economic Status of Women in tEconomic Status of Women in thhe Turkish Economye Turkish Economy,”,” inin Women in Women in Turkish SocietyTurkish Society, ed. Nermin, ed. Nermin AbadanAbadan--Unat (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1981), 131Unat (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1981), 131--159.159.
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
203
absorbed
absorbed byby industry. The scarcity of the nonindustry. The scarcity of the non--agricultural job opagricultural job opportuni-portuni-ties in urban areas, and the ties in urban areas, and the ununattractiveness of lowattractiveness of low--skill and skill and lowlow--educa-educa-tionaltional jobs have made jobs have made women women the the most economically most economically vulnerable vulnerable groups groups at home.at home. 26
Table 4.
Table 4.33 Sectoral distribution of female labor force 1950Sectoral distribution of female labor force 1950--1970 (%)1970 (%)
Sectors
Sectors
1950
1950
1955
1955
1960
1960
1965
1965
1970
1970 Female labor force 73.7 72.2 65.565.5 56.4 50.9
Agriculture
Agriculture
96.1
96.1
95.6
95.6
95
95
94.1
94.1
89
89 IndustryIndustry 2.52.5 2.32.3 2.72.7 1.51.5 5.15.1
Services
1.3
1.3
1.6
1.6
1.9
1.9
2.6
2.6
5.0
5.0 Other 0.10.1 0.50.5 0.40.4 1.81.8 0.90.9
TOTAL
TOTAL
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
SOURCE
SOURCE:: Ergil (1977).Ergil (1977).27
Kuyaş also emphasi
Kuyaş also emphasizeszes a strong a strong gendergender division of labor in the sphere of division of labor in the sphere of labor market production. Alabor market production. Apartpart from exceptions among upperfrom exceptions among upper--class class ca-ca-reerreer--women, most of the rare female occupationwomen, most of the rare female occupationss in urban areas were in in urban areas were in the form of femalethe form of female--concentratedconcentrated--lowlow--skilled and lowskilled and low--paid paid jobsjobs..28
M
Market conditions aside, arket conditions aside, academic academic studies studies forfor ththisis periodperiod provideprovide am-am-pleple evidence that women themselves did not evidence that women themselves did not havehave much incentive to much incentive to work, as their employment status work, as their employment status challengedchallenged normative expectationsnormative expectations and and reinforcedreinforced a value system in which not having to work and being a a value system in which not having to work and being a wewealthyalthy housewife housewife was considered a was considered a privilegeprivilege, which was also sign of , which was also sign of higher higher social status.social status.29
The increase in women's participation in industry (low
The increase in women's participation in industry (low--skilskilled and led and semisemi--skilled workers in light industry) and services between 1965 and skilled workers in light industry) and services between 1965 and 1970, visible in table 4.3 and mainly due to metropolitan demand for 1970, visible in table 4.3 and mainly due to metropolitan demand for
26 Nilüfer Kuyaş, “Female Labor and PowerNilüfer Kuyaş, “Female Labor and Power RelationsRelations,”,” in in Sex Roles, Family & Community in Sex Roles, Family & Community in TurkeyTurkey, ed. Çiğdem Kağıtçıbaşı (Bloomington: Indiana Univesity Turkish Studies, 1981), , ed. Çiğdem Kağıtçıbaşı (Bloomington: Indiana Univesity Turkish Studies, 1981), 181181--206.206.
27 Gül Ergil, Toplumsal Yapı Araştırması: Nüfus ile ilgili Gelişmeler 1950Gül Ergil, Toplumsal Yapı Araştırması: Nüfus ile ilgili Gelişmeler 1950--1970, DPT 1970, DPT No:1607, SPD No:298 (AnkaNo:1607, SPD No:298 (Ankara: 1977), 20,30.ra: 1977), 20,30.
28 Ibid.,190.Ibid.,190.
29 Oya Çitçi, “Kadın ve ÇalışmaOya Çitçi, “Kadın ve Çalışma,”,” Amme Idaresi DergisiAmme Idaresi Dergisi 7, (1974), 457, (1974), 45--75. 75.
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female labor (with a female employment rate of 11%), has therefore be-
female labor (with a female employment rate of 11%), has therefore be-come insignificant, as the total number come insignificant, as the total number of housewives increased by 20% of housewives increased by 20% between 1955 and 1970.between 1955 and 1970.30
A
Agricultural work, which gricultural work, which took the form of mostly untook the form of mostly unpaid familypaid family labor labor was by far the driving source of female labor. As mentioned above, the was by far the driving source of female labor. As mentioned above, the ddecline of the ecline of the female labor force in general and in female labor force in general and in agriculture in particu-agriculture in particu-lar was mlar was mainly ainly a consequence of migration and urbanization, yet the cen-a consequence of migration and urbanization, yet the cen-sus results sus results of the period aof the period also lso evidence that the rural evidence that the rural women, mostlywomen, mostly from from patriarchal families, gradually withdrew from agriculture too.patriarchal families, gradually withdrew from agriculture too.
Table 4.4
Table 4.4 tracks the evolutracks the evolution of the tion of the agricultural agricultural labor forcelabor force among among rural women rural women based on based on census data between 1955 and 1970. The impact census data between 1955 and 1970. The impact of the rural to urban migration is evident as the density of the rural fe-of the rural to urban migration is evident as the density of the rural fe-male agriculture within the total female labor force overall has decayed male agriculture within the total female labor force overall has decayed from 66% to 45%. Furthermore, the rural agricultural female workfrom 66% to 45%. Furthermore, the rural agricultural female workforce force has also in decline as its ratio to total rural female has also in decline as its ratio to total rural female labor forcelabor force has dhas declinedeclined from 86% to 71%from 86% to 71%, showing, showing tthe he withdrawal of women withdrawal of women from agriculture.from agriculture.
Özbay foresees the withdrawal of women from rural agriculture as a
Özbay foresees the withdrawal of women from rural agriculture as a consequence of the fundamental changconsequence of the fundamental change from subsistence farming to a e from subsistence farming to a market economy through agricultural mechanization and road construc-market economy through agricultural mechanization and road construc-tion.tion.31 On the farms of wealthy farmers with larger size of landholdings On the farms of wealthy farmers with larger size of landholdings (which also means they have a patriarchal family structure), where the (which also means they have a patriarchal family structure), where the tendency towatendency toward mechanization is strong, Özbay adds, wage laborers rd mechanization is strong, Özbay adds, wage laborers were hired for nonwere hired for non--mechanized work such as house construction and mechanized work such as house construction and harvesting. As a result, rural female laborers, who belonged to the harvesting. As a result, rural female laborers, who belonged to the wealthier patriarchal families, were gradually replaced by professiowealthier patriarchal families, were gradually replaced by professional nal male manpower.male manpower.32
30 Deniz Kandiyoti, Deniz Kandiyoti, Major Issues on the Status of Women in Turkey: Approaches and Priori-Major Issues on the Status of Women in Turkey: Approaches and Priori-tiesties (Ankara: Çağ Matbaası, 1980), 23(Ankara: Çağ Matbaası, 1980), 23--2727..
31 Ferhunde Özbay, “Transformation of the SocioFerhunde Özbay, “Transformation of the Socio--Economic Structure and Changing Fam-Economic Structure and Changing Fam-ily Functions in Rural Turkeyily Functions in Rural Turkey,”,” in in Family in Turkish SocietyFamily in Turkish Society, ed. Türköz Erder (Ankara: , ed. Türköz Erder (Ankara: Turkish Social Science Association, 1985), 43Turkish Social Science Association, 1985), 43--78. 78.
32 Ibid.,52.Ibid.,52.
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Table 4.
Table 4.44 Changing Female Agricultural Labor 1955Changing Female Agricultural Labor 1955--1970 1970 ((%%))
Definition
Definition
1955
1955
1960
1960
1965
1965
1970
1970 Total Female Labor force (15-65) 6,902,000 7,6327,632,000,000 8,511,000 9,496,000
Rural Agricultural Female Labor within total labor force %
66.2%
66.2%
62.2%
62.2%
55
55..2%2%
45.5%
45.5%
Rural Agricultural Female Labor within total “rural” labor force %
85.5%
85.5%
84.5%
84.5%
79.2%
79.2%
71.4%
71.4%
SOURCE:
SOURCE: National Census 1955National Census 1955--1970.1970.33
In this context, Kandiyoti points out the irony of
In this context, Kandiyoti points out the irony of women in patriarchal women in patriarchal families. It was the same extended patriarchal family structure that in-families. It was the same extended patriarchal family structure that in-cluded women in strict patriarchal control, but also created the possibil-cluded women in strict patriarchal control, but also created the possibil-ity of withdrawal from the production process. Thus, the maintenance of ity of withdrawal from the production process. Thus, the maintenance of a more patriarchal a more patriarchal family structure in the 1950s and 1960s coincides family structure in the 1950s and 1960s coincides with a significant alleviation of women's workload.with a significant alleviation of women's workload. 34
Women's labor in agriculture predominates among the smaller farms
Women's labor in agriculture predominates among the smaller farms engaged in domestic family production, since the viability of these enter-engaged in domestic family production, since the viability of these enter-prises depenprises depends on their ability to rely exclusively on family labor, to the ds on their ability to rely exclusively on family labor, to the almost complete exclusion of contractual assistance. And among landless almost complete exclusion of contractual assistance. And among landless peasants not engaged in domestic production, each family member, peasants not engaged in domestic production, each family member, whether husband, wife, or young children, must make an whether husband, wife, or young children, must make an economic con-economic con-tribution, usually through seasonal wage labor such as cotton picking.tribution, usually through seasonal wage labor such as cotton picking.35 However, even with this division of labor within a nuclear family, the However, even with this division of labor within a nuclear family, the woman had no control over the wages she earned, as the husband had woman had no control over the wages she earned, as the husband had
33 Prime Ministry Statistical General DirectoratePrime Ministry Statistical General Directorate,, Genel Nüfus SayımıGenel Nüfus Sayımı (Ankara: Devlet (Ankara: Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü Matbaası. 1955, 1960,1965, 1970)İstatistik Enstitüsü Matbaası. 1955, 1960,1965, 1970). . The occupation data of the cen-The occupation data of the cen-sus between 1955 and 1965 was issued for the age 15 and over whicsus between 1955 and 1965 was issued for the age 15 and over which was changed as h was changed as 12 and over by 1970. Since the age distribution was also provided in the censuses, the 12 and over by 1970. Since the age distribution was also provided in the censuses, the occupation dataset was adjusted between 15 and 65. Nevertheless, some portion of the occupation dataset was adjusted between 15 and 65. Nevertheless, some portion of the decrease in 1970 female rural agricultural labor might have some redecrease in 1970 female rural agricultural labor might have some relation with mislead-lation with mislead-ing age declaration.ing age declaration.
34 Kandiyoti, “Women and Household ProductionKandiyoti, “Women and Household Production,”,” 187187--188.188.
35 Deniz Kandiyoti, “Sex Roles and Social Change: A Comparative Appraisal of Turkey's Deniz Kandiyoti, “Sex Roles and Social Change: A Comparative Appraisal of Turkey's WomenWomen,”,” in in Women and National Development: The Complexities of Women and National Development: The Complexities of ChangeChange, ed. Wellesley , ed. Wellesley Editorial Committee (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1977), 57Editorial Committee (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1977), 57--73.73.
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sole authority over funds and ga
sole authority over funds and gained more access to consumption and ined more access to consumption and leisure.leisure.36
Childcare should necessarily have a higher degree of attention of
Childcare should necessarily have a higher degree of attention of mothers who withdrew from work and confined themselves to domestic mothers who withdrew from work and confined themselves to domestic tasks, which should also have accelerated the reduction of the infant mor-tasks, which should also have accelerated the reduction of the infant mor-taltality rate and thus reduced births to replace actual or potential infant ity rate and thus reduced births to replace actual or potential infant mortality.mortality. 37 But reproductive behavior is primarily related to the chang-But reproductive behavior is primarily related to the chang-ing value of children, which is discussed in the next section.ing value of children, which is discussed in the next section.
4.1.3 Shifting Value of the Shifting Value of the Children...Children... AAn Asset or a n Asset or a Liability?Liability?
This section identifies the value of the child and how it
This section identifies the value of the child and how it transformedtransformed in in the midthe mid--1950s and 1960s to ex1950s and 1960s to explorploree changing reproductive behavior. Un-changing reproductive behavior. Un-derstanding the value parents ascribe to children is key to gaining insight derstanding the value parents ascribe to children is key to gaining insight into family dynamics, gender roles, social norms and attitudes, and fertil-into family dynamics, gender roles, social norms and attitudes, and fertil-ity behavior. The value of children thus symbolizes motivations for hav-ity behavior. The value of children thus symbolizes motivations for hav-ing children and plays an important role in any micromodel of fertility.ing children and plays an important role in any micromodel of fertility.38
The
The value of children value of children toto parents has parents has generally generally been been conceptualized conceptualized in twoin two different disciplinary frameworksdifferent disciplinary frameworks: : economiceconomic and and socisocio psycholog-o psycholog-icalical.. In In the the economiceconomic interpretationinterpretation,, parentparents’s’ reproductive preferencesreproductive preferences aare viewed as an investment decision re viewed as an investment decision forfor a human capital that directly a human capital that directly affectsaffects the welfare and satisfaction of family members.the welfare and satisfaction of family members.39
Traditionally, th
Traditionally, thiiss decision is decision is thought thought to be more positive in rural set-to be more positive in rural set-tings, where children are tings, where children are viewvieweded as as a a form of human capital form of human capital that will that will make a significant contributmake a significant contribution to the parents’ future real incomeion to the parents’ future real income..40 The The
36 Ferhunde Özbay, “Women’s Education in Rural TurkeyFerhunde Özbay, “Women’s Education in Rural Turkey,”,” in in Sex Roles, Family & Commu-Sex Roles, Family & Commu-nity in Turkeynity in Turkey, ed. Çiğdem Kağıtçıbaşı (Bloomington: Indiana Univesity Turkish , ed. Çiğdem Kağıtçıbaşı (Bloomington: Indiana Univesity Turkish Studies, Studies, 1981), 1331981), 133--150.150.
37 The impact of the female retreat from labor and the changing infant mortality needs The impact of the female retreat from labor and the changing infant mortality needs further analysis that is beyond the scope of that dissertation.further analysis that is beyond the scope of that dissertation.
38 Çiğdem Kağıtçıbaşı, “Old Age Security Value of Children and Development: CrÇiğdem Kağıtçıbaşı, “Old Age Security Value of Children and Development: Crossoss--Na-Na-tional Evidence”tional Evidence”: 133: 133--42.42.
39 Theodore W. Schultz, “Fertility and Economic ValuesTheodore W. Schultz, “Fertility and Economic Values,”,” in in Economics of the Family: Mar-Economics of the Family: Mar-riage, Children, and Human Capitalriage, Children, and Human Capital, ed. Theodore W. Schultz (Chicago: The University of , ed. Theodore W. Schultz (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1974): 3Chicago Press, 1974): 3--22.22.
40 Ibid.,6Ibid.,6--7.7.
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207
potential economic contribution of the child is much l
potential economic contribution of the child is much lowerower in urban ar-in urban ar-eas, where the cost of reas, where the cost of raiaising a sing a childchild is mucis much higher. h higher.
MoreoverMoreover, Becker , Becker finds finds that not only the potential but that not only the potential but also also the cur-the cur-rent income level of families rent income level of families affectsaffects the demand for childrenthe demand for children, noting an , noting an inverse inverse relationship between income and fertility levelrelationship between income and fertility levelss in urban set-in urban set-tingtings, as the coss, as the cost of t of having having children children increases increases with inwith income.come.41
This micro
This micro--economic approach economic approach extends extends its scope its scope toto measurmeasuree child child quality and budget constraints quality and budget constraints on on time time and opportunity costs.and opportunity costs.42 Eco-Eco-nomicnomic factors aside, the socifactors aside, the socioo--psychological framework psychological framework addresses addresses social social and psychological factors and psychological factors such as socisuch as social staal status, social mobility, family tus, social mobility, family structure, religious affiliation, ruralstructure, religious affiliation, rural--urban residence, and inner motiva-urban residence, and inner motiva-tion for having a child.tion for having a child.43
The
The parental motivations underlying childbearing and the values at-parental motivations underlying childbearing and the values at-tributed to children tributed to children wwereere extensively researched inextensively researched in the earlthe early 1970sy 1970s in in a a multinational project namely “Value of the Child” (VOC), multinational project namely “Value of the Child” (VOC), whichwhich surveyed surveyed more than 20,000 married respondents from nine countriesmore than 20,000 married respondents from nine countries,, including including Turkey.Turkey.44
The major finding of the study was the evolutionary transition in the
The major finding of the study was the evolutionary transition in the value of children value of children at different at different stages of stages of socioeconomic development. In socioeconomic development. In less developed countries or regions, the value of children less developed countries or regions, the value of children depends depends pri-pri-marily marily on their on their economic and practical contrieconomic and practical contribution in the householdbution in the household; as; as child labor child labor during childhood during childhood andand thereafterthereafter in the form of the oldin the form of the old--age se-age se-curity value for the eldecurity value for the elderlyrly..45
41 Gary S. Becker, Gary S. Becker, A Treatise on the FamilyA Treatise on the Family, Extended Edition (Cambridge: Harvard Univer-, Extended Edition (Cambridge: Harvard Univer-sity Press, 1991): 135sity Press, 1991): 135--154.154.
42 Ibid.,144.Ibid.,144.
43 Bart J. De Bruijn, “Fertililty: Theories, Frameworks, Models, ConceptsBart J. De Bruijn, “Fertililty: Theories, Frameworks, Models, Concepts,”,” inin Demography: Demography: Analysis and SynthesisAnalysis and Synthesis, eds. Graziella Caselli, Jacques Vallin, Guillaume Wunsch (New , eds. Graziella Caselli, Jacques Vallin, Guillaume Wunsch (New York and London: Academic Press, 2006), 549York and London: Academic Press, 2006), 549--569.569.
44 James T. Fawcett, “Perceptions of the Value of Children: Satisfactions and CostsJames T. Fawcett, “Perceptions of the Value of Children: Satisfactions and Costs,”,” inin De-De-terminants of Fertility in Developing Countriesterminants of Fertility in Developing Countries,, vol.1., eds. R. Bulatao, R. D. Lee, P. E. vol.1., eds. R. Bulatao, R. D. Lee, P. E. Hollerbach, & J. BongaartsHollerbach, & J. Bongaarts (Washington D.C.: National Academies Press, 1983), 429(Washington D.C.: National Academies Press, 1983), 429--454.454.
45 Ibid.,434.Ibid.,434.
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In developed countries and regions where the child has no labor
In developed countries and regions where the child has no labor value, this economic utilitarian value of value, this economic utilitarian value of child child shifts to shifts to more emotional more emotional rewards and psychological appreciation, and the concerns of oldrewards and psychological appreciation, and the concerns of old--age se-age se-curity have been transferred to organized social support systems such as curity have been transferred to organized social support systems such as social security, pensions, and insurance.social security, pensions, and insurance.46
In the Turkish part of the study, 2,305 married
In the Turkish part of the study, 2,305 married coupcoupleles (1,762 s (1,762 womenwomen, 543 m, 543 menen) represented in a national sample were asked to re-) represented in a national sample were asked to re-spond 103 questions spond 103 questions onon the the various aspectsvarious aspects of the value of children.of the value of children.47
Table 4.
Table 4.55 Advantage of Advantage of hhaving aving cchildrenhildren,, VOC VOC ssurvey results urvey results ((%%))
Advantage
Advantage
Village
Village
City
City
Metropol
Metropolee Economic Factors 75.3 60.0 37.7 Help in Housework 11.1 6.1 3.7 Help in Old Age Help in Old Age 39.539.5 36.036.0 23.023.0 Financial Practical Help Financial Practical Help 24.724.7 17.917.9 11.011.0 Social Factors 44.5 51.8 49.0 Family name/Social obligation 24.1 23.8 15.5 Benefit of Marriage Benefit of Marriage 10.110.1 12.412.4 16.916.9 Adult status/ Social Norms Adult status/ Social Norms 10.310.3 15.615.6 16.616.6 Psychological Factors 43.2 61.8 90.2 Happiness, fun, love 32.2 40.4 60.7 Living through children Living through children 1.31.3 2.42.4 3.73.7 Character achievement Character achievement 9.79.7 19.019.0 25.825.8
SOURCE:
SOURCE: Kağıtçıbaşı (1982Kağıtçıbaşı (1982bb))..48
The results, presented in Table 4.5, confirm the overall survey findings
The results, presented in Table 4.5, confirm the overall survey findings about the changing value of children based on the socioeconomic strata. about the changing value of children based on the socioeconomic strata. In villages, 75% of parents consider children as an economic asset, while In villages, 75% of parents consider children as an economic asset, while this value drops down to 37% in metrothis value drops down to 37% in metropolitan areas. In contrast, politan areas. In contrast,
46 Ronald D. Lee, Rodolfo A. Bulatao, “Demand for Children:Ronald D. Lee, Rodolfo A. Bulatao, “Demand for Children: A Critical EssayA Critical Essay,”,” in in Determi-Determi-nants of nants of FFertility in Developing Countriesertility in Developing Countries,, vol.1., eds. R. Bulatao, R. D. Lee, P. E. Hollerbach, vol.1., eds. R. Bulatao, R. D. Lee, P. E. Hollerbach, & J. Bongaarts (Washington D.C.: National Academies Press, 1983), 246& J. Bongaarts (Washington D.C.: National Academies Press, 1983), 246--249.249.
47 ÇiğÇiğdem Kadem Kağıtçıbaşığıtçıbaşı, “Status of Women in Turkey: Cross, “Status of Women in Turkey: Cross--Cultural PerspectivesCultural Perspectives,”,” Interna-Interna-tional Journal of Middle East Studies tional Journal of Middle East Studies 18, no. 4 (1988): 48518, no. 4 (1988): 485--499.499.
48 ÇiğÇiğdem Kadem Kağıtçıbaşığıtçıbaşı, “The changing value of children i, “The changing value of children in Turkeyn Turkey,”,” Pub. No. 60Pub. No. 60--E (Honolulu, E (Honolulu, HI: EastHI: East––WestCenter, 1982), 43.WestCenter, 1982), 43.
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psychological factors became the key motivation in metropolitan areas
psychological factors became the key motivation in metropolitan areas (90%) compared to rural residents (43%).(90%) compared to rural residents (43%).
The highest value attributed to the childbearing decision was the old
The highest value attributed to the childbearing decision was the old--age security, which also decreases by the ruralage security, which also decreases by the rural--urban migration. The old urban migration. The old age security value of a child in metropolitan areas was 42% lower than age security value of a child in metropolitan areas was 42% lower than in villages. Nevertheless, the comparative results depict that the overall in villages. Nevertheless, the comparative results depict that the overall average in Turkey was ten times higher than in the US and Germany, average in Turkey was ten times higher than in the US and Germany, where the social where the social security system is strong.security system is strong.49
It
It mustmust be emphasized that welfare state institutions were be emphasized that welfare state institutions were also also grad-grad-ually introduced ually introduced in Turkey, in Turkey, especially after the especially after the mmilitary ilitary rregime of 1960, egime of 1960, and and that by 1963 about 6that by 1963 about 650,000 employees were covered 50,000 employees were covered by theby the Social Social Security LawSecurity Law..50 YYet the et the law law only covered only covered official employofficial employeesees, , and and specificspecific industriesindustries,, especially especially agricultural labor was out of theagricultural labor was out of the social security sys-social security sys-tem. The tem. The gap was partially recovered by the gap was partially recovered by the socialization of health ser-socialization of health ser-vices in the eastern provinces in 1961vices in the eastern provinces in 1961..51 HoweverHowever,, thethe inefficienciesinefficiencies of theof the system and system and the the lack of lack of financialfinancial protection could not protection could not replace the replace the old age old age security value of the children security value of the children even for today.even for today.52
Another
Another indicator of the economic value of the child in the survey was indicator of the economic value of the child in the survey was the financial support the financial support provided by provided by the children in the form of child labor. the children in the form of child labor. Just Just asas with with female labor mentioned in the previous section, the statisti-female labor mentioned in the previous section, the statisti-cal data evidences the cal data evidences the decline of decline of the child labor the child labor in Turkey in Turkey between 1950 between 1950 and 1970and 1970,, mmainly ainly due ruraldue rural exodusexodus, while , while the overall rate of child lathe overall rate of child labor bor
49 Kağıtçıbaşı, “Old Age Security Value of Children and DevelopmentKağıtçıbaşı, “Old Age Security Value of Children and Development,”,” 135.135.
50 Nadir Özbek, Nadir Özbek, Cumhuriyet Türkiye’sinde Sosyal Güvenlik ve Sosyal PolitikalarCumhuriyet Türkiye’sinde Sosyal Güvenlik ve Sosyal Politikalar ((Istanbul: Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı, 20Tarih Vakfı, 2006),06), 232.232.
51 Turkish Assembly, “Turkish Assembly, “Law on Socialization of Health ServicesLaw on Socialization of Health Services, No: , No: 224224,” ,” Official Gazette Official Gazette publication on publication on January January 1122, 196, 19611, No.1, No.107050705, enacted on , enacted on January 5, 1961January 5, 1961.. By this law, the By this law, the healthhealth services services inin the eastern provinces became the eastern provinces became free.free.
52 The VOC study of the mid 1970s, replicated in 2003 with the same team in Turkey and The VOC study of the mid 1970s, replicated in 2003 with the same team in Turkey and the oldthe old--ageage security value of the children security value of the children hahave merely ve merely decreased decreased 11%11% within thirty within thirty years period.years period. Ciğdem Kağıtçıbaşı and Bilge Ataca, “Value of Children, Family Change, and Ciğdem Kağıtçıbaşı and Bilge Ataca, “Value of Children, Family Change, and Implications for the Care of the Elderly,” Implications for the Care of the Elderly,” Cross Cultural ResearchCross Cultural Research 49, no.4 (2015), 37449, no.4 (2015), 374--392.392.
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(between the age 10 and 14)
(between the age 10 and 14) decreaseddecreased from 37% to 28%.from 37% to 28%.53 The The researchresearch also also showsshows that cthat childhildrenren in the metropolitan areasin the metropolitan areas werewere not not considered considered as a source of labor as a source of labor oror as a as a vehicle of vehicle of housework supporthousework support..
Among the disadvantages associated with
Among the disadvantages associated with having a childhaving a child depicted in depicted in Table 4.6, Table 4.6, 52% of respondents mentioned financial costs and 49% men-52% of respondents mentioned financial costs and 49% men-tioned emotional/physical costs, with the main distinction being gender tioned emotional/physical costs, with the main distinction being gender rather than spatial. In keeping with the social roles of father as breadwin-rather than spatial. In keeping with the social roles of father as breadwin-ner and mother ner and mother as nurturer, men as nurturer, men werewere more likely to more likely to struggle with the struggle with the economic burdenseconomic burdens and women with and women with the emotional/physical difficultiesthe emotional/physical difficulties thatthat anan additional child can bring.additional child can bring.
Table 4.
Table 4.66 Disadvantage of Disadvantage of hhaving aving cchildren, VOC hildren, VOC ssurvey results urvey results ((%%))
Disad
Disadvantage vantage
Wome
Womenn
MenMen
Weighted
Weighted averageaverage Economic Costs 43.2 62.4 52.0 Cost of Education 5.7 13.2 9.0 General Financial CostsGeneral Financial Costs 3737.5.5 4949..22 443.03.0 Emotional/ Physical Cost 56.1 20.4 49.0 More Work 30.6 12.7 22.0 Emotional Strain Emotional Strain 20.0 7.9 14.0 Pregnancy Pregnancy 5.5 0.8 3.0 Upbringing Problems 38.1 34.7 37.0 Discipline 19.4 19.7 20.0 Sickness Sickness 14.7 7.6 11.0 Worry on Children’s Future Worry on Children’s Future 4.0 7.4 6.0 Restriction of Freedom 14.0 10.7 12.0 Tied DownTied Down 9.8 8.1 9.0 CannotCannot WorkWork 4.2 2.6 3.0
SOURCE
SOURCE:: Kağıtçıbaşı (1982b), 47.Kağıtçıbaşı (1982b), 47.
Thus, the economic concerns related to having a child were 45% higher
Thus, the economic concerns related to having a child were 45% higher for men and emotional/physical struggles were 275% higher for for men and emotional/physical struggles were 275% higher for women. women. There were no gender differences in terms of restriction of freedom and There were no gender differences in terms of restriction of freedom and upbringing problems that were cited as a burden for having a child.upbringing problems that were cited as a burden for having a child.
53 International Labour Organization, International Labour Organization, economicallyeconomically active active population, 1950 population, 1950 -- 2010 vol. I,2010 vol. I, AsiAsiaa ((Geneva: ILO; 1996Geneva: ILO; 1996), 195.), 195.
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211
Regarding the rural
Regarding the rural--urban difference in hesitation to have another urban difference in hesitation to have another child, economic difficulties were two timechild, economic difficulties were two times higher among parents in vil-s higher among parents in vil-lages than among parents in metropolitan areas, who were more con-lages than among parents in metropolitan areas, who were more con-cerns about the restriction of their freedom and the future of children.cerns about the restriction of their freedom and the future of children.54
In
In summary, summary, tthe he fundamental fundamental transformattransformation from subsistence crop-ion from subsistence crop-ping ping to ato a market economy market economy and the rural to urban migration and the rural to urban migration alsalso o dimin-dimin-ished the economic value of childrenished the economic value of children. Although the . Although the value of children as value of children as an old age security warranty for the elderan old age security warranty for the elderlyly remains, theremains, the potential potential valuevalue as as child labor anchild labor andd in in housework dutieshousework duties hahass graduallygradually reducedreduced. .
On the other hand,
On the other hand, urbanization, urbanization, rising rising education and education and increasing increasing wealthwealth among among parents parents have have introduced introduced additional additional weightsweights on on having a having a child, child, such assuch as restrictirestrictionon of freedomof freedom and concerns and concerns about the child’s about the child’s fu-fu-tureture. . In additionIn addition to the to the diminishing value of children, diminishing value of children, there were also there were also some other material changes during this period, which will be discussed some other material changes during this period, which will be discussed in the next section.in the next section.
4.1.4 Other Key Drivers to Stimulate the Need for Contraception.Other Key Drivers to Stimulate the Need for Contraception.
I
In addition n addition toto change in change in the the family structure, family structure, the the status of the womenstatus of the women,, and value of the children, there and value of the children, there were were other demographic changes that di-other demographic changes that di-rectrectly affected ly affected reproductive decision reproductive decision in in the 1950s and 1960s. The key the 1950s and 1960s. The key is-is-sues discussed sues discussed in this section are in this section are changechangess in the agein the age of marriage, of marriage, didivorce vorce ratesrates, , infant infant mortality, and education. mortality, and education.
In their analysis
In their analysis ofof the proximate determinants of fertility, the proximate determinants of fertility, BongaarBongaarts ts and Potter and Potter state thatstate that the level of natural fertility ofthe level of natural fertility of a societya society is is determined determined by its marriage patterns.by its marriage patterns.55 Natural fertiNatural fertility is highest in populations with lity is highest in populations with a a low age at marriage and lowest when marriagelow age at marriage and lowest when marriage occurs lateoccurs late and and is is largely largely determined by community customs anddetermined by community customs and thus under social controlthus under social control..56
54 Çiğdem Kağıtçıbaşı, Çiğdem Kağıtçıbaşı, Çocuğun Değeri: Türkiye’de Değerler ve DoğurganlıkÇocuğun Değeri: Türkiye’de Değerler ve Doğurganlık (Istanbul: Göz-(Istanbul: Göz-lem Matbaacılık, 1981), 216.lem Matbaacılık, 1981), 216.
55 John Bongaarts and Robert G. Pottter, John Bongaarts and Robert G. Pottter, Fertility, Biology, and BehaviorFertility, Biology, and Behavior ((New York:New York: AcadeAcadedemic Press, 1983), 21demic Press, 1983), 21--22.22.
56 John Bongaarts and Susan Cotts Watkins, “John Bongaarts and Susan Cotts Watkins, “Social Interactions and Contemporary Fertil-Social Interactions and Contemporary Fertil-ity Transitions,” in ity Transitions,” in Population and Development ReviewPopulation and Development Review 22, no. 4 (1996), 63922, no. 4 (1996), 639--82.82.
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In Turkey, the
In Turkey, the ssiningulate gulate mean mean of of marriage (SMAM)marriage (SMAM),, representing the representing the mean age at which mean age at which individualsindividuals leave single staleave single stattusus by by marryingmarrying for the first for the first timetime, d, didid not change between 1950 and 1970 not change between 1950 and 1970 according to according to census data.census data.57 In 1950, In 1950, tthe SMAM was he SMAM was 2323..2 for m2 for menen and 19and 19..6 for 6 for womenwomen, which , which only only increased slightly increased slightly to to 2323..44 for mfor men en and 19and 19..9 for 9 for women women by 1970.by 1970.58
However,
However, the mean the mean age at fage at first marriage irst marriage offers offers limited capacity limited capacity inin evaluatevaluatinging the the pattern of pattern of marriagemarriage, , since since marriage marriage atat early early and later and later ages ages has has completely completely different different effectseffects on on fecundity. fecundity. To this end, To this end, the the marriagemarriagess of of womenwomen in different in different age cohortsage cohorts were were tabulatedtabulated in Table 4.7, in Table 4.7, which which rep-rep-resents the percentage of married women resents the percentage of married women iin a n a givengiven age cohort. age cohort.
Table 4.
Table 4.77 Marriage Marriage rate rate of of women in dwomen in different ifferent aage ge groups 1950groups 1950--1970 1970 (%)(%)
Age
Age GroupsGroups
19501950
19551955
19601960
19651965
19701970
19501950--19701970 1515--1919 30.930.9 39.239.2 33.933.9 27.327.3 23.823.8 --7.17.1
20
20--2424
81.7
81.7
84.0
84.0
83.7
83.7
82.7
82.7
77.7
77.7
-
-3.03.0 2525--2929 91.891.8 90.590.5 9933..99 94.094.0 91.91.99 ++0.10.1
30
30--3434
92.2
92.2
90.7
90.7
9
94.34.3
95.4
95.4
9
911.2.2
-
-1.01.0 3535--3939 90.690.6 90.590.5 993.93.9 93.993.9 9933..55 ++2.92.9
40
40--4444
85.2
85.2
86.5
86.5
88.9
88.9
90.4
90.4
90.2
90.2
+
+5.05.0 4545--4949 81.681.6 81.581.5 85.185.1 86.086.0 87.387.3 +5.7.+5.7.
SOURCE
SOURCE:: Census results from 1950 to 1970.Census results from 1950 to 1970.59
As shown above, the percentage of married women has declined sharply
As shown above, the percentage of married women has declined sharply in the 15in the 15--19 age group. In the 1955 census, some 39% of this age group 19 age group. In the 1955 census, some 39% of this age group was recorded as married, and this ratio declined down to 24% by the was recorded as married, and this ratio declined down to 24% by the 1970 census. The other young age group (201970 census. The other young age group (20--24) a24) also experienced a de-lso experienced a de-clining pattern but to a lesser extent. The decline between 1950 and 1970 clining pattern but to a lesser extent. The decline between 1950 and 1970 was only 3%. was only 3%.
57 Samira Berksan, “Marriage Patterns and their Effect on Fertility in Turkey” in Samira Berksan, “Marriage Patterns and their Effect on Fertility in Turkey” in Turkish Turkish Demography: PrDemography: Prococeedings of a Conferenceeedings of a Conference, eds. Fredric C. Shorter, Bozkurt , eds. Fredric C. Shorter, Bozkurt Gönenç (Gönenç (An-An-kara: Hacettepe University Publications, kara: Hacettepe University Publications, 19691969))147147--66.66.
58 Ayşe Yetkin Toprak, “Ayşe Yetkin Toprak, “Türkiye’de Evlenme Göstergelerinin Değişimi 1955Türkiye’de Evlenme Göstergelerinin Değişimi 1955--1997”1997” ((Turk-Turk-ish Statistical Instituteish Statistical Institute Expertise Thesis, Expertise Thesis, 2001), 54.2001), 54.
59 Prime Ministry Statistical General Directorate, Prime Ministry Statistical General Directorate, Genel NüGenel Nüfus Sayımıfus Sayımı (Ankara: Devlet (Ankara: Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü Matbaasıİstatistik Enstitüsü Matbaası,, 1950, 1955, 1960,1965, 19701950, 1955, 1960,1965, 1970))
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Marriage rates for the older age cohort (35+) have higher penetration
Marriage rates for the older age cohort (35+) have higher penetration but have a very limited impact on fertility. Thus, since 1955, there has but have a very limited impact on fertility. Thus, since 1955, there has been been a qualitative shift in the age distribution of the married population a qualitative shift in the age distribution of the married population from a higher proportion of marriages at younger ages to a higher pro-from a higher proportion of marriages at younger ages to a higher pro-portion of marriages at older ages.portion of marriages at older ages. 60
In addition
In addition tto the o the aging marriage cohort, Goode identifies the emer-Goode identifies the emer-gence of gence of ""own choiceown choice" marriages as one of the underlying factors " marriages as one of the underlying factors inin fer-fer-tility tility declinedecline, , part of part of a a growinggrowing repertoire of personal choirepertoire of personal choice ce about mar-about mar-riageriage and childbeaand childbearing.ring.61 ManglosManglos--Weber and WeinrebWeber and Weinreb tested Goode’s tested Goode’s hypothesis hypothesis in Turkish KAP surveys of 1993, 1998in Turkish KAP surveys of 1993, 1998,, and 2003and 2003 and and found found that women in arranged marriages hathat women in arranged marriages hadd 1.48 times more children than 1.48 times more children than their counterparts their counterparts who who married by their own choice.married by their own choice.62
L
Looking at the ooking at the spatial distribution of the final decisionspatial distribution of the final decision--makers makers inin the the marriagemarriage, 81% of respondents , 81% of respondents living in living in thethe three metropolitanthree metropolitan areas,areas, 66% of respondents living in 66% of respondents living in urban areasurban areas declared thdeclared that they are the solat they are the sole e decisiondecision--makers makers iin marriage, whn marriage, while ile that ratio that ratio is is only only 39% 39% forfor villagevillagersrs..63 ConsideringConsidering 6868% of metropolitan residents and % of metropolitan residents and 55% of village55% of villagerrs were al-s were al-ready living in ready living in a a nuclear family, nuclear family, it it could be arguedcould be argued thatthat rrural to urban mi-ural to urban mi-gration gration provides anprovides an additional leverage additional leverage for the for the emancipatiemancipatingng familiesfamilies from traditional from traditional valuesvalues,, which was more vibrant in villageswhich was more vibrant in villages, wh, whileile 16% 16% (55%(55%--39%) 39%) of nuclear family memof nuclear family members bers indicated that indicated that elders elders are are the sole the sole decisiondecision--makers in marriage. makers in marriage.
As
As forfor divorcedivorcess, Turkey ha, Turkey hadd an an extremely extremely low low average average divorce ratedivorce rate ((0.20.288 divorces per divorces per 1,000 population in 1,000 population in 1970), not only compared 1970), not only compared to de-to de-velopedveloped countries but also lowest among other Islamic countriescountries but also lowest among other Islamic countries. In Lev-. In Lev-ine’s ine’s comparative comparative study of study of crude divorce ratecrude divorce rates s inin 994 countries, Turkey 4 countries, Turkey
60 Ned Levine, “Divorce in Turkey,” Ned Levine, “Divorce in Turkey,” Türkiye İkinci Nüfusbilim Konferansı İzmir 1975Türkiye İkinci Nüfusbilim Konferansı İzmir 1975 (An-(An-kara: Hacettepe University Publications, 2001), 154.kara: Hacettepe University Publications, 2001), 154.
61 Goode, Goode, The FamilyThe Family, 49, 49--5151..
62 Nicolette D. ManglosNicolette D. Manglos--Weber and Alexander A. WeinrebWeber and Alexander A. Weinreb,, ““OwnOwn--Choice Marriage and Fer-Choice Marriage and Fer-tility in Turkeytility in Turkey,”,” Journal of Marriage and FamilyJournal of Marriage and Family 7979,, no.2, no.2, (2017): 372(2017): 372--389389..
63 TimurTimur, , Türkiye’de Aile YapısıTürkiye’de Aile Yapısı, 47., 47.
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ranked as the
ranked as the lowest third.lowest third.64 Moreover, between1950 and 1970Moreover, between1950 and 1970,, the the di-di-vorce ratevorce rate dropped dropped from from 0.37 0.37 to 0.26 to 0.26 divorces per 1,0divorces per 1,000 population00 population..65
Yet
Yet tthis his ageage--specific divorce index demonstrates that specific divorce index demonstrates that divorces in divorces in the the 1717 toto 1818--yearyear--oldold age groupage group increased steadily by increased steadily by 77..1% each 1% each year be-year be-tweentween 1950 and 19651950 and 1965. . In In the the 2020--to to 2525--yearyear--oldold age intervalage interval,, divorce rates divorce rates are are also also increasing, butincreasing, but at a at a slowerslower rate (1% rate (1% per per year).year).66 In the In the older age older age groupsgroups, which ha, which have a ve a lesser impact on fertility levellesser impact on fertility level, the divorce rates , the divorce rates de-de-clined steadilyclined steadily. .
The
The relationshiprelationship between fertility and infant mortality has long been between fertility and infant mortality has long been studiestudied and lies d and lies atat the the heheartart of the demographic transition theoryof the demographic transition theory, in, in which which decline in decline in fertility followfertility followss declinedecline inin mortality. mortality. Carey and LepreatoCarey and Lepreato havehave also conceptualized thalso conceptualized thisis relationship relationship asas "two"two--surviving childrensurviving children psychology" in which psychology" in which parents parents adjust adjust their total their total fertility to the frequencyfertility to the frequency with which offspring survive to adulthood.with which offspring survive to adulthood.67
In an environment with
In an environment with high infant and child mortality, high infant and child mortality, fertilityfertility would would be high be high to replace offspringto replace offspring that are that are expected to dieexpected to die. . SimilarlySimilarly, , ffertility ertility would adjust downwards would adjust downwards when when infant infant andand child mortality child mortality isis low,low, and in-and in-fants survive fants survive to to reproductivereproductive ageage..68 As in the otherAs in the other developing world, the developing world, the reduction reduction inin infant mortality ininfant mortality in postpost--WWIIWWII TurkeyTurkey, , previously previously demon-demon-strated in Table 3.1strated in Table 3.1, was expected to, was expected to have have a sa significant ignificant impact on the impact on the re-re-ducducinging fertility behavior fertility behavior even even before the before the law was law was promulgatpromulgated ed in 1965.in 1965.
The last determinant
The last determinant of fertilityof fertility to be analyzed to be analyzed is is the changthe change in the e in the eeducational level of womenducational level of women. The literature suggests that the education . The literature suggests that the education affects fertility through a number of affects fertility through a number of different different channelschannels, including de, including delay lay in marriage, higher social status, hin marriage, higher social status, hiigher gher contraceptive usagecontraceptive usage,, and higher and higher opportunity costopportunity costss due to due to higher wageshigher wages69 and higher bargaining pand higher bargaining power in ower in
64 Levine, Levine, “Divorce in Turkey“Divorce in Turkey,” ,” 114848--150.150.
65 Ibid.,Ibid.,153.153.
66 Ibid.,157.Ibid.,157.
67 Arlen D. Carey, Joseph Lopreato, “Arlen D. Carey, Joseph Lopreato, “The Evolutionary Demography of the FertilityThe Evolutionary Demography of the Fertility--Mortal-Mortal-ity Quasiity Quasi--EquilibriumEquilibrium,”,” Population and Population and Development Review 21Development Review 21, no. 3, (1995), no. 3, (1995):: 613613--3030..
68 Ibid.,621Ibid.,621--225.5.
69 Mustafa Seref Akin, “Education and Fertility: A Panel Data Analysis for Middle Eastern Mustafa Seref Akin, “Education and Fertility: A Panel Data Analysis for Middle Eastern Countries,” Countries,” The Journal of Developing AreasThe Journal of Developing Areas 39, no.1, (2005), 5539, no.1, (2005), 55--69.69.
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fertility decision
fertility decisionss..70 In his study oIn his study off lowlow--income countries, income countries, Schultz esti-Schultz esti-matesmates that an additional year of schooling for women is associated with that an additional year of schooling for women is associated with a a 12% 12% decline in total fertility.decline in total fertility.71
Female
Female literacy literacy trends weretrends were tracked tracked using using census data census data between 1950 between 1950 and 1970and 1970,, with the urbanwith the urban--rural difference rural difference shown in Table shown in Table 44.8..8. Although Although the literacy rate the literacy rate is is still still extremely extremely lowlow compared to developed countriescompared to developed countries,, census results depict that the census results depict that the female literacyfemale literacy rate rate has has increased increased from from 20% to 42% within twenty ye20% to 42% within twenty years’ time. ars’ time. In the urban terrainIn the urban terrain, this , this ratio ratio increases up to 59%, wheras in increases up to 59%, wheras in the the rural rural levellevel it it isis only 33%only 33%. .
Table 4.
Table 4.88 Female lFemale literacy rates 1950iteracy rates 1950--1970.1970. (%)(%)
Year
Year
Urbanization
Urbanization WomenWomen
Literacy rate
Literacy rate UrbanUrban
Literacy rate
Literacy rate RuralRural
Literacy rate
Literacy rate
TotalTotal 19501950 21.921.9 43.843.8 12.512.5 19.519.5
1955
1955
21.8
21.8
49.9
49.9
1
18.78.7
25.6
25.6 19601960 25.525.5 49.549.5 116.4.6.4. 224.84.8
1965
1965
33.7
33.7
52.3
52.3
22.9
22.9
32.8
32.8 19701970 34.834.8 58.958.9 32.632.6 41.841.8
SOURCE
SOURCE:: Census results from 1950 to 1970.Census results from 1950 to 1970.
The positive impact of
The positive impact of urbanization on education is a wellurbanization on education is a well--known phe-known phe-nomenonnomenon.. yet the increase in rural literacy was substantial, yet the increase in rural literacy was substantial, especially especially be-be-tween 1960 and 1970, as the number of literate women increased by 1.7 tween 1960 and 1970, as the number of literate women increased by 1.7 million, while the female population increased million, while the female population increased by by 1.2 million in a 1.2 million in a decade.decade.
Summary of
Summary of 44.1.1
In this section
In this section,, the main drives of the main drives of parents parents to to limit fertility behavior wlimit fertility behavior wereere elaboratedelaborated. . The evidence The evidence depictdepictss that that fertility fertility rates wererates were on a on a declining declining trend long before the introduction of the trend long before the introduction of the Family Planning LawFamily Planning Law. . In Turkey, In Turkey, as inas in momostst of of other developing countries, theother developing countries, the transformation of the land transformation of the land regimeregime in in the early 1950s from the early 1950s from subsistence cropping subsistence cropping to a to a market market
70 Murat G. Kırdar, Meltem Dayıoğlu Tayfur, İsmet Koç, “The Effect of Compulsory School-Murat G. Kırdar, Meltem Dayıoğlu Tayfur, İsmet Koç, “The Effect of Compulsory School-ing Laws on Teenage Marriage and Births in Turkey,” ing Laws on Teenage Marriage and Births in Turkey,” IZA Discussion Paper SeriesIZA Discussion Paper Series, no. , no. 5887, (5887, (2011)2011)
71 T. Paul Schultz, “T. Paul Schultz, “Human Capital, Family Planning, and Their Effects onHuman Capital, Family Planning, and Their Effects on Population Population Growth,” Growth,” The American Economic ReviewThe American Economic Review 84, no.2, (1984, no.2, (1994), 25594), 255--6060..
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economy
economy, together with the other demo, together with the other demographic changesgraphic changes,, not only trig-not only trig-gered the mass gered the mass rural to urban rural to urban migrationmigration,, but also but also had a had a dramatical dramatical im-im-pacted pacted some core elements some core elements of of the indithe individual spherevidual sphere. .
Th
Thus, theus, the changing changing family structurefamily structure, , the the rolerole of of womenwomen,, and and the the value value of cof childrenhildren, together with the other changing demographic variables, together with the other changing demographic variables,, such asuch as the s the decreasing decreasing number of number of marriagemarriagess inin the younger age cohort, the younger age cohort, the the increasing female educationincreasing female education,, and and the the decreasing decreasing infant mortalityinfant mortality,, have become key drivehave become key driverrs s ofof fertility reduction and fertility reduction and the the “unmet need” for “unmet need” for contracepticontraceptivesves. .
But have Turkish family really embraced the contraceptive solutions
But have Turkish family really embraced the contraceptive solutions offeoffered by the national and red by the national and globalglobal sphere or have they relied on their own sphere or have they relied on their own methodsmethods?? This will be elaborated in the next section. This will be elaborated in the next section.
§ 4.2 TThehe Family and the Family and the ContraceptionContraception
As
As mentionedmentioned earlier, earlier, traditional methods of traditional methods of contraceptioncontraception and abortion and abortion have long have long been been used since antiquity, used since antiquity, bubut the new t the new circumstances men-circumstances men-tioned in the previous section tioned in the previous section also also paved the way paved the way for further reduction in for further reduction in birth controlbirth control in the individual sphere.in the individual sphere. Meanwhile,Meanwhile, foreign population foreign population control control advocates,advocates, and and the the government, government, invested hinvested heavily eavily in min modern con-odern con-traceptives, including traceptives, including IUDIUDs and pillss and pills, , promotpromotinging thethemm as a safeas a saferr and more and more reliable reliable method of contraceptionmethod of contraception. . ThThe propose proposition seemed enticing, ition seemed enticing, but but initial initial rrates ates of use fell of use fell far far short of theshort of the governmentgovernment’s’s targets. targets.
This section
This section focuses on tfocuses on the he individual solutions to reducindividual solutions to reducinging fertility fertility and how women and familand how women and familiesies responded to the global and national responded to the global and national push push forfor modern contraception.modern contraception. It also It also addressesaddresses the the changing fertility regime, changing fertility regime, changing changing contraceptivecontraceptive preferences, preferences, resistances resistances to to modern contracep-modern contracep-titives ves and attitudeand attitudess for abortion.for abortion.
4.2.1 Changing Fertility RegimeChanging Fertility Regime
This
This sectionsection expands on Turkey’sexpands on Turkey’s changing fertility regime between 1950 changing fertility regime between 1950 and 1970 and 1970 in ain a spatiospatio--temporal perspective. temporal perspective. Shorter and Macura’s Shorter and Macura’s detailed detailed study of study of fertility trendfertility trendss,, shownshown in Table 4.9in Table 4.9 provideprovides evidence of a hs evidence of a huge uge rural urban differencerural urban difference, with , with fertility fertility lowest in metropolitan areas and lowest in metropolitan areas and
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
217
highest in
highest in ruralrural zoneszones. . In additionIn addition, , fertility fertility was was lower lower in the rural in the rural WWest est than in rural East because of than in rural East because of its gits gradually better radually better socioeconomicsocioeconomic condi-condi-tions.tions. ShorterShorter, however,, however, suggestsuggests a traditional pattern of s a traditional pattern of changing re-changing re-gional gional fertility fertility rather than a transitional one, as he rather than a transitional one, as he finds similar results finds similar results in in historical historical fertilityfertility datadata which which he traced he traced back to 1935back to 1935 using the using the reverse reverse projection method.projection method.72
Table 4.
Table 4.99 TTFRFR byby rresidency 1950esidency 1950--19701970 Year Year MetropolesMetropoles CitiesCities VillagesVillages TFR TFR Turkey Turkey 19501950 2,652,65 4,314,31 6,846,84 6,6,8855 19551955 2,912,91 4,64,6 6,866,86 6,6,5454 19601960 2,962,96 4,724,72 6,826,82 6,6,5454 19651965 3,043,04 4,784,78 6,786,78 6,16,100 19701970 2,992,99 4,74,700 6,736,73 5,5,6363 Change Change +0.34+0.34 +0.39+0.39 --0.110.11 --1.31.300
SOURCE
SOURCE:: Shorter and Macura (1982),37,51.Shorter and Macura (1982),37,51.
The main indication of Shorter and Macura’s study was a steady decline
The main indication of Shorter and Macura’s study was a steady decline in the country’s total fertility rate (TFR) from 6.9 children per woman of in the country’s total fertility rate (TFR) from 6.9 children per woman of childbearing age to 5.6 children. This decline was triggered by changing childbearing age to 5.6 children. This decline was triggered by changing fertility regime in the villages, whifertility regime in the villages, which declined continuously after 1955, ch declined continuously after 1955, presumably due to the loss of the younger population, which either mi-presumably due to the loss of the younger population, which either mi-grated to the cities or emigrated to Western European countries. Simi-grated to the cities or emigrated to Western European countries. Simi-larly, migration affected the rise of TFR in cities and metropoles during larly, migration affected the rise of TFR in cities and metropoles during this pethis period. riod.
To explore the instruments of the general
To explore the instruments of the general decline in decline in fertilityfertility, , Shorter Shorter and Macuraand Macura offer to revisit offer to revisit changing changing demographic demographic indicatorsindicators of marital of marital status, infant mortality, and the age distribution of women status, infant mortality, and the age distribution of women with which with which theythey found found a a strong correlationstrong correlation.. ReReferring to the changing marital status ferring to the changing marital status of women, they found that 19% of the decline in total fertility over the of women, they found that 19% of the decline in total fertility over the past twenty years was due to the aging married cohort, as shown in the past twenty years was due to the aging married cohort, as shown in the
72 Fredric C. Shorter, “Fredric C. Shorter, “Information on Fertililty, Mortality and Population Information on Fertililty, Mortality and Population Growth in Tur-Growth in Tur-keykey” in ” in Turkish Demography: Proceedings of a ConferenceTurkish Demography: Proceedings of a Conference, eds. Fredric C. Shorter, , eds. Fredric C. Shorter, Bozkurt Gönenç (Ankara: Hacettepe University Publications, 1969)Bozkurt Gönenç (Ankara: Hacettepe University Publications, 1969)3434--3535..
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previous chapter.
previous chapter.73 This ratio was updated to 18% by Ozbay based on This ratio was updated to 18% by Ozbay based on the the results of the 1973 KAP survey.results of the 1973 KAP survey.74
Another indicator was
Another indicator was the decline in the decline in infant mortality, infant mortality, whose whose impact impact on the on the overall overall decline decline TFR was calculated aTFR was calculated att 9%.9%.75 TheThe recovery recovery of of anan in-in-fanfantt mortalimortality ty rate wrate was much faster in the rural as much faster in the rural plainsplains thanthan inin the urban the urban centcentersers,, which already which already had better health, had better health, nutrition,nutrition, and sanitation ser-and sanitation ser-vices.vices. 76 ThTherefore,erefore, the the impact impact of the of the decline in decline in infant mortalityinfant mortality on fertility on fertility reduction was much greater among rural residentsreduction was much greater among rural residents. .
The
The final illustration final illustration was the was the changing age changing age distribution of womendistribution of women. . The lowThe low birth rate birth rate during the during the WWIIWWII years years due to the military mobiliza-due to the military mobiliza-tion, tion, malnutrition,malnutrition, and and disease, especially in rural Turkeydisease, especially in rural Turkey,, not only not only changed the demographic distribution of the era, but changed the demographic distribution of the era, but also reduced the also reduced the fertility rates fertility rates of the nof the next two decadeext two decades as s as the potential motherthe potential motherss who who should have reached childbearing ageshould have reached childbearing age in the late 1950s and 1960sin the late 1950s and 1960s dropped outdropped out. The potential impact of the changing age distribution on the . The potential impact of the changing age distribution on the fertility fertility decline decline was calculated was calculated to be to be 7%7%..77
Nevertheless, the
Nevertheless, the key variakey variable ble directly affecting fertility rdirectly affecting fertility reduction eduction was was found as the found as the increasingincreasing use of cuse of contraceptiveontraceptive,,78 which which is discussed is discussed in in the next section.the next section.
4.2.2 Women and the ContraceptionWomen and the Contraception
T
This section his section analyzes analyzes the changing usthe changing usee of traditional and modern of traditional and modern contra-contra-ceptive ceptive methods methods in in light of the KAP surveys.light of the KAP surveys. As mentioned in Chapter 2, As mentioned in Chapter 2, the first nationwide KAP survey to the first nationwide KAP survey to determine determine unmet need for the unmet need for the
73 Shorter, “Shorter, “Information on Fertililty, Mortality and Population Growth in TurkeyInformation on Fertililty, Mortality and Population Growth in Turkey,”,” 38.38.
74 Ferhunde Özbay, “Türkiye’de Doğurganlık Düzeyine ve Değişmelerine etki eden Ara Ferhunde Özbay, “Türkiye’de Doğurganlık Düzeyine ve Değişmelerine etki eden Ara DeğişkenlerDeğişkenler,,” in ” in Türkiye’de Nüfus Yapısı ve Nüfus SorunlarıTürkiye’de Nüfus Yapısı ve Nüfus Sorunları (Ankara: Hacettepe Univer-(Ankara: Hacettepe Univer-sity Publications, sity Publications, 19781978), 79), 79--96.96.
75 Shorter, “Shorter, “Information on Fertililty, Mortality and Population Growth in TurkeyInformation on Fertililty, Mortality and Population Growth in Turkey,”,” 3366..
76 Miroslav Macura, “Estimates of Miroslav Macura, “Estimates of InfantInfant Mortality Trends: 1944Mortality Trends: 1944--6767,”,” Türkiye İkinci Nüfus-Türkiye İkinci Nüfus-bilim Konferansı İzmir 1975 (Ankara: Hacettepe University Publications, 2001), 26.bilim Konferansı İzmir 1975 (Ankara: Hacettepe University Publications, 2001), 26.
77 Shorter, “Shorter, “Information on Fertililty, Mortality and Population Growth in TurkeyInformation on Fertililty, Mortality and Population Growth in Turkey,”,” 3535..
78 Özbay, Özbay, “Türkiye“Türkiye’de Doğurganlık Düzeyine ve Değişmelerine etki eden Ara Değişkenler’de Doğurganlık Düzeyine ve Değişmelerine etki eden Ara Değişkenler,,”” 9900..
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219
contraception was conducted in 1963
contraception was conducted in 1963 at the initiative at the initiative of the Population of the Population Council which Council which was was repeated repeated every fevery five years and became tive years and became the second larg-he second larg-est and est and most most consistent nationwide survey after the national census. consistent nationwide survey after the national census. This This dissertationdissertation provides a comparative analysis of the results of the provides a comparative analysis of the results of the 1963, 1963, 19681968,, and 1973 surveysand 1973 surveys. In addition, the periodical reports of . In addition, the periodical reports of the Health the Health Ministry Ministry about about the dethe demographic characteristics of mographic characteristics of IUDIUD acceptors acceptors areare uti-uti-lized in this sectionlized in this section..
As t
As thehe initial initial results results of the comparative surveyof the comparative survey indicateindicate, t, the he percent-percent-age of married women age of married women ofof childbearing agechildbearing age who reported who reported practicpracticing any ing any of the contraceptive of the contraceptive methodmethodss has has increased sincreased significantly ignificantly over a decadeover a decade, , from from 28% in 196328% in 1963 to to 3939% in 1968% in 1968,, and finally to and finally to 4466% in 1973.% in 1973. 79 ThThee ur-ur-banban--rural rural difference indifference in contraceptive practice mentioned in Table 4.contraceptive practice mentioned in Table 4.1010 showsshows that ththat the e iincrease ncrease is due primarily to villagers, is due primarily to villagers, who doubled thewho doubled their ir contraceptive contraceptive use fromuse from 15% to 30%. 15% to 30%.
More than half of women living in metropol
More than half of women living in metropoleses reported using a con-reported using a con-traceptive method before the acceptance of the Family Planning Law, and traceptive method before the acceptance of the Family Planning Law, and it appears that the introduction of the law did not have a significant im-it appears that the introduction of the law did not have a significant im-pact on ovpact on overall erall contraceptive use in contraceptive use in metropoles metropoles and and citiescities..
Table 4.
Table 4.1010 ContraceptiveContraceptive uuse se byby rresidencyesidency (%)(%) 19196363--19719733 Year Year MetropolesMetropoles CitiesCities VillagesVillages TurkeyTurkey 19196363 5522..99 3636..33 1515..00 2277..77 19196868 6565..44 4949..11 2323..00 3399..11 19197373 5566..44 3737..11 3030..22 45.545.5 Change Change ++33..55 ++0.80.8 +15+15..22 ++117.87.8
SOURCE
SOURCE : : Ozbay (2001), 95.Ozbay (2001), 95.
The
The findings on findings on increasing contraceptincreasing contraceptive usive usee are are consisteconsistenntt with thewith the country’s decountry’s declining fertilityclining fertility, but do not provide sufficient evidence to , but do not provide sufficient evidence to evaluate the impact evaluate the impact of the Family Planning Lawof the Family Planning Law,, as as traditional contracep-traditional contracep-tive methodtive methods s such assuch as withdrawal, douchewithdrawal, douche,, and abstinence haand abstinence had been d been
79 Özbay, “Türkiye’de 1963, 1968 ve 1973 yıllarında Aile Planlaması Uygulamalarında ve Özbay, “Türkiye’de 1963, 1968 ve 1973 yıllarında Aile Planlaması Uygulamalarında ve Doğurganlıktaki DeğişmelerDoğurganlıktaki Değişmeler,”,” Türkiye İkinci Nüfusbilim Konferansı İzmir 1975 (Ankara: Türkiye İkinci Nüfusbilim Konferansı İzmir 1975 (Ankara: Hacettepe University Publications, 2001), 85Hacettepe University Publications, 2001), 85--101101
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widely implemented since the an
widely implemented since the ancient timescient times. . The law has The law has allowed allowed the the ususee andand distribution of modern contraceptive methods distribution of modern contraceptive methods including including oral pills, oral pills, condoms, condoms, IUDIUD’s’s,, and foamsand foams.. And tAnd the transition between traditional and he transition between traditional and modern contraceptimodern contraceptiveve methods methods isis analyzed in analyzed in Table 4.11Table 4.11. .
Table 4.
Table 4.1111 Contraceptive Contraceptive uuse se by by ccononttraceptive raceptive mmethodsethods (%)(%)19631963--1973 1973
Contraceptive Method
Contraceptive Method
1963
1963
1968
1968
1973
1973
Change
Change
Contraceptive
Contraceptive distribution distribution as of as of 1973 1973 Traditional Methods Traditional Methods 2121..00 2929..88 3232..55 54.854.8 71.471.4
Withdrawal
Withdrawal
10
10..44
18
18..00
23
23..66
126.9
126.9
51.9
51.9
Douche
Douche
10
10..66
11
11..88
88..99
-
-16.016.0
19.6
19.6 Modern Methods Modern Methods 66..77 99..33 1313..00 79.179.1 28.628.6
Condom
Condom
4
4..33
4
4..44
4
4..77
9.2
9.2
10.3
10.3
Oral Pills
Oral Pills
1
1..00
2
2..22
4
4..88
380
380
10.5
10.5
IUD
IUD
0
0.0.0
1
1..66
2
2..33
230
230
5.1
5.1
Foam
Foam
1
1..44
1
1..11
1
1..22
-
-1414
2.6
2.6 Total Contraceptive Use Total Contraceptive Use 27.727.7 39.139.1 45.545.5 6464..33 100100..00
SOURCE :
SOURCE : Ozbay (2001), 97.Ozbay (2001), 97.
The figures demonstrate that 21% of 28% of the overall contraceptive
The figures demonstrate that 21% of 28% of the overall contraceptive use in 1963 was through traditional methods which further increased to use in 1963 was through traditional methods which further increased to 32.5% within a decade. Withdrawal, the most preferred traditional 32.5% within a decade. Withdrawal, the most preferred traditional method, has more than dmethod, has more than doubled during the period. In 1973, 52% of re-oubled during the period. In 1973, 52% of re-spondents who declared using a contraceptive method were actually spondents who declared using a contraceptive method were actually used withdrawal. It was the foam method that women abandoned and used withdrawal. It was the foam method that women abandoned and largely replaced by withdrawal and modern methods.largely replaced by withdrawal and modern methods.
Re
Referring to modern methods, ferring to modern methods, wwhich were highly promoted by the hich were highly promoted by the government, increased by 79% within a decade government, increased by 79% within a decade ((from 6.7% to 13%from 6.7% to 13%)), but , but their share of the their share of the total total was only 29% in 1973, due to the fact that with-was only 29% in 1973, due to the fact that with-drawal was still favored by the masses. drawal was still favored by the masses. Among modern methods, it was Among modern methods, it was the oral pillthe oral pills s that attracted the greatest and increasing that attracted the greatest and increasing interest interest of the of the mmarried womenarried women because of because of its practicality. No change was observed its practicality. No change was observed in in the use of the use of condom or foam during the period. The condom or foam during the period. The insertion of insertion of IUDIUD was was the single criterithe single criterionon of the government for the success oof the government for the success of the overall pro-f the overall pro-gramgram,, which which fell far short of its fell far short of its targets. targets. InIn 1973, only 5% of married 1973, only 5% of married
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
221
women
women who reported using a who reported using a contraceptive method ucontraceptive method usedsed IUDIUDss,, yet yet 38% 38% of themof them preferred topreferred to extract extract them after one them after one year.year.80
The figures also indicate a
The figures also indicate a homogeneoushomogeneous reresidentsidential distribution ial distribution be-be-tween tween traditional and modern methodstraditional and modern methods, , indicating indicating nationwide availabil-nationwide availabil-ity and accessibility. ity and accessibility. The The shareshare of the oral pills of the oral pills in overall contraceptive in overall contraceptive methods was 13% in metropoles and 11% in villages, while it was 7% methods was 13% in metropoles and 11% in villages, while it was 7% and 5% for and 5% for IUDIUDss,, respectively.respectively. The mainThe main residential residential difference was difference was inin withdrawal and withdrawal and condomcondom use. The survey indicates that the method of use. The survey indicates that the method of withdrawal withdrawal was used was used 10% les10% less s in metropoles than in villages; conversely in metropoles than in villages; conversely the cthe condondoom m was used was used 10% more in metropoles than 10% more in metropoles than in in vvillagesillages..81 Fur-Fur-thermore, thermore, wealth and education seemwealth and education seem to have lto have little iittle influence on the nfluence on the choice of choice of contraceptive methodcontraceptive method, with the exception of , with the exception of condomscondoms,, which which increaseincreasedd dradramatically matically with with increase in increase in education and education and wealth.wealth.82
In
In summary, thesummary, the KAP survey indicates an increasKAP survey indicates an increase in e in contracepticontraceptive ve use ause as expected, but s expected, but not in not in the manner desired by thethe manner desired by the government. government. Alt-Alt-houghhough demonstrated ademonstrated a positive impact in the long run, tpositive impact in the long run, the he penetration penetration of of the the modern and safe methods modern and safe methods that were that were promotedpromoted, , such as such as IUDIUD, , was was still still much lower than much lower than of theof the conventional and unsafe conventional and unsafe methodsmethods, especially the , especially the withdrawalwithdrawal inin the the late 1960s andlate 1960s and 1970s1970s. . Even woEven worse for the government, rse for the government, the number of the number of abortionabortions that s that wwereere assumed to assumed to bebe reduced by the law reduced by the law continued to continued to increaseincrease, even though it was still banned, even though it was still banned. The . The case of case of abor-abor-tion tion is discussed iis discussed in the next n the next section.section.
4.2.3 UnUnhindered hindered AbortionAbortion
A
Abortion bortion was one of the key concerns was one of the key concerns of of dedeputies and senators during puties and senators during the parliamentary discussions the parliamentary discussions onon the Family Planning Lathe Family Planning Laww. As mentioned . As mentioned in Chapter 3.in Chapter 3.2, 2, the the antinatalist blocantinatalist bloc and health professionals and health professionals viewed aviewed and nd propagatedpropagated tthe he high high abortion abortion rates rates as as anan inevitableinevitable consequenceconsequence of legal of legal
80 Ministry of Health, Population Planning Directorate,Ministry of Health, Population Planning Directorate, 1969 Yılı Rahim 1969 Yılı Rahim İçiİçi Takip Araştır-Takip Araştır-masıması, , 14.14.
81 Nusret FişekNusret Fişek, “Türkiye’de , “Türkiye’de Aşırı Doğurganlık ve Kullanılan Gebeliği Önleyici YöntemlerAşırı Doğurganlık ve Kullanılan Gebeliği Önleyici Yöntemler,”,” in in Türkiye’de Nüfus Yapısı ve Nüfus STürkiye’de Nüfus Yapısı ve Nüfus Sorunlarıorunları (Ankara: Hacettepe University Publica-(Ankara: Hacettepe University Publica-tions, tions, 19781978), 9), 977--112.112.
82 Ibid., 109Ibid., 109--110.110.
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restrictions on contraception
restrictions on contraception,, which which they believed would be eliminated they believed would be eliminated by by the law.the law. But was But was thisthis really the case? This section really the case? This section exploresexplores the status the status of abortion during and after tof abortion during and after thhe lawe law in light of Kişnişçi and Akin’s com-in light of Kişnişçi and Akin’s com-ppaarativerative analysianalysis s of of tthe he abortion question in abortion question in the the 1968 and 1973 KAP sur-1968 and 1973 KAP sur-veyveyss..83
The
The estimatedestimated number of live births in Turkey based on number of live births in Turkey based on the the 1973 sur-1973 sur-vey was vey was 1,065,2951,065,295, , and the total and the total number of abortion cases was number of abortion cases was 221221,7,77777. . Some 48% of thSome 48% of theese abortions were se abortions were spontaneous abortions spontaneous abortions referring to referring to pregnancy lospregnancy loss s in less than in less than twenty twenty weekweekss ofof gestation in gestation in which no which no sselec-elec-tive medical or surgical measures tive medical or surgical measures were taken twere taken to terminate the pregnanco terminate the pregnancy. y. The remainder were The remainder were induced abortioninduced abortions,s, of which of which 7878% % wwere performed ere performed by by a medicaa medical professional and 22% l professional and 22% by the women by the women ththeemselvesmselves..84
Com
Comparativeparative abortion figures abortion figures between 1968 and 1973 between 1968 and 1973 based on based on resi-resi-dential dential differencesdifferences are shown inare shown in Table 4.Table 4.1212.. Contrary to the Contrary to the claims of an-claims of an-tinatalists during the tinatalists during the parliamentaryparliamentary ddebates onebates on the the reduction of abortion reduction of abortion rates by the Family Planning Law, the rates by the Family Planning Law, the results indicate that results indicate that the the totaltotal num-num-ber of ber of abortionabortionss per per 100 live birth100 live births dids did not decrease bnot decrease but ut slightly in-slightly in-creasecreasedd from 26 to 27from 26 to 27 between thbetween thisis five years period. five years period. Despite the dra-Despite the dra-matic decrease in matic decrease in the tthe totalotal abortion rates in metropolitan areas (from 9abortion rates in metropolitan areas (from 93 3 to 49) and in cities (to 49) and in cities (from from 41 to 28)41 to 28), the , the rise rise inin indinduuced abortionced abortion in villain villages ges and towns seems to band towns seems to be e the the primary cause of this primary cause of this overall increase. overall increase.
It is worth noting that
It is worth noting that spontaneous abortions spontaneous abortions have declinedhave declined in in all all provinces provinces in line with the in line with the globalglobal trentrendd, , with induced with induced abortionabortionss followfollowinging a different patterna different pattern in urban and rural provinces. The sharp decin urban and rural provinces. The sharp declineline in the in the metropolitan areas from 62 metropolitan areas from 62 to 31to 31 induced induced abortions per 100 abortions per 100 live live birthsbirths contracontrastssts with the steady increase in villages andwith the steady increase in villages and towns. Kişnişçi and towns. Kişnişçi and Akin Akin interpret the interpret the decline in decline in urban urban areasareas with the with the influence of influence of migrationmigration,, as migrants reduceas migrants reducedd the the abortion regime and increasabortion regime and increased ed contraceptivecontraceptive uussee. And the increase. And the increase in rural areas in rural areas with thewith the greatgreaterer ususee of traditional of traditional
83 Hüsnü Kişnişçi, Ayşe Akın, “Hüsnü Kişnişçi, Ayşe Akın, “Türkiye’de Düşüklerle ilgili Türkiye’de Düşüklerle ilgili EpidemiyolojikEpidemiyolojik bir Araştırmabir Araştırma,”,” Türkiye İkinci Nüfusbilim Konferansı İzmirTürkiye İkinci Nüfusbilim Konferansı İzmir 1975 (Ankara: Hacettepe University Publica-1975 (Ankara: Hacettepe University Publica-tions, 2001), tions, 2001), 6363--83.83.
84 Ibid.,Ibid.,6767..
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
223
methods
methods,, which which are are more more prone prone to contraceptive failure ato contraceptive failure and nd thus thus un-un-wanted pregnancies.wanted pregnancies.85
Table 4.
Table 4.1212 Abortion rates by residency 1968Abortion rates by residency 1968--1973 (per 100 live birth)1973 (per 100 live birth)
Metropoles
Metropoles
Cities
Cities
Towns
Towns
Villages
Villages
Turkey
Turkey AverageAverage 1968 Survey1968 Survey
Induced abortion
Induced abortion
62
62
22
22
12
12
1
1
12
12
Spontaneous abortion
Spontaneous abortion
31
31
19
19
13
13
11
11
14
14
Total abortion
93
93
41
41
25
25
12
12
26
26 1973 Survey 1973 Survey
Induced abortion
Induced abortion
31
31
17
17
23
23
5
5
16
16
Spontaneous abortion
Spontaneous abortion
18
18
11
11
11
11
8
8
11
11
Total abortion
49
49
28
28
34
34
13
13
27
27
SOURCE :
SOURCE : Kişnişçi, Akın (2001), 72.Kişnişçi, Akın (2001), 72.
Regarding
Regarding the relationship the relationship between between contraceptive uscontraceptive usee and abortion, and abortion, the survey results the survey results showshow that only that only IUDIUD ususee had a positive impact on had a positive impact on reduc-reduc-inging abortion rates during thabortion rates during thee time time periodperiod. Yet th. Yet thee impact was limitedimpact was limited,, as as only 3.only 3.5% of women of childbearing age (155% of women of childbearing age (15--44) used 44) used IUDIUDs s inin 11970.970.86 The The other other traditional and modern methods traditional and modern methods did not have a did not have a significant im-significant im-pact on pact on the change inthe change in abortion behavior during abortion behavior during this this fivefive--yearyear periodperiod..87
Why have abortion rates not declined with the
Why have abortion rates not declined with the increased use of con-increased use of con-traception, even though many authors believe that abortion is an adjunct traception, even though many authors believe that abortion is an adjunct to contraception that is triggered by contraceptive failure and should to contraception that is triggered by contraceptive failure and should have a negative relationship?have a negative relationship?88 Cleland Cleland indicates indicates the the complexcomplexityity of the of the tradetrade--offoff between abortion and contraceptionbetween abortion and contraception in his comparison of in his comparison of France and West AfricaFrance and West Africa. In 2010, both countries had similar abortion . In 2010, both countries had similar abortion
85 Hüsnü Hüsnü KişnişçKişnişçi,i, Ayşe AkınAyşe Akın,, “Türkiye’de Düşüklerle ilgili Epidemiyolojik bir Araştırma.”“Türkiye’de Düşüklerle ilgili Epidemiyolojik bir Araştırma.” in in Türkiye’de Nüfus Yapısı ve Nüfus SorunlarıTürkiye’de Nüfus Yapısı ve Nüfus Sorunları ((Ankara: Hacettepe University Publica-Ankara: Hacettepe University Publica-tions, tions, 19781978):): 113113--132132..
86 The total number of UID insertion by 1970 was 260.389, the female population between The total number of UID insertion by 1970 was 260.389, the female population between 1515 and 44 of age based on 1970 census was 7.441.130.and 44 of age based on 1970 census was 7.441.130.
87 Kişnişçi, Akın, “Türkiye’de Düşüklerle ilgili EpideKişnişçi, Akın, “Türkiye’de Düşüklerle ilgili Epidemiyolojik bir Araştırmamiyolojik bir Araştırma,”,” 77.77.
88 EhteshaEhtesham Zadeh, “Changing attitudes towards abortion,” m Zadeh, “Changing attitudes towards abortion,” in in Induced Abortion, A Hazard Induced Abortion, A Hazard to Health, Proceedings of the First Conference of the IPPF Middle East and Nort Africa Re-to Health, Proceedings of the First Conference of the IPPF Middle East and Nort Africa Re-giongion, ed. Isam R. Nazer. Beirut, 1971., , ed. Isam R. Nazer. Beirut, 1971., 359359--66.66.
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
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rat
rates, despite the fact that the prevalence of contraceptive use in West es, despite the fact that the prevalence of contraceptive use in West Africa was less than a quarter of the ratio in France.Africa was less than a quarter of the ratio in France.89
T
To explore tho explore thisis phenomenon, phenomenon, BongaartsBongaarts and and WestoffWestoff propose propose addi-addi-tional tional determinants of abortiondeterminants of abortion, , such as such as the the desired number of childrendesired number of children, , thethe durationduration of of the the active active fertile period fertile period subject to subject to birth controlbirth control,, and and the the toleration toleration of of unwanted pregnanciesunwanted pregnancies..90 As to tAs to the equation,he equation, in in European European countries with countries with low fertility levellow fertility levelss, same as in , same as in mmetropolitan Turkey, the etropolitan Turkey, the desiredesire to haveto have fewer fewer children children also also increases the increases the active active fertile period fertile period com-com-pared to rural areaspared to rural areas,, where where it is much lower due to the it is much lower due to the higher number of higher number of childrenchildren and and additional breastfeedingadditional breastfeeding. . Furthermore, Furthermore, the metropolitan the metropolitan women women are traditionally less tolerableare traditionally less tolerable of bearing children resulting from of bearing children resulting from unwanted pregnancies, unwanted pregnancies, so abortion is still on the agenda of urban women so abortion is still on the agenda of urban women even with the even with the highest contraceptive prevahighest contraceptive prevalence.lence.
On the other hand, Senlet
On the other hand, Senlet reveals reveals a strong correlation between in-a strong correlation between in-duced abortion and duced abortion and failure of failure of traditional methodtraditional methodss in in TurkeyTurkey,, asas, as she, as shedsds in a comparative simulation between 1993 and 1998 KAP surveys that in a comparative simulation between 1993 and 1998 KAP surveys that 43% of43% of failures of failures of traditional methodtraditional methods endes ended up d up with induced abortion.with induced abortion.91 Indeed, in Indeed, in the the 1993 survey, 1993 survey, the first Turkish the first Turkish KAP surveyKAP survey with a direct with a direct questionnaire on questionnaire on contraceptive behavior contraceptive behavior as a reason for as a reason for abortionabortion, 4, 466% of % of respondents indicated the respondents indicated the traditional method traditional method failurefailure, , 1616%% the mthe modern odern method method failurefailure,, and and 15% 15% of them cited theof them cited the discontinuationdiscontinuation of the modern of the modern method method as a reason for abortion.as a reason for abortion.92 Therefore, the sudden Therefore, the sudden increase in the increase in the aabortion rate in villagesbortion rate in villages and townsand towns could could partpartllyy be explained by be explained by the the prev-prev-alence of traditional contraceptive methods. alence of traditional contraceptive methods.
O
Overall, the verall, the growing need growing need to have fewerto have fewer childrenchildren should have should have led led mothers to mothers to seek seek allall possible possible avenues, avenues, including traditional and modern including traditional and modern
89 John Cleland, “The complex relationship between contraception and abortion,” John Cleland, “The complex relationship between contraception and abortion,” Best Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology 62, (2020): 9062, (2020): 90--100.100.
90 John Bongaarts, Charles F. Westoff, “The potential role of contraception in reducing John Bongaarts, Charles F. Westoff, “The potential role of contraception in reducing abortion,” abortion,” Studies in Family PlanningStudies in Family Planning 31, no.3, (2000): 19331, no.3, (2000): 193--263.263.
91 Pinar Senlet, Sian L. Curtis, Jill Mathis, and Han Raggers, “The Role of Changes in Con-Pinar Senlet, Sian L. Curtis, Jill Mathis, and Han Raggers, “The Role of Changes in Con-traceptive Use traceptive Use in the Decline of Induced Abortion in Turkey,” in the Decline of Induced Abortion in Turkey,” Studies in Family PlanningStudies in Family Planning 32, no. 1, (2001): 4132, no. 1, (2001): 41--5252
92 Ministry of Health, Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies, and Macro In-Ministry of Health, Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies, and Macro In-ternational Inc.ternational Inc. Turkish Demographic and Health SurveyTurkish Demographic and Health Survey 1993, 1993, 5151--58.58.
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
225
contracepti
contraceptivesves and abortionand abortion,, according to survey results. Howeveraccording to survey results. However, the, the still still high proportion of high proportion of abortionabortionss and traditional and traditional contracepticontraceptive methodsve methods, , compared to modern methods, especially government compared to modern methods, especially government ssponsoredponsored IUDIUD, , needs needs to be further examined in light to be further examined in light of the publicof the public’s’s rereluctancluctance toe to accept accept modern modern family planning family planning methodsmethods,, which which is discussed in is discussed in the next section.the next section.
4.2.4 ReluReluctancy ctancy forfor Modern ContraceptionModern Contraception??
F
Figures igures on on diffusiondiffusion of the modern contraceptiof the modern contraceptivesves between between the the late late 1919660s and 0s and the ethe early 1970sarly 1970s evidence that evidence that only the oral pills only the oral pills experienced experienced ssignificant expansionignificant expansion,, exceeding exceeding the rates of the rates of traditional cotraditional conntraceptitraceptives, ves, while while othotherer modern contraceptives modern contraceptives such as such as IUDIUD, condom or foam , condom or foam lagged lagged behind. behind. ThisThis section section explores the explores the potential reasons potential reasons for this for this reluctancy reluctancy through through the the IUDIUD ffollowollow--uup p ssurveyurvey of 1969of 1969 and newspaper headlines.and newspaper headlines.
The low penetration of modern contracepti
The low penetration of modern contraceptives,ves, especially especially IUDIUDss, , was was also a concern of the government and also a concern of the government and the Mithe Ministry of nistry of HHealthealth. . Therefore,Therefore, a a nationwide nationwide followfollow--upup survey osurvey off IUDIUD uusese was was conducted in 1969 in a conducted in 1969 in a sample of sample of 1656 1656 IUDIUD users. users. TheThe reportreport initially linked initially linked low low IUDIUD ususee rates rates to to reluctancreluctance to usee to use tthe he devicedevice, which must be inserted , which must be inserted into thinto thee bodbodyy..93
As for
As for IUDIUD users, the survey depicted thatusers, the survey depicted that 38% of them38% of them had had extracted extracted the device within twelve monththe device within twelve monthss and 50% and 50% within within eighteen months.eighteen months.94 Looking at the characteristics of the extractors, uLooking at the characteristics of the extractors, urbanrban--rural rural residencresidencee, lit-, lit-eracyeracy,, or or wealth wealth did not did not seemseem to make to make any any differencedifference, y, yet tet thehe typetype of op-of op-eratorerator appears to be a key differentiator. The appears to be a key differentiator. The extraction rate of the extraction rate of the IUDIUD’s ’s inserted by the mobile teams winserted by the mobile teams wasas 55% 55% higherhigher than than IUDIUD’s inserted in clin-’s inserted in clin-ics or hospitals.ics or hospitals.95 TheThe survey survey rationalizedrationalized that notion that notion byby individual moti-individual moti-vation, where the vation, where the women operatwomen operateded in the clinics seemin the clinics seem to beto be more moti-more moti-vatvateded to use thto use the e method, method, while twhile the others convinced by the mobile teamhe others convinced by the mobile teams s in a short timein a short time, , mightmight lose their belief in the method or forced by lose their belief in the method or forced by thetheirir husbandhusband for the extraction.for the extraction.
93 Ministry of Health, Population Planning Directorate,Ministry of Health, Population Planning Directorate, 1969 Yılı Rahim İçi1969 Yılı Rahim İçi Takip Araştır-Takip Araştır-ması,ması, 7.7.
94 Ibid., 15.Ibid., 15.
95 Ibid., 16.Ibid., 16.
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In addition
In addition, , 550% 0% of of IUDIUD users users who had the devicewho had the device extractedextracted cited cited side side effects, mainly bleeding and paineffects, mainly bleeding and pain,, asas the main the main reason for reason for extraction, and extraction, and aboutabout 15% of them have come to b15% of them have come to believe that elieve that IUDIUD isis a source of cancera source of cancer or or cancercancer--like diseases.like diseases.96 Indeed, dIndeed, detailed archival research in etailed archival research in the the Cumhuri-Cumhuri-yet yet and and Milliyet Milliyet newspapersnewspapers,, based on based on a a key word search key word search related to related to pop-pop-ulation control terminology ulation control terminology between 1965 and 1975between 1965 and 1975, , found that news found that news aboutabout population control methods population control methods was was dominatedominated by health concerns.d by health concerns.
P
Public opinion ublic opinion aboutabout modern methods modern methods seemseem to be to be constantly constantly puzzled puzzled by by medical medical researchresearch and and statementsstatements about theabout the virtues and virtues and side effects of side effects of IUDIUDs and oral pillss and oral pills.. For instanceFor instance, a statement , a statement byby ProfProfessor essor ÜÜner ner about the about the carcinogenic effects of bicarcinogenic effects of birth control pills rth control pills in June 1967in June 196797 was was immediately immediately denied by the Family Planning Association denied by the Family Planning Association the next day, and both news the next day, and both news appeared in the same newspaper.appeared in the same newspaper.98 HUNEE associHUNEE associaatestes tootoo issued state-issued state-mements to deny the alleged side effects of modern contraceptives.nts to deny the alleged side effects of modern contraceptives.99 But But newsnews of of the the latest latest medical medical researchresearch stating that overuse of contraceptives stating that overuse of contraceptives can can cause cause cancercancer100 and even deathand even death101 occupied occupied the newspaper columns.the newspaper columns.
On the moral ground,
On the moral ground, rerecallingcalling George H.George H. W.W. BuBushsh’s’s narratnarratiive ofve of how how hhis father lost is father lost in the election in the election because of because of his support for birth controlhis support for birth control that that was was mentioned mentioned in Chapter 2.2, the in Chapter 2.2, the population control discussion was still population control discussion was still tabootaboo,, especially in villagesespecially in villages, was considered , was considered a private matter.a private matter. The HUNEE The HUNEE stustudents who conducted a KAP survey in 1968 reported that when they dents who conducted a KAP survey in 1968 reported that when they tried to conduct a survey in the suburbs of Konya province, a place known tried to conduct a survey in the suburbs of Konya province, a place known for its religiosity, they were not only turned away but also thrown out by for its religiosity, they were not only turned away but also thrown out by the women of the region.the women of the region.102
The relationsh
The relationship between contraception and religion was still a ip between contraception and religion was still a heatedheated debate in the country. The facilitative position of the Ministry of debate in the country. The facilitative position of the Ministry of
96 Ibid., 18.Ibid., 18.
97 “Prof. Üner'e göre “Prof. Üner'e göre ddoğum oğum kkontrol ontrol hhapları apları kkanser anser yyapıyor,”apıyor,” MilliyetMilliyet,, JJuneune 11, 196, 19677, , 33..
98 “Doğ“Doğum um kkontrol ontrol hhapları apları kkansere ansere ssebep ebep oolmuyorlmuyor,” ,” MilliyetMilliyet, June , June 22, 1967, , 1967, 88..
99 “Doğum “Doğum kkontrolü ontrolü hhapı apı üüzerindeki zerindeki ttartışmalar artışmalar ddevam evam eediyordiyor,” ,” MilliyetMilliyet, June , June 44, 1967, 3., 1967, 3.
100 “Doğum “Doğum kkontrol ontrol hhaplarının aplarının kkansere ve ansere ve kkan an ddolaşımıolaşımı hhastalıklarına astalıklarına yyolaçtığı olaçtığı öönene ssürülüyor,” ürülüyor,” CumhuriyetCumhuriyet, October 28, 1975, 10., October 28, 1975, 10.
101 “Doğum “Doğum kkontrolontrol hhapları apları öölüme lüme ssebep ebep ooluyorluyor,” ,” MilliyeMilliyet, Mayt, May 2222, 1968, , 1968, 11..
“Doğum “Doğum kkontrol ontrol hhapapı ı yyüzünden üzünden ööldüldü,” ,” CumhuriyetCumhuriyet, , AprilApril 2020, 19, 196969, 3., 3.
102 ““Doğum kontrolü silahsız bir haçlı seferidirDoğum kontrolü silahsız bir haçlı seferidir,” ,” MilliyetMilliyet, , AugustAugust 17, 1917, 1968, 368, 3..
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Religious Affairs
Religious Affairs, which already sent written consent about the , which already sent written consent about the morality morality of birth conof birth control as early as 1960, trol as early as 1960, hahass gradually neutralized as the military gradually neutralized as the military regime was replaced by the political parties. In 1970, the vice president regime was replaced by the political parties. In 1970, the vice president of the Ministry of Religious Affairs stated unless medical necessities, pre-of the Ministry of Religious Affairs stated unless medical necessities, pre-venting from pregnancy is religiously forbidden.venting from pregnancy is religiously forbidden.103
Referring to soci
Referring to social aspect of the hesitation for contraception, eal aspect of the hesitation for contraception, experi-xperi-enced enced health professionalhealth professionalss interviewed interviewed for this for this dissertationdissertation also also pointed pointed out that out that very few very few women visited women visited the FPC’s the FPC’s to get informationto get information about family about family planning or planning or to have to have anan IUDIUD insertinserted because they were aed because they were afraid of bfraid of being eing seen by seen by neighborsneighbors and hearing rumorsand hearing rumors. . Instead,Instead, most of them had most of them had IUDIUD surgeries surgeries at at state hospitalsstate hospitals,, where they could where they could better better disguisedisguise thetheir treat-ir treat-ment.ment.
Furthermore
Furthermore, there was still strong political, there was still strong political opposition to opposition to the the intro-intro-duction of duction of birth controbirth controll.. PPronatalist policies were ronatalist policies were the the political doctrine of political doctrine of the the NationalNationalist Movement Party (MHP)ist Movement Party (MHP),, which saw birth control aswhich saw birth control as aa plot plot by by the hegemonic powers the hegemonic powers toto further colonizationfurther colonization,,104 and and itsits party leader party leader Alparslan Türkeş Alparslan Türkeş who was who was among the among the elite staff of theelite staff of the 19601960 mmilitary ilitary coupcoup,, referred to referred to birth controllers as birth controllers as murderers murderers of the Turkish generationof the Turkish generation..105 AndAnd in April 1969, in April 1969, a a seminar on seminar on birth controbirth controll was was attackedattacked and and bombed bombed by the by the yyouthouth group group of of the the MHPMHP,, who called themselves who called themselves the Rangers andthe Rangers and shouted shouted antianti--sterilization sloganssterilization slogans..106
Surprisingly
Surprisingly, hegemonic plot trauma was , hegemonic plot trauma was also also discusseddiscussed in in the the CHP, CHP, the political flagship othe political flagship of the antinatalistf the antinatalist coalitioncoalition,, during parliamentary during parliamentary debates on the Family Planning Law.debates on the Family Planning Law. During the During the assembly of the wassembly of the women’s omen’s bbranch ranch of the parof the party ty in 1966, Yurdsever Ağır, in 1966, Yurdsever Ağır, head of Ankara province,head of Ankara province, stated that stated that the the only goal oonly goal of the f the medical medical birth control devices sbirth control devices suppliedupplied from US was to sterilize Turkish women.from US was to sterilize Turkish women.107
103 ““Diyanet işlerine göre hamileliğin önlenmesi dinen yasakDiyanet işlerine göre hamileliğin önlenmesi dinen yasak,” ,” MilliyetMilliyet, , AugustAugust 66, 19, 1970, 970, 9..
104 Enis Gökyiğit Yörükoğlu, Enis Gökyiğit Yörükoğlu, Dokuz Işıkta Nüfus PolitikasıDokuz Işıkta Nüfus Politikası (Ankara: Dokuz Işık Yayınları, (Ankara: Dokuz Işık Yayınları, 1971)1971)
105 “Türkeş ‘Doğum Kontrolü bir “Türkeş ‘Doğum Kontrolü bir ssuikasttir’ dediuikasttir’ dedi,,”” MilliyetMilliyet, April 21, 1968, 1., April 21, 1968, 1.
106 “Komandolar “Komandolar ddoğum oğum kkontrol ontrol sseminerini eminerini bbastı,” astı,” CumhuriyetCumhuriyet, April 8, 1969,1., April 8, 1969,1.
107 “Türk “Türk kkadını adını kkısırlaştırılıyor,” ısırlaştırılıyor,” Cumhuriyet,Cumhuriyet, October 16, 196October 16, 19666, 1., 1.
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In
In summary, despite the acute need for family planningsummary, despite the acute need for family planning, , public and public and political political opposition opposition to to new new birth control birth control technologtechnologiesies,, led women and led women and families families to to continue to utilize traditional methods and abortioncontinue to utilize traditional methods and abortion inin the late the late 1960s and1960s and 1970s1970s. . The The lower penetration of modern methods was also a lower penetration of modern methods was also a scientific concern in the more recent studiesscientific concern in the more recent studies. . InIn their analysis their analysis of the of the 1988 1988 KAP survey resultsKAP survey results,, Goldberg and TorosGoldberg and Toros found that found that the traditional the traditional contra-contra-ceptiveceptive methods, basically withdrawal followed by methods, basically withdrawal followed by induced abortion as a induced abortion as a backup method backup method of of endendinging unintended pregnancies,unintended pregnancies, remained remained strong strong compared with mcompared with modernodern methods, of which the methods, of which the resistanceresistance remained high remained high due to due to health risk and health risk and potential potential side effects.side effects.108
The g
The growing momentum of rowing momentum of induced abortion practicesinduced abortion practices was also was also dis-dis-cussed incussed in parliamentparliament in in July July 19711971.. In a In a parliamentaryparliamentary question question by iby inde-nde-pendent pendent deputy Celal deputy Celal KargılıKargılı,, who who called for called for liberatliberation of ion of abortionabortion,,109 a a commission was set by the commission was set by the Ministry of HealthMinistry of Health ffoor a detailed investigationr a detailed investigation in January 1971in January 1971,,110 and aand although the lthough the commission’s report also commission’s report also supported supported the exemption,the exemption,111 the law the law was was not reinstated until not reinstated until 1983, 1983, duduring another ring another period of period of martial law martial law after after the the 1980 1980 mmilitary ilitary coupcoup..
One of the
One of the main main concerns concerns in pushing in pushing abortion in such abortion in such a a short period short period time was the time was the inefficiency and corruption in the medical system. As inefficiency and corruption in the medical system. As the the Ministry of Health acknowledges in its own report, Ministry of Health acknowledges in its own report, the the project of project of sociali-sociali-zation of healthzation of health, along with the , along with the family planning clinicsfamily planning clinics, has been v, has been virtually irtually bankrupbankruptt..112 Most Most doctors and nurses have preferred doctors and nurses have preferred not to work in the not to work in the eastern provinceseastern provinces due to the inedue to the inefficient payment system and difficult fficient payment system and difficult working conditions, working conditions, whwhileile only 761 out of only 761 out of 15,074 doctors 15,074 doctors have have accepted accepted the challenge.the challenge.113 MoreoverMoreover, , as the deputas the deputy Kargılı complainedy Kargılı complained,, opening opening
108 Howard I. Goldberg and Aykut Toros, “The Use of Traditional Methods of Contraception Howard I. Goldberg and Aykut Toros, “The Use of Traditional Methods of Contraception among Tamong Turkish Couples,” urkish Couples,” Studies in Family PlanningStudies in Family Planning 25, no.2, (1994):12225, no.2, (1994):122--8.8.
109 National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi)Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi), (Term , (Term 22, Vol. , Vol. 1515, , Meeting No:1Meeting No:12323, , July 1July 1, 19, 197171), ), 112112..
110 “Kürtajın ser“Kürtajın serbest bırakılması istendi,” best bırakılması istendi,” MilliyetMilliyet,, January 18, 1972, 3.January 18, 1972, 3.
111 “Sağlık Bakanlığı’nın komisyonu kürtajın serbest olmasını istedi,” “Sağlık Bakanlığı’nın komisyonu kürtajın serbest olmasını istedi,” CumhuriyetCumhuriyet, , March 27, March 27, 1972,1.1972,1.
112 Ministry of Health, Ministry of Health, Sağlık Hizmetlerinde 50 YılSağlık Hizmetlerinde 50 Yıl, , 238238..
113 “Türkiye’de 15.074 doktordan anc“Türkiye’de 15.074 doktordan ancaak 761’i sosyalizasyonda görev kabul etti,” k 761’i sosyalizasyonda görev kabul etti,” Cumhuri-Cumhuri-yetyet,, November 25, 1972, 5.November 25, 1972, 5.
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
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illegal private clinics and performing
illegal private clinics and performing abortionabortions is a s is a widespread and prof-widespread and prof-itablitable practice among doctorse practice among doctors..114 One of the One of the veteran veteran physicians physicians inter-inter-viewed during the initial viewed during the initial rereseasearrch ch forfor this dissertation this dissertation admitted that he admitted that he also performed illegal abortions in the 1970s and bought his first car with also performed illegal abortions in the 1970s and bought his first car with the income he gained from these operations.the income he gained from these operations.
Summary of
Summary of 44..22
T
Thehe decline indecline in fertility level and the fertility level and the changchange in women’s attitudes towards e in women’s attitudes towards contracepticontraception on wwereere elaboratedelaborated in this section.in this section. TheThe dramatic decdramatic declinline in e in the the fertilityfertility levlevel el in in the the 1950s and 1960s 1950s and 1960s due todue to socioeconomic and de-socioeconomic and de-mographic factorsmographic factors automatically automatically led to an increase in contraceptive use led to an increase in contraceptive use and and unmet need.unmet need. Yet, tYet, the he modern modern contraceptive technologies contraceptive technologies introduced introduced by foreign by foreign NGO’s and NGO’s and promoted by the promoted by the Turkish Turkish government government have have not not gained gained the desired the desired penetratipenetration on in the short runin the short run. .
Instead,
Instead, many many women and women and familiesfamilies, , have continued to rely on tradi-have continued to rely on tradi-tional contraceptive methods and abortion for fear of the tional contraceptive methods and abortion for fear of the side effects and side effects and medical concerns of modern contraceptimedical concerns of modern contraceptivesves. . And the And the governmentgovernment unable unable to to retain the medical retain the medical personnel due to personnel due to inefficient organization and inainefficient organization and inad-d-equate equate financial supportfinancial support, , has lost momentum for has lost momentum for family planning and family planning and was was forced to forced to beginbegin discussion discussion on on abortionabortion..
What then
What then becomebecomess ofof the Turkish the Turkish women and the familywomen and the family? ? This final This final questionquestion of the dissertation will be of the dissertation will be discussed in the next and last sectiondiscussed in the next and last section of this chapter.of this chapter.
§ 4.3 Turkish Turkish Women and Women and FFamily amily after 1965.after 1965.
In this
In this lastlast section, the transformation ofsection, the transformation of fertility attitude and contracep-fertility attitude and contracep-tive choice of tive choice of Turkish women Turkish women after 1965, is revealed through some after 1965, is revealed through some key key demographic, economic and social demographic, economic and social highlights that highlights that affected the status of affected the status of the women. the women. The first The first partpart consists of a consists of a brief reprebrief represesentation of ntation of a spatioa spatio--temporaltemporal demographic demographic seriesseries on changing fertility rates and contracep-on changing fertility rates and contracep-tive use tive use between 1965 and 1985between 1965 and 1985 to reveal the changeto reveal the change. The second part . The second part
114 “Kürtajın serbest bırakılması istendi,” 1.“Kürtajın serbest bırakılması istendi,” 1.
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
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deals with the change
deals with the change inin the status of the women by the status of the women by mainly mainly concentrating concentrating on the occupational and educational transitionon the occupational and educational transition and urand urbanization.banization.
And
And in the in the last last partpart,, the correlation the correlation amongamong fertilifertilitty rates, educational y rates, educational backgroundbackground, , occupational statusoccupational status,, and urbaand urbanization nization is is analyzed for analyzed for the the 1965 and 19851965 and 1985 variablesvariables per provincial districtper provincial district to to explore the cexplore the changing hanging fertility choice fertility choice with the real data.with the real data.
4.3.1 The The Demographic TranDemographic Transition of sition of Turkish Women and Turkish Women and FamilyFamily..
The
The transformation process of women and transformation process of women and the the family, triggered family, triggered mainly mainly by the changing land regimeby the changing land regime and migrationand migration by the midby the mid--1950s1950s and 1960and 1960ss, , accelerated accelerated expoexponentiallynentially in the 1970s. in the 1970s. This This section section ttraces traces thehe changes inchanges in fertilityfertility, contraceptive practices, contraceptive practices,, and other demographic elements and other demographic elements from from 1965 to 1985 1965 to 1985 using using census data and census data and subsequent subsequent KAP surveys. KAP surveys.
The
There are two re are two reasonreasonss forfor chochoosing osing 1985 as the 1985 as the expiration date of the expiration date of the analysisanalysis. First. First of allof all, , the verythe very firstfirst official statement official statement ofof antinatalist policantinatalist policyy was the was the 1963 NDP1963 NDP, , which which projected Turkey’s pprojected Turkey’s population opulation through through 1985 1985 based on three scenariosbased on three scenarios ofof high, high, medium,medium, and low fertilityand low fertility. . And And it would it would be usefulbe useful ttoo match thematch the governmentgovernment’s’s estimatestimatee with the with the actual actual datadata, and in , and in a way evaluate its performance a way evaluate its performance in implementingin implementing the Population Control the Population Control Law of 1965. Law of 1965. Second, the Second, the midmid--1980s represent another chapter in 1980s represent another chapter in popu-popu-lationlation control policcontrol policy,y, as the right as the right toto abortion abortion up to tup to the tenth week of preg-he tenth week of preg-nancy nancy became legal became legal in 1983in 1983..115 TThereforeherefore, the periodization should not , the periodization should not go beyond the midgo beyond the mid--1980s to analyze the individual impact of the Family 1980s to analyze the individual impact of the Family Planning Law.Planning Law.
To quantify the impact of
To quantify the impact of family planning, family planning, the the SPSPO O createdcreated a a projec-projec-tion based on tion based on three three fertility levelfertility levels. The high fertility projection s. The high fertility projection implies implies that the that the same same 1965 1965 fertility rates fertility rates would hold for twould hold for twenty years.wenty years. TThe he me-me-dium fertility dium fertility scenario assumptionscenario assumption was based on a moderate was based on a moderate adoption of adoption of modern contraceptive methodsmodern contraceptive methods formformulated by ulated by a a 55% % decrease in decrease in fertility fertility
115 Turkish AssemblyTurkish Assembly,, “Population Panning Law, No: 2827“Population Panning Law, No: 2827,,” ” Official Gazette publication on Official Gazette publication on May 27, 1983, No.18059, enacted on May 24, 1983May 27, 1983, No.18059, enacted on May 24, 1983
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
231
rate
ratess every five years, whevery five years, whileile the level of fertilitythe level of fertility decline in the aggressive decline in the aggressive low fertility scenario low fertility scenario was 10%was 10%.. 116
Table 4.
Table 4.1313 NDP NDP pprojections vs rojections vs aactual population 1965ctual population 1965--1981985 5 (in(in ‘000)‘000)
1965
1965
1970
1970
1975
1975
1980
1980
1985
1985 1963 1963 NPD NPD Projection Projection
A.
A. High Fertility High Fertility
31,996
31,996
36
36,,697697
42
42,,558558
49
49,,947947
59
59,,162162
B.
B. Medium FertilityMedium Fertility
31,9
31,93366
36
36,,401401
41
41,,579579
47,744
47,744
55
55,,016016
C. Low Fertility
31,9
31,93366
3
366,,106106
40
40,,635635
45
45,,701701
51
51,,313313 Census ResultsCensus Results
D.
D. Actual Actual censucensuss
31,
31,391391
35,
35,605605
40,347
40,347
44,736
44,736
50,664
50,664 Difference (D-B) --545545 --796796 --1.1.223737 --3.0083.008 --4.3524.352 Difference (D-C) --545545 --501501 --288288 --965965 --649649
SOURCE
SOURCE:: Population CensusesPopulation Censuses, NDP 1963, NDP 1963..
As shown in Table 4.13, the 1985 population was estimated at 59.1
As shown in Table 4.13, the 1985 population was estimated at 59.1 million for high fertility, 55 million for medium fertility, and 51.3 million million for high fertility, 55 million for medium fertility, and 51.3 million for low fertility scenarios. Based on the actual census, the 1985 popula-for low fertility scenarios. Based on the actual census, the 1985 popula-tion was 50.6 million, below the low fertion was 50.6 million, below the low fertility scenario. In addition, the tility scenario. In addition, the country’s average fertility rate fell from 6.10 to 4.11 between 1965 and country’s average fertility rate fell from 6.10 to 4.11 between 1965 and 1985, a reduction of two births per woman. 1985, a reduction of two births per woman.
The
The differences in the differences in the provincial fertility andprovincial fertility and their their transition transition overover twentytwenty--yearyear periodperiod areare demonstrateddemonstrated inin the following two the following two provincial provincial maps.maps. The map in The map in Figure 4.1Figure 4.1 representrepresentss the average fertility rates ofthe average fertility rates of the the 67 67 provincial districts provincial districts of Turkey of Turkey in 196in 19655.. PProvincial fertility rates rovincial fertility rates areare based on based on Shorter and Macura’s Shorter and Macura’s demographic estimatesdemographic estimates. . ConsistentConsistent with with the demographic transition theorthe demographic transition theoryy,, which foresees which foresees fertility as a function fertility as a function of development and modernizationof development and modernization, , the map shows ththe map shows that at fertility rates fertility rates were highest were highest in the eastern provincesin the eastern provinces, where, where urbanizationurbanization, , educationeducation,, and and contraceptive contraceptive availability wavailability wereere lless ess presentpresent..
116 Prime Ministry and State Planning Organization, Prime Ministry and State Planning Organization, First FiveFirst Five--Year Development Plan Year Development Plan (1963(1963--1967)1967),, 6969-- 70.70.
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
232
Figu
Figure re 4.34.311 TFR per provincial district TFR per provincial district ““1965.1965.”” SOURCE:SOURCE: Data, SData, Shorter horter and Macura (1982),53.and Macura (1982),53. positioned on positioned on 1965 1965 provincial mapprovincial map..
The TFR rate exceeded eight births per woman in sixteen provinces, pre-
The TFR rate exceeded eight births per woman in sixteen provinces, pre-dominantly located in the east. Furthermore, TFR was not less than five dominantly located in the east. Furthermore, TFR was not less than five births per woman in 58 provincial districts. For the remaining nine out births per woman in 58 provincial districts. For the remaining nine out of 67 cities with TFR lessof 67 cities with TFR less than five births per woman that were located in than five births per woman that were located in the west, the lowest TFR was in Istanbul, the most developed and urban-the west, the lowest TFR was in Istanbul, the most developed and urban-ized city with three births per woman.ized city with three births per woman.
The map in
The map in Figure 4.2 denotesFigure 4.2 denotes the average fertility rate the average fertility rate per provincial per provincial district in 1985district in 1985, calculat, calculated by Cerit using census data. The TFR is the sum ed by Cerit using census data. The TFR is the sum of ageof age--specific fertility rates and is calculated as the ratio of annual births specific fertility rates and is calculated as the ratio of annual births in each age cohort to the female population in the same age group.in each age cohort to the female population in the same age group.117 And And annual births per age cohort per provincial district have only been avail-annual births per age cohort per provincial district have only been avail-able since the 1980 census.able since the 1980 census.
The 1985 map demonstrates a significant TFR decline on average, as
The 1985 map demonstrates a significant TFR decline on average, as the number of provincial districts with less than five births per woman the number of provincial districts with less than five births per woman increased increased from nine cities in 1965 to twentyfrom nine cities in 1965 to twenty--four in 1985. And in twelve four in 1985. And in twelve of these twentyof these twenty--four cities, TFR is less than four. four cities, TFR is less than four.
117 Henry S. Shryock and Jacob S. Siege, Henry S. Shryock and Jacob S. Siege, The Methods and Materials of DemographyThe Methods and Materials of Demography (Califor-(Califor-nia: Academic Press, 1976), 287.nia: Academic Press, 1976), 287.
TFR ≥
TFR ≥ 88
7 ≥
7 ≥ TFR TFR << 88
6 ≥ TFR
6 ≥ TFR << 77
5 ≥ TFR
5 ≥ TFR << 66
4 ≥ TFR
4 ≥ TFR <5<5
3 ≥ TFR
3 ≥ TFR <4<4
TFR
TFR <3<3
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
233
Figure
Figure 4.34.3 TFR per provincial district TFR per provincial district ““19851985.”.” SOURCESOURCE:: Data, CData, Cerit erit (198(1989)9),,118 positioned on 19positioned on 19885 provincial map.5 provincial map.
Twenty years ago, no city except Istanbul had such a low birth rate. How-
Twenty years ago, no city except Istanbul had such a low birth rate. How-ever, the highest birth rate was still found in the ever, the highest birth rate was still found in the eastern provinces, as the eastern provinces, as the TFR rate was higher than eight in twelve eastern districts.TFR rate was higher than eight in twelve eastern districts.
Regarding
Regarding demographic changes in demographic changes in the the majormajor determinants of fertil-determinants of fertil-ityity, namely, namely age age atat marriage, marriage, familyfamily structurestructure,, contraceptive practicescontraceptive practices, and , and abortion betweenabortion between 1965 and 19851965 and 1985, th, the e key points key points areare as follows.as follows.
The
The age age atat first marriage has first marriage has increased increased slightly slightly duringduring these twenty these twenty yearsyears,, having been raised by having been raised by 11..2 years for m2 years for menen and 2and 2.1.1 years for years for women, women, reachreachinging 2424..66 years years for mfor menen and 21and 21.5.5 years years for for womenwomen in 1985.in 1985.119 How-How-ever, ever, the the number of marrnumber of marriages under iages under the age of the age of 1818, which is a, which is a keykey deter-deter-minant of higher fertilityminant of higher fertility has has declined declined significantlysignificantly..
T
The ratio of he ratio of married women under 18 to married women omarried women under 18 to married women over 18 ver 18 was was 66% in 1965 and66% in 1965 and fell tofell to 4343..5% by 1985.5% by 1985.120 In his analysisIn his analysis oof the f the determi-determi-nants of fertility, Hancıoğlu nants of fertility, Hancıoğlu notesnotes thatthat the the direct direct impaimpacct of the aging t of the aging
118 Sevil Cerit, Sevil Cerit, Türkiye’de Doğurganlık ve ÖlümlülükTürkiye’de Doğurganlık ve Ölümlülük ((Ankara: Yeniçağ Yayınları, Ankara: Yeniçağ Yayınları, 1989), 521989), 52--53.53.
119 Toprak, “Türkiye’de Evlenme Göstergelerinin Değişimi 1955Toprak, “Türkiye’de Evlenme Göstergelerinin Değişimi 1955--19971997,,”” 55.55.
120 Ministry of the Family and Social Policies,Ministry of the Family and Social Policies, TürkiyeTürkiye Aile Yapısı AraştırmasıAile Yapısı Araştırması: T: Tespitlerespitler,, ÖÖnernerileriler (Ankara: 2014)(Ankara: 2014)
TFR ≥
TFR ≥ 88
7 ≥
7 ≥ TFR TFR << 88
6 ≥ TFR
6 ≥ TFR << 77
5 ≥ TFR
5 ≥ TFR << 66
4 ≥ TFR
4 ≥ TFR <5<5
3 ≥ TFR
3 ≥ TFR <4<4
TFRTFR <3<3
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
234
marri
married coed cohohort on thert on the decline indecline in ffertilityertility was 2was 26% 6% as of 1983,as of 1983,121 up from up from 1818% % a decade earlier.a decade earlier.
As for
As for family structure, the patriarchal and family structure, the patriarchal and the the extended family extended family con-con-tinued ttinued to erodeo erode but but atat a slower pace fa slower pace from rom 3232..1% in 1968 to 1% in 1968 to 2727..9% in 9% in 1985.1985.122 ThThe nuclearization of the family e nuclearization of the family was even slower was even slower during during thisthis pe-pe-riodriod, increasing , increasing only 1only 1..9% 9% inin fifteen yearsfifteen years. . And the And the dissolved family dissolved family in-in-creased from 8creased from 8..3% to 103% to 10..5%5% over over the same periodthe same period..123
A
Analysis nalysis of the of the HUNEE acaHUNEE academiciandemicians based on the s based on the subsequent subsequent KAP KAP surveyssurveys depicted thatdepicted that tthe change in contraceptive practiceshe change in contraceptive practices had had the the greatest greatest direct direct impact on impact on the fertility reductionthe fertility reduction during thduring thee period, which period, which was calculated as was calculated as 39% in 39% in 1968 1968 and increase up to and increase up to 52% 52% byby 19831983..124
Figure 4.3Figure 4.3 shows shows the progress the progress inin contraceptive uscontraceptive use e in Turkeyin Turkey be-be-tween 1963 and 1983tween 1963 and 1983, , alongalong with with traditional and modern method break-traditional and modern method break-downdown. . OOvverall contraceptive userall contraceptive usee has almost has almost tripled tripled during thduring thee period period ((from from 22% to 61%22% to 61%), ), and and the the disdistribution of tribution of traditional and modern traditional and modern meth-meth-odsods has chas changed hanged radicallyradically..
Although
Although still higher still higher than modern methods than modern methods in 198in 19833, , thethe share ofshare of tra-tra-ditional contraceptive ditional contraceptive in total contraceptive in total contraceptive preferences preferences declined declined from from 76% to 56%76% to 56%,, especially after the midespecially after the mid--19719700ss, when , when douche and other folk douche and other folk methods wmethods wereere gradually abandoned in favor of gradually abandoned in favor of IUDIUD and pills. and pills. On the other On the other hand,hand, withdrawal withdrawal maintained maintained its position as its position as still still the the single most pre-single most pre-ferred coferred contraceptive method. ntraceptive method.
Regarding abortion, successive KAP surveys reveal
Regarding abortion, successive KAP surveys reveal a steady increase a steady increase until the miduntil the mid-- 1990s, long after the liberalization of abortion in 1983.1990s, long after the liberalization of abortion in 1983.125 The total number of abortions according to the 1983 KAP survey was The total number of abortions according to the 1983 KAP survey was
121 Atilla Atilla Hancıoğlu, Hancıoğlu, “Fertility Trends in “Fertility Trends in Turkey: 1978Turkey: 1978--1993,1993,” in ” in Fertility Trends, Women'sFertility Trends, Women's
Status and Reproductive Expectations in Turkey, Status and Reproductive Expectations in Turkey, eeds. ds. Hacettepe University InstituteHacettepe University Institute
of Population Studies and Macro Internationalof Population Studies and Macro International ((Calverton, Maryland,1997)Calverton, Maryland,1997):1:1--79.79.
122 Sutay Yavuz, “Changing household and family compositions in Turkey: A demographic Sutay Yavuz, “Changing household and family compositions in Turkey: A demographic evaluation for 1968evaluation for 1968––1998 period, 1998 period, Hacettepe University EHacettepe University E--Journal of Sociological Re-Journal of Sociological Re-searchsearch, no.2, no.2, (, (2004): 12004): 1––34.34.
123 Ibid.,16.Ibid.,16.
124 İİsmet Koç,smet Koç, ““Türkiye’de Türkiye’de Doğurganlık Seviyesi ve Doğurganlık Seviyesi ve ÖÖrüntüsünün Değişimi,” in rüntüsünün Değişimi,” in Türkiye Aile Türkiye Aile Yapısı Araştırması: Tespitler, ÖnerilerYapısı Araştırması: Tespitler, Öneriler (Ankara: 2014)(Ankara: 2014),, 188.188.
125 Ibid., 33.Ibid., 33.
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
235
363,199, of which 215,588 were induced abortions,
363,199, of which 215,588 were induced abortions, 126 an 87% increase an 87% increase over the results a decade eover the results a decade earlier.arlier.127 Hancıoğlu finds the direct impact Hancıoğlu finds the direct impact abortion on fertility decline in fertility as 7% in 1983,abortion on fertility decline in fertility as 7% in 1983,128 which was cal-which was cal-culated at 2% a decade earlier.culated at 2% a decade earlier.129
Figure
Figure 4.34.3 Traditional vs. Traditional vs. mmodern odern ccontraception ontraception uusage sage between between 19631963--1985 1985 (%)(%) SOURCESOURCESS: : Hacettepe University Institute of Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies (HUNEE)Population Studies (HUNEE). . Turkish Demographic and Turkish Demographic and Health SurveyHealth Survey, 1978, 1983, 1978, 1983, HUNEE (2010), HUNEE (2010)130, , Ozbay Ozbay (2001),(2001),
126 HUNEE, TurkishHUNEE, Turkish Demographic and Health Survey 1983Demographic and Health Survey 1983 (Ankara: Hacettepe University (Ankara: Hacettepe University Publications, 1987), 104.Publications, 1987), 104.
127 Hüsnü Kişnişçi, Ayşe Akın, “Türkiye’de Düşüklerle ilgili Epidemiyolojik bir AraştırmaHüsnü Kişnişçi, Ayşe Akın, “Türkiye’de Düşüklerle ilgili Epidemiyolojik bir Araştırma,”,” 117.117. The induced abortion total was 115.692.The induced abortion total was 115.692.
128 Hancıoğlu, “Fertility Trends in Turkey: 1978Hancıoğlu, “Fertility Trends in Turkey: 1978--19931993,” 54.,” 54.
129 Özbay, “Türkiye’de Doğurganlık Düzeyine ve Değişmelerine etki eden Ara DeğişkenlerÖzbay, “Türkiye’de Doğurganlık Düzeyine ve Değişmelerine etki eden Ara Değişkenler,,” ” 9900..
130 HUNEE, HUNEE, Türkiye’nin Demografik Dönüşümü; Aile Planlaması Anne Çocuk Sağlığı ve Beş Türkiye’nin Demografik Dönüşümü; Aile Planlaması Anne Çocuk Sağlığı ve Beş Yaş Altı Ölümlerdeki Değişimler: 1968Yaş Altı Ölümlerdeki Değişimler: 1968--20082008 (Ankara: Hacettepe University Publications, (Ankara: Hacettepe University Publications, 2010)2010) 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1963 1968 1973 1978 1983
Withdrawal Other Traditional Oral Pills UID Condom Other Modern
Traditional Methods
Traditional Methods
Modern MethodsModern Methods
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
236
The figures
The figures aboveabove suggestssuggests that the that the declinedecline in in fertilityfertility,, whwhich already ich already be-be-gangan as early as the as early as the 11950s950s,, showedshowed increasingincreasing momentum in the late momentum in the late 1970s and 1980s1970s and 1980s, , inevitably inevitably led increaseled increasedd use use of of all means of contracep-all means of contracep-titionon, including , including modern and traditional modern and traditional methodsmethods, along , along with the with the abortionabortion.. What about the What about the economic and economic and social social changeschanges among among the women tthe women that ac-hat ac-celerated thcelerated this dynamic? is dynamic? This This question will be briefly addressed question will be briefly addressed in the in the next next sectionsection..
4.3.2 The The Changing Changing Status of Status of WomenWomen until miduntil mid--1980s.1980s.
A woman's decision whether, when, and how many children to have
A woman's decision whether, when, and how many children to have beenbeen influenced by a number of circumstances directly related to her role and influenced by a number of circumstances directly related to her role and status in the family and society.status in the family and society. And And a a womwomaan's statusn's status has a major impacthas a major impact on the on the degree of control she has over hedegree of control she has over her own fertility. r own fertility. 131
Although
Although defining and measuring womdefining and measuring womaann’s status’s status is is extremely extremely com-com-plex plex because of because of its multidimensionalits multidimensional naturenature,,132 some key some key indicatorsindicators, such , such as educational attainment, labor force participationas educational attainment, labor force participation,, and urbanization and urbanization level level are generally used as proxies are generally used as proxies for the for the measurementmeasurement. And this section . And this section tracks the tracks the changing changing trends of thtrends of theese proxies between 1965 and 1985.se proxies between 1965 and 1985.
Education
Education is is generally considered as generally considered as an essential tool an essential tool for enhancing for enhancing women’s status, women’s status, and and although not uniform in every coalthough not uniform in every country untry as Martin as Martin demonstrated for 26 developing countriesdemonstrated for 26 developing countries, , higher higher education education is found to is found to have a huge impact on reducing have a huge impact on reducing fertilityfertility..133
As for
As for Turkey’s progressTurkey’s progress, , the the increase increase in in the femalethe female literacy rate over literacy rate over the past twenty years has been impressive, rising the past twenty years has been impressive, rising from from 33% in 1965 to 33% in 1965 to 68% in 1985, as Table 4.168% in 1985, as Table 4.144 demonstrates. Undoubtedly, urbanization had demonstrates. Undoubtedly, urbanization had a a profoundprofound impact on the increasing literacy rate, which reached 76% in impact on the increasing literacy rate, which reached 76% in
131 Banu Akadlı Ergöçmen, Banu Akadlı Ergöçmen, ““Women’s Status and Women’s Status and Fertility Fertility in Turkeyin Turkey,” in ,” in FFeertility Trends, rtility Trends, Women's Status and Reproductive Expectations in TurkeyWomen's Status and Reproductive Expectations in Turkey, , eds. eds. Hacettepe University In-Hacettepe University In-stitutestitute oof Population Studies andf Population Studies and Macro InternationalMacro International ((Calverton, Maryland,1997):Calverton, Maryland,1997):8080--104104..
132 Karen Oppenheim Mason, “The status of women: Conceptual and methodological issues Karen Oppenheim Mason, “The status of women: Conceptual and methodological issues in demographic studies,” in demographic studies,” Sociological ForumSociological Forum 1, (1986): 2841, (1986): 284--300.300.
133 Teresa Castro Martin, “Women's Education and Fertility: Results from 26 Demographic Teresa Castro Martin, “Women's Education and Fertility: Results from 26 Demographic and Health and Health Surveys,”Surveys,” Studies in Family PlanningStudies in Family Planning 26, no.426, no.4, (1995):, (1995): 187187--202202
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
237
1985. However, the main
1985. However, the main cause of this gradual increase was the rural lit-cause of this gradual increase was the rural lit-eracy rate, which rose from 23% to 59%. The nationwide literacy cam-eracy rate, which rose from 23% to 59%. The nationwide literacy cam-paigns that were more rigorously implemented after the 1980 paigns that were more rigorously implemented after the 1980 coupcoup were were key to this success in rural literacy.key to this success in rural literacy.134 Still, much remains to be donStill, much remains to be done, as e, as 3131% of these female literates did not attend or complete % of these female literates did not attend or complete primaryprimary schoolschool and and 1414% of them completed high school, and only % of them completed high school, and only thethe 44% of female lit-% of female lit-erateserates, over the age of twenty, over the age of twenty--oneone,, were able to earn a could graduate were able to earn a could graduate from a from a university.university.135
Table 4.
Table 4.1414 FemaleFemale lliteracy rates 1965iteracy rates 1965--1985 (%)1985 (%)
Year
Year
Urbanization
Urbanization WomenWomen
Literacy rate
Literacy rate UrbanUrban
Literacy rate
Literacy rate RuralRural
Literacy rate
Literacy rate
TotalTotal 19651965 33.733.7 52.352.3 22.922.9 32.832.8
1970
1970
34.8
34.8
58.9
58.9
32.6
32.6
41.8
41.8 19197575 38.238.2 64.464.4 41.041.0 50.550.5
19
198080
43.0
43.0
66.3
66.3
45.9
45.9
54.7
54.7 19198585 51.951.9 75.975.9 59.459.4 68.268.2
SOURCE
SOURCE:: Census results from 19Census results from 196565 to 19to 198585..
Another
Another determinant determinant of improving of improving women’s women’s status isstatus is femalefemale labor force labor force participationparticipation. . As demonstrated in sAs demonstrated in section ection 4.1.24.1.2, , female laborfemale labor forceforce par-par-ticipationticipation does not necessarily does not necessarily implyimply cocontrol over the wages she earnntrol over the wages she earnss due to submission to due to submission to her her husbandhusband’s authority’s authority. . HoweverHowever, it is , it is stillstill assumed assumed that that ssimply imply being part of the being part of the laborlabor force force enhances one’senhances one’s freedomfreedom and and knowledge of the knowledge of the outside worldoutside world. . With respect to With respect to fertility, fertility, the theory of the theory of role role incompatibility incompatibility states that states that workingworking-- are more inclined tare more inclined to o limit their limit their fertility due to fertility due to incompatibility incompatibility of of work and work and motherhoodmotherhood..136 Yet the Yet the tran-tran-sition of female sition of female labor force participationlabor force participation in Turkey in Turkey requires requires a a different different interpretatinterpretation.ion.
Table 4.1
Table 4.155 depicts thdepicts that at the the withdrawal withdrawal of women of women from the labor from the labor force force continued after 1965continued after 1965,, as as the the labor force participation rate labor force participation rate fellfell from 56from 56..4% 4%
134 “Okuma yazma seferberliği başladı,” “Okuma yazma seferberliği başladı,” MilliyetMilliyet, March 23, 1981., March 23, 1981.
135 Prime Ministry Statistical General Directorate,Prime Ministry Statistical General Directorate, Genel Nüfus Sayımı, Nüfusun Sosyal ve Genel Nüfus Sayımı, Nüfusun Sosyal ve Ekonomik Nitelikleri 20.10.1985Ekonomik Nitelikleri 20.10.1985,, 64.64.
136 J. Mayone Stycos and Robert H. Weller, “Female WorkiJ. Mayone Stycos and Robert H. Weller, “Female Working Roles and Fertility,”ng Roles and Fertility,” Demogra-Demogra-phy phy 4, no.1, (1967): 2104, no.1, (1967): 210--7.7.
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
238
to 44
to 44..5%5% inin twenty years.twenty years. As forAs for the sectoral breakdown, the sectoral breakdown, the share of the share of ag-ag-riculture,riculture, although still although still dominant dominant by farby far, decreased , decreased from 94from 94.1.1% % in 1965 in 1965 to 85.6% to 85.6% inin 1919885, 5, and and was was mainly mainly replaced by the replaced by the serviceservice sector,sector, which which increased from 2.6% to 9.7%increased from 2.6% to 9.7% during the same period.during the same period.
Table 4.
Table 4.1515 Sectoral Sectoral ddistribution of istribution of ffemale emale lalabbor or fforce 1965orce 1965--1985 (%)1985 (%)
Sectors
Sectors
1965
1965
1970
1970
1975
1975
1980
1980
1985
1985 Female labor force 56.4 50.9 47.447.4 46.3 44.3 AgricultureAgriculture 94.194.1 8989.0.0 87.587.5 86.586.5 85.685.6 IndustryIndustry 1.51.5 5.15.1 4.34.3 4.64.6 4.54.5 Services 2.62.6 5.05.0 7.17.1 8.28.2 9.79.7 Other 1.81.8 0.90.9 1.11.1 0.70.7 0.20.2
TOTAL
TOTAL
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
SOURCE :
SOURCE : Istatistiki Göstergeler 1923Istatistiki Göstergeler 1923--2011.2011.137
Meanwhile
Meanwhile, , child laborchild labor, , the the basis for research on basis for research on the value of the value of the the child, child, has also dhas also dececlinedlined from 28% in 1970 to 18% in 1985from 28% in 1970 to 18% in 1985,,138 withwith 80% of them 80% of them livliving ing in in villages.villages. This This steady decline in steady decline in child labor indicates child labor indicates not only not only a a ddecliningeclining value of children as value of children as a source of labor a source of labor or aor as as a means means off house-off house-workwork supportsupport but also but also rapid urbanization.rapid urbanization.
Urbanization,
Urbanization, which which UnatUnat identifies identifies as as one of the one of the main main causescauses of of the the extraordinary change extraordinary change iin n the the status of status of Turkish womenTurkish women and a sign of eman-and a sign of eman-cipation from cipation from a a traditional to traditional to a a modern limodern lifefe,,139 is also is also closely closely related to related to the the increasingincreasing education and education and employment of women,employment of women, especially in ser-especially in ser-vices and industries. vices and industries.
As in most other developing countries,
As in most other developing countries, the rise of the rise of urbanizationurbanization accel-accel-erated ierated in then the 1970s and 1980s, and 1970s and 1980s, and Turkey’s uTurkey’s urbanization rbanization rarate te increased increased
137 Turkish Statistical InstituteTurkish Statistical Institute, , İstatistiki Göstergeler Statistical Indicators 1923İstatistiki Göstergeler Statistical Indicators 1923--20112011 ((An-An-kara: Türkiye İstatistik Kkara: Türkiye İstatistik Kurumuurumu), 22), 22--6.6.
138 International Labour OrganizationInternational Labour Organization, , economicallyeconomically active population, 1950 active population, 1950 -- 20102010, 195., 195.
139 Nermin AbadanNermin Abadan--Unat, “The Modernization of Turkish Women,” Unat, “The Modernization of Turkish Women,” Middle East JournalMiddle East Journal 32, 32, no.3 (1978): 291no.3 (1978): 291--306306
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
239
from 34%
from 34% in 1965 in 1965 to 53%to 53% in 1985 and the urban population surpassed in 1985 and the urban population surpassed that of villages that of villages for the for the first time first time in in Turkish dTurkish demographic history.emographic history.140
The population in rural areas remained almost stable
The population in rural areas remained almost stable during this pe-during this pe-riod, changing riod, changing slightly from 2slightly from 20.60.6 to 23to 23.8.8 million, million, whwhile inile in urban areas urban areas it it increasedincreased eexponentially froxponentially from 10m 10.8 to 26.9 million.8 to 26.9 million. . Migration reports of Migration reports of the the periodperiod also also indicateindicate that about 1that about 122.3.3 million million people have changed people have changed their permanent resitheir permanent residencdencee within twenty yearswithin twenty years..141
The impact of these proxies on the fertility change is analyzed
The impact of these proxies on the fertility change is analyzed inin the the next and next and lastlast section of this chapter. section of this chapter.
4.3.3 An Analyze on Individual An Analyze on Individual Determinants of FertilityDeterminants of Fertility..
T
Thihis section s section attempts attempts to to demonstratedemonstrate the the changing changing educational educational and oc-and oc-cupationcupational proxies of feral proxies of fertility tility in Turkey through time and place. Many in Turkey through time and place. Many studies have been conducted to economic and social determinants of fer-studies have been conducted to economic and social determinants of fer-tility, especially by HUNEE academicians based on the KAP surveys.tility, especially by HUNEE academicians based on the KAP surveys.142 Unlike these studies, which divide the county into five geographic re-Unlike these studies, which divide the county into five geographic re-gigions, this ons, this dissertationdissertation gathers census data for each of the 67 provincial gathers census data for each of the 67 provincial districts, allowing for a broader representation.districts, allowing for a broader representation.
The
The variables variables inin this this analysisanalysis,, presented in presented in Table 4.1Table 4.166,, consist oconsist of f TFRTFR as as the the dependent variable and dependent variable and urbanizationurbanization, , education, and occupationeducation, and occupation ratesrates as as explanatoryexplanatory variablesvariables. All . All variables were compiled from census variables were compiled from census data for each provincial district for 1965 and 1985data for each provincial district for 1965 and 1985,, respectivelyrespectively..
As for
As for education, not only literacy rates but also education, not only literacy rates but also primary school and primary school and high school graduatihigh school graduation figures on figures ofof eaceach provincial district h provincial district are included are included to to allow a allow a more more detailed detailed assessmentassessment.. SimilarlySimilarly,, the the analysis of analysis of the the female female labor labor force force is is not limited not limited toto the the overall employment rateoverall employment rate, , butbut includes includes aa
140 Prime Ministry Statistical General Prime Ministry Statistical General Directorate,Directorate, Genel Nüfus Sayımı, Nüfusun Sosyal ve Genel Nüfus Sayımı, Nüfusun Sosyal ve Ekonomik Nitelikleri 2Ekonomik Nitelikleri 200.10.19.10.19885 5 (Ankara: Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü Matbaası(Ankara: Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü Matbaası, , 1919885),5), 4.4.
141 Tuncer Karaman, Tuncer Karaman, Türkiye’de İç Göçler ve Göç EdenlerTürkiye’de İç Göçler ve Göç Edenlerin Nitelikleri (1965in Nitelikleri (1965--2000)2000) (Ankara:(Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı,Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı, 2009), 172009), 17--18.18.
142 Hacettepe University InstituteHacettepe University Institute oof Population Studies and Macro Internationalf Population Studies and Macro International, , FertilityFertility Trends, Women's Status and Reproductive Expectations in TurkeyTrends, Women's Status and Reproductive Expectations in Turkey, , ((Calverton, Mary-Calverton, Mary-land,1997)land,1997); HUNEE, ; HUNEE, Türkiye’nin Demografik Dönüşümü; Aile Türkiye’nin Demografik Dönüşümü; Aile Planlaması Anne Çocuk Planlaması Anne Çocuk Sağlığı ve Beş Yaş Altı Ölümlerdeki Değişimler: 1968Sağlığı ve Beş Yaş Altı Ölümlerdeki Değişimler: 1968--20082008..
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
240
breakdown of
breakdown of employment employment in in agriculturagriculturee, ser, servicevices,s, and industrand industry y for for each each provincial districtprovincial district.. DDetailed figures are shown in Appendices etailed figures are shown in Appendices DD and and EE. .
Table 4.
Table 4.1616 Summary of Summary of vvariables, ariables, aabbreviations,bbreviations, and and dedefinitionsfinitions
Variables
Definition and source
Definition and source Dependent VariableDependent Variable
Total fertility rate
Total fertility rate
Total fertility rate
Total fertility rate per provincial district per provincial district for for 19651965 and 1985.and 1985. Explanatory Explanatory VariablVariableses
Urbanization rateUrbanization rate Urbanization rate Urbanization rate per provincial district per provincial district for for 19651965 and 1985.and 1985. Female Female Literacy rateLiteracy rate Female literacy rate (over age 6) Female literacy rate (over age 6) per provincial dis-per provincial dis-trict trict for 1for 1965965 and 1985.and 1985. Primary school graduationPrimary school graduation Graduation rate of females from primary school Graduation rate of females from primary school (over 11 of age) (over 11 of age) per provincial district per provincial district for for 19651965 and and 1985.1985. High school graduationHigh school graduation Graduation rate of females from high school (over Graduation rate of females from high school (over 18 of age) 18 of age) per provincial district per provincial district for for 19651965 and and 1985.1985. Employment rateEmployment rate Female Employment rate(over 15 of age) per pro-Female Employment rate(over 15 of age) per pro-vincial district for 1965 and 1985.vincial district for 1965 and 1985. Agricultural OccupationAgricultural Occupation Female employment rate in agricultural sector Female employment rate in agricultural sector (over (over 1155 of age) per provincial district for 1965 and 1985.of age) per provincial district for 1965 and 1985. Service OccupationService Occupation Female employment rate in service sector Female employment rate in service sector (over 1(over 155 of age) per provincial district for 1965 and 1985.of age) per provincial district for 1965 and 1985. Industrial OccupationIndustrial Occupation Female employment rate in industrial sector Female employment rate in industrial sector (over (over 1155 of age) per provincial district for 1965 and 985.of age) per provincial district for 1965 and 985.
Similar to the analysis
Similar to the analysis conducted in conducted in Chapter 3Chapter 3 (Section 3.3.4), the (Section 3.3.4), the evaluation evaluation of the data was limited with the of the data was limited with the descriptive descriptive demonstrationdemonstration of of TFRTFR average of average of the provincial districts per data range of the related the provincial districts per data range of the related proxiesproxies as shown in Table as shown in Table 44.1.17.7.
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
241
Table 4.
Table 4.1717 Individual determinants of TFR Individual determinants of TFR (1965 vs. 1985)(1965 vs. 1985)
1965
1965
1985
1985
Individual
Individual DeterminantDeterminantss
Number of
Number of Provincial Provincial DistrictDistrict
TFR average
TFR average per Provincial per Provincial DistrictDistrict
Number of
Number of Provincial Provincial DistrictDistrict
TFR average
TFR average per Provincial per Provincial DistrictDistrict
Urbanization Rate %
Urbanization Rate %
<< 20 %20 % 1818 77..5757 11 55..9191
20
20 % % –– 2929 %%
24
24
7
7..1313
19
19
6
6..2929 3030 % % –– 3939 %% 1616 66..3232 2323 55..4949
40
40 % % –– 4949 %%
6
6
6
6..1212
13
13
5
5..0303 5050 % % –– 5959 %% 11 3,993,99 66 55..2222 ≥ 60≥ 60 %% 22 4,284,28 55 33..9999
Female Literacy Rate %
Female Literacy Rate % << 20 %20 % 1919 88..5500 -- --
20
20 % % –– 2929 %%
21
21
7
7..0303
3
3
9.35
9.35 3030 % % –– 3939 %% 1313 66..1414 66 99..9292
40
40 % % –– 4949 %%
9
9
5
5..0909
2
2
9.38
9.38 5050 % % –– 5959 %% 44 44..9797 77 6.726.72 ≥ 60≥ 60 %% 11 33..0404 4949 4.394.39
Primary School Graduation Rate %
Primary School Graduation Rate % << 20 %20 % 3434 77..9797 66 99..4747
20
20 % % –– 2929 %%
15
15
6
6..4545
4
4
10
10..1414 3030 % % –– 3939 %% 1212 55..1919 55 66..8585
40
40 % % –– 4949 %%
6
6
4
4..6600
20
20
5
5..5858 5050 % % –– 5959 %% 00 44..9797 3131 33..9393 ≥ 60≥ 60 %% 00 33..0404 11 33..33
High School Graduation Rate %
High School Graduation Rate % << 1 %1 % 4343 7.457.45 -- --
1 %
1 % –– 1.9 %1.9 %
18
18
5.95
5.95
9
9
9.32
9.32 2 % 2 % –– 2.9 %2.9 % 33 5.925.92 66 6.816.81
3 %
3 % –– 3.9 %3.9 %
-
-
-
-
18
18
5.70
5.70 4 % 4 % –– 4.9%4.9% 11 3.993.99 1515 4.664.66 ≥ ≥ 5 %5 % 22 4.284.28 1919 3.753.75
Female Employment Rate %
Female Employment Rate % << 20 %20 % 11 33..0404 11 33..2626
20
20 % % –– 2929 %%
-
-
-
-
3
3
3
3..5252 3030 % % –– 3939 %% 11 55..5252 66 44..7676
40
40 % % –– 4949 %%
4
4
5
5..9292
17
17
5
5..1818 5050 % % –– 5959 %% 77 66..2323 2626 55..3939 ≥ 60≥ 60 %% 5454 77..0707 1414 66..9999
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
242
Individual Individual DeterminantDeterminantss Number of Number of Provincial Provincial DistrictDistrict TFR average TFR average per Provincial per Provincial DistrictDistrict Number of Number of Provincial Provincial DistrictDistrict TFR TFR average average per Provin-per Provin-cial Districtcial District
Female
Female Agricultural OccupationAgricultural Occupation Rate %Rate % << 20 %20 % 11 3.043.04 33 3.303.30
20
20 % % –– 2929 %%
-
-
-
-
5
5
4.52
4.52 3030 % % –– 3939 %% 22 4.764.76 66 4.594.59
40
40 % % –– 4949 %%
5
5
6.40
6.40
26
26
4.75
4.75 5050 % % –– 5959 %% 99 5.945.94 1717 6.426.42 ≥ 60≥ 60 %% 5050 7.197.19 1010 7.587.58
Female
Female Service Service Occupation Occupation Rate Rate % % << 1 %1 % 4949 7.357.35 -- --
1 %
1 % –– 1.9 %1.9 %
15
15
5.67
5.67
19
19
7.98
7.98 2 % 2 % –– 2.9 %2.9 % 11 3.993.99 2424 5.305.30
3 %
3 % –– 3.9 %3.9 %
-
-
-
-
14
14
3.97
3.97 4 % 4 % –– 4.9%4.9% -- -- 77 3.463.46 ≥ ≥ 5 %5 % 22 4.284.28 33 3.303.30
The literature suggests the primary role of urbanization in the
The literature suggests the primary role of urbanization in the transfor-transfor-mation and modernization of society, which would lead to upgrading of mation and modernization of society, which would lead to upgrading of women’s status and a reduction in fertility.women’s status and a reduction in fertility.143 The demonstration of the The demonstration of the urbanization rates anurbanization rates and the TFR average per provincial district d the TFR average per provincial district between between 1965 and 1985 also 1965 and 1985 also supports that supports that negative negative association between association between urbani-urbani-zation and the fertilityzation and the fertility as as the the average fertility ratesaverage fertility rates decreases while thedecreases while the rate of urbanization rate of urbanization per per provincial districtprovincial districts s increasesincreases inin each sample each sample year. year.
Th
Thee figures also evidence figures also evidence aan increasing rate ofn increasing rate of fertility fertility reduction reduction with the accelerating with the accelerating urbanization urbanization level level from 1965 to 1985.from 1965 to 1985. The number The number of of provincial districts having above 40% urbanization provincial districts having above 40% urbanization level have in-level have in-creased from creased from ninine to ne to twentytwenty--fourfour within, while the avwithin, while the average TFR erage TFR for these for these districts were districts were reduced frreduced from om 5.5 to 4.95.5 to 4.9 within these twenty yearswithin these twenty years..
Yet
Yet, , the the dataset dataset does not always follow this inverse path between does not always follow this inverse path between ur-ur-banization and fertility especially in banization and fertility especially in many many Western Western rural plainrural plainss of the of the country country where both urbanizatiwhere both urbanization and fertility rates were low. This could on and fertility rates were low. This could also be additional evidence that there is no single definition of “rural,” as also be additional evidence that there is no single definition of “rural,” as Western rural provinces have higher availability and access to education Western rural provinces have higher availability and access to education
143 Unat, “The Modernization of Turkish Women,”Unat, “The Modernization of Turkish Women,” 296296--9.9.
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and employment opportunities which could lead to an increase
and employment opportunities which could lead to an increase in the sta-in the sta-tus of women without urbanization. tus of women without urbanization.
In addition, it should also be noted that although the decline in fertil-
In addition, it should also be noted that although the decline in fertil-ity and the increase in urbanization coincide at the national level, as in ity and the increase in urbanization coincide at the national level, as in most developing countries, the analysis based on provincial dismost developing countries, the analysis based on provincial districts has tricts has its limits in demonstrating the association. Urbanization is mainly trig-its limits in demonstrating the association. Urbanization is mainly trig-gered by internal migration, 75% of which occurred from one provincial gered by internal migration, 75% of which occurred from one provincial district to another, mostly to three metropolitan areas. Only the remain-district to another, mostly to three metropolitan areas. Only the remain-ing 25% of migrants moved witing 25% of migrants moved within the same district in the 1970s and hin the same district in the 1970s and 1980s.1980s.144 Therefore, ability to measure the effect urbanization level on Therefore, ability to measure the effect urbanization level on fertility has becoming increasingly difficult at the provincial levelfertility has becoming increasingly difficult at the provincial level..
As mentioned previously, the negative correlation between education
As mentioned previously, the negative correlation between education and fertility has long been studied. and fertility has long been studied. The dataset The dataset on lon literacy rate iteracy rate clearly clearly showshowss tthhisis negative negative association in the provincial level for 1965association in the provincial level for 1965. . In 1985, In 1985, hhoweverowever,, literacy literacy had advanced to the point where had advanced to the point where the female literacy the female literacy was already was already above above 60% in 460% in 499 out of 67 out of 67 provinces, blurring provinces, blurring the the negative negative association betweenassociation between literacy andliteracy and fertility fertility at the at the provincial levelprovincial level..
This time, primary school graduation became a strong indicator
This time, primary school graduation became a strong indicator, as it , as it was not was not yet yet widespread in widespread in 19851985 ((the rate of the rate of female primary school grad-female primary school grad-uatuates exceededes exceeded 60% only in Istanbul)60% only in Istanbul).. A A similar trend similar trend was seenwas seen inin thethe high school high school graduationgraduation rate. rate. Although still marginal, tAlthough still marginal, the rising he rising high high school graduationschool graduation raterate for females for females is accompanied by the declining is accompanied by the declining fertil-fertil-ity ratesity rates in bin both oth yearsyears..
The
The increase in educational attainment increase in educational attainment within twewithin twenty years nty years was was ob-ob-served served in all proin all provincesvinces withwithout exception, out exception, which which could lead to could lead to an illusan illusory ory increase in fertility increase in fertility rates rates for the same intervalsfor the same intervals in the dataset.in the dataset. For exam-For exam-ple, in provinces where the primary school graduation rate was between ple, in provinces where the primary school graduation rate was between 30% and 39%, the average fertility rate was 5.19 in 30% and 39%, the average fertility rate was 5.19 in 1965 and 6.85 in 1965 and 6.85 in 1985. This is because the twelve counties that belonged to this1985. This is because the twelve counties that belonged to this raterate inter-inter-val in 1965 had higher graduation rates in 1985 and were replaced by val in 1965 had higher graduation rates in 1985 and were replaced by provincprovinceses that had much lower education levels in 1965 but that had much lower education levels in 1965 but reached reached graduation rates above 30% ingraduation rates above 30% in 1985.1985.
144 Karaman, Karaman, Türkiye’de İç Göçler ve Göç Edenlerin Nitelikleri (1965Türkiye’de İç Göçler ve Göç Edenlerin Nitelikleri (1965--2000)2000), , 17.17.
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Contrary to the literature, associating a negative correlation between
Contrary to the literature, associating a negative correlation between TFR and female employment as it is assumed to elevate the women’s sta-TFR and female employment as it is assumed to elevate the women’s sta-tus, the tus, the result of thresult of thisis analysisanalysis demonstratedemonstratess a positive a positive association association be-be-tween tween overall female employment level overall female employment level and the fertility. and the fertility. The answer lies The answer lies in the in the sectoral sectoral breakdown, breakdown, of which the proportion of agriculture in over-of which the proportion of agriculture in over-all female employment was no less than 86% as all female employment was no less than 86% as already demonstrated in already demonstrated in Table 4.15. Table 4.15. SSince agricultural female employment has very limited ince agricultural female employment has very limited capac-capac-ity for the emancipation of the women due to the fact the women had ity for the emancipation of the women due to the fact the women had almost no control over the wages they earned in rural settings,almost no control over the wages they earned in rural settings,145 the the overall negative association between fertility and the employment be-overall negative association between fertility and the employment be-came mutilated.came mutilated.
On the other hand,
On the other hand, female female seservice occupatiorvice occupation n level level shown in the shown in the grapgraphh, confirms the negative association between service employment , confirms the negative association between service employment and fertilityand fertility in 1985. in 1985. SService ervice occupation occupation level oflevel of the womenthe women in 1965 in 1965 waswas marginal as it was less than 2% in all the provincial districts except three marginal as it was less than 2% in all the provincial districts except three mmetropolesetropoles.. ThereforeTherefore,, 1965 data 1965 data was not applicable for was not applicable for a reviewa review on fer-on fer-tility and service occupation relationship. tility and service occupation relationship. Nevertheless, the female em-Nevertheless, the female em-ployment in ployment in the the serviceservice industryindustry was only 4% of the total female popula-was only 4% of the total female popula-tion between the age of 15 and 65 in 1985 ation between the age of 15 and 65 in 1985 and was far from explaining nd was far from explaining the overall decline in fertility.the overall decline in fertility.
S
Summary of ummary of 44..33
In this final section, the change in the fertility behavior and contraceptive
In this final section, the change in the fertility behavior and contraceptive use was further tracked until the miduse was further tracked until the mid--1980s to find out impact of the 1980s to find out impact of the Family Planning Law in the long run. Apparently, the governmental tar-Family Planning Law in the long run. Apparently, the governmental tar-gets to reduce the population was in ligets to reduce the population was in line with the changing views of fam-ne with the changing views of fam-ily and women as decline in the fertility level was above the governmental ily and women as decline in the fertility level was above the governmental targets. targets.
And the trend in the contraceptive use indicates that the women and
And the trend in the contraceptive use indicates that the women and family have reduced the hesitation on the modern contraceptives over family have reduced the hesitation on the modern contraceptives over ttime to reach the desired number of children. Yet the traditional methods ime to reach the desired number of children. Yet the traditional methods and especially abortion was still high.and especially abortion was still high.
145 Özbay, “Women’s Education in Rural Özbay, “Women’s Education in Rural TurkeyTurkey,”,” in in Sex Roles, Family & Community in Tur-Sex Roles, Family & Community in Tur-keykey,), 133,), 133--150.150.
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During this period, female employment was further reduced. On con-
During this period, female employment was further reduced. On con-trary, the level of urbanization was escalated together with the female lit-trary, the level of urbanization was escalated together with the female lit-eraeracycy. . Furthermore, Furthermore, the education level which was found to havethe education level which was found to have a close a close relationshiprelationship with the decreasing fertility levelwith the decreasing fertility level on provincial basis.on provincial basis.
Conclusion of Chapter 4
Conclusion of Chapter 4
The fourth chapter
The fourth chapter concentrateconcentratedd on the individual sphere, women and on the individual sphere, women and the family, and their chthe family, and their changing anging fertility and contraceptive behavior fertility and contraceptive behavior through the transformation of the environment and their changing nthrough the transformation of the environment and their changing needs eeds and priorities. In thand priorities. In thisis context, context, how how the response of the individual sphere the response of the individual sphere on the on the population control law promoted by the global sphere and en-population control law promoted by the global sphere and en-forced by the national sphereforced by the national sphere was was covered. covered.
The
The census data and demographic studies census data and demographic studies evidenceevidence that the fertilithat the fertility ty rates rates wwereere already in decline already in decline in Turkey in Turkey in early 1950’s as a reflection of in early 1950’s as a reflection of the the transformation of the land regimetransformation of the land regime.. Turkish women being confined to Turkish women being confined to houseworkhousework as they as they have gradually have gradually withdrawnwithdrawn from agricultural from agricultural laborlabor,, the the erosion of patriarchal family structure and increasing female education erosion of patriarchal family structure and increasing female education allowed them for some spaces for empowerment.allowed them for some spaces for empowerment. Furthermore,Furthermore, gradual gradual retreat retreat from from agricultural agricultural labor and labor and land due to land due to internal migrationinternal migration has has changed changed the the value of children from value of children from an assan asset to et to a a liability liability providing providing an-an-other motivation for the other motivation for the reduction in reduction in fertility in the individual sphere. fertility in the individual sphere.
Not only the
Not only the motivationmotivation forfor birth controlbirth control, but , but also also the the contraceptive contraceptive methods of women and methods of women and the the family wfamily were quiteere quite different different fromfrom what was what was propagatedpropagated by by the global and national sphere.the global and national sphere. The traditional methods The traditional methods and abortion wand abortion wereere favored against modern methods,favored against modern methods, due to religious and due to religious and cultural prejudices andcultural prejudices and medical concerns medical concerns aboutabout the modern methods. the modern methods. In In addition, addition, financialfinancial and organizational inand organizational incapabicapabilities of lities of the governmentsthe governments also hadalso had aa significant impact on the significant impact on the collapse of the collapse of the statestate--sponsored family sponsored family planning initiation. planning initiation.
However,
However, the the extended periodization until the midextended periodization until the mid--1980s, 1980s, provided provided further further evidenceevidence that tthat the pace of he pace of fertility reduction being fertility reduction being highlyhighly associ-associ-ated with the ated with the increasing literacy and educational level, also led tincreasing literacy and educational level, also led too women women becomingbecoming more accustomed to modern contraceptivemore accustomed to modern contraceptive methods.methods.

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5 ConclusionConclusion
he
he idea idea of writing of writing this topic as a this topic as a dissertation dissertation beganbegan with with the the govern-govern-ment'sment's persistenpersistentt calls for at least three children per family since calls for at least three children per family since 20072007,,1 which was furtherwhich was further intensifiedintensified in 2013in 20132 and and officially became officially became gov-gov-ernment policyernment policy that that same yearsame year, , whenwhen the the goalgoal of increasing fertility of increasing fertility rates rates was mentioned in the 10was mentioned in the 10thth NDPNDP..3 This This representsrepresents a a radicalradical departuredeparture from from the longthe long--standingstanding antinatalist policantinatalist policy thaty that ironically ironically had been had been inintroduced troduced iin the 1n the 1stst NDP NDP fifty years earlierfifty years earlier,, in 1963. in 1963. At that timeAt that time,, the the county pcounty popula-opula-tion tion was was onlyonly 2929 millionmillion, , oneone--third third of of today’stoday’s populationpopulation. . AnalyzingAnalyzing ththisis earlier earlier shifshiftt from pronatalist tofrom pronatalist to antinatalist policantinatalist policiesies in a country within a country with a a such a such a low population density (40 low population density (40 inhabitantsinhabitants per per square kilometersquare kilometer) ) therefore therefore seemed seemed an an equally valuable equally valuable endeavorendeavor that could also contrib-that could also contrib-ute ute to to the ongothe ongoing ing debatedebate..
While working on the
While working on the ddissertation, debates on the population polices issertation, debates on the population polices further further intensifiedintensified not only in Turkey not only in Turkey with the influx of migrants with the influx of migrants from from Syria and Afghanistan, but also in Syria and Afghanistan, but also in the the US US with the with the mmost recent abortion ost recent abortion
1 Yasemin Dildar, “The Effect of Pronatalist Rhetoric on Women’s Fertility Preferences in Yasemin Dildar, “The Effect of Pronatalist Rhetoric on Women’s Fertility Preferences in Turkey,” Turkey,” Population and Development ReviewPopulation and Development Review 48, no.2 (2022): 57948, no.2 (2022): 579--612. 612.
2 “Erdoğan neden üç çocuk istediğini açıkladı,” “Erdoğan neden üç çocuk istediğini açıkladı,” MilliyetMilliyet, January 2,, January 2, 20212021, , 33..
3 Ministry of DevelopmentMinistry of Development,, Tenth FiveTenth Five--Year Development PlanYear Development Plan (2014(2014--2018) (Ankara, 2018) (Ankara, 20132013)), 49., 49.
T
T
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bans in thirteen states.
bans in thirteen states.4 And this study aimAnd this study aimss to shed light to shed light on current on current de-de-bates bates about about abortion and migration by abortion and migration by providing providing a historical perspective a historical perspective on the motivations for on the motivations for poppopulation policy change that also includes these ulation policy change that also includes these issues. issues.
Population c
Population controlontrol has been has been a wella well--knownknown phenomenon sphenomenon since the be-ince the be-ginning of the ginning of the nineteenthnineteenth centurycentury, , byby the Malthusians and eugenicthe Malthusians and eugenicististss, , bothboth of whom shared similar anxieties of the governing good life to retain of whom shared similar anxieties of the governing good life to retain their life quality, threatened by the bare and unbearable lives. Yettheir life quality, threatened by the bare and unbearable lives. Yet, , ththe e 1950s and 1960s 1950s and 1960s witnessedwitnessed a global consensus on the notion of popula-a global consensus on the notion of popula-tion explosion and population control tion explosion and population control for the for the first andfirst and,, so farso far,, last time in last time in world historyworld history.. AAnd nd inin 1969, 1969, somesome twenty developing countriestwenty developing countries, including , including Turkey, Turkey, representing half of the world's populationrepresenting half of the world's population, , almost simalmost simultane-ultane-ously introducously introduceded antinatalist policies and programs to reduce fertilityantinatalist policies and programs to reduce fertility..
This dissertation analyze
This dissertation analyzess ththee fragilfragile global coalition e global coalition that that gradually gradually disintegrateddisintegrated in the name of the right for lifein the name of the right for life after tafter the he 1994 1994 World Popu-World Popu-lation Conference in Cairolation Conference in Cairo, , within three spheres: global, nationalwithin three spheres: global, national, , and in-and in-dividualdividual, in three separate chapters. The core assertion of this disserta-, in three separate chapters. The core assertion of this disserta-tion is that the tion is that the ultimate goal of ultimate goal of each of each of these ththese threeree spherespheress is to is to enhance enhance thetheirir ““qualityquality”” by by maximizing their own capabilities and funcmaximizing their own capabilities and functioningstionings and and the population control is the population control is desirable desirable as long as it as long as it serves to thserves to thisis purposepurpose, , and and tthe 1960s were a rare he 1960s were a rare period whenperiod when all three spheres briefly call three spheres briefly con-on-verged.verged.
The g
The global sphere lobal sphere explored in the second chapter explored in the second chapter representrepresentss the the USUS, , the the USUS--based based demographersdemographers,, and NGOs pand NGOs predominantly redominantly Ford and Rocke-Ford and Rocke-feller Funds where feller Funds where the idea of the idea of population control was createdpopulation control was created, conceptu-, conceptu-alizedalized, f, fundedunded,, and introduced to the Third World.and introduced to the Third World. This dissertation This dissertation acknowledges the literature based on US hegemonic interest acknowledges the literature based on US hegemonic interest in redin reducingucing thethe Third World Third World population population in the Cold War context. in the Cold War context. Following Following Agam-Agam-benben’s ’s forms forms of life terminology, the developing world and of life terminology, the developing world and itsits citizens were citizens were the bare lives representthe bare lives representinging the area of contestation that should not be left the area of contestation that should not be left to the occupation of the unbearto the occupation of the unbearable rival.able rival.
4 “Tracking the states where abortion is now banned,” “Tracking the states where abortion is now banned,” The New York TimesThe New York Times, , February 10, February 10, 20232023
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And th
And theese demographers and NGOs have tried every trickse demographers and NGOs have tried every trick inin the the book book to to persuadepersuade and and coercecoerce the Third World tothe Third World to adopadopt population control pol-t population control pol-icies icies in their countryin their country, i, including the following. Ancluding the following. Applpplying ying demographic demographic transition theory to transition theory to demographically demographically unexplored Third Worldunexplored Third World countriescountries and attaching population control to developmentalist discourse to and attaching population control to developmentalist discourse to demonstrate thdemonstrate that at population control population control is a key is a key toto modernization, and de-modernization, and de-velopment. velopment. In addition,In addition, conditioning to conditioning to adoptadopt population control policiepopulation control policies s on theon the loan agreements and conducting KAP surveys to demonstrate lo-loan agreements and conducting KAP surveys to demonstrate lo-cal unmet demand for contraception cal unmet demand for contraception havehave also also been widelybeen widely applied meth-applied meth-ods ods to infuseto infuse the the population control population control policy to the Third World. policy to the Third World.
This dissertation,
This dissertation, hhowever, refutes the owever, refutes the notionnotion that that ppopulation control opulation control isis a a byproduct of a hegemonic global sphere and byproduct of a hegemonic global sphere and tthat hat the process the process has has been been a onea one--way diffusion way diffusion to Third World to Third World countriescountries, a, as these s these countriescountries also had their own reasons also had their own reasons for for believbelieving ing that that population population reducreductiontion would would serve to recover or enhancserve to recover or enhance the capability and functionings of thee the capability and functionings of their ownir own governing good life.governing good life.
The second chapter also covers brief analy
The second chapter also covers brief analysissis of the social, economic, of the social, economic, and political and political obstacles obstacles in the in the twentytwenty countries which adopted countries which adopted family family planning lawplanning lawss before 1970 with before 1970 with the the following headlines: Tfollowing headlines: Traditional Mal-raditional Mal-thusian and thusian and eeugenic concerns, rapid urbanization, catastrophes and fam-ugenic concerns, rapid urbanization, catastrophes and fam-ines, political instability and coups, economic ines, political instability and coups, economic crises,crises, and urgent need for and urgent need for financial afinancial assistancessistance, and finally , and finally the nthe need for develeed for development and moderni-opment and moderni-zation.zation. This brief overview This brief overview from the secondary literature from the secondary literature onon each each of these of these countries countries showsshows that individual developing that individual developing countriescountries were not alone in were not alone in their concerns about their own “population problemtheir concerns about their own “population problem,,” as many of th” as many of theese se obstaclesobstacles to to the goverthe governing good life were shared by ning good life were shared by vastlyvastly different na-different na-tions even from different continents tions even from different continents simultaneouslysimultaneously. .
The third chapter is
The third chapter is ddedicated edicated to the national sphere where legisla-to the national sphere where legisla-tion, tion, investment,investment, and implementation of antinatalist policies and implementation of antinatalist policies took placetook place. . For thFor thiiss purpurpose, pose, the local conditionalities of Turkthe local conditionalities of Turkish caseish case have been an-have been an-aalyzed lyzed in order in order to to studystudy how the ideology emerges, travels, and expands how the ideology emerges, travels, and expands in the national sphere. The country is also a good representation to ex-in the national sphere. The country is also a good representation to ex-plore the plore the entireentire process in process in Third World countriesThird World countries woworld as it already rld as it already hadhad
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many of the common elements mentioned above
many of the common elements mentioned above,, such as rapid urbaniza-such as rapid urbaniza-tion, military coup, economic crisis, and ethnic tensions. tion, military coup, economic crisis, and ethnic tensions.
Similar to a century earlier in the
Similar to a century earlier in the WWestern world, public resentment estern world, public resentment ooff flooding migrants flooding migrants created fertile ground for the antinatalist discus-created fertile ground for the antinatalist discus-sions in Turkeysions in Turkey in the midin the mid--1950s. 1950s. Early arguments such as rising Early arguments such as rising mater-mater-nal nal and infant mortality, and infant mortality, urbanization,urbanization, and its deteriorationand its deterioration as it was as it was tracked from the newspapers of the eratracked from the newspapers of the era, this t, this thesis claims, not hesis claims, not primarily primarily a consequence a consequence of population of population growthgrowth but but ofof the increasing encounters be-the increasing encounters be-tween the locals and the migrantstween the locals and the migrants, which , which deteriorated the life quality of deteriorated the life quality of locals, as locals, as statistically statistically demonstrated in the example of Idemonstrated in the example of Istanbul, the center stanbul, the center of the of the migration flow. migration flow. The potential The potential antinatalist antinatalist feminist feminist voices voices regarding regarding thethe freedom of rightfreedom of rights were also tracked s were also tracked through through archival sources and no archival sources and no significant evidence was found. significant evidence was found.
The c
The change hange inin the country’s trajectorythe country’s trajectory throughthrough the the Cold War Cold War alliance alliance with with the the USUS pprovided rovided an an opportunitopportunityy to to detect potential infusiondetect potential infusionss from from the global sphere the global sphere through through aidaid conditionedconditioned to population to population control. control. IIn thn thisis rregardegard,, foreign mission reports for Turkey, Marshal Aid reports and foreign mission reports for Turkey, Marshal Aid reports and loan loan agreements were analyzedagreements were analyzed.. NNoot at a single single direct conditionality direct conditionality waswas identi-identi-fied, fied, except for the except for the loan agreements after loan agreements after the the 1958 1958 devaluationdevaluation, which , which wwere ere tied to tied to the the formation of formation of a planning da planning departmepartmentent under the tutelage under the tutelage of developmentalist (and antinatalist) consultants.of developmentalist (and antinatalist) consultants. And And thus, thus, SPO wasSPO was formed formed in in 19601960 to to prepare thprepare the first NDPe first NDP which which includincludeded population plan-population plan-ningning.. YetYet, , consciously,consciously, or unconsciously, it was thor unconsciously, it was theese se early early reports and reports and aids aids themselvesthemselves prioritizing agricultural mechanization, increased road prioritizing agricultural mechanization, increased road construction and communication that construction and communication that fundamentally transformed fundamentally transformed the the land regime and land regime and Turkish societyTurkish society..
The
The resentment of DP government resentment of DP government with the implementation of with the implementation of for-for-eign advisory eign advisory onon populationpopulation control, control, so as not tso as not to provoke the voters, o provoke the voters, was was abandonedabandoned by the by the mmilitaryilitary jjunta unta of 1960of 1960, , who were who were more inclined with more inclined with the potential the potential Kurdish Kurdish autonomyautonomy,, and the acute financial criseand the acute financial crisess that led that led thethem m to take fto take foreign advisoryoreign advisory into considerationinto consideration. .
However,
However, the globthe global and national al and national consensus on population control consensus on population control was sewas seriously riously challenged by the pronatalist bloc in the challenged by the pronatalist bloc in the pparliament and arliament and senatesenate,, rereflectingflecting the public prejudices and the reservations on the the public prejudices and the reservations on the
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subject
subject. . ThTheese se lengthy lengthy ddebatesebates, , which which spanned five years in the parlie-spanned five years in the parlie-ment and in the senate, ment and in the senate, are are meticulously tracked meticulously tracked in the in the parliamentary parliamentary minutesminutes andand explored explored under theunder the following headings: following headings: Malthusian Malthusian ddebateebate, , ffreedom reedom ddebateebate, moral ground, , moral ground, development discourse, sdevelopment discourse, security dis-ecurity dis-coursecourse, p, planning anlanning and controld control..
And the political opposition did not cease after the Population Plan-
And the political opposition did not cease after the Population Plan-ning Law was promulgated in 1965, as evidenced by the first three ning Law was promulgated in 1965, as evidenced by the first three months of birth control news, tracked in eight newspapers of the time. months of birth control news, tracked in eight newspapers of the time. The rightThe right--wing newspapers were wing newspapers were mostlymostly against the lagainst the law, and the leftaw, and the left--wing newspapers supported it. The AP government and its media chan-wing newspapers supported it. The AP government and its media chan-nels were reluctant to raise the issue to defuse the controversy. Further-nels were reluctant to raise the issue to defuse the controversy. Further-more, the correspondence between Prime Minister Demirel and Rocke-more, the correspondence between Prime Minister Demirel and Rocke-feller mentioned in Appendix B is afeller mentioned in Appendix B is also a good indication of the different lso a good indication of the different perceptions of the global and national spheres.perceptions of the global and national spheres.
This complex perception of population control was also evident in
This complex perception of population control was also evident in the nationwide campaigns and investments particularly in the FPC as the the nationwide campaigns and investments particularly in the FPC as the direction of FPC investments didirection of FPC investments did not seem to match contraceptive de-d not seem to match contraceptive de-mand of the public. The regression analymand of the public. The regression analysissis conducted in this dissertation conducted in this dissertation to measure the impact of the proxies to measure the impact of the proxies ((including metropolitan migration, including metropolitan migration, abortion, TFR, infant mortality rate, development index and Kurdish den-abortion, TFR, infant mortality rate, development index and Kurdish den-sisityty)) on the FPC investment and on the FPC investment and IUDIUD usage rates per provincial district usage rates per provincial district indicates that the investment decision of FPC’s was based indicates that the investment decision of FPC’s was based neither neither on on health concerns as been discussed in the parliement, nor health concerns as been discussed in the parliement, nor onon spatial fer-spatial fer-tility, but on an overall population with a sptility, but on an overall population with a special focus on the “Eastern ecial focus on the “Eastern question.” question.” HoweverHowever, the regression on , the regression on IUDIUD usage rates usage rates showsshows that the in-that the in-dividual choice dividual choice mostlymostly leanleaned ed on health and fertility. on health and fertility.
The fourth and final chapter covers the
The fourth and final chapter covers the individual sphere, individual sphere, women women and the family, and their and the family, and their changing fertility and contraceptive behaviorchanging fertility and contraceptive behavior in in the the context ocontext of f the transformation of the environment and their changing the transformation of the environment and their changing needs and priorities. In thneeds and priorities. In that senseat sense, the response of the individual sphere , the response of the individual sphere toto the population control law promoted by the global sphere the population control law promoted by the global sphere and en-and en-forced by the national sphere forced by the national sphere isis analyzed. analyzed.
Ce
Census data and demographic studies nsus data and demographic studies evidenceevidence that fertility rates that fertility rates in in Turkey Turkey werewere already already on on a declining trend a declining trend by the midby the mid--1950s1950s, , as a as a
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reflection of the transformation of the land regime
reflection of the transformation of the land regime by the agricultural by the agricultural mmechanization and increasing echanization and increasing transportation and communicationtransportation and communication. This. This not only triggered internal migrationnot only triggered internal migration,, but alsbut also accelerated the o accelerated the transfor-transfor-mationmation of the of the family from patriarchal family from patriarchal to nuclearto nuclear, and , and gradually gradually under-under-minedmined paternal patronage, a major barrier on paternal patronage, a major barrier on womwomen’s en’s emancipationemancipation..
Moreover
Moreover, , the the transitiontransition from subsistence farming to from subsistence farming to a a market econ-market econ-omyomy also led also led to to male male wage laborwage laborersers gradually replacgradually replacinging the the female labor female labor forceforce, as they found themselves confined to , as they found themselves confined to domestic work. domestic work. In the In the urban urban levellevel tootoo, t, the he lack of lack of nonnon--agricultural job opportunities, and the unattrac-agricultural job opportunities, and the unattrac-tiveness of lowtiveness of low--skillskill,, and lowand low--education education urban urban jobs jobs alsoalso discourageddiscouraged ur-ur-ban women ban women from from joinjoining the ling the labor market. abor market. ThThe e gradual gradual withdrawal withdrawal from from agricultural laboragricultural labor, , rapid urbanization, rapid urbanization, and lack of urban job opand lack of urban job opportunities portunities also also reduced reduced the need for child laborthe need for child labor and changed the value of childand changed the value of children ren from an asset to a liabilityfrom an asset to a liability, which , which waswas another motivation for the reduc-another motivation for the reduc-tion in fertility in the individual sphere. tion in fertility in the individual sphere.
Not only the motivation for birth control, but also the
Not only the motivation for birth control, but also the contraceptive contraceptive methods methods used byused by women and the family were quite different from what women and the family were quite different from what was propagated by the global and national spherewas propagated by the global and national spheress. . SSubsequent KAP sur-ubsequent KAP sur-veys veys showshow that the that the traditional methods and abortion were traditional methods and abortion were still still preferred preferred overover modern methods, modern methods, mmainly because of ainly because of religious and cultural preju-religious and cultural preju-dices and medical concerns dices and medical concerns about about modern methodsmodern methods,, which was also which was also tracked from the newspapers. tracked from the newspapers. In addition, financial and organizational In addition, financial and organizational incapabilities of the governments also had a significant iincapabilities of the governments also had a significant impact on the col-mpact on the col-lapse of the statelapse of the state--sponsored family planning initiation. sponsored family planning initiation.
However, the extended periodization until the mid
However, the extended periodization until the mid--1980s 1980s depicdepicts ts that fertility that fertility has declined has declined far beyond far beyond thethe government’sgovernment’s most optimistic most optimistic scenariosscenarios. . In addition, In addition, the the use use of modern and of modern and traditional contraceptivestraditional contraceptives, , including including abortionabortion,, wwasas found to found to have increased have increased ssubstantiallyubstantially by 1985. by 1985. The same period also witnessed, a rapid urbanization, The same period also witnessed, a rapid urbanization, exponential exponential in-in-creascrease in women’se in women’s literacy and education levelliteracy and education levelss (which w(which wereere still ex-still ex-tremely low compared tremely low compared to the to the industrialized industrialized states) and states) and a continuing a continuing de-de-cline in cline in overall overall female employmentfemale employment ((except forexcept for the the service sector). service sector).
In order to
In order to measure the statistical measure the statistical relationship between the decline relationship between the decline in in fertility fertility and the and the changing urbanization, changing urbanization, women’swomen’s education,education, and and
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
253
employment
employment between 1965 and 1985, between 1965 and 1985, a correlation analya correlation analysis sis based on based on provincial districts provincial districts is cis carried out arried out in the last part of the fourth chapterin the last part of the fourth chapter. . ThThe e results revealresults reveal that that the pace of fertility the pace of fertility declinedecline was found to be was found to be highly ass-highly ass-hhociated with increociated with increasing literacy and educational levelasing literacy and educational levelss, , which should which should also also leadlead to women becoming more accustomed to modern contraceptive to women becoming more accustomed to modern contraceptive methods.methods.
As a final conclusion,
As a final conclusion, this this dissertation adissertation attemptttemptss to demonstrate to demonstrate thatthat the the transition in population policy transition in population policy in the 1960s in the 1960s from profrom pronatalism to an-natalism to an-tinatalismtinatalism in the in the developing worlddeveloping world,, and and particularlyparticularly in in TurkeyTurkey, , hashas manymany ddynamicsynamics, , events,events, and and actorsactors in the global, national, and individual in the global, national, and individual spheresspheres,, each of which each of which positionpositioneded itselfitself to to maximize maximize its capabilities its capabilities and and functionfunctioning. ing. ConsequentlyConsequently, , a change ina change in population policy population policy cannotcannot be be re-re-duced down to duced down to a single a single pparameter, such as aarameter, such as a hegemonic hegemonic global plot, gov-global plot, gov-ernment legislation, ernment legislation, or rhetoric,or rhetoric, which which could only have could only have thethe capacity to capacity to “tame” the population “tame” the population as long as theas long as they y respond to irespond to improvemprove tthe capability he capability and functioning of and functioning of women and the familywomen and the family;; the the ultimateultimate decision decision makermakerss on their own reproduction.on their own reproduction.

255
Appendix A
Appendix A PPopulation Planning Lawopulation Planning Law (No.557)(No.557)
I. Basic ProvisionsBasic Provisions
Article 1. Population planning means that
Article 1. Population planning means that individuals can have as individuals can have as many children as they wish, whenever they want to. This many children as they wish, whenever they want to. This can be ensured through preventive measures taken against can be ensured through preventive measures taken against pregnancy. Castration, sterilization, nor the ending of preg-pregnancy. Castration, sterilization, nor the ending of preg-nancies shall not be undergone unless medical necessities nancies shall not be undergone unless medical necessities rrequire it.equire it.
Article 2. Divulging the necessity of Family Planning to the public and
Article 2. Divulging the necessity of Family Planning to the public and the training, education, and application connected with it, the training, education, and application connected with it, shall be carried out with the collaboration of military, offi-shall be carried out with the collaboration of military, offi-cial and volunteer organizations according to the rcial and volunteer organizations according to the regula-egula-tions prepared by the Ministry of Health and Social Wel-tions prepared by the Ministry of Health and Social Wel-fare.fare.
For this purpose, Ministry of Health and Social Welfare is
For this purpose, Ministry of Health and Social Welfare is authorized to establish special organizations and to take authorized to establish special organizations and to take measures to distribute freely, or sell at a lower price, or measures to distribute freely, or sell at a lower price, or have sold athave sold at a lower price to needy, contraceptive materials a lower price to needy, contraceptive materials and drugs. and drugs.
The quality of drugs and materials to be used in population
The quality of drugs and materials to be used in population planning, and the regulation concerning its application planning, and the regulation concerning its application shall be determined by the Ministry of Health and Social shall be determined by the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare after receiviWelfare after receiving the written opinion of a commis-ng the written opinion of a commis-sion which will also include members of the teaching staff sion which will also include members of the teaching staff of medical schools. of medical schools.
II. Provisions in connection with sterilization and ending pregnancies Provisions in connection with sterilization and ending pregnancies under medical necessities.under medical necessities.
Article 3. The uterus may be evacuated upon a justified medical re-
Article 3. The uterus may be evacuated upon a justified medical re-port based on objective symptoms and given in medical port based on objective symptoms and given in medical councils authorized by the Ministry of Health and Social councils authorized by the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare. In cases in which pregnancy threatens or tends to Welfare. In cases in which pregnancy threatens or tends to threaten the mother’threaten the mother’s life, or the embryo or fetus cannot s life, or the embryo or fetus cannot be developed normally, or in cases which will cause a heavy be developed normally, or in cases which will cause a heavy
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
256
infirmity for the child to be born or for the following gen-
infirmity for the child to be born or for the following gen-erations. erations.
The uterus may also be evacuated by an authorized physi-
The uterus may also be evacuated by an authorized physi-cian who observes the emergency cian who observes the emergency where, if an immediate where, if an immediate intervention is not performed, the life or one of the vital intervention is not performed, the life or one of the vital organs is threatened. organs is threatened.
However, the physician shall notify the provincial direc-
However, the physician shall notify the provincial direc-torate of the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare in cities, torate of the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare in cities, and Public Health Officers in and Public Health Officers in towns before intervening, or towns before intervening, or if not possible inside 24 hours of the intervention, and of if not possible inside 24 hours of the intervention, and of its causes.its causes.
The basic principles and diseases related with the evacua-
The basic principles and diseases related with the evacua-tion of the uterus by intervention can be performed as well tion of the uterus by intervention can be performed as well as what emergencies consist of, and tas what emergencies consist of, and the form and nature of he form and nature of the notification carried out will be determined by the reg-the notification carried out will be determined by the reg-ulation to be published by the Ministry of Health and Social ulation to be published by the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare.Welfare.
Article 4.
Article 4. In case it is medically proved that a women should not be In case it is medically proved that a women should not be pregnant because of an infirmity orpregnant because of an infirmity or a disease, or a man or a disease, or a man or woman suffers from a grave inheritable disease, the neces-woman suffers from a grave inheritable disease, the neces-sary intervention for the elimination of their ability to pro-sary intervention for the elimination of their ability to pro-create without impeding the satisfaction of their sexual create without impeding the satisfaction of their sexual needs can be carried out upon a justified report based onneeds can be carried out upon a justified report based on objective symptoms given by councils authorized by the objective symptoms given by councils authorized by the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare. The principles and Ministry of Health and Social Welfare. The principles and diseases related with the abovediseases related with the above--mentioned cases and mentioned cases and places where intervention can be performed shall be de-places where intervention can be performed shall be de-termined in the regulation mentionedtermined in the regulation mentioned in Article 3. in Article 3.
The intervention performed to cure any disease and caus-
The intervention performed to cure any disease and caus-ing by their nature castration or sterilization are not sub-ing by their nature castration or sterilization are not sub-ject to this provision. ject to this provision.
Article 5.
Article 5. The intervention mentioned in Article 3 and 4 can be per-The intervention mentioned in Article 3 and 4 can be per-formed upon written consent of formed upon written consent of the concerned person, if the concerned person, if this person is a minor, the consent of his/her parents, or if this person is a minor, the consent of his/her parents, or if in the tutorship, the authorization of the Court of Peace is in the tutorship, the authorization of the Court of Peace is required. required.
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
257
In urgent cases in which authorization from the parent or
In urgent cases in which authorization from the parent or Court of Peace will take time and a laCourt of Peace will take time and a late intervention caused te intervention caused by this loss of time will threaten life or one of the vital or-by this loss of time will threaten life or one of the vital or-gans, permission is not obligatory. gans, permission is not obligatory.
III. Provisions concerning penalties:Provisions concerning penalties:
Article 6.
Article 6. Individuals who manufacture, or sell, or distribute in any Individuals who manufacture, or sell, or distribute in any manner, or who import for manner, or who import for commercial reasons, or for this commercial reasons, or for this reason have in their possession drugs and materials are reason have in their possession drugs and materials are not approved as contraceptives by the Ministry of Health not approved as contraceptives by the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare according to Article 2 of this la shall be and Social Welfare according to Article 2 of this la shall be punished by imprisonment for seven months to two punished by imprisonment for seven months to two years years and be fined 2and be fined 2,,000 TL to 10000 TL to 10,,000 TL (heavy fine) their fac-000 TL (heavy fine) their fac-tories shall be closed, and their drugs and means shall be tories shall be closed, and their drugs and means shall be confiscated. confiscated.
The drugs and means which are approved as contracep-
The drugs and means which are approved as contracep-tives by the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare accord-tives by the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare accord-ing to Artiing to Article 2 of this law shall be advertised in accordance cle 2 of this law shall be advertised in accordance with Article 13 of Law 1262. Those who do not abide shall with Article 13 of Law 1262. Those who do not abide shall be punished by imprisonment from one to six months and be punished by imprisonment from one to six months and be fined 500 TL to 2be fined 500 TL to 2,,000 TL (heavy fine)000 TL (heavy fine)
Article 7.
Article 7. Those who commit acts which oppose artThose who commit acts which oppose articles 3,4 and 5 of icles 3,4 and 5 of this law shall be fined from 500 TL to 1this law shall be fined from 500 TL to 1,,000 TL (heavy fine), 000 TL (heavy fine), unless a more severe is not provided by the Turkish Crim-unless a more severe is not provided by the Turkish Crim-inal Code and other laws containing penal provisions. inal Code and other laws containing penal provisions.
Article 8. The provisions concerning the increase of population
Article 8. The provisions concerning the increase of population (birth) of the first paragraph of Article 3; the words of (birth) of the first paragraph of Article 3; the words of “contraceptive or” which are at the beginning of Article “contraceptive or” which are at the beginning of Article 152 and Article 156 of the Law of Public Hygiene are abol-152 and Article 156 of the Law of Public Hygiene are abol-ished.ished.
Article 9.
Article 9. Paragraph 2 of Article 471 of the Turkish Criminal Code Paragraph 2 of Article 471 of the Turkish Criminal Code (Law No.(Law No.765) amended by Law No.3036, shall be amended 765) amended by Law No.3036, shall be amended as follows; as follows;
Those who encourage the acts mentioned in the first para-
Those who encourage the acts mentioned in the first para-graph (of Article 471) or to make propaganda for the same graph (of Article 471) or to make propaganda for the same purpose, shall be punished purpose, shall be punished bby imprisonment up to one y imprisonment up to one year or shall be fined up to year or shall be fined up to 1,000 TL. If the above1,000 TL. If the above--
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
258
mentioned act is committed
mentioned act is committed withwith the aim of making profit, the aim of making profit, these two punishments shall be pronounced concurrently.these two punishments shall be pronounced concurrently.
Note: This means any person who promotes male or fe-
Note: This means any person who promotes male or fe-male sterilization or who consents are subject to this male sterilization or who consents are subject to this pen-pen-alty. Means no vasectomy unless a doctor can certify for alty. Means no vasectomy unless a doctor can certify for medical reasons.medical reasons.
Article 10.
Article 10. Article 1 and Article 2 of this law are to be effective (in Article 1 and Article 2 of this law are to be effective (in force) on the date of the official publication. The other pro-force) on the date of the official publication. The other pro-visions are in effect three months after offivisions are in effect three months after official publication. cial publication.
Article 11.
Article 11. This law will be administrated by the Council of Ministers. This law will be administrated by the Council of Ministers.
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
259
Appendix B
Appendix B Correspondences between John D. Rockefeller Correspondences between John D. Rockefeller 33rdrd and Prime Minister Suleyman Demirel on and Prime Minister Suleyman Demirel on International Family PlanningInternational Family Planning
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
260
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
261
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
262
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
263
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
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Appendix C
Appendix C The FPC The FPC investment investment and and IUDIUD insertions per Provin-insertions per Provin-cial cial DDistrictsistricts PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS NUMBER OF FAMILY PLANNING CLINICS (FPC) 1971 NUMBER OF UID INSERTIONS POPULATION 1965 NUMBER OF ABORTIONS 1868 NUMBER OF METROPOLITAN MIGRATION TOTAL FERTILITY RATE (NUMBER OF CHILDREN PER WOMAN) INFANT MORTALITY RATE (PER 1000 LIVE BIRTHS) DEVELOPMENT INDEX 1965 KURDISH SPEAKING POPULATION 1956 ADANA
13
4,277
902,712
5.449 5.449
16,166
7.1
125
167
7,913 ADIYAMAN
6
193
267,288
1.554 1.554
1,990
8.0
139
44
124,030 AFYON
3
262
502,248
2.956 2.956
18,146
6.9
180
62
126 AĞRI
9
1,704
246,961
1.563 1.563
4,123
9.2
148
40
156,320 AMASYA
2
3,612
285,729
2.870 2.870
11,408
5.7
206
96
2,181 ANKARA
27
31,400
1,644,302
43.055 43.055
-
5.5
147
259
36,819 ANTALYA
7
4,334
486,910
2.034 2.034
14,809
6.7
112
101
23 ARTVİN
2
1,521
210,065
1.686 1.686
12,979
6.2
161
67
46 AYDIN
14
1,190
524,918
4.865 4.865
19,532
4.8
131
140
170 BALIKESİR
9
2,890
708,342
5.233 5.233
43,734
4.8
148
101
568 BİLECİK
1
103
139,041
919 919
10,534
4.7
169
78
5 BİNGÖL
4
261
150,521
635 635
4,487
9.4
150
33
87,809 BİTLİS
5
214
154,069
918 918
4,066
10.1
136
47
94,406 BOLU
7
1,113
383,939
2.667 2.667
31,967
5.7
152
85
363 BURDUR
2
2,598
194,950
714 714
4,800
5.8
138
80
8 BURSA
14
5,037
755,504
7.060 7.060
43,608
4.5
158
128
213 ÇANAKKALE
4
127
350,317
2.289 2.289
28,238
4.5
136
89
468 ÇANKIRI
2
1,205
250,706
1.510 1.510
53,733
7.1
184
61
163 ÇORUM
2
2,067
485,567
3.345 3.345
38,078
6.7
208
63
8,733 DENİZLİ
8
3,446
463,369
1.665 1.665
18,762
5.7
140
84
288 DİYARBAKIR
17
582
475,916
3.934 3.934
9,564
8.6
139
67
294,056 EDİRNE
8
2,389
303,254
2.633 2.633
32,996
5.2
177
87
407 ELAZIĞ
6
2,789
322,727
2.737 2.737
19,296
7.9
166
102
78,385 ERZİNCAN
7
656
258,586
1.053 1.053
57,632
7.7
169
72
14,521 ERZURUM
14
4,995
628,001
3.133 3.133
40,889
7.3
213
69
71,834 ESKİŞEHİR
3
1,734
415,101
3.182 3.182
24,574
5.7
171
146
327 GAZİANTEP
4
1,861
511,026
4.688 4.688
13,749
6.9
133
108
19,955 GİRESUN
7
2,855
428,015
3.363 3.363
58,917
7.3
113
68
304 GÜMÜŞHANE
0
1,199
262,731
2.044 2.044
29,064
6.8
179
45
2,189 HAKKARİ
3
298
83,937
336 336
310
10.6
139
36
72,365 HATAY
4
1,098
506,134
3.133 3.133
6,751
7.7
114
122
5,702 ISPARTA
4
1,328
266,240
1.203 1.203
21,202
5.9
144
87
716 İÇEL
4
1,049
511,273
3.496 3.496
10,630
6.5
132
129
1,090 İSTANBUL
40
15,086
2,293,823
41.368 41.368
-
3.0
131
348
2,612 İZMİR
21
6,099
1,234,667
15.352 15.352
-
4.0
126
212
868 KARS
13
2,831
606,313
3.039 3.039
30,415
8.8
192
55
134,136 KASTAMONU
3
218
441,638
3.063 3.063
85,091
5.4
161
63
1,090 KAYSERİ
5
9,203
536,206
4.653 4.653
45,785
7.4
164
103
8,462
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
265
KIRKLARELİ
4
659
258,386
1.800 1.800
28,798
5.1
178
103
626 PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS NUMBER OF FAMILY PLANNING CLINICS (FPC) 1971 NUMBER OF IUD INSERTIONS POPULATION 1965 NUMBER OF ABORTIONS 1968 NUMBER OF METROPOLITAN MIGRATION TOTAL FERTILITY RATE (NUMBER OF CHILDREN PER WOMAN) INFANT MORTALITY RATE (PER 1000 LIVE BIRTHS) DEVELOPMENT INDEX 1965 KURDISH SPEAKING POPULATION KOCAELİ
8
1,157
335,518
1.368 1.368
21,742
5.0
137
172
245 KONYA
20
6,222
1,122,622
3.431 3.431
49,929
7.4
159
93
27,815 KÜTAHYA
5
548
398,081
9.376 9.376
11,020
4.8
178
75
107 MALATYA
12
2,585
452,624
3.034 3.034
32,904
8.1
135
82
77,804 MANİSA
14
1,701
748,545
2.337 2.337
40,153
4.9
141
105
241 MARAŞ
1
874
438,423
5.643 5.643
6,486
8.0
131
60
46,458 MARDİN
4
101
397,880
2.016 2.016
6,633
8.7
129
47
265,388 MUĞLA
10
2,872
334,973
1.910 1.910
11,097
5.7
92
90
7 MUŞ
10
219
198,716
1.162 1.162
2,319
9.6
143
44
83,527 NEVŞEHİR
6
6,094
203,316
1.337 1.337
20,449
7.5
142
82
22 NİĞDE
11
5,312
362,444
1.297 1.297
20,942
7.8
157
67
8,991 ORDU
3
7
543,863
2.487 2.487
31,592
7.5
121
72
12 RİZE
4
774
281,099
4.865 4.865
50,050
7.1
101
82
12 SAKARYA
2
517
404,078
3.111 3.111
21,317
5.7
127
121
2,166 SAMSUN
11
5,180
755,946
3.952 3.952
22,402
6.5
147
113
1,366 SİİRT
7
282
264,832
7.085 7.085
8,014
9.0
134
68
179,507 SİNOP
1
50
266,069
1.967 1.967
32,550
6.3
124
56
2,126 SİVAS
7
1,219
705,186
1.820 1.820
88,367
7.4
170
66
52,307 TEKİRDAĞ
10
322
287,381
4.588 4.588
38,974
5.1
142
94
566 TOKAT
4
157
495,352
2.067 2.067
20,704
7.0
174
81
3,974 TRABZON
5
3,109
595,782
3.143 3.143
53,656
7.2
96
77
72 TUNCELİ
7
28
154,175
4.151 4.151
6,630
9.4
123
39
33,438 URFA
4
366
450,798
642 642
8,579
8.2
118
56
192,017 UŞAK
3
386
190,536
2.370 2.370
11,991
5.7
164
88
16 VAN
13
1,263
266,840
1.545 1.545
4,263
9.5
127
41
147,697 YOZGAT
1
1,364
437,883
1.236 1.236
37,121
7.5
149
49
2,427 ZONGULDAK
6
4,694
650,191
2.704 2.704
22,365
5.9
124
158
43
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
266
Appendix
Appendix DD Fertility ratFertility rate e per Provincial per Provincial DDistrictsistricts ““19651965”” PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS TOTAL FERTINLITY RATE (NUMBER OF CHILDREN PER WOMAN) POPULATION 1965 URBAN POPULATION 1965 NUMBER OF FEMALE LITERATES 1965
NUMBER OF FEMALE PRIMARY SCHOOL GRADUATES 1965 NUMBER OF FEMALE HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES 1965 TOTAL FEMALE OCCUPATION 1965 TOTLAL FEMALE AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATION 1965 TOTAL FEMALE SERVICE OCCUPATION 1965 TOTAL FEMALE INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATION 1965 ADANA
7,1
7,1
902.712
902.712
422.298
422.298
115.865
115.865
52.401
52.401
4.900
4.900
103.646
103.646
96.326
96.326
3.231
3.231
2.109
2.109 ADIYAMAN
8,0
8,0
267.288
267.288
51.463
51.463
6.732
6.732
2.352
2.352
100
100
51.519
51.519
51.073
51.073
166
166
100
100 AFYON
6,9
6,9
502.248
502.248
125.102
125.102
56.961
56.961
31.373
31.373
875
875
100.208
100.208
97.574
97.574
609
609
868
868 AĞRI
9,2
9,2
246.961
246.961
53.420
53.420
8.062
8.062
2.936
2.936
244
244
44.346
44.346
43.857
43.857
204
204
35
35 AMASYA
5,7
5,7
285.729
285.729
83.016
83.016
35.063
35.063
17.646
17.646
703
703
52.643
52.643
51.391
51.391
616
616
139
139 ANKARA
5,5
5,5
1.644.302
1.644.302
1.069.761
1.069.761
313.996
313.996
139.519
139.519
30.258
30.258
161.694
161.694
131.426
131.426
21.932
21.932
1.921
1.921 ANTALYA
6,7
6,7
486.910
486.910
129.657
129.657
64.178
64.178
33.620
33.620
1.342
1.342
85.670
85.670
83.182
83.182
1.061
1.061
678
678 ARTVİN
6,2
6,2
210.065
210.065
30.068
30.068
31.610
31.610
16.692
16.692
240
240
48.758
48.758
48.202
48.202
248
248
72
72 AYDIN
4,8
4,8
524.918
524.918
165.953
165.953
85.485
85.485
45.107
45.107
1.663
1.663
85.489
85.489
79.329
79.329
1.937
1.937
1.782
1.782 BALIKESİR
4,8
4,8
708.342
708.342
230.353
230.353
119.716
119.716
68.148
68.148
2.178
2.178
123.459
123.459
118.613
118.613
2.107
2.107
848
848 BİLECİK
4,7
4,7
139.041
139.041
36.356
36.356
29.178
29.178
16.732
16.732
309
309
29.171
29.171
28.254
28.254
300
300
197
197 BİNGÖL
9,4
9,4
150.521
150.521
20.401
20.401
6.936
6.936
2.486
2.486
96
96
29.060
29.060
28.874
28.874
105
105
12
12 BİTLİS
10,1
10,1
154.069
154.069
43.813
43.813
5.225
5.225
1.905
1.905
164
164
24.155
24.155
23.832
23.832
146
146
38
38 BOLU
5,7
5,7
383.939
383.939
70.459
70.459
47.832
47.832
22.716
22.716
875
875
81.245
81.245
79.620
79.620
836
836
220
220 BURDUR
5,8
5,8
194.950
194.950
54.135
54.135
31.532
31.532
18.095
18.095
382
382
38.403
38.403
36.138
36.138
412
412
517
517 BURSA
4,5
4,5
755.504
755.504
335.048
335.048
146.818
146.818
78.441
78.441
3.144
3.144
121.097
121.097
111.062
111.062
2.926
2.926
4.502
4.502 ÇANAKKALE
4,5
4,5
350.317
350.317
81.753
81.753
68.890
68.890
37.020
37.020
974
974
67.116
67.116
64.589
64.589
1.045
1.045
472
472 ÇANKIRI
7,1
7,1
250.706
250.706
43.731
43.731
27.777
27.777
13.656,
13.656,
335
335
57.859
57.859
57.328
57.328
327
327
42
42 ÇORUM
6,7
6,7
485.567
485.567
97.032
97.032
40.923
40.923
18.727
18.727
476
476
103.533
103.533
102.469
102.469
498
498
101
101 DENİZLİ
5,7
5,7
463.369
463.369
117.739
117.739
66.333
66.333
35.858
35.858
1.010
1.010
84.483
84.483
75.850
75.850
1.004
1.004
1.431
1.431 DİYARBAKIR
8,6
8,6
475.916
475.916
162.467
162.467
19.914
19.914
8.289
8.289
1.197
1.197
74.172
74.172
72.763
72.763
937
937
98
98 EDİRNE
5,2
5,2
303.254
303.254
102.171
102.171
59.344
59.344
30.075
30.075
1.184
1.184
53.061
53.061
51.128
51.128
1.119
1.119
188
188 ELAZIĞ
7,9
7,9
322.727
322.727
106.180
106.180
24.945
24.945
10.242
10.242
828
828
48.523
48.523
47.401
47.401
659
659
100
100 ERZİNCAN
7,7
7,7
258.586
258.586
57.397
57.397
28.442
28.442
13.507
13.507
543
543
49.184
49.184
48.275
48.275
401
401
135
135 ERZURUM
7,3
7,3
628.001
628.001
152.183
152.183
47.937
47.937
21.360
21.360
1.487
1.487
118.495
118.495
116.210
116.210
1.193
1.193
185
185 ESKİŞEHİR
5,7
5,7
415.101
415.101
200.332
200.332
93.202
93.202
54.585
54.585
2.684
2.684
55.036
55.036
51.766
51.766
1.901
1.901
535
535 GAZİANTEP
6,9
6,9
511.026
511.026
244.215
244.215
34.840
34.840
13.598
13.598
1.371
1.371
64.152
64.152
61.409
61.409
1.509
1.509
310
310 GİRESUN
7,3
7,3
428.015
428.015
75.069
75.069
25.743
25.743
9.561
9.561
528
528
91.344
91.344
89.338
89.338
610
610
565
565 GÜMÜŞHANE
6,8
6,8
262.731
262.731
31.957
31.957
23.149
23.149
10.284
10.284
266
266
60.919
60.919
60.248
60.248
238
238
69
69 HAKKARİ
10,6
10,6
83.937
83.937
14.132
14.132
967
967
320
320
38
38
15.007
15.007
14.865
14.865
41
41
9
9 HATAY
7,7
7,7
506.134
506.134
203.610
203.610
43.822
43.822
16.241
16.241
1.868
1.868
62.691
62.691
59.901
59.901
1.337
1.337
425
425 ISPARTA
5,9
5,9
266.240
266.240
96.551
96.551
40.240
40.240
22.728
22.728
713
713
47.055
47.055
36.427
36.427
601
601
2.148
2.148 İÇEL
6,5
6,5
511.273
511.273
189.382
189.382
77.818
77.818
36.139
36.139
2.189
2.189
72.061
72.061
68.383
68.383
1.796
1.796
1.034
1.034 İSTANBUL
3,0
3,0
2.293.823
2.293.823
1.792.071
1.792.071
620.319
620.319
309.355
309.355
55.985
55.985
109.971
109.971
32.921
32.921
37.078
37.078
26.705
26.705 İZMİR
4,0
4,0
1.234.667
1.234.667
621.553
621.553
272.618
272.618
144.157
144.157
17.365
17.365
143.406
143.406
112.547
112.547
10.197
10.197
15.222
15.222 KARS
8,8
8,8
606.313
606.313
117.363
117.363
43.357
43.357
18.004
18.004
740
740
118.611
118.611
117.123
117.123
733
733
82
82 KASTAMONU
5,4
5,4
441.638
441.638
67.163
67.163
40.163
40.163
18.651
18.651
606
606
112.958
112.958
111.512
111.512
674
674
168
168 KAYSERİ
7,4
7,4
536.206
536.206
191.221
191.221
63.035
63.035
29.606
29.606
1.235
1.235
77.395
77.395
70.624
70.624
1.013
1.013
969
969 KIRKLARELİ
5,1
5,1
258.386
258.386
85.856
85.856
60.124
60.124
31.367
31.367
1.039
1.039
43.700
43.700
41.871
41.871
906
906
285
285
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
267
PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS TOTAL FERTINLITY RATE (NUMBER OF CHILDREN PER WOMAN) POPULATION 1965 URBAN POPULATION 1965 NUMBER OF FEMALE LITERATES 1965 NUMBER OF FEMALE PRIMARY SCHOOL GRADUATES 1965 NUMBER OF FEMALE HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES 1965 TOTAL FEMALE OCCUPATION 1965 TOTLAL FEMALE AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATION 1965 TOTAL FEMALE SERVICE OCCUPATION 1965 TOTAL FEMALE INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATION 1965 KIRŞEHİR
8,5
196.836
42.000
21.932
8.993
330
36.066
35.120
296
52 KOCAELİ
5,0
335.518
136.531
55.030
27.145
2.245
46.693
43.587
1.204
1.121 KONYA
7,4
1.122.622
354.578
152.454
81.651
2.375
188.085
183.056
1.919
902 KÜTAHYA
4,8
398.081
87.084
47.799
24.681
873
82.914
80.233
615
242 MALATYA
8,1
452.624
147.040
38.694
15.653
1.017
72.778
71.139
639
472 MANİSA
4,9
748.545
265.857
115.763
64.055
2.183
132.410
121.543
1.840
996 MARAŞ
8,0
438.423
105.090
24.702
9.779
611
75.163
74.043
519
118 MARDİN
8,7
397.880
90.093
10.699
3.941
364
72.711
72.066
357
49 MUĞLA
5,7
334.973
59.330
60.955
36.672
748
66.854
64.508
851
196 MUŞ
9,6
198.716
32.503
6.623
2.345
190
37.556
37.154
183
20 NEVŞEHİR
7,5
203.316
46.710
27.679
14.306
378
40.742
40.009
270
27 NİĞDE
7,8
362.444
69.956
35.519
14.419
685
66.562
63.363
715
99 ORDU
7,5
543.863
83.585
31.242
13.160
674
117.996
115.996
640
413 RİZE
7,1
281.099
63.554
25.876
10.083
374
60.868
59.576
406
141 SAKARYA
5,7
404.078
124.936
70.835
36.383
1.241
66.718
64.460
1.039
497 SAMSUN
6,5
755.946
197.103
66.661
31.038
2.084
150.279
142.012
2.085
4.532 SİİRT
9,0
264.832
75.520
7.369
2.845
279
42.357
41.952
202
22 SİNOP
6,3
266.069
38.068
30.117
14.889
386
63.991
63.282
400
88 SİVAS
7,4
705.186
168.685
56.604
22.424
1.081
140.890
138.785
1.000
179 TEKİRDAĞ
5,1
287.381
96.897
60.048
30.764
1.014
50.393
48.879
767
124 TOKAT
7,0
495.352
123.403
44.363
21.647
740
101.996
100.442
832
155 TRABZON
7,2
595.782
108.492
43.622
15.310
1.170
123.318
119.393
1.105
597 TUNCELİ
9,4
154.175
23.240
11.748
4.103
131
29.888
29.663
151
7 URFA
8,2
450.798
150.383
13.932
5.389
456
70.590
69.750
423
70 UŞAK
5,7
190.536
57.133
24.826
12.494
410
35.493
33.653
396
439 VAN
9,5
266.840
60.686
8.623
3.185
397
45.038
44.551
286
18 YOZGAT
7,5
437.883
67.466
35.229
17.291
395
98.109
97.522
346
39 ZONGULDAK
5,9
650.191
157.463
74.906
35.043
2.278
109.278
105.989
1.574
488
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
268
Appendix E
Appendix E Fertility rate Fertility rate per Provincial per Provincial DDistrictsistricts “1985”“1985” PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS TOTAL FERTINLITY RATE (NUMBER OF CHILDREN PER WOMAN) POPULATION 1985 URBAN POPULATION 1985 NUMBER OF FEMALE LITERATES 1985
NUMBER OF FEMALE PRIMARY SCHOOL GRADUATES 1985 NUMBER OF FEMALE HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES 1985 TOTAL FEMALE OCCUPATION 1985 TOTLAL FEMALE AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATION 1985 TOTAL FEMALE SERVICE OCCUPATION 1985 TOTAL FEMALE INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATION 1985 ADANA
5,3
1.485.743
876.752
479.243
261.408
39.710
103.646
96.326
3.231
2.109 ADIYAMAN
8,9
367.595
116.986
81.527
39.832
2.514
51.519
51.073
166
100 AFYON
4,6
596.878
191.298
199.373
127.351
8.791
100.208
97.574
609
868 AĞRI
10,5
368.009
108.414
60.618
26.059
1.976
44.346
43.857
204
35 AMASYA
4,5
341.287
128.077
105.685
66.139
5.209
52.643
51.391
616
139 ANKARA
3,6
2.855.283
2.299.010
1.130.372
575.319
152.343
161.694
131.426
21.932
1.921 ANTALYA
3,8
748.706
296.775
278.154
177.465
18.322
85.670
83.182
1.061
678 ARTVİN
4,5
228.997
46.502
71.065
45.288
3.192
48.758
48.202
248
72 AYDIN
3,3
652.488
245.329
233.843
149.596
14.499
85.489
79.329
1.937
1.782 BALIKESİR
3,1
853.177
344.368
288.175
185.321
18.192
123.459
118.613
2.107
848 BİLECİK
3,3
147.001
56.981
52.511
35.996
2.389
29.171
28.254
300
197 BİNGÖL
9,8
228.702
54.997
42.535
21.514
1.102
29.060
28.874
105
12 BİTLİS
9,9
257.908
93.757
43.404
19.525
1.337
24.155
23.832
146
38 BOLU
4,0
471.751
113.569
162.477
98.417
7.491
81.245
79.620
836
220 BURDUR
3,3
235.009
85.016
83.926
54.294
4.417
38.403
36.138
412
517 BURSA
3,3
1.148.791
679.401
443.819
281.031
29.357
121.097
111.062
2.926
4.502 ÇANAKKALE
3,0
391.568
126.703
134.499
89.021
6.988
67.116
64.589
1.045
472 ÇANKIRI
5,0
259.928
69.325
80.054
51.982
3.468
57.859
57.328
327
42 ÇORUM
5,5
569.523
167.273
169.291
105.231
4.136
103.533
102.469
498
101 DENİZLİ
3,7
603.338
205.938
201.322
126.583
12.222
84.483
75.850
1.004
1.431 DİYARBAKIR
9,0
778.150
378.578
121.884
50.178
9.056
74.172
72.763
937
98 EDİRNE
2,9
363.286
153.236
122.148
76.245
8.975
53.061
51.128
1.119
188 ELAZIĞ
6,2
440.808
195.017
112.922
60.220
7.376
48.523
47.401
659
100 ERZİNCAN
5,3
282.296
95.228
81.324
49.867
4.280
49.184
48.275
401
135 ERZURUM
7,5
801.809
285.182
196.736
113.881
9.761
118.495
116.210
1.193
185 ESKİŞEHİR
3,2
544.033
346.049
214.459
133.423
17.935
55.036
51.766
1.901
535 GAZİANTEP
6,9
808.697
512.918
228.941
117.168
10.444
64.152
61.409
1.509
310 GİRESUN
5,2
480.083
127.111
133.440
72.498
7.128
91.344
89.338
610
565 GÜMÜŞHANE
5,9
275.191
51.404
80.936
52.534
2.218
60.919
60.248
238
69 HAKKARİ
9,6
155.463
44.118
14.297
6.006
549
15.007
14.865
41
9 HATAY
6,0
856.271
366.550
273.395
142.177
17.313
62.691
59.901
1.337
425 ISPARTA
3,8
350.116
158.251
124.426
79.387
7.487
47.055
36.427
601
2.148 İÇEL
4,6
843.931
429.897
320.524
188.940
23.601
72.061
68.383
1.796
1.034 İSTANBUL
3,3
4.741.890
4.514.249
2.017.745
1.075.986
250.028
109.971
32.921
37.078
26.705 İZMİR
3,1
1.976.763
1.485.630
781.076
443.215
83.155
143.406
112.547
10.197
15.222 KARS
8,0
700.238
172.119
174.308
93.142
6.891
118.611
117.123
733
82 KASTAMONU
4,5
450.360
99.680
121.572
76.107
4.582
112.958
111.512
674
168 KAYSERİ
5,2
778.383
407.404
257.269
156.007
13.339
77.395
70.624
1.013
969 KIRKLARELİ
3,0
283.408
118.849
96.940
61.603
7.007
43.700
41.871
906
285
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
269
PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS TOTAL FERTINLITY RATE (NUMBER OF CHILDREN PER WOMAN) POPULATION 1985 URBAN POPULATION 1985 NUMBER OF FEMALE LITERATES 1985 NUMBER OF FEMALE PRIMARY SCHOOL GRADUATES 1985 NUMBER OF FEMALE HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES 1985 TOTAL FEMALE OCCUPATION 1985 TOTLAL FEMALE AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATION 1985 TOTAL FEMALE SERVICE OCCUPATION 1985 TOTAL FEMALE INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATION 1985 KIRŞEHİR
4,9
240.497
83.965
79.466
49.713
4.160
36.066
35.120
296
52 KOCAELİ
3,9
596.600
322.244
245.498
144.343
17.410
46.693
43.587
1.204
1.121 KONYA
5,0
1.562.546
693.983
554.752
371.284
22.346
188.085
183.056
1.919
902 KÜTAHYA
3,7
497.089
162.031
166.592
111.889
5.907
82.914
80.233
615
242 MALATYA
6,0
606.996
266.379
167.090
91.150
10.087
72.778
71.139
639
472 MANİSA
3,6
941.941
407.254
316.533
210.248
15.278
132.410
121.543
1.840
996 MARAŞ
7,1
738.032
281.382
194.334
103.666
7.990
75.163
74.043
519
118 MARDİN
9,5
564.967
192.085
72.348
29.854
3.180
72.711
72.066
357
49 MUĞLA
3,2
438.145
111.769
161.143
106.995
9.791
66.854
64.508
851
196 MUŞ
10,3
302.406
71.593
46.636
21.975
1.534
37.556
37.154
183
20 NEVŞEHİR
4,5
256.933
80.407
88.056
55.931
3.531
40.742
40.009
270
27 NİĞDE
5,9
512.071
146.141
153.140
86.038
6.459
66.562
63.363
715
99 ORDU
5,5
713.535
169.820
200.766
113.814
9.045
117.996
115.996
640
413 RİZE
4,6
361.258
96.206
110.765
66.924
4.817
60.868
59.576
406
141 SAKARYA
4,1
548.747
206.094
194.584
124.133
8.925
66.718
64.460
1.039
497 SAMSUN
5,0
1.008.113
345.200
327.284
186.481
17.070
150.279
142.012
2.085
4.532 SİİRT
9,7
445.483
183.804
68.670
26.620
2.514
42.357
41.952
202
22 SİNOP
5,8
276.464
57.443
81.663
50.568
3.201
63.991
63.282
400
88 SİVAS
6,2
749.610
273.215
205.775
117.279
9.498
140.890
138.785
1.000
179 TEKİRDAĞ
3,2
360.742
167.270
128.442
83.685
7.736
50.393
48.879
767
124 TOKAT
5,5
624.768
200.231
186.471
113.911
6.799
101.996
100.442
832
155 TRABZON
4,8
731.045
186.580
236.553
126.575
14.858
123.318
119.393
1.105
597 TUNCELİ
6,8
157.974
36.184
38.176
20.928
2.159
29.888
29.663
151
7 URFA
9,0
602.736
305.741
89.107
40.068
4.103
70.590
69.750
423
70 UŞAK
3,8
247.224
103.474
80.344
49.840
4.483
35.493
33.653
396
439 VAN
10,0
468.646
157.214
67.124
29.448
3.287
45.038
44.551
286
18 YOZGAT
6,0
504.433
124.825
145.384
92.224
4.055
98.109
97.522
346
39 ZONGULDAK
4,7
955.098
312.843
317.854
187.765
15.432
109.278
105.989
1.574
488
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
270
Bibliography
Bibliography
PRIMARY SOURCES
PRIMARY SOURCES
REPUBLICAN ARCHIVAL CATALOGUE
REPUBLICAN ARCHIVAL CATALOGUE
Prime Ministry, “Hükümetimizle AID arasında imzalanan Karayolları
Prime Ministry, “Hükümetimizle AID arasında imzalanan Karayolları Ekipmanı 2. Kredisi ve Nüfus Planlaması ve Köy Sağlık Ocaklarına Ekipmanı 2. Kredisi ve Nüfus Planlaması ve Köy Sağlık Ocaklarına yardım anlaşmalarının onaylanması" (Republican yardım anlaşmalarının onaylanması" (Republican Archives, Catalog Archives, Catalog no. 30.18.1.2 / 202.1.16, January 4, 1967).no. 30.18.1.2 / 202.1.16, January 4, 1967).
Prime Ministry, “Mi
Prime Ministry, “Milletlerarası Aile Planlaması konusunda Başbakan lletlerarası Aile Planlaması konusunda Başbakan Süleyman Demirel ile John D. Rockefeller 3Süleyman Demirel ile John D. Rockefeller 3rdrd Arasındaki Yazışmalar” Arasındaki Yazışmalar” (Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30.1.0.0/ 9.52.1, January 31, 1967).(Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30.1.0.0/ 9.52.1, January 31, 1967).
Prime Ministry, “Prime Ministry, “Nüfus Planlama Programı için Sağ
Prime Ministry, “Prime Ministry, “Nüfus Planlama Programı için Sağlık lık Bakanlığı'na ve Istanbul Yapağı Muayene ve Araştırma Laboratuvar-Bakanlığı'na ve Istanbul Yapağı Muayene ve Araştırma Laboratuvar-larına gönderilen malzemenin her türlü vergiden muaf tutulması." larına gönderilen malzemenin her türlü vergiden muaf tutulması." (Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30.18.1.2 / 209.53.4, July 5, 1967). (Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30.18.1.2 / 209.53.4, July 5, 1967).
Prime Ministry, “Sağlık ve Sosyal Yardım Bakanlığı ihtiyacı için Jeep,
Prime Ministry, “Sağlık ve Sosyal Yardım Bakanlığı ihtiyacı için Jeep, Yedek Parça, Nüfus Planlaması için Tavsiye ve Eğitim Materyalinin Yedek Parça, Nüfus Planlaması için Tavsiye ve Eğitim Materyalinin satın alınması” (Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30.18.1.2 / satın alınması” (Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30.18.1.2 / 223.62.6, August223.62.6, August 16, 1968).16, 1968).
Prime Ministry, “Milletlerarası Kalkınma Teşkilatı (AID)'ndan sağlanan
Prime Ministry, “Milletlerarası Kalkınma Teşkilatı (AID)'ndan sağlanan krediyle finanse edilmek ve nüfus planlaması ve köy sağlık ocakları krediyle finanse edilmek ve nüfus planlaması ve köy sağlık ocakları hizmetlerinde kullanılmak üzere araç satınalınması." (Republican Ar-hizmetlerinde kullanılmak üzere araç satınalınması." (Republican Ar-chives, Catalog no. 30.18.1.2 / 250chives, Catalog no. 30.18.1.2 / 250.33.19, May 9, 1970)..33.19, May 9, 1970).
Prime Ministry, “Miletlerarası Kalkınma Teşkilatı (AID)nın daveti üzerine
Prime Ministry, “Miletlerarası Kalkınma Teşkilatı (AID)nın daveti üzerine Dünya Nüfus Sorunu ve Aile Planlaması Metodları Teknolojisi Dünya Nüfus Sorunu ve Aile Planlaması Metodları Teknolojisi konularında Amerika'da inceleme yapmak üzere 20 kişinin gönderil-konularında Amerika'da inceleme yapmak üzere 20 kişinin gönderil-mesi." (Republican Archives, Catalogmesi." (Republican Archives, Catalog no. 30.18.1.2 / 271.67.5, Sep-no. 30.18.1.2 / 271.67.5, Sep-tember 10, 1971).tember 10, 1971).
PERIODICALS
PERIODICALS
Kadın Gazetesi
Kadın Gazetesi (f(first irst 610 610 issueissues between 1947 and 1960)s between 1947 and 1960)
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
271
Forum
Forum (354 issues between (354 issues between 19519544 and 19and 197070
Cumhuriyet
Cumhuriyet (between 1950 and 19(between 1950 and 1975)75)
Milliyet
Milliyet (between 1950 and 1975)(between 1950 and 1975)
Akşam
Akşam (between April 5(between April 5th th andand June 31June 31stst , 1965), 1965)
Tercuman
Tercuman (between (between April 5April 5thth and June 31and June 31stst , 1965, 1965))
Ulus
Ulus (between (between April 5April 5thth and June 31and June 31stst , 1965, 1965))
Son Havadis
Son Havadis (between (between April 5April 5thth and June 31and June 31stst , 1965, 1965))
Dünya
Dünya (between (between April 5April 5thth and June 31and June 31stst , 1965, 1965))
İşçi
İşçi PostasıPostası (between (between April 5April 5thth and June 31and June 31stst , 1965, 1965))
Nüfus Planlaması Haberleri
Nüfus Planlaması Haberleri ((44 issues 44 issues between between 1966 and 19701966 and 1970))
“35 yılda 35 milyon çocuk doğmayacak
“35 yılda 35 milyon çocuk doğmayacak..” ” TercümanTercüman, June 15, 1965., June 15, 1965.
Adasal, Rasim “Psikolojik
Adasal, Rasim “Psikolojik yyönden aile planlamasıönden aile planlaması,”,” UlusUlus, April 18,, April 18, 1965.1965.
Akyol
Akyol, , MeteMete.. “İsteyerek olmadı“İsteyerek olmadı..”” Milliyet,Milliyet, May 5, 1965.May 5, 1965.
Baltacıoğlu,
Baltacıoğlu, Ismail HakkıIsmail Hakkı. . “Türkiye’nin nüfusu 70“Türkiye’nin nüfusu 70--80 milyona 80 milyona çıkarılmalıdırçıkarılmalıdır..” ” TercumanTercuman, April 7, 1965, 2., April 7, 1965, 2.
Baykurt,
Baykurt, FakirFakir.. “Aşırı “Aşırı ççoğalmaoğalma..” ” CumhuriyetCumhuriyet, April 12, 1959., April 12, 1959.
“Bir Kü
“Bir Kürdistan rdistan hhükümeti ükümeti iiçin DP çin DP GGrubu rubu iiçinde çinde ççalışanlar alışanlar vvarmışarmış..” ” Cum-Cum-huriyethuriyet, May 31, 1960., May 31, 1960.
“Bizim köyde 10 yıldır doğum kontrolü var
“Bizim köyde 10 yıldır doğum kontrolü var..” ” TercumanTercuman, June 13, 1965, June 13, 1965..
Boysan,
Boysan, MetinMetin.. “Nüfus “Nüfus aartışını rtışını tteşvik eşvik mmi i ttahditahdit mmi i eetmelitmeli..” ” ForumForum, June 15, , June 15, 1962.1962.
Bengül,
Bengül, NejatNejat.. “İktisadi “İktisadi ggelişme elişme mmeselemize eselemize ddairair."." ForumForum, April 1, 1955, April 1, 1955..
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
272
Cillov
Cillov, , HalukHaluk. . “İktisat ve “İktisat ve tticaret 1960icaret 1960 nünüfusumuzfusumuz..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, November 16, , November 16, 1961960.0.
Cillov, Haluk
Cillov, Haluk.. “Nüfus “Nüfus pplanlamasılanlaması..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, June 4, 1965, June 4, 1965..
“Çıkış Amacımız
“Çıkış Amacımız..”” Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi, March 1, 1947., March 1, 1947.
“Dağda Sosyalizasyon ‘Yeter artık çocuk istemiyorum
“Dağda Sosyalizasyon ‘Yeter artık çocuk istemiyorum..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, April 9, , April 9, 19651965..
“Dişi kabinede önemli bir toplantı yapıldı
“Dişi kabinede önemli bir toplantı yapıldı..” ” TercumanTercuman, April 10, 1965, April 10, 1965..
“Diyanet işlerine göre hamileliğin önlenmesi dinen yasak
“Diyanet işlerine göre hamileliğin önlenmesi dinen yasak..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, , Au-Au-gust 6, 1970.gust 6, 1970.
“Doğum kontrolde tek tip ilaç
“Doğum kontrolde tek tip ilaç isteniyoristeniyor..” ” DünyaDünya, May 19, 1965., May 19, 1965.
“Doğum
“Doğum kkontrol ontrol hhapları apları kkansere ansere ssebep ebep oolmuyorlmuyor..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, June 2, 1967, June 2, 1967..
“Doğum kontrol haplarının kansere ve kan dolaşımı hastalıklarına
“Doğum kontrol haplarının kansere ve kan dolaşımı hastalıklarına yolaçtığı öne sürülüyoryolaçtığı öne sürülüyor..” ” CumhuriyetCumhuriyet, October 28, 1975, October 28, 1975..
“Doğum kontrol hapı
“Doğum kontrol hapı yüzünden öldüyüzünden öldü..” ” CumhuriyetCumhuriyet, April 20, 1969., April 20, 1969.
“Doğum kontrol hapları ölüme sebep oluyor
“Doğum kontrol hapları ölüme sebep oluyor..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, May 22, 1968, May 22, 1968..
“Doğum
“Doğum kkontrolü ontrolü hhapı apı üüzerindeki zerindeki ttartışmalar artışmalar ddevam evam eediyordiyor..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, , June 4, 1967June 4, 1967..
“Doğum kontrolü Haziran’da başlıyor
“Doğum kontrolü Haziran’da başlıyor..” ” Son HavadisSon Havadis, May 30, , May 30, 1965.1965.
“Doğum kontrolü için gerekli ilaçlar dağıtılıyor
“Doğum kontrolü için gerekli ilaçlar dağıtılıyor..”” UlusUlus, June 8, 1965., June 8, 1965.
“Doğum
“Doğum kkontrolü ontrolü iiçin Amerika’dan çin Amerika’dan tteknik eknik yyardım ardım iistedikstedik..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, Feb-, Feb-ruary 24, 1963.ruary 24, 1963.
“Doğum
“Doğum kkontrolüne ontrolüne kkomünistler omünistler kkarşıarşı..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, December 9, 1962., December 9, 1962.
“D
“Doğum oğum kkontrolünü ontrolünü mmuhtalar uhtalar iimamlardan mamlardan ddaha aha ççok ok iistiyorstiyor..” ” CumhuriyetCumhuriyet, , April 30, 1964.April 30, 1964.
“Doğum kontrolü silahsız bir haçlı seferidir
“Doğum kontrolü silahsız bir haçlı seferidir..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, August 17, 1968., August 17, 1968.
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
273
“Ebeler Derneği başkanı doğumun kontrolüne taraftar değil
“Ebeler Derneği başkanı doğumun kontrolüne taraftar değil..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, , April 28, 1965April 28, 1965..
“Ekseriyet
“Ekseriyet ddoğum oğum kkontrolünü ontrolünü iistiyorstiyor..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, May 1, 1964., May 1, 1964.
“Elif’in Çilesi
“Elif’in Çilesi ffilminin ilminin ççekimleriekimleri ttamamlandıamamlandı..”” Nüfus Planlaması HaberleriNüfus Planlaması Haberleri, , 18, (1968)18, (1968)
“
“Erdoğan neden Erdoğan neden üçüç çocuk istediğini açıkladı,” çocuk istediğini açıkladı,” MilliyetMilliyet, January 2,2023, January 2,2023..
Erez,
Erez, Naşid. “Doğumların Naşid. “Doğumların ddüzenlenmesi.” üzenlenmesi.” MilliyetMilliyet, March 15, 1963., March 15, 1963.
Erez,
Erez, Naşid. “Nüfus Naşid. “Nüfus pplanlaması lanlaması ttatbikatı.” atbikatı.” MilliyetMilliyet, April 29, 1964., April 29, 1964.
“Gecekondu’da
“Gecekondu’da doğum kontrol usülleri anlatıldı.” doğum kontrol usülleri anlatıldı.” MilliyetMilliyet, April 12, 1965, April 12, 1965..
“Günde 60
“Günde 60 kkadına adına kkürtaj ürtaj yyapılıyorapılıyor..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, April 1, 1955., April 1, 1955.
Ilgaz,
Ilgaz, HaseneHasene.. “1950 Nüfus Sayımı ve Propagandası“1950 Nüfus Sayımı ve Propagandası."." Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi, No-, No-vember 20, 1950.vember 20, 1950.
Ilgaz,
Ilgaz, HaseneHasene.. “Dünya “Dünya nnüfusunun üfusunun ççoğalmasını oğalmasını öönleyici nleyici ttedbirleredbirler.."" Kadın Kadın GazetesiGazetesi, March 1, 1958, March 1, 1958..
İpekçi
İpekçi, , Abdi and Ömer Sami CoşarAbdi and Ömer Sami Coşar.. “27 Mayıs’ın “27 Mayıs’ın ggerisindeki erisindeki bbeş eş yyılın ılın hhikayesiikayesi..” ” Milliyet,Milliyet, May 27, 1962.May 27, 1962.
Kara,
Kara, Leyla. “Analık Leyla. “Analık ppropropoogandası.” gandası.” Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi, Nov, November 13, 1950.ember 13, 1950.
Karpat,
Karpat, Kemal. Kemal. “Memleketimizde şehirlere nüfus akını." “Memleketimizde şehirlere nüfus akını." ForumForum, February , February 15, 1960.15, 1960.
Katırcıoğlu,
Katırcıoğlu, Sami. “Nüfus hareketleri ve Türkiye.”Sami. “Nüfus hareketleri ve Türkiye.” ForumForum, June 1, 1957., June 1, 1957.
Kırmızıtoprak,
Kırmızıtoprak, Sait. “Kürtaj Sait. “Kürtaj sserbest erbest oolmalıdır.” lmalıdır.” MilliyetMilliyet, April 30, 1964., April 30, 1964.
Kıvanç
Kıvanç, , HalitHalit.. “Kontrol, kontrol“Kontrol, kontrol..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, June 13, 1965, June 13, 1965..
Kitchener, Caroline
Kitchener, Caroline.. “Abortion “Abortion iis s nnow ow bbanned in anned in tthese States. See hese States. See wwhere here llaws aws hhave ave cchangedhanged..” ” Washington PostWashington Post, September 15, 2022, , September 15, 2022,
Koçtürk, Osman Nuri
Koçtürk, Osman Nuri.. “Atom “Atom ggücü ve ücü ve sseksüel eksüel ggüçüç..” ” CumhuriyetCumhuriyet, June 18, , June 18, 1965.1965.
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
274
“Komandolar doğum kontrol seminerini bastı
“Komandolar doğum kontrol seminerini bastı..” ” CumhuriyetCumhuriyet, April 8, 1969, April 8, 1969..
“Kürtaj
“Kürtaj hhadiseleriadiseleri..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, March 17, 1952., March 17, 1952.
“Kürtajdan
“Kürtajdan ssanık Asım Onur anık Asım Onur mmahkûm ahkûm oolduldu..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, June 10, 1959., June 10, 1959.
“Kürtajın serbest bırakılması i
“Kürtajın serbest bırakılması istendistendi..” ” MilliyetMilliyet January 18, 1972January 18, 1972..
“Kürtaj yapan bir doktor suçüstü yakalandı
“Kürtaj yapan bir doktor suçüstü yakalandı.." " MilliyetMilliyet, December 9, 1953., December 9, 1953.
Mardin
Mardin, Şerif. , Şerif. “İstikbalimizdeki “İstikbalimizdeki kkütle ütle prproblemleri oblemleri hhakkındaakkında..” ” ForumForum, Au-, Au-gust 1, gust 1, 11957957..
“Nüfus ve
“Nüfus ve ddoğum oğum kkonferansıonferansı..” ” Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi, December 16, 1955, December 16, 1955..
“Nüfus planlaması yürürlükte
“Nüfus planlaması yürürlükte.." " UlusUlus, April 10, 1965., April 10, 1965.
“Okuma
“Okuma yyazma azma sseferberliği eferberliği bbaşladıaşladı..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, March 23, 1981., March 23, 1981.
Onaf, Lamia. “Çok
Onaf, Lamia. “Çok ççocuklu ocuklu aailelere ilelere yyardım." ardım." Kadın Kadın GazetesiGazetesi, July 19, 1948., July 19, 1948.
Oruz,
Oruz, İffet Halim. “Çocuk İffet Halim. “Çocuk ddavamız.” avamız.” Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi, November 22, 1948., November 22, 1948.
Oruz,
Oruz, İffet Haliİffet Halim. “Türk Kadınlar Birliği Hakkında Düşünceler,” m. “Türk Kadınlar Birliği Hakkında Düşünceler,” Kadın Ga-Kadın Ga-zetesizetesi, May 16, 1949. , May 16, 1949.
Oruz,
Oruz, İffet Halim. “Çocuk Sıkıtlarını Önleme Tedbirleri.” İffet Halim. “Çocuk Sıkıtlarını Önleme Tedbirleri.” Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi, , February 13, 1954.February 13, 1954.
“Prof. Üner'e göre
“Prof. Üner'e göre ddoğum oğum kkontrol ontrol hhapları apları kkanser anser yyapıyorapıyor..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, June 1, , June 1, 19671967..
“Rockefeller Türkiye doğum kontrolünde önderlik edebilir.”
“Rockefeller Türkiye doğum kontrolünde önderlik edebilir.” MilliyetMilliyet, Feb-, Feb-ruary 25, 1966.ruary 25, 1966.
“Sağlık Bakanlığı’nın komisyonu kürtajın serbest olmasını istedi.”
“Sağlık Bakanlığı’nın komisyonu kürtajın serbest olmasını istedi.” Cumhu-Cumhu-riyeriyet, March 27, 1972.t, March 27, 1972.
Sağlık,
Sağlık, Saim. “Kadın Hijyeni,” Saim. “Kadın Hijyeni,” Kadın GazetesiKadın Gazetesi, February 26, 1951., February 26, 1951.
Seren,
Seren, Suat “Doğum Suat “Doğum KontrolüKontrolü..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, March 4, 1963., March 4, 1963.
TAMIN G DEMOG R A PH Y
275
Seren,
Seren, SuatSuat.. “Nüfus “Nüfus pplanlaması lanlaması mımı? Kürtaj ? Kürtaj kkanunu anunu mmu?” u?” MilliyetMilliyet, January , January 31, 1964.31, 1964.
Taşpınar,
Taşpınar, KenanKenan.. “Şehirlerin “Şehirlerin BüyümesiBüyümesi..” ” Forum,Forum, July 1, 1956.July 1, 1956.
“Tracking the
“Tracking the sstates tates wwhere here aabortion bortion iis s nnow ow bbanned,” anned,” TheThe New York TimesNew York Times, , February 10, 2023February 10, 2023..
“Türkeş ‘Doğum
“Türkeş ‘Doğum kkontrolü bir suikasttir’ dediontrolü bir suikasttir’ dedi..” ” MilliyetMilliyet, April 21, 1968., April 21, 1968.
“Türk kadını kısırlaştırılıyor
“Türk kadını kısırlaştırılıyor..” Cumhuriyet, ” Cumhuriyet, October 16, 196October 16, 1966.6.
“
“TTürkiye Aile Planlaması Derneğinin ürkiye Aile Planlaması Derneğinin ççalışmaları alışmaları hhızla ızla ggelişmekteelişmekte..” ” Nüfus Nüfus Planlaması Haberleri,Planlaması Haberleri, 3737.. (1970).(1970).
“Türkiye’de 15.074 doktordan ancak 761’i sosyalizasyonda görev kabul
“Türkiye’de 15.074 doktordan ancak 761’i sosyalizasyonda görev kabul ettietti..” ” CumhuriyetCumhuriyet, November 25, 1972., November 25, 1972.
“Ün
“Üniversiteli iversiteli KKadınlar adınlar DDerneği erneği ddoğum oğum kkontrolüne ontrolüne hhararetle araretle ttaraftar.” araftar.” Mil-Mil-liyetliyet, June 4, 1961., June 4, 1961.
Yalçın,
Yalçın, Aydın. “Bir Aydın. “Bir kkonferans ‘Nüfus onferans ‘Nüfus aartışı ve rtışı ve iiktisadi ktisadi ggelişme.” elişme.” ForumForum, Ap-, Ap-ril 1, 1957.ril 1, 1957.
“Yedi bin kadın doğum kontrolünde
“Yedi bin kadın doğum kontrolünden geçti.” n geçti.” MilliyetMilliyet, November 17, 1965., November 17, 1965.
Zentürk, Adnan. “Doğum Kontrolü Arpalık Olamaz,”
Zentürk, Adnan. “Doğum Kontrolü Arpalık Olamaz,” İşçi Postasıİşçi Postası, April 30, , April 30, 19651965..
PARLIAMENTARY MINUTES
PARLIAMENTARY MINUTES
MBK General Meeting
MBK General Meeting.. ((Milli Birlik Komitesi Genel Kurul ToplantısıMilli Birlik Komitesi Genel Kurul Toplantısı)). . Vol.1, Vol.1, Meeting no: 9, September 10, 1960Meeting no: 9, September 10, 1960..
MBK General Meeting
MBK General Meeting.. (Milli Birlik Komitesi Genel Kurul Toplantısı)(Milli Birlik Komitesi Genel Kurul Toplantısı).. Vol.1, Meeting no: 14, September 29, 1960Vol.1, Meeting no: 14, September 29, 1960..
MBK General Meeting
MBK General Meeting.. ((Milli Birlik Komitesi Genel Milli Birlik Komitesi Genel Kurul ToplantısıKurul Toplantısı)). . Vol.1, Vol.1, Meeting No: 24, October 17, 1960.Meeting No: 24, October 17, 1960.
S E RDA R F U RTUNA
276
MBK General Meeting (
MBK General Meeting (Milli Birlik Komitesi Genel Kurul ToplantısıMilli Birlik Komitesi Genel Kurul Toplantısı)).. Vol.5, Vol.5, Meeting no: 67, December 31, 1960Meeting no: 67, December 31, 1960..
National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (
National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak DergisiMillet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi)). . (Term 2, Vol. 9, Meeting No:6, November 16, 1962)(Term 2, Vol. 9, Meeting No:6, November 16, 1962)..
National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (
National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak DergisiMillet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi)).. (Term 2, Vol. 9, Meeting No:7, November 17, 1962)(Term 2, Vol. 9, Meeting No:7, November 17, 1962)..
National
National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak DergisiMillet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi)).. (Term 2, Vol. 9, Meeting No:10, November 20, 1962)(Term 2, Vol. 9, Meeting No:10, November 20, 1962)..
National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (
National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (Millet Meclisi Tutanak DergisiMillet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi)).. (Term 2, Vol. 9, Meeting No:11, November 21, 1962)(Term 2, Vol. 9, Meeting No:11, November 21, 1962)..
National Assembly Minutes of Meeting (
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