382

Çeviri faaliyeti kültürün tüm alanlarına büyük katkılar sağlamıştır. Bu yönüyle tıp
bilimine yaptığı katkıların iyi anlaşılması gereklidir. Bu tezin amacı Eski Yunan
Medeniyeti ile 15. Yüzyıl arasındaki zaman diliminde çeviri faaliyetinin tıbbın
gelişimdeki önemli rolünü incelemektir. Tıp çevirisinin tarihsel gelişimi çeviri
faaliyetinde öne çıkan çevirmenler ve eserleri çerçevesi içinde kalınmıştır.
Modern tıbbın kurucusu sayılan Antik Yunanın önemli tıp alimleri olan Hipokrat
ve Galen metinleri bu konuda yapılan çeviri faaliyetinin ana kaynaklarını
oluşturur.
Bu dönem çeviri tarihinde iki önemli akıma şahitlik eder. Birincisi İslamiyetin
kabulüyle beraber 8. yüzyılda İslam İmparatorluğunun çeviri faaliyetine verdiği
eşsiz önemle ortaya çıkmıştır. 8. Yüzyıl çeviri faaliyeti İslam Uygarlığı öncesi
oluşan bilim felsefe gibi bilgilerin sistemli olarak Arapçaya çevirilmesidir. O
dönemde Arapçaya çeviri yapanlar Hristiyanlar olmuş ve özellikle Süryani
çevirmenler Yunanca ve Süryaniceden Arapçaya tıp eserlerini çevirmiştir. Bu
eserler 8 yüzyıl çeviri akımının en önemli kaynaklarını oluşturur.
12 yy da başlayan diğer çeviri akımı Arapça ve Yunanca eserlerin Latinceye
çevirilmesiyle başlar. 4. yüzyıldan 12. yüzyıla kadar süren karanlık çağlarda
yaşayan Latin Avrupa çeşitli faktörlerle kendi bilgi eksiklerinin farkına varmıştır.
Bu amaçla kurulan tıp merkezlerinde tıp ve çeviri faaliyetine başlamışlardır.
Avrupa tıp konusunda bilgilenmiş Antik Çağ Yunan tıbbını ve Islam Tıbbını
ögrenmiştir.
v
Tıp bilgisinin çağlar boyunca korunması aktarılması ve geliştirilmesi çeviri
yoluyla olmuştur.
Anahtar Kelimeler : Tıp tarihi, Hipokrat, Galinos, Antik Yunan Tibbi, Islam
Tibbi, Hunayn Ibn Ishak, Articella, , Latince Tip Cevirileri, 8 yuzyil ceviri
faaliyeti, 12. Yuzyil ceviri faaliyeti.
vi
ABSTRACT
ÖZDOĞAN, Mürşide Didem. The Contribution of Translation Activity on the
Development of Medicine Through a Historical Perspective from Hippocrates
(460BC) Until the Fifteenth Century. Master’s Thesis, Ankara, 200
Translation has made great contributions to all areas of culture. Its valuable
contributions must surely be realized. The purpose of this thesis is to examine
the important role of translation in the development of medicine during the time
period between the Ancient Greek Civilizations and the 15th century. The thesis
analyzes translation within the framework of famous translators and translations
that come to fore in the historical evolution of medical translation. Texts by
Hippocrates and Galen, two major medical researchers of Ancient Greece who
are regarded as the founders of modern medicine, constitute the main
references to the translation activities carried out in the field of medicine.
Period of this thesis witnesses two major translation movements. First one
begins with the Islam’s great emphasis on translation. 8th century translation
movement has lasted over two centuries of translations of pre-Islamic medical
text into Arabic. In that period, translations into Arabic were done mostly by
Christians. Greek and Syriac medical works were translated into Arabic mostly
by Syrian translators. These works form the most important references of the
translation era of the 8th century.
The other translation movement began with translation of Arabic and Greek
medical text. The Latin West, which went through the dark ages from the 4th
century to the 12th century, became to realize their lack of knowledge in
medicine as well as in other sciences. In order to acquire this knowledge
medical centres in Europe was established where research and translations in
medicine was undertaken. As a result, Europe gained
vii
knowledge in medicine and started to rediscover the Ancient Greek and Arabic
medicine. Translation activity preserved, transformed and advanced the medical
knowledge.
Key words: History of medicine, Hippocrate, Galen, Ancient Greek Medicine,
Islamic Medicine, Hunain Ibn Ishaq, Articella, Latin Medical Translations, 8th
century translation activity, 12th century translation activity.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
KABUL VE ONAY................................................................................................i
BİLDİRİM............................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................................. iii
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................... viii
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................x
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................ 1
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY........................................................................ 4
LIMITATIONS.............................................................................................. 4
RESEARCH QUESTIONS .......................................................................... 5
METHOD .................................................................................................... 5
ANCIENT GREEK MEDICINE ........................................................................... 7
HIPPOCRATES........................................................................................... 9
HIPPOCRATIC MEDICINE........................................................................ 10
Hippocratic Corpus.....................................................................................11
CONTRIBUTIONS TO MEDICINE ...................................................................... 14
GALEN...................................................................................................... 14
8TH CENTURY TRANSLATION MOVEMENT.................................................. 16
PRE-ISLAMIC MEDICAL SOURCES........................................................ 16
Alexandria ................................................................................................. 17
Jundishaipur.............................................................................................. 18
TRANSLATION ACTIVITY DURING THE ISLAMIC ERA........................... 20
Baghdad as the Center for Translation – Bayt-Al Hikma: .......................... 22
Hunain Ibn Ishaq (809-873A.D.) ............................................................... 23
TRANSLATION ACTIVITY AND MEDICINE IN THE MUSLIM IBERIAN
PENINSULA.............................................................................................. 25
Muslim Spain’s Influence on Medicine ...................................................... 26
Prolific Muslim Physicians......................................................................... 28
HIPPOCRATIC TREATISES TRANSLATED IN ARABIC. .......................... 38
GALENIC TREATISES TRANSLATED IN ARABIC.................................... 41
THE 12TH CENTURY TRANSLATION MOVEMENT........................................ 46
CONSTANTINE THE AFRICAN ................................................................ 50
THE SALERNO SCHOOL......................................................................... 51
Articella ..................................................................................................... 59
THE TOLEDO SCHOOL OF TRANSLATION ............................................ 67
GERARD OF CREMONA.......................................................................... 68
OTHER LATIN TRANSLATORS................................................................ 69
Adelard of Bath ......................................................................................... 69
Michel Scot ............................................................................................... 69
John of Seville........................................................................................... 69
ix
Gundisalvi ................................................................................................. 69
Faraj Ibn Salim (Faragut, Faririus) ............................................................ 70
SOME EXAMPLES OF ANCIENT GREEK AND ARABIC MEDICAL TEXTS
USED AS MEDICAL SOURCES BY LATIN WEST..................................... 71
TRANSLATIONS AND MEDICINE .................................................................. 75
TRANSLATIONS OF ANCIENT MEDICAL TEXTS AND TRANSLATION
THEORY................................................................................................... 78
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF TURKISH MEDICINE AND MEDICAL
TEXTS.............................................................................................................. 83
FIRST TURKISH MEDICAL TEXTS .......................................................... 84
Tuhfe-i Mübarizi ........................................................................................ 84
Hülâsa....................................................................................................... 84
Edviye-i Müfrede ....................................................................................... 84
Translation of Câmi al Müfredat al-Edviye ve'l-Agdiye .............................. 85
Translation of Kâmil al Sınaâat al-Tıbbıye................................................. 85
Müntehab al-Şifa....................................................................................... 85
Teshil al-Şifa.............................................................................................. 85
Tarvih al-Ervah .......................................................................................... 86
Yadigâr...................................................................................................... 86
Hülâsat al-Tıp............................................................................................ 86
Hülâsa....................................................................................................... 87
İlyasiye ...................................................................................................... 87
Bahname-i Padişahı.................................................................................. 87
Kitab-ı müntehab....................................................................................... 87
Miftah ün-Nur ve Hazâin üs-Sürur............................................................. 87
Zahire-i Muradiye ...................................................................................... 88
Translation of Akrabadin............................................................................ 88
Cerrahiye-i Haniye .................................................................................... 88
CONCLUSION................................................................................................. 89
BIBLIOGRAPHY.............................................................................................. 95
APPENDIX I................................................................................................... 106
APPENDIX II...................................................................................................110
APPENDIX III - INTERVIEW WITH PROF DR. ESIN KAHYA. DATE APRIL
13, 2009. .........................................................................................................113
ÖZGEÇMİŞ .................................................................................................... 120
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1. A page from Canon of Medicine (Kitab al-Qanun fi al-tibb) . .......... 30
Fig 2. A page from Kitab al-Hawi fi al-tibb by Razi. .................................. 32
Fig 3. A page from Kamil al-sina'ah al-tibbiyah by Al-Majusi. .................. 34
Fig 4. A page from signed statement of Ibn al-Nafis (1288) ..................... 35
Fig 5. A page from Ibn al-Nafis's The Concise Book (Kitab Mujiz) .......... 37
Fig 6. A page from A Commentary of Prognostics based on the Hippocratic
Corpus's ................................................................................................... 38
Fig 7. A page from A Commentary on the Hippocratic Treatise On the
Nature of Man. ......................................................................................... 39
Fig 8. A page from Kitāb al-Buthūr,(translation of Hippocratic treatise). ... 40
Fig 9. A page from Translation of De usu partium ( Galenic treatise).......41
Fig 10. A page from Translation of Bones for Beginners
(Galenic treatise)...................................................................................... 42
Fig 11. A page from Translation of Anatomy of Muscles
(Galenic treatise)...................................................................................... 43
Fig 12. A page from Salerno School Manuscript, Joannes de Sancto
Paulo. Breviarium de signis, causis, et curis morborum . ......................... 53
Fig 13. A page from Salerno School Manuscript. Gerard du Berry.
Super Viatico......................................................................................... 54
Fig 14. A page from Viaticum ................................................................... 55
Fig 15. A page from Constantine the African’s “ Viaticum” ...................... 56
Fig 16. A page from Regimen Sanitatis Salernitanum.............................. 57
Fig 17. A page from Salerno Manuscripts ............................................... 58
Fig 18. A page from Isagoge ...................................................................61
Fig 19. An example of Articella decoration. The letter “O”........................ 62
Fig 20. An example of Articella decoration. The letter “T” ........................ 62
Fig. 21. An example of Articella decoration. The letter “M”....................... 63
Fig 22. An example of Articella decoration. The letter “U” ........................ 63
Fig 23. An example of Articella decoration. The letter “D” ........................ 64
Fig 24. A page from Aphorisms. 15th century........................................... 65
Fig 25. A page from Aphorisms in Articella............................................... 66
Fig 26. A page from Latin translation of Avicenna’s great work “Canon of
Medicine...................................................................................................71
Fig 27. A page from Galenic text De usu Partium. ................................... 72
Fig 28. A page from Hippocrates Work in Greek transcribed in 15th
century...................................................................................................... 73
Fig 29. A page from Hippocrates, Hippocratis octoginta volumina.
Hippocratic work translated into Latin. ..................................................... 74
1
INTRODUCTION
The history of medicine starts with the history of mankind. It is the constant
struggle against the diseases since antiquity. As Marti-Ibaňez (1959, p,17)
points out “the first physician was man himself; his first medicine, his own
instinctive attempts at self-healing”. Therefore it is natural that knowledge of
medicine has always been sought after throughout the history. Therefore, any
study on the history of medicine takes us to a journey of cultures, ideologies,
belief systems and way of thinking. To many, a study in history of medicine may
seem to be a boring task full of obscureness and unfamiliar terminology
however it help us to understand the cultures, transference of knowledge from
one culture to another. It is a description of how dissemination of knowledge
affected the development of medicine and medical culture. And the most crucial
element in this process is the translation activity which transfers the medical
knowledge from one civilization to the other. With this study, we can better
understand the major role of translation activity which helps dissemination of
knowledge among civilization.
As Erten states in her book entitled Tip Terminolojisi ve Tip Metinleri Çevirisi, “
Being a universal subject and having a unique terminology, medicine renders
this field a very special field.” (Erten, 2003, p. 13). The medical terminology is
the most important aspect of medical translations, which was based on Greek
and Latin terms. Therefore history of medicine which dates back to Ancient
times is important in understanding how the medical terminology was formed
and became the basis for medical translations.
Language has been the most important factor in shaping and enriching the
cultures. As it is mentioned by Dirckx (1983, p. 65) “Language has been called
man's most effective tool for the preservation and transmission of culture”. In
this context languages and cultures which contributed to medicine should be
mentioned. Greek, Syriac, Arabic and Latin are the main languages into which
medical knowledge was transferred through translation activity. Each language
2
is representative of each culture which has great contributions to medicine as
well as the major actors in medicine. For instance, the major medical translation
sources have been Ancient Greek Medical Writings. Greek written sources has
served as the foundations of coming civilizations. For instance Medieval Islam
which implanted Arabic as the language of medicine has based its foundations
over the Ancient Greek Medical Tradition. Many Hippocratic writings and most
Galenic Medical Texts have been translated into Syriac and Arabic during the
Medieval Islamic Empire. So the medical knowledge was transferred to Islamic
Medical Tradition. This period is also marked by the establishment of translation
schools opened in Baghdad.
The above mentioned periods witnessed the existence of Ancient Greek,
Medieval Islam and Medieval European civilizations. All these three civilizations
have made various major contributions to the medicine collectively. It is Ancient
Greece and Ancient Greek medicine which formed the first seeds of medical
science in the modern sense. It is the widely accepted fact that Ancient Greek
medical sources such as Hippocratic Corpus 460 BC and the Galenic medical
system dating back to 2nd century AD are the major written sources with which
the translations and compilations were carried to the succeeding civilizations.
This thesis aims to describe the background of how Ancient Greek medicine
has been so capable of influencing over the succeeding civilizations. The
contributions of Hippocratic Corpus and the Galenic medical system will be
discussed as well as how the ancient medical texts persisted to serve as the
source of translation activity through the historical perspective.
As the period of investigation mainly focuses on the classical languages which
are not used in today's work, it is not possible to analyse the first hand medical
text by comparing it with source text and target text perspective. However, the
thesis presents as much translated text
examples between Greek, Arabic and Latin by various translators as possible,
and focus on their translation methods and strategies.
3
The major translation movements of 8th century Medieval Islam and 12th century
Medieval Europe has demonstrated the major role of translations over the
development of medicine ( E. Kahya personal interview April 2009). The
dissemination of medical knowledge over the course of centuries between
languages and cultures are linked to these major translation movements in the
history of translation. The 8th century and 12th century translation movements
has paved the way to major medical advancement in their times.
History of medicine is very much linked to translation. The knowledge was
transferred and carried over other cultures. While doing so the language of
medicine also evolves. They not only determined the norms of the translation
but also demonstrates translations contribution to the advancement of
medicine. In other words, the technical and scientific developments are
reflected on the language in terms of formation of terminologies. This process
has taken more than two thousand years of history. In order to understand and
analyse the importance of translation we need to know the historical perspective
of the events, discoveries and changes occurred with the history of scient. As
Aksoy (1998, p.72) points out we need to observe the the status of translation
activity in evoluation process of science. History would tell us all we need to
know about the contribution of translation on the development of science and
medicine which has taken a long journey in the paths of different cultures,
languages and personalities.
This thesis brings under focus the translation of medical texts from Greek to
Latin, Syriac and Arabic. The translation activity comprising passes between
languages has its problems and challenges in relation to the translation
practices. In so doing, the thesis analyses the evolution of medical learning and
its translation through centuries, giving detailed information about historical,
social and political agendas behind the translation. Therefore, it would be
appropriate to begin with a historical perspective of medical learning.
4
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Translation of medical works presents evident challenges and is considered to
have been invaluable as means of scientific advancement. Because of the
specificity of the subject and the particular terminology used to describe the
subject, translation of medical works developed its own characteristics and
methods. Being medicine a subject matter closely associated with cultural,
religious and social features of society, translating medical works into a different
language, and therefore into a different society, necessitates devising
appropriate methods to obtain the desired results. Thus, the purpose of this
thesis is to analyse the importance of translation activity of medical texts into the
development of medical science itself. In so doing, the thesis sets out to discuss
the main methods and strategies developed by translators of medical works
with the intention to understand the relationships between purpose, method and
results of translation activity.
LIMITATIONS
The limitations for carrying out this type of study are manifold. The first obvious
one is the fact that most of the original documents are ancient manuscripts that
were written in classical languages known nowadays only by a handful of
specialists. The study was carried out through the consultation of secondary
sources, but even these are not abundant as there are relatively few
academicians who have devoted efforts to the subject of analysing medical
translation. Most of the original medical manuscripts subject to translation were
written centuries ago and except for a few documented secondary sources, it is
not possible to make direct comparisons of translations against original texts,
mostly unreachable today, which in any case would prove difficult due to the
language barrier and the need for mastering medical knowledge.
A less obvious difficulty in analysing translation methods of ancient medical
texts is the fact that medicine, was closely associated with philosophy and the
5
distinction between the two is often blurred. Likewise, the apparent
unconscious use of translation theories, in particular the choosing of literal or
free translation makes it difficult to properly understand the real scope of some
important medical translation works.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
This thesis makes a serious attempt to provide answers to the following
questions:
The contribution of Translation Activity to the development of medicine during
the Hippocratic Era until the 15th century.
• How important translation of ancient medical text has been in making
them an influential source of knowledge?
• Who have been the most important translators of medical works and in
which environment their work became possible?
• What are the main challenges faced during the translation of classical
medical works and how have they been tackled?
• What is the role played by translation of medical documents in the
development of medical science throughout history?
METHOD
In carrying out this thesis a descriptive approach has been used. In order to
provide satisfactory answers to the questions posed above, the thesis focuses
on a number of translation works and renowned translators describing in detail
the background of the work, the methods and strategies used. To better
support the analysis, a number of relevant works are analysed in more detail to
provide elements for discussion. Thus, specific translation techniques are
analysed using examples giving original and translated texts to better
understand the circumstances under which they are used and the effect their
6
use have in the final translated text. These examples and additional supportive
literature have been collected from different sources including libraries, Internet,
and interviews with some experts on the subject.
7
ANCIENT GREEK MEDICINE
The Ancient Greek medicine is the foundation of modern medicine. The modern
medical terminology has originated from Greek. It is the language of Greek in
which medical research and texts were written between B.C. 500 and A.D.
500.(Ackertknecht, 1992, p.79). During this period and for the coming
generations Greek medicine persisted to dominate the medical terminology.
The major reason for the strength and vast influence of Greek lies in the fact
that the Ancient Greek medicine was the foundation of modern medicine in the
sense of scientific approach. Hippocratic medicine holds the greater part for
being the seed for modern medicine. The Greek medicine started with
Hippocratic Era about B.C. 500 continued to develop following the time period
of Galen in the 3rd century. The Greek medical tradition also persisted during
the Roman Empire and Byzantium Empires which dates back to 650 AD.
(McMorrow, 1998, p.15 )The medical texts of Hippocrates and Galen and other
Greek physicans were recorded in the form of written texts which became the
major medical sources for the coming generations. Greek medicine and
physicians came to be known as experts in medicine and their recorded texts
helped their tradition to be planted in the history of medicine.
As stated by Ackerknecht (1982, p. 47) , disease was no longer regarded as a
supernatural phenomenon; it was approached from a rational, naturalistic and
scientific point of view by the Greek medicine. Ancient Greek attempted to
define the diseases from a different perspective. It tried to explain the causes of
diseases based on natural causes. It is a period which rational explanations of
diseases were sought. As mentioned by Miller (1949, p. 309) the Ancient
medicine related the diseases with natural philosophy which attempted to find
universal laws for evolutions of medicine into science. In other words, we can
say that the first scientific approach was introduction and it laid the foundation of
modern medicine.
8
“ Ancient Greek medicine is comparably closer to modern medicine than
another historical form of medicine. This is hardly surprising, since modern
medicine would not exist without the Greek precedent. It is no accident at
modern medical terminology is to such a large extend based on Greek.
There are of course numerous differences between present-day medicine
and Greek medicine, even as there are variations within Greek medicine
itself. It must be remembered that Greek medicine covered a period of
about one thousand years, and that far from being static, it was in a ferment
of continuous change and ebullition. Yet the successive epochs of Greek
medicine have on thing in common with each other and with the medicine
of modern times. Disease was no longer regarded as a supernatural
phenomenon; it was approached from a rational, naturalistic and scientific
point of view” (Ackerknecht 1992, p. 47).
As the Ancient Greek medicine having such revolutionary features therefore the
Greek language became to language of medicine. The Greeks recorded their
medical learning in their own language. The language of Greek provided the
core of medical terminology many of which are still used in the modern
medicine.
Also , Greek medicine is affilated with religious references. The religious cult
“Aesculapius” should be mentioned as part of the Greek's medical tradition. It is
believed as the God of Medicine in Ancient Greece. (Görkey, 1993, p. 348).
There are many religious references in Ancient Greek medicine related with
religion. Greek mythology which is the religion of Greeks provided various
themes associated with diseases. For instance Greeks’ beliefs were projected
onto medical science through the words coined for illnesses and symptoms.
Some medical terminology still existing in today's medicine has its roots in these
ancient religious beliefs. For instance, the word ‘aphrodisiac’ in medicine was
coined after Aphrodite; ‘atropine’ after Atropos, ‘hygiene’ after Hygieia, and
‘veneral’ after Venus (British Medical Journal 1952, p. 813) The snake which is
still the symbol of medicine has its roots in Ancient Greek. We all know the
image of a snake twisted around Aesculapius’ stick. It is also related with
snake's healing and destructive power with one touch of it. We can give more
examples to the religious references to medicine which implies the nature of
Ancient Greek Medicine - We can say that Ancient Greek Medicine is a
combination of religion and natural philosophy. However, by having adopted the
9
first scientific approach, it came to be accepted as the foundation of modern
medicine.
How Greek medicine achieved such success in laying the foundations of
modern medicine? There are various reasons for this. One is the rich
neighbouring cultures which Greek culture inevitably influenced from. Its
interaction with other cultures caused them to learn and use existing practises
medical practises.
“…these Greeks … borrowed Egypt's mathematics and Babylonian's
astronomy, wealth of knowledge uncritically assembled through millennia by
older cultures and wove them with free and reasoning minds into
philosophy, history and logic” (Marti-Ibaňez, 1959, p. 61).
All these valuable contributions of Greek medicine was recorded in written texts.
Indeed medical texts were one of the oldest recorded texts in the history
(Fischbach, 1986, p. 16). Due to this fact, as being the written texts Greek
medicine they served as the major source of medical learning, research and
most importantly for the translation activity. What were these written Greek
texts on medicine? This thesis will focus on the two major Greek physicians and
their school. The Hippocratic and Galenic writings have nourished the
translation activity in medicine for thousands of years since they existed. We
can argue that the Ancient Greek medicine was first associated with Hippocratic
and later Galenic medicine .
HIPPOCRATES
“Hippocrates supposedly lived from 460 to 377 BC, and the
treatises of the Hippocratic collection, the Corpus Hippocratescum, are
supposed to have been written between 480 and 380 B.C. It can, therefore,
no longer be maintained that the Hippocratic physicians were successors
and pupils of the priests of Aesculapius, nor that the temple inscriptions are
the first “case histories'. By the time Aesculapius rose to the rank of a god
and his cult had become widespread, the independent physicians and
philosopher-scientist were already firmly established”. (Ackerknecht, 1992,
p. 49)
10
Hippocrates was a Greek physician and philosopher who lived in ancient
Greece. Also known as the father of medicine, Hippocrates is said to have been
born in 460 BC. Hippocrates is a symbol of Greek medicine. Fifty to seventy
medical writings were attributed to the physician Hippocrates in the third
century, which were later compiled in the “Hippocratic Corpus. (Ackerknecht,
1982, p. 50)
There are many legends surrounding him and his work and it is not known for
sure whether he actually did everything attributed to him. However, the majority
of literature shows that he was instrumental in basing Greek medicine on
clinical observation rather than speculation. Hippocratic texts survived from the
time they were created which is 5th century BC until the period of Middle Ages
which is until 14th century. Why Hippocratic medicine has persisted many
centuries and used as the medical reference source for generation of medicine?
According to King, (2001, p. 11) it is because Hippocratic medicine provided
accurate medical knowledge that has not been recorded before. That
information was recorded and copied by generations. As being the bearer of
correct information it has been the focus of civilizations to acquire this valuable
knowledge. For those civilizations whose language is Greek the texts were
copied and studied in Greek. However the translation activity in the field of
medicine became an important activity other cultures with different languages
began to appear in the history. Like Roman Empire whose language is Latin
and Islamic Empire whose language is Arabic.
HIPPOCRATIC MEDICINE
We can argue that before Hippocrates, healing was based on religious or
superstitious beliefs and speculations. Through his contributions, it gained logic
and consistency and illnesses were for the first time attributed to objective
causes.
Not only does Hippocratic medicine draw clear and logical conclusions between
causes and effects, but it is also based on ethical values. In a time when people
11
were seriously lacking in knowledge related to anatomy, physiology and
pathology, Hippocratic medicine was able to go a step further with clinical
experience and philosophical reasoning. Hippocratic medicine is concerned
more with prognosis and treatment than diagnosis. The patient, and not the
cause of the illness, is what deserves the attention of the physician. The human
is taken as a whole rather than as a collection of organs and parts to be
examined separately. Physicians are considered as “nature’s helper and servant
in the art of medicine”. This is due to Hippocrates’s belief that there is no
difference between the macro cosmos, the universe, and the micro cosmos, the
human: their structure and operation is the same. Man is an inseparable and
dependent part of the universe. (Aydin, 2006, p. 69-70)
Hippocratic Corpus
The Hippocratic Corpus is the collection of what is thought to be Hippocrates’s
work. It provides important information about a day and age when medical
knowledge in the scientific sense was in the first stages of its evolution. It is
known that fifty to seventy medical writings were attributed to the physician
Hippocrates in the 3rd century, which were later compiled under the
“Hippocratic Corpus” and kept in Alexandria. Ackerknecht (1982, p. 56). This
collection of books, textbooks monographs and notes may or may not have all
been personally written by Hippocrates himself.
Of the many books the Corpus contains, there are some that must be
mentioned. According to Miller (1956, p. 309) the Hippocratic Corpus text “On
Ancient Medicine” which is written between 430 and 400 BC has been one of
the most importants texts in terms of pointing out the need for the method of
medicine. The treatise “On Ancient Medicine” is the 5th century texts as it
relates medicine with natural philosophy for the first time.
The Hippocratic texts explains how the basic understanding of diseases which
is not ruled by religious beliefs. For example the symptoms of diseases are
explained by Hippocratic text “On Prognosis”. It has detailed the signs of
12
diseases and in this respect brought a scientific approach to medicine.
(Ackerknecht, 1986, 56).
On Airs, Waters and Places includes information about what a physician must
be aware of in treating people living in different geographic regions in terms of
climatic conditions. Moreover, there are books on surgery dealing with fractures,
head wounds and so on, which are to this day seen as good descriptions of the
conditions.
On the Sacred Disease (meaning epilepsy) was onother treatise of Hippocratic
Corpus written in 410 BC states that the disease is not sacred at all and can be
explained by natural causes. (Nutton, 1995, p. 16). Epilepsy is not the the act
of gods but it has natural causes in the brain of the humans.
On the Nature of Man talks about the four humors in detail and underlines the
function of the brain. Other books in the corpus deal with the ethics of the
medical profession and professional attitude. (Ackerknecht, 1992, p. 57-58).
According to Ackerknect (1992, p. 63), the books in the corpus may not be
completely consistent in the information they present, but they definitely have
some common points: they all employ a naturalistic approach, meaning they all
attribute illnesses to natural causes rather than divine ones. Moreover, they all
emphasize the value of observing the disease process and the practical over
the theoretical. Another commendable aspect of the writings is how ethical and
honest they are. For example, in Epidemics, it is stated that 25 of the reported
42 cases died, a fact that may not have been mentioned by a less ethical
physician.
The theory of humors laid down by the Hippocratic medicine. According to this
theory, the body was made from blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile.
When these are balanced, a person is healthy. Any imbalance or change in the
qualities in any one of the humors causes an illness. What were some of the
13
most important ritings of Hippocrates that dominated Hippocratic Four Humors
Theory is very famous. The text “On the Nature of Man” his four humors theory
is written. According to this theory, four fluids “yellow bile, black bile, blood and
phlegm” are presented as the fluids in the body which causes diseases if their
balance is destroyed. (King, 2001, p. 11) His theory of the four humors, for
example, formed the basis of medicine for many centuries.
Hippocrates is also well known for the oath doctors take. However, the
Hippocratic Oath, may not have actually been penned by Hippocrates himself
since no signs of it have been found dating back to his time period. (Aydin,
2006, p. 75)
Hippocratic Corpus (Corpus contains the below mentioned medical texts.)
The Hippocratic Corpus (Latin: Corpus Hippocraticum), Hippocratic Collection,
or Hippocratic Canon, is a collection of around seventy early medical works
from ancient Greece strongly associated with the ancient Greek physician
Hippocrates and his teachings. List of Works of the Corpus are, The
Prognostics Of Ulcers, On Airs, Waters, and Places, On Regimen in Acute
Diseases, The Aphorisms, The Epidemics On the Articulations, On Fractures,
On the Instruments of Reduction, The Hippocratic Oath, On Ancient Medicine,
On Fractures, The Instruments of Reduction, The Physician's Establishment or
Surgery On Injuries of the Head, The Law On the Nature of Man, Regimen of
Persons in Health, The Coan Praenotions Prorrhetics Of Fistulae, Of
Hemorrhoids, Of the Pneuma, Of the Sacred Disease, Of the Places in Man, Of
Art Of Regimen, and of Dreams, Of Affections, Of Internal Affections, Of
Diseases, Of the Seventh Month Foetus, Of the Eighth Month Foetus, On the
Surgery, On Generation, On the Nature of the Infant, On the Diseases of
Women, On the Diseases of Young Women, On Unfruitful Women, On
Superfoetation, On the Heart, On Ailment, On Fleshes, On the Weeks, On the
Glands, On the Nature of Bones, On the Physician, On Honorable Conduct
Precepts, On Anatomy, On the Sight, On Dentition, On the Nature of the
14
Woman, On the Excision of the Foetus, On Crisis, On Critical Days, On
Purgative Medicines, On dangerous Wounds, On Missiles and Wounds.
Contributions to Medicine
It needs to be remembered that Hippocrates lived in a time when illnesses were
explained with sinful actions, superstitions and other speculations. Therefore,
his most significant contribution to medicine was getting rid of these and
introducing the idea that man was a part of the universe and that illnesses could
be attributed to natural reasons rather than supernatural ones. In this, he
secularized medicine and indeed established medicine as a science.
Hippocratic medicine, due to its emphasis on prognosis rather than diagnosis
actually made sure its physicians did not practice diagnostics and specific
treatment with the limitations of the day, which would have been prohibitive
anyway. Moreover, with diagnosis as well as prognosis at the center of
activities, this school of thought contributed to medicine by taking the human as
a whole and putting the patient before the illness as suggested by the ethical
practices mentioned above.
Another way that Hippocratic medicine helped modern medicine is through the
detailed way symptoms of illnesses were described and classified. No doubt
these helped the work of many physicians for centuries. Emphasis was on the
practical and not theoretical, which was probably more conducive to training
physicians than any theorizing might have been. Clinical observation rendered
what was previously a collection of speculations and beliefs as the field of
science known today as medicine.
GALEN
Galen is known to be one of the very important medical figure of Greek
medicine. His studies on anatomy and physiology illuminated the medical
15
tradition for many centuries until the 17th century. Galen was born in Pergamum
(Bergama in present day Turkey). Galen was educated in the Alexandrian
School. He must be mentioned as the second most important man of medicine
after Hippocrates. Galen represents the synthesis of existing numerous sects
and schools which existed in Alexandria between the Hippocratic era and the
Galenic era. There are many school and sects which have worked in medicine
in the Greek civilization their studies have helped shape Greek medical
tradition. Galen is the last Greek physician who made a synthesis of all the
prevailing traditions and became the most influential physician after
Hippocrates. (Ackerknecht, 1992, p. 78)
He produced over 500 medical works which illuminated medial tradition for
many centuries. Galen's writings on anatomy became the mainstay of the
medieval physician's university curriculum until Vesalius work on anatomy
dominated the Western anatomic knowledge. Galen has received criticism for
his anatomic writings since they were based on dissecting the animals rather
than humans. (Kahya, 2004, p. 75).
Greek medicine was preserved and advanced in Alexandria and was passed
onto Islamic medicine by way of translation and the commentaries written on
Hippocrates and Galen. This will be discussed in detail in the next chapters.
16
8TH CENTURY TRANSLATION MOVEMENT
The most important period in which vast translation activity took place in the
translation history is the 8th century translation movement. Before this period
there was a translation activity but none of them were organized, detailed and
most importantly none of them implanted a language as Arabic as the language
of medicine. (Kahya, personal interview, 2009). The success of this translation
activity lies in the fact that the principles of translation methods were determined
before the translation activity started. According to Kahya, (personal interview,
2009) the principles of language in Arabic was determined before the translation
activity began. This has helped the translator to create medical terminology in
Arabic which is the most essential element in medical translations . The Arabic
language with solid grammer was established as the base for the translation.
Therefore Arabic was implanted as the language of medicine. The Islamic
civilization thereafter has taken a lead in medicine and served as a bridge for
the coming medical knowledge. In other words, a medical enlightenment was
initiated by the organized and systematic translation movement in which pre-
Islamic medicine was translated. The 8th century translation movement, which
began during the Abbasid Caliphate based on a pre-Islamic medical translation
tradition has served as a model for the development of culture in which
translation activity was crucial element.
“This period in the history of medicine … ensured the perenniality of
ancient Greek medicine. The West, in effect, discovered ancient
medicine through the medium of texts which often followed because
it ensured the perenniality of ancient Greek medicine or Arabic”.
(Rasha, 1984, p. 69)
PRE-ISLAMIC MEDICAL SOURCES
Before the establishment of Islamic civilization, medical knowledge of Greek,
Perisan and Roman and Syriac civilization dominated the medical learning.
(Khrailrallah, 1946, p. 17) The Islamic medicine interacted with pre-Islamic
medicine as a natural consequence. Ancient Greek medical tradition in the
17
West and Persian and Indian Medicine in the East are the pre-islamic medical
sources. Before the establishment of Islamic rule the existing medical traditions
were associated with intellectual centers. One of the most important
intellectual centres mentioned as a resource for 8th century translation
movement is Alexandria in Egypt and the city of Jundishapur in Persia.
Alexandria
Alexandria the city in today’s Egypt is important for the medical tradition. One is
the fact that city of Alexandria which is known to have preserved, developed
and persisted Greek medical knowledge since its establishment in the 3rd
century BC. How and why Alexandria became a major center for medical
learning goes back to the establishment of Roman Empire. When the Greek
lands came under Roman rule in the Mediterranean , medicine remained in the
hands of Greeks. The medical learning center has shifted to Alexandria after the
Roman conqueror invaded the Greek lands. (Ackertnect, 1992, p.65) For about
three centuries different medical sects existed in Alexandria and developed the
Greek medical learning.
Galen, for instance, lived in the times of the Roman Empire, (130-210 AD), but
he received a Greek medical education Alexandria is associated with the Greek
medical and philosophical knowledge.(Ackertnect, 1992, p. 72) Galenic
medicine are the reflections of medical tradition of Alexandria. The significance
of the Alexandrian school for Islamic Medicine is that it served as a bridge which
transferred Greek medical learning to Islamic medicine. Despite the fact that
there is a long time difference between the establishment of Alexandria and the
Islamic rule. Galenic teachings became a major source of learning in
Alexandria was still preserved.
According to Ülken (1935, p. 43), it is the remains of Alexandrian intellecual and
scientific wealth that has almost diminished throughout the centuries that served
as a major source for the 8th century translation activity of Islamic civilization.
When the Arabs conquered Egypt, they also acquired the existing works and
books. Even though their libraries and the contents had been damaged by
18
Romans the remaining texts were sufficient for translation activities to be carried
out. These texts were the primary sources of the first translation movements
during the Islamic civilization. As mentioned above, Galenic teaching through
the Alexandrian school made Greek medicine a major source of knowledge
(Dols, 1992, p. 38)
Jundishaipur
The other major intellectual centre crucial for pre-islamic medical knowledge is
city of Jundishaipur. It was the city for translation and medical learning within
the borders of Persian Empire. The Christian presence in the Middle East,
mainly in Syria, goes back to early Christianity. During the fifth and sixth
centuries, the Christian establishment increased due to disputes between
Christian sects in the Byzantine Empire (Lindberg, 1992, p. 163). Nestorians
whose language is Greek were driven away from the Byzantine Empire for their
controversial religious views. They were declared as heresies to Christianity
and took refuge in Syria. Nestorians brought with them Greek learning which
was inherited by Byzantine when the Roman Empire was divided into two. Many
Syriac medical doctors moved to Urfa, the then to the leading medical centre,
to Jundishapur.They brought with them the Greek learning traditions and
started to be influential in the lands where they settled (Ülken, 1935, p. 65).
Jundishaipur at that time was under Persian rule which welcomed Nestorians
who fled from Byzantine oppression. They were provided with hospitals and with
a very welcoming environment by the Persian rule at that time. They practised
medicine which was their profession as a result of their persisting tradition in
Greek science. Nestorians were Greek speakers as well as Syriac speakers.
According to Dols (1992, p. 38) the earlier and continuous translations by
Syriac-speaking Christians of the Greek medical texts were most important as
they introduced Galenism into what is Syria, Iran and Iraq today. Islamic
medical learning benefitted from this pre-Islamic Galenic learning.
The other important Pre-Islamic tradition which came into Persian and
eventually to Arabic were the translations from Sanskrit into Persian. As
mentioned by Ülken (1935, p. 103) Berzuye was the most important translator
19
during the Sasanian period who is bilingual in Sanskrit and Persian. His
translation of Indian texts in Persian helped preserve the Indian tradition which
was later translated into Arabic. In this respect, translation activity holds a great
role in dissemination of knowledge and literature from one culture to the other
enriching the human civilization. During the Abbasid period, the Sanskrit
Treatises of Indian medicine were focus of much translation activity in addition
during the Classical Indian history between 100 and 1000 BC. The Sanskrit
translation were produced in Baghdad in Bayt-al Hikma from Indian science.
(Krishnamurtym, 1998, p. 473)
The Pre-Islamic medical heritage has influenced the Islamic medicine. For
instance, Al Razi, as one of the most important physician during the Islamic
Golden Age with vast knowledge of Iranian and Indian learning combined
Greek philosophy with that of Indian and Iranian. Razi had written a medical
dictionary listing all the diseases in Greek, Farsi, Syriac , Indian and Arabic.
(Ülken, 1935, p. 106)
As is seen from the examples, Sanskrit and Persian translations came long
before the translation of Greek medical works. They enriched and contributed to
the establishment of the great Islam – Arab civilization in which medicine,
mathematics, astronomy and philosophy yielded its greater masterpieces.
20
TRANSLATION ACTIVITY DURING THE ISLAMIC ERA
The rise of Islamic medicine can be linked to various factors. The new religion
Islam and new strong Islamic Caliphate especially the Abbasid Caliphate
contributed to the development of Islamic medicine. As the Islamic Caliphate
began to expand its borders, they shared the cultural and scientific heritage of
the lands that it occupied. The lands of Romans and Greeks which came under
Islamic rule contained major sources of learning and those valuable works were
protected and kept by the Caliphate. The new empire did not only keep them,
but started a vast translation movement starting from the 8th century. With the
knowledge attained from different traditions including Roman, Greek, Indian,
Persian and Turkish, Islamic medicine emerged. In the 7th century, the Islamic
Empire known as the Caliphate expanded its borders throughout Syria, Persia
and Egypt. Those lands had a rich learning tradition, including a vast medical
tradition. With this large territorial conquest, diverse cultures and tradition came
under a single rule. The medical tradition existing in Persia in the city of
Jundishaipur, in particular, provided Greek texts of Hippocrates and Galen in
Syriac. According to Magner, (1998, p. 136) Islamic medicine benefited
immensely from those rich medical texts.
One of the major reasons why the translation activity was so extensive and
achieved success was due to the effort to determine the principles of Arabic
language. The Basra and Kufe were the centres which Arabic language was
studied. The grammatical rules and terminology were studied in those centres
before the beginning of the 8th century translation activity. (Kahya, personal
interview, 2009). We must keep in mind that when the Quran was first came
there were only few people who can read and write in Arabic. For the Muslims,
Arab is the common language as it is the language of the Koran and of Islam.
Therefore, the Arabic language unified the Islamic world and allowed
communication in a single language. The caliphs realized the importance and
value of learning in all the sciences and they wanted the scientific texts to be
translated into proper Arabic (Syed, 2003, p. 69). As mentioned before, the
rules of the Arabic language was determined in order to have a unified language
21
which was used in translating medical works from Greek, Syriac and Sanskrit.
The terminologies were produced in Arabic language which is a proof that
Arabic became the language of sciences. It should be clarified that Islamic
medicine known generally as Arabic Medicine is due to Arabic being the only
language in which all texts are written. In fact, Islamic medicine is the product of
various traditions and nations’ learning unified under Arabic, which is the
language of the Koran. (Arda, 2004, p. 11 ).
According to the imperial ideology of the early Abbasid Caliphs knowledge is a
form of showing their political strength. Therefore translation activity were
supported. Greek texts acquired were translated into Arabic. The first caliph Al
Mansur initiated the translation activities with the intention of building a unique
and culturally, socially and intellectually strong empire, very much influenced by
the Sasanian intellectual culture. (Gutas, 1998, p. 34). The Caliphs aimed at
acquiring the pre-existing knowledge in the lands conquered. Not wanting to be
left out or behind, the Abbasid Caliphate supported the translation activity in the
empire in order to keep up with this transfer of knowledge already taking place.
The translations from Syriac preceded the 8th century translation movement and
surely served as a model or a reference to a new translation into Arabic.
However, as mentioned by Gutas, the Syriac translation was not the sole
reason for the development of Islamic sciences.
“ it is obvious that the translation movement was generated and
sustained for a very long time by needs and tendencies in the
nascent Abbasid society as reflected in its structure and consequent
ideology; it can hardly be accounted for by the two theories that have
been unreflectively prevalent in most discussion of the subject to this
day. The first claims that the translation movement was the result of
the scholarly zeal of a few Syriac-speaking Christians who, fluent in
Greek and Arabic, decided to translate certain works out of altruistic
motives for the improvement of society. The second theory rampant
in much mainstream historiography, attributes it to the wisdom and
open-mindedness of a few enlightened rulers who conceived in a
backward projection of European enlightenment ideology, promoted
learning for its own sake”. (Gutas, 1998, p. 2)
22
The Muslim philosophy was the other major force behing the translation effort.
The newly created Caliphate advocated the preachings of the Koran and the
Prophet Mohammad. Islam with the Mohammed's hadiths promoted knowledge.
We know Mohammed stressed in various hadiths the importance of learning
and respecting learned people. Such a philosophy contributed to the attitude of
the Caliphate which welcomed non-Muslim learning without discriminating them.
Baghdad as the Center for Translation – Bayt-Al Hikma:
The Sassaid dynasty came under the rule of Muslim Arab armies in 638
AD.(Wikipedia) The Jundishapur medical tradition persisted and nourished
Islamic medicine and the Islamic Caliphate. The role of Caliphs and their openmindedness
and undiscriminating attitude towards other sects and religions
played a major role. Well known physicians were invited to the Caliphate in
Baghdad not only to heal the Caliphs but also contributed to the translation
activity to enrich Islamic medicine.
During the rule of the Abbasids, a translators’ chamber was founded in Baghdad
in 830 by Al Mansur, the second Caliph during the Abbasid period, with a great
interest in translations. (Baker, 1998, p. 320), According to Gutas, (1998, p.
54), this chamber for translation was established by Al Mansur's ideology to
recover through translation of ancient works which was started by the Sasanian
dynasty before their downfall. It functioned as an academy, library and
translation bureau and had a staff of over 60 translators, working from Greek,
Syriac, Persian, Sanskrit and Aramaic (Baker, 1998, p. 320)
The Christian physician Yuhanna Masawayh (777-857) was the first director of
the Bayt al-Hikma. (Baker, 1998, p. 320). Masawayh was born in Jundishapur
and brought up in Baghdad. The significance of Ibn Masawayh is that he was
one of the earliest translators, authors, and practitioners of the 8th century
translation movement. Hunain Ibn Ishaq was one of his students. The Caliphs
23
are known to have commissioned him for translation of manuscripts of Greek
classics. His book on leprosy was the first proper book written on the subject
(Khairallah, 1946, p. 106).
Baghdad became the centre for scholars who coming from Egypt, Syria and
Iran contributed to the emergence of Islamic science and philosophy. The
translations from Greek, Sanskrit, and Persian brought the existing medical
knowledge and tradition into the Islamic civilization. The accumulation of
knowledge in medicine served as a foundation for emergence of Islamic
medical knowledge. Following this era, Islamic Golden Age came to the fore
with many major Muslim physician including Razi, Avicenna (Ibn-i Sina), Al
Majusi and others. According to Ulken (1935, p.98) this incredible rise of Islamic
physicians are also the result of translation activity which brought pre-islamic
medical knowledge into the Islamic civilization. The valuable knowledge of the
early scholars was combined with the work of Arab scholars and produced a
very rich Arabic-Islamic medical scholarship.
Hunain Ibn Ishaq (809-873A.D.)
Hunain Ibn Ishaq is the most notable translator of Islamic medicine of 8th
century translation movement during the Abbasid Caliphate. According to
sources his translations and his own works on medicine have implanted the
language of Arabic as the language of medicine for the Islamic world. He has
brought great achievements to translation activity in medicine as well as his own
contributions to medical study. His works were taken as the medical source
books by the Latin West during the 12th century translation movement in Europe
as the basis of medical learning.
Hunain Ibn Ishaq was born in Al-Hira, near Kufa, the son of a Nestorian
pharmacist. He was bilingual and able to speak Arab and Syrian from his early
years. (Gorini, 2005, p. 5). Hunain was the pupil of the first director of Bayt-al
Hikma of which he was assigned to be the director in 830. (Baker, 1998, p.
320). He translated 129 treatises of Galen into Syriac and Arabic (Conrad,
24
1995, p. 106). Hunayn also translated Aristotle's Categories, Physics, and
Magna Moralia; Plato’s Republic, Timaeus, and Laws; Hippocrates’ Aphorisms,
Dioscorides’ Materia Medica, Ptolemy's quadri-partition, and the Old Testament
from Septuagint Greek. His most famous work is Kitab al Masa'il al (Introduction
to the healing arts – Ars Pavla Galeni translated as Isagoge into Latin and was
used as the basis for medical learing in the the 12th in Europe.
He was commissioned by wealthy Abbasid families, physicians and usually the
Caliphs who were promoting translations from ancient Greek texts and existing
Syriac medical writings (www.linguaset.com). Hunain worked with a large
number of assistants under his supervision. His assistants were his son Ishaq,
his nephews Hubays al-Asam, Yahya ibn Adi, Isa ibn Yahya and Ali ibn Isa
Hunain.(Khariallah, 1946, p. 46).
According to Dols (1998, pg. 40) Hunain's translations helped formation of
Arabic medical terminology. The already existing Syriac medical texts which
were translated during the 8th century translation activity into Arabic has
contributed to the new medical terminology in Arabic. Especially Hunain’s
expertise in Galenic medicine and his vast translations of Galen transmitted
Galenism into Arabic medicine (Dols 1998, pg. 40). He is renowned for
producing very good translations and correcting bad ones usually from Syriac
and editing many works translated by other translators of his time. The
production of medical terminology and being able to write commenteries are
evidence to his contribution to Islamic medicine. He has also wrote a medical
dictionary in Greek, Arabic and Syriac which helped many translators to look up
medical words.
Meyerhoff (1926, p. 690) recalls Hunain's own words in his Risala (a
biographical work written in 856 AD), which confirms his perfectionist and
scientific approach to translation. The following quotation is on Hunain’s own
comments with reference to his translation experience of De Sectis, which had
previously been badly translated into Syriac by Ibn Sahda.
25
“I translated it when I was a young man from a very defective Greek
manuscript. Later on, when I was about forty years old, my pupil
Hubaish asked me to correct it after having collected a certain
number of Greek manuscripts. Thereon I collated these so as to
produce one correct manuscript, and I compared this manuscript with
the Syriac text and corrected it. I am in the habit of proceeding thus
in all my translation work. Some years later I translated it into Arabic
for Abu Ia'far Muhammad ibn Musa” (Meyerhoff, 1926, p. 690).
As mentioned before, Hunain is known for his meticulous translations into
Arabic and as the creator of Arabic Medical terminology. This can be said to
have been the result of his two hundred translations dedicated to this purpose.
It is pointed out by Meyerhoff (1926, p. 712) that Hunain's competence over the
Arabic language enabled him to create a more precise medical vocabulary than
his contemporaries who were not as knowledgeable as Hunain in Arabic and
Arabic medical terminology.
“His (Hunain Ibn Ishaq) work was a major factor in creating the great
Galenic synthesis, but he and his disciples translated other texts
including some of the works of Hippocrates and the Maternia Medica
of Dioscondes. A major task for a scholar taking on such an
unprecedented challenge was to create an appropriate nomenclature
for concepts never before expressed in Arabic” (Magner 1992, p.
137)
Hunain as being a non-muslim contributed to Arabic science and the
development of Arabic medicine. His brought attention to translation activity and
produced very well organised systematic medical texts in Arabic. As mentioned
by sources his major contribution was to create an Arabic medical terminology
which is the essence of medical writing the advancement.
TRANSLATION ACTIVITY AND MEDICINE IN THE MUSLIM IBERIAN
PENINSULA
Arabic medicine did not only flourish in the Middle East; the Iberian Peninsula is
also known as a center of Arabic medicine. After 710 A.D., Spain was
conquered by Arabs and the Iberian Peninsula came under Islamic rule. The
26
Arabs also brought with them the technical, scientific knowledge with them to
the land of Europe. From then until 1492, Arabs remained in Spain and
incorporated Muslim science and prevailing Roman and Greek science and
achieved great Islamic scientific, medical and technical innovations. It was
during the time of Muslim Moors the Iberian Pennisula was introduced with
Islamic Medicine by Arabic physicians works and Arabic translations of Greek
medicine. As a natural consequence due to the geographic proximity to the
Latin word, Arabic science, technology and language made great effect over the
then less advanced Latin world. With the translation activity which started by the
12th century Latin were introduced with the knowledge Arabs acquired. They
brought with them the Avicenna and Greek medical works translations into
Arabic to Spain. (Lockwood, 1918, p. 124)
Muslim Spain’s Influence on Medicine
Arabic advancement in the field of pharmacy and chemistry is widely known and
has been received by the Latin West. The influence of Arabic pharmacy can be
seen in the European languages. The translation movement which started in
the Andalusia in Europe is significant in how many Arabic words were borrowed
by Latin and the later European languages in the field of pharmacology. (Ulken,
1935, p. 238).
During the period of vast translations rendered from Arabic many Arabic words
came to be part of Western languages . Among the oldest foreign words still
current in medical English are several terms related to chemistry and pharmacy
that have been inherited from the Arabian alchemists. According to Dircks,
(1938, p. 38), some of them are alcohol, camphor, caramel, elixir, senna, sugar,
syrup and perhaps also amalgam, soda and tartar.
Alcohol is probably the widely known example of words of Arabic origin that are
nowadays used in many languages around the world. According to the English
Cambridge Dictionary kohl is “a dark substance which people put around their
eyes, especially the edge of their eyelids, to make them more attractive”. It is
27
still used as a traditional cosmetic in Middle East, Asia and Africa (Al-Hazzaa
and Krahn 25). This “dark substance” is the dust of the dust stone and the
cosmetic still derived of it is known in Arabic as el-kuhul. Through the Arabic
period in Spain, Spanish alchemist were exposed to the cosmetic. It is
presumed that by analogy between the finesse of the el-kuhul dust with finess
in the taste of wine, the name of the cosmetic started to be used also for wine.
Thus, the use of the word el-kuhul moved across Europe and made it to a
German dictionary in 1616 as “Alkohol”. (Kırımsoy, 1996, p.113).
Another such word of Arabic origin is Bezoar. A bezoar is a mass found trapped
in the gastrointestinal system, most commonly in the stomach. Benzoars are
often found in cats and rabbits as they groom themselves by licking their hair.
Intestinal bezoars also occur in humans and has been associated with the
consumption of persimmons. However, the word is of Persian origin, where
pâdzahr literarily means “protection from poison” and bazahr is its Arabic
equivalent. The terms was passed on to Europe by Arabs in the Spanish
peninsula. (Kırımsoy, 1996, p. 113 ).
Datura is another word borrowed from Arabic. It is a plant genus with nine
species of annual and perennial plants belonging to the solanaceae family.
Datura stramonium, one of such species, also known as jimsonweed or thorn
apple, was used by Muslim physicians against asthma and possibly introduced
by them in Spain where its use passed on to France and Germany. It contains
tropane alkaloids such as atropine, hyoscyamine and scopolamine which are
classified as deliriants, or anticholinergics (Kırımsoy, 1996, p. 113). The word
datura originally comes from the Hindi Dhatūrā (thorn apple); record of this
name dates back to 1662 according to the Oxford English Dictionary.
The camphor tree was introduced by the Andalusian Muslims to Europe. It was
known as karpura-h in ancient India and was used for the treatment of gout
(arthritis uratica nikris) and rheumatism when it was first introduced to the
Arabian peninsula possibly through the Silk Road. The plant is referred in the
28
Quran as "a beverage refreshing souls in heaven". The plant was referred as
Gaffer in the Medieval German language of the 13th century, Gampfer in Frisius’
dictionary in 1556 and Campher in Heinisch’s dictionary in 1616. The camphor
tree is used as analeptic, local stimulator and disinfectant in medicine today
(Kırımsoy, 1996, p.114).
Saffron, known also by the Romans and Greeks, is mentioned as sa'faran in the
Arabic literature. The Arabians used the powder they produced from the flowers
of this plant as coloring agent and raw material for drugs. Spreading throughout
Europe during their reign in Spain in the 10th century, saffron became highly
popular as raw material for drugs in Europe, as well. It was used also as
seasoning and aromatizing agent. It still lives within today’s German medical
term hepar crocatum which is used for the fatty liver disease causing to
jaundice (Kırımsoy, 1996, p. 115).
The word syrup originates from the Arabic sharab, meaning a beverage, and
became siropus in Latin. Arabian physicians made syrups from various plant
juices by adding sugar and used them as medicine. In the end, all of their
recipes prepared in this way became widespread in Europe as well. Much later,
the Turkish word sherbet, originating from the same root (surba in Arabic)
spread throughout Europe. The words Sorbit / Sorbitol are used to name a
sweetener used in pharmacy (Kırımsoy, 1996, p. 115).
Prolific Muslim Physicians
Ibn-i Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037)
Ibn- Sina was an 11th century physician and scientist. He was known as
Avicenna as his Latinized name. He was born in 980 near Bukhara, and died in
1037. Ibn-i Sina is regarded as the most influential physician after Hippocrates
and Galen in the history of medicine. Ibn-i Sina has been the author of
numerous treatises on many different areas including medicine, philosophy,
alchemy, mathemetics and astronomy. His writings on philosophy also shaped
29
his medical perspective. His most famous works are The Book of Healing, a
vast philosophical and scientific encyclopaedia and The Canon of Medicine.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna. Especially His prolific work which is called
Kitab al Kanun Fi'al Tibb is known as the Canon of Medicine which was
translated a century later into Latin and was used as the essential medical text
book in Europe for 600 years (Khan, 2006, p. 9) According to Marti-Ibaňez
(1959, p. 167) he is called the Persian Aristotle, as he brought the Aristotlean
philosophy to Islam and was regarded as one of the main Islamic interpreters of
Aristotle.
Canon of Medicine (Kitab al-Qanun fi al-tibb)
“Avicenna wrote the Canon Medicinaa, the most famous medical
book in history, a medical bible which million words made its author
world leader of medicine until Vesalius, supplanting for six centuries
the medical leadership of Galen. In the Canon epitome and summary
of Greco-Latin medicine, the thorns of dogma bristle on the roses of
science. The backbone of Arabian medical thought, it recommended
the cautery instead of the surgeon's knife, for the Arabs had a horror
of dissecting the human body. Today, a thousand years later the
principles of Avicenna's Canon still continue to heal the sick of
Persia” (Marti-Ibaňez,1959, p. 119)
Ibn-i Sina divided his treatise into five books, the first was concerned with
general medical principles, the second with materia medica, the third with
diseases occurring in a particular part of the body, the fourth on diseases not
specific to one bodily part (such as fevers) and the final book containing a
formulary giving recipes for compound remedies. The Canon was known to
Europeans through the Latin translations of Gerard of Cremona and Andrea
Alpago and remained in use in medical schools at Louvain and Montpellier until
the 17th century. (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic).
The Canon classifies and describes diseases, and outlines their assumed
cause and due to its very systematic description of medical subject it was used
as the medical reference book for many centuries after it was created by the
physician.
30
Fig 1. A page from the Canon of Medicine (Kitab al-Qanun fi al-tibb) written by
Avicenna (Ibn-i Sina) in Arabic.
Source: (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/E8.html)
31
Yuhanna Ibn Masawayh (777-857)
Yuhanna was born in Jundisapur and brought up in Baghdad. The significance
of Ibn Masawayh is that he was the first director of Bayt-Al Hikma translation
bureau and also was the physician of the 8th century Medieval Islamic era.
Hunain Ibn Ishaq was one of his students. The Caliphs are known to have
commissioned him for translation of manuscripts of Greek classics into Syriac
and Arabic. His book on leprosy was the first proper book written on the subject.
(Khairallah, 1946, p. 106). Yuhanna has written “Kitab Al Nawadir al-TIbbiyah
which was a medical aphorism. This book was translated by the Salerna School
into Latin as Aphorismi Iohannis Damosceni which resulted in Latin speaking
West’s acknowledgement of Islamic Medicine. (Prioreschi, 1991, pg. 214)
Al-Razi (865-925)
Razi who is knowbn as Rhazes in Latin is an important physician of the
Medieval Islamic Era. He has lived between 865 and 925. He is known to have
adopted Hippocratic approach of observation. The first clinical observation in a
modern sense has been conducted by Hippocrates and Razi during the 8th
century adopted this method in his medical approach.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Razi). One of his major achievements was
defining polio and the measles as a result of observation of the patients (Kahya,
2004, p. 94).
32
Fig 2. A page from the third part of Razi’s well-known work “ Kitab al-Hawi fi altibb”.
Source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medieval/arabic.html
33
Al-Majusi (Haly Abbas)
Ali ibn al-`Abbas al-Majusi (d. 994/384 H) was born in the Iranian city of Ahwaz.
Al-Majusi practiced medicine in Baghdad and served as physician to the ruler
Adud al-Dawlah, founder of the Adudi hospital in Baghdad. It was to him that al-
Majusi dedicated his only treatise, The Complete Book of the Medical Art (Kitab
Kamil al-sina`ah al-tibbiyah), also called The Royal Book (al-Kitab al-Malaki). It
is one of the most comprehensive and well-organized compendia in early
medical literature. In Europe the treatise was known as Liber regalis or Pantegni
and the author as Haly Abbas. (Prioreschi, 1991, p.252). Liber Regalis was
translated by Constantine the African in the 11th century and later retranslated
by Stephen de Antioch. (Faraq, 1978, p. 305) According to source Al-Majusi is
acknowledged as one of the three most prolific Arabic physicians of the Islamic
civilization after Avicenna and Razi. His commentaries on Galen and
Hippocratic medicine owned him a reputation in Western and his work was
included in Articella in 1250. His work was translated by Contantine the African
under name “Pantegni”. Ali ibn al-`Abbas Al-Majusi's influential Arabic
encyclopaedia produced a systematic organization of medicine. He divided his
encyclopaedia into two large books, one on theoretical principles and the other
on practical aspects. Each book had ten chapters, with divisions and
subdivisions, typical of the elaborate organizational format of medieval Arabic
writings. This work was adapted by Constantine the African in the 10th century
and was used as a major reference source in Latin Christendom .
34
Fig 3. A page from Al-Majusi’s work “ Kamil al-sina'ah al-tibbiyah” written in
Arabic. (940-980).
Source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medieval/arabic.html
35
Fig 4. A page from the signed statement of Ibn al-Nafis (1288) certifiying one of
his student that he has mastered Ibn Ibn al-Nafis's commentary on a
Hippocratic treatise.
Source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic_13.html.
36
Al -Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013)
“In his obstetrics and gynealogical work, Abulcasis was prevented by
custom from examining virtuous women directly and was obliged to rely on
female operators who worked under his guidance. Nevertheless the Vade
Mecum describes several procedures for treating abnormal presentation,
including instrument deliveries” (Marti-Ibaňez, 1959, p. 128)
Al -Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi,lived between 939 and 1013 in
Andalusia. His contribution to medicine and particularly surgery has made him
one of the most important Muslim physician and surgeon in the Iberian
Pennisula. . His medical works and surgical practices which are presented in
his book “ Kitab al-Tasrif” , is known as Vade mecum in Latin Europe. It was
translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona in 1187 as Vade Mecum and was
used until 15th century in the European medical schools.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_al-Qasim_al-Zahrawi)
Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (1126-1198)
Ibn Rushd is known as Averroes in Latin Europe. He has lived between 1126
and 1198 who has given valuable work in medicine. He is one of the
Andalusian Muslim physician. He has written Al-Kulliyat Fi’ll Tibb which was
translated into Latin as Colliget. This book was written as a medical
encyclopedia which has illuminated Latin European medical learning.
(http://www.levity.com/alchemy/islam19.html)
Ibn Al-Nafis (1213-1288)
Ibn al-Nafis, born in Syria in 1213 and died in 1288. He practiced medicine in
Cairo. He described the lesser (pulmonary) circulation for the first time in
history. Ibn Al-Nafis has contributed to medicine with his valuable
commentaries. In his commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon, Ibn al-
Nafis put forth the pulmonary and coronary circulations in the 13th century for
the first time in the medical history. According to sources this work was
translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis)
37
Fig 5. A page from Ibn al-Nafis's 13th-century treatise The Concise Book (Kitab
Mujiz) written in Arabic.
Source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/catalog_02.html.
38
HIPPOCRATIC TREATISES TRANSLATED IN ARABIC.
Fig 6. A page from a Commentary written by Ibn al-Nafis on Prognostics based
on the Hippocratic Corpus's Prognostics Part. The Greek version of Prognostics
were translated in earlier centuries by Hunain Ibn Ishaq. Ibn Nafis has written a
commentary on this work using Hunain’s translation.
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/hippocratic.html
39
Fig 7. A page from “A Commentary on the Hippocratic Treatise On the Nature of
Man”.
Original Name: On the Nature of Man from the Hippocratic Corpus.
Arabic Name: Shar Kitāb tabi‘at al-insān li-Buqrā .
Commentator for the Treatise: Ibn Al-Nafis.
Source: (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/hippocratic.html)
Writing commentaries describes the medical text and explains it to the audience
with the additional information put by the physician. It proves the in depth
knowledge of the author in medicine. It can be composed of ideas or
knowledge from other physicians (Glick, 2005, p 17). Medical teaching focused
on medical commentaries in addition to the texts. The commentary is important
because it builds a bridge between Greek medical learning to Arabic medical
learning which is a contribution to the science and culture and brings
advancement in that sense to medical science.
40
Fig 8. A page from “Kitāb al-Buthūr”,(translation of Hippocratic, The book of Pustules)
by Yahya Ibn al-Bitriq.
Original Name: The Book of Pustules. (Greek Medical Text dated from 5th
Century A.D on Prognosis and death based on skin disorders).
Arabic Name: Kitāb al-Buthūr. Translator: From Greek to Arabic by Yahya Ibn
al-Bitriq. Source: (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/hippocratic.html).
41
GALENIC TREATISES TRANSLATED IN ARABIC
Fig 9. A page from “De usu partium” of Galenic medical treatise translated by
Hunain Ibn Ishaq.
Original Name: De usu partium (Greek name). On the Usefulness of the Parts
of Galenic Medical Treaties (216 A.D.)
Arabic Name: Kitāb fī manāfi ‘al-a‘a'
Translator: From Syriac to Arabic by Hunain Bin Ishaq.
Kitāb fī manāfi ‘al-a‘a' is the Arabic translation. The text was translated from
Syriac to Arabic by Hubaysh, the nephew of the translator and physician Hunain
Ibn Ishaq. The manuscript is the Arabic translation.
Source: (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/galen.html)
42
Fig 10. A page from “Treatise on Bones for Beginners” by Galen (216 AD)
translated into Arabic
Source: (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/galen.html)
43
Fig 11. A page from Treatise on the” Anatomy of Muscles” by Galen ( 216 AD)
translated into Arabic.
Source: (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/galen.html).
44
The pre-Islamic medical tradition and the vast translation activity during Islamic
rule cannot be the only reason for the success of Arabic medicine. Rahim
(1981, p. 57) argues that there are unique Islamic approaches and that a certain
systematic organization in Islamic Medicine which manifested itself in three
major elements: The first was the medical organization by hospitals and schools
where medicine and practice of medicine was taught, and where the teaching
was done in theory as well as practice. The Islamic organization was based on
the eligibility of a person who wished to practice medicine. Such an organization
did not exist in Greek times. The organization of Islamic medical learning was
later copied by medical schools in Europe. The Salerno School used to be a
Muslim learning centre and when Salerno became Italian continued its teaching
activity based on the same principles (Ülken 1935, p. 68).
The second most important element was the definition of a disease by its
symptoms. The definitions were all based on observations similar to those of
the Greeks, but Islamic medicine brought a systematic classification of diseases
and their symptoms. Systemizing has been pioneered in Islamic medicine. The
best examples will be Ali ibn al-`Abbas al-Majusi, Al Zahwari (Abulcasis) and
Ibn-i Sina (Avicenna). They are all regarded as the The Great Systemizers of
Islamic medicine.
(http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic_07.html).
Ali ibn al-`Abbas Al-Majusi's influential Arabic encyclopaedia produced a
systematic organization of medicine. He divided his encyclopaedia into two
large books, one on theoretical principles and the other on practical aspects.
Each book had ten chapters, with divisions and subdivisions, typical of the
elaborate organizational format of medieval Arabic writings. This work was
adapted by Constantine the African in the 10th century and was used as a major
reference source in Latin Christendom.
Avicenna is the most influential of all Islamic physician on the history of
medicine. His works systemized the diseases, treatments and symptoms and
45
this can be seen in his 270 different treatises.
(http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic_07.html) For
instance Avicenna has made great contribution in the systemic classifications of
diseases and symptoms. He has given 250 different names of headaches and
800 different names to the pulses. (personal interview, Esin Kahya, March
2009).
46
THE 12TH CENTURY TRANSLATION MOVEMENT
12th century translation activity which started in the Latin speaking West brought
the knowledge of Arabic medicine and Greek medicine to Latin speaking west.
The interaction between Latin West and Arabic civilization through Andalusian
Muslims and the Christian crusades to Middle East brought West’s attention on
Islamic knowledge. The need for acquiring the knowledge led the Latin West
towards translating the medical texts. . The translation movement in medicine
was started in the 11th century in which medical texts of Greco-Arabic and
Arabic were translated into Latin. It reached to its peak with numerous and
systematic translation in 12th century. The Latin language is the target language
into which Arabic and Greek medical sources were translated.
The desire for Greco-Arabic learning grew out of an almost worshipful
respect for ancient learning and wisdom, as 12th century scholars
recognized an incalculable debt to their predecessors. ... Reports of treaties
that existed in either Greek or Arabic, but that were known in the West only
by title, or not at all, aroused the curiosity and desires of Western scholars
while simultaneously reinforcing a sense of intellectual deprivation. To
remedy this serious deficiency, Western scholars acted to acquire the
scientific heritage of the past. They began to translate treatises from Arabic
and Greek into Latin because … they wanted to present the treasures of
the East to the West and thus relieve the poverty of the Latins in so many
fields.” (Delisle, 1995, p. 116)
Middle Ages in Latin West is the period in which no major achievements were
done in medicine. Indeed it is a period of regression in terms of medical
advancement. The need for translations into Latin came up after Latin West
realized their intellectual depravity which became more visible as they came
into close interaction with Islamic civilization. The only activity which would help
the Latin West to acquire the knowledge was translating the texts in almost all
subjects. During the same period,Islamic medicine has reached a very
advanced level . Almost all the existing Galenic medical texts were translated
into Arabic in addition to Hippocrates. Out of which many Muslim physicians
produced new medical texts. Before the 12th century translation movement,
47
there are very few medical texts or translations produced in Latin West. The
lack of translated texts and original texts or commentaries in medicine indicates
the lack of knowledge in this area. We can hardly name any prolific physicians,
or medical texts or translations done by Latin West in the Medieval era before
the 12th century translation activity. The fact that translation is an intellectual
activity which requires background knowledge on the source text was also
understood by the Latin West. As the Latin West is less advanced intellectually
and technically this depravity was felt in translations. They were in other words
were not capable of using any medical terms in Latin language during the
Mediaval times. For instance when we look at the translations in the Islamic
civilizations we see that most of the translators are also well known physicians.
(Faraq, 1978, p. 293). Their technical expertise on medicine was incorporated
with their linguistic diversity and capability. Yuhanna Masawaih or Hunain Ibn
Ishaq and his assistant can be given as an example for physician-translators.
The first translations from Greek medical texts into Latin dates back to 1st
century. Celsus from the 1st century is known to have translated most of the
Hippocratic medical literature into Latin and therefore, Greek medical learning
came to the Roman Empire. Pliny the Elder is known to be the second most
important Roman physician and translator who contributed to the dissemination
of Greek medicine in the 3rd century (Fischbach, 1998, p. 17). Other than that
we come across compilations of medical works which are collection of existing
knowledge. Some examples of early medieval compilers of the Middle Ages are
Marcelus of Bordeaux (400 AD), Isidore of Sevilla (570-363), the Venerable
Bede (674-735) and the Abbot Hrabanus Marurus of Fulda (780-856 AD)
(Ackerknecht, 1982, p. 80).
We can summarize the reason for this lack of knowledge in medicine. After
Romans conquered Greek lands, intellectual and philosophical interaction
began. This interaction manifested itself in copying Greek ways of thinking,
literature, science and philosophy. Translation was obviously the medium
48
through which this process took place. (Ülken, 1935, p. 233) However, mainly
literary and historical texts were translated since Latin speaking Europeans at
the time were not very advanced in sciences, especially in medicine.
The other important factor is the Christianity. The Church did not promote
medical learning on the grounds that diseases were seen as the curse of God.
Latin West during this period conceives diseases as God’s punishment. It was
seen as a profession which Christians should not take part. The Christianity’s
attitude which did not support medical research and promote medical practice
for religious reasons plays a major role in preventing medical advancement.
One other significant need which Latin West felt that made translations
inevitable is the emergence of bourgeois class. According to Gutas (1998, p. 4),
the translation work during the Renaissance stemmed from the needs of
laymen; or in other words, bourgeoisie who wanted to obtain the knowledge
themselves.
“The scholarly consensus on the similar and equally far-reaching translation
activity of Aristotelian and other ancient texts from Greek and Arabic into
Latin in the twelfth century appears to be that it was due to the rise in
Western Europe of a new class of lay teacher. According to this
explanation, which is essentially a corollary to the analysis of the rise of the
bourgeoisie, this new class, because of its different socio-economic
background, required a new kind of knowledge that was independent from
the antagonistic to the tradition church learning of the clergy” (Gutas, 1998,
p. 4).
The interaction between Latin West and the Muslim World took place in two
major points. As very little or no original medical texts in Latin existed before
12th century the dissemination of medical knowledge to Europe gained access
by two gates. One is the interaction of Latin West with Muslim medicine in
Andalucia. Islamic medicine was introduced to Europe by the Muslims
themselves in Andalusia and Sicily. This region served as the gate through
which Latin West gained access to the Arabic sciences, intellect and
49
knowledge. Sicily as a part of the Byzantine Empire until 878, was under
Muslim control from 878-1060 and came under Norman control between 1060
and 1090. As a consequence, Sicily knew a rich linguistic diversity which
stimulated the work on translations. (http://www.answers.com/topic/latintranslations-
of-the-12th-century). The second major factor which introduced the
Islamic and Ancient Greek medical tradition was the crusades. One example
regarding the level of European medical knowledge would be the impact of
Crusades which started in the 11th century. During the crusades to Islamic
lands, the Europeans became acquainted for the first time with how Muslims
cared for the injured soldiers on the battlefield and they came to realize that
medicine is a most important area in which they lacked knowledge. (Personal
interview with Melek Dosay, professor at Philosophy department in Ankara
University, March 2009).
The Christian conquest in Spain and Sicily and the Western Mediterranean in
the late eleventh and beginning of the 12th century is also the start of the rise of
major European intellectual centres where important translations were
undertaken. The most important centres in Europe in medicine were the School
of Salerno and the Toledo School of Translation. The sources of medical
learning in these centres were based on Arabic medical texts translated into
Latin. These centres came to be known by the works that were produced and
by the major translators associated with them. Constantine the Africa is a
notable translator affiliated with the Salerno School.
“It was by way of a long detour through the Near East and North Africa
that Greek medical lore returned to Western culture, the Arabs acting as
intermediaries. The two outstanding translators of classical material from
Arabic into Latin were Constantinus Africanus (1020-1087) who worked at
Salerno at the monastery of Monte Cassino, and Gerald of Cremona (1140-
1187) who worked in Toledo. It is noteworthy that both translators resided
on the Arab-Christian frontiers. It was no coincidence that Salerno was the
first famous medical centre of the Middle Ages, it was close to Arab Sicily;
and that the first medically outstanding medieval university, Montpellier was
situated in Southern France, near the Spanish border (Ackerknecht 1982;
85)
50
The translation activity has been the most important tool in dissemination of
knowledge between different geographies. It is the Mediterranean and Middle
East the medical knowledge has existed, shared and enriched due to the
translation activity and the translators. The 12 th century translation movement
is the discovery of the Greek medical learning through Islamic medical writings.
The texts, medical terminology that are created in a systematized form during
the Islamic era were passed to Europe. Arabs took Greek knowledge of
medicine, enriched it and brought it back to West. The translation activity and
the translations are the most important elements in this tour of knowledge.
CONSTANTINE THE AFRICAN
Constantine was born in Carthage, located in today's Tunisia, and spent most of
his life in Sicily, then under Arabic rule. He studied medicine in Muslim Schools
in Africa and Baghdad where he learn great medical knowledge in Arabic.
(http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=434).
Constantine the African is the first translator in the West, translating Arabic
medical texts into Latin in the 11th century . The first medical work translated
from Arabic into Latin is the Isagoge Iohanniti. This is Hunayn Ibn Ishaq's work
called “Masa'il fi al-tibb”. (Jacquard, 1996, p. 963) Due to this fact, we can
consider all of his translations as planting the first seeds of medical
enlightenment in Europe. For instance, his translation of Muslim physician Ibn
Al Jazzar's book “Zad Al Musafir” (Viaticum in Latin) introduced Europe with the
concept of love sickness. According to Wack (1994, p. 192) the translation of
the Viaticum by Constantine the African brought to attention the psychological
and pathological changes that manifest themselves in a person who is in love.
This concept received attention in the the Latin West.
Constantine the Africa's translation disseminated a medical view of love
that helped to shape the European experience of eros during the high
51
Middle Ages. He was the first, as far as we know, to endow the Arabic word
for passionate love or lovesickness - “isq” - with a Latin equivalent, and thus
to give Western physicians a diagnostic term for the malady of love” (Wack,
1994, p. 162)
Another example for his great effect on the medicine in Europe is his translation
of Kitab al-Malaki (Royal Book) which is written by Ali ibn al-Abbas in the 10th
century. With the translation of Ali ibn al-Abbas' (known as Haly Abbas in
Europe) work into Latin under the name of Liber Pantegni, written in 977, he
introduced the division of theory and practice in medicine. The significance of
this text was that it was an important source for medicine for Europe. That it
became part of the standard medical curriculum “Articella” in 1250.
One of the other significant translation which Constantine laid down was Ibn Al
Gazzar’s work Risala Fin-Nisyan. It is a medical text written in Arabic on
forgetfulness. The Latin translation is called “ Liber de Oblivione” According to
Bos (1994, p. 204) this subject has been taken up by Ancient Greek . It can be
said that the introduction of Ancient Greek medical thought on forgetfulness
and brain’s function into Arabic science is transferred to Latin West by
translation of Constantine.
THE SALERNO SCHOOL
The southern Italian town of Salerno became the center for medical, intellectual
and scientific research, starting from 1076 when the Normans took it from
Byzantine rule. The Salerno School, which became famous for the books
written there, became the first medieval Medical School in Europe. Translation
of Arabic physicians were the major sources upon which Salerno School was
founded. Pantegni, Viaticum and translations of Hunain Ibn Ishaq's works were
the most popular of the books associated with this school. Constantine the
African who translated those Arabic medical texts brought this knowledge to
SalernoMedicalSchool.
(http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=434). This is the
52
most important reason how Salerno became famous medical school in the
Medieval Latin West. As mentioned by Ulken (1935, p. 223) that the school was
an imitation of a Muslim madrase in Salerno.
53
The following manuscripts, are products of the Salerno School based on the
translations of Greaco-Arabic and Arabic medical knowledge.
Fig 12. A page from “Salerno School Manuscript, Joannes de Sancto Paulo.
Breviarium de signis, causis, et curis morborum”.
This Salernitan manual was widely copied across 13th century Europe.
Source: (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medieval/salerno.html).
54
Fig 13. A page from “ Salerno School Manuscript, Gerard du Berry. Super
Viatico”.
A 13th century commentary, on Constantine's Viaticum is shown on this page.
(Viaticum is the translation of the Muslim physician Ibn-Al Jazzar's work Zad al
Musafid, which was written in the 10th century. Constantine the African
translated it and named as “Viaticum” in Latin. Gerard du Berry wrote a
commentary on the Viaticum of Constantine. Writing commentaries is evidence
to the advancement of medicine.
Source: (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medieval/salerno.html ).
55
Fig 14. A page from “ Viaticum”.
This manuscript is the translation of Constantinus Africanus' Viaticum dated 13th
century. The book contains descriptions of different diseases and their
treatment. It is known as one of the most important works of Ibn -Al Jazzar and
contains quotations from the works of Hippocrates, Galen and Aristotle.
Source: (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medieval/salerno.html).
56
Fig 15.A page from “ Constantine the African’s Viaticum” (13th century).
Source:(http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medieval/salerno.html).
57
Fig 16. A page from “Regimen Sanitatis Salernitanum”.
It is the best known medical texts of School of Salerno. It is a text based on
Greek medical tradition which gives out the principles of good health.
Source: (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medieval/salerno.html).
58
Fig 17. A page from “Regimen Sanitatis Salernitanum”, Salerno Manuscripts.
Source: (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medieval/salerno.html).
59
Articella
Articella became the first medical curriculum in Latin West. It is a major medical
text book and a collection of medical treatises influential in medical education.
This collection of medical texts in Latin opens with Hunain's translation of
Galenic medicine called “Questions on Medicine for Scholars,” which came to
be known to Latin Christendom as Isagoge Ioannittii ad Tegni Galenien. Hunain
translation of Galenic medicine has been included into the Latin medical
curriculum in the 12th century as one of the five major texts. Hunain has been
known for his accurate translation of most of Galenic writings and therefore his
work was translated as a major source of Galenic medicine by the Latin West.
For instance, This translation was also taken by the Latin West and made as the
major source of Articella. (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medieval/articella.html)
The other four major medical texts of Greaco-Arabic medicine are
Hippocrates’s Aprorisms, Hippocrates’s Prognostics Theophilus
Protospathesrius’s De Urinis and Philaretus’s De Pulsibus. This curriculum
was expanded by other additions such as Ars parva, Hippocrates’s De regimine
acutorum (On Regimen in Acute Diseases), The Canon of Avicenna, a Prologue
to Hippocrates' Aphorism, attributed to Origbasius, Glen's commentary of
Hippocrates' Aphorism, Galen's commentary to Hippocates’s Prognostic, Ali Ibn
Ridwan's commentary to Galen's Ars medica and Galen's commentary to
Hippocrates’s De regiiince acutroum. (Prioreschi, 2001, p. 253) The formation
of Articella is the result of intellectual awakening of Latin West in medicine. All of
these texts included in the Articella are either texts of Arabic medicine or Greco-
Arabic translations based on Greek medicine. As there are no original medical
works in Medieval Europe during the time when Articella was formed. The
medical works included in Articella was the translations of Greek and Arabic
medical texts into Latin as Latin West was to fullfill their depratity on the subject.
The Articella was formed brought a new perspective in medical learning in Latin
West. Commentaries were started to be written on Articella by the 13th century.
60
This shows that Latin West started to gain mastery on medicine by writing
commentaries. (Glick, Livesey, Wallis, 2005, p. 54)
The followings are some examples to Articella manuscripts.
61
Fig 18. A page from Hunayn ibn Ishaq’s famous work “Isagoge Johannitii in
Tegni Galeni” .The manuscript contains a model "Articella," decorated with 12
miniature illustrations depicting medical consultation, examination, and
instruction. Source :(http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medieval/articella.html).
Isagoge was a work of Hunain Ibn Ishaq written on Galenic medicine.
Source:(http://www.kb.se/codex-gigas/eng/Long/texter/medica/)
62
Fig 19. An example of Articella Decoration. “ The letter O”
A physician consulting a book at his patient's bedside.
Source: (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medieval/articella.html).
Fig 20. An example of Articella Decoration. The letter “T”
A master instructing students.
Source: (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medieval/articella.html).
63
Fig. 21. An example of Articella decoration. The letter “M”
A master with two students.
Source:(http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medieval/articella.html)
Fig 22. An Example of Articella decoration. The letter “U”
A physician displaying a flask of urine for a student.
(Source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medieval/articella.html).
64
Fig 23. An example of Articella decoration. The letter “D”
A physician with a flask of urine, possibly comparing it to pictures or
descriptions of various colors of urine in a book.
Source: (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medieval/articella.html).
65
Fig 24. A page from Hippocratic Corpus text. Aphorismi. 15th century.
Source: (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medieval/articella.html).
66
Fig 25. A page from Aphorisms in Articella.
It was translated from Greek original and became the core of the medical
curriculum of School of Salerno.
Source: (http://www.kb.se/codes-gigas/eng/Long/texter/medica).
67
Medicine in Latin Europe was highly influenced by the Arabic and earlier Greek
medical tradition through translations done into Latin from Arabic and Greek.
The 12th century European translation activity bears similarities to that of 8th
century in the Islamic Period. Grant (1996, p. 171) mentions that Europe had
gained access to the Greco-Arabic medical knowledge that had been
meticulously collected, translated and preserved by the Islamic Empire between
the 8th and 11th centuries.
“The western world became acquainted with the Arabic system of
numeration, algebra, the Ptolemaic world system and the works of
Hippocrates and Galen, along with an important body of Greek and Arabic
medical knowledge. The impact of this movement on intellectual renewal
and growth was so great that the period has been referred to as the “12th
century Renaissance” (Delisle, 1995, p. 116)
Delisle, like the scholars previously quoted herein, states that the West was
introduced to Greek and Arabic medical knowledge via the vast translation
activity and discovered Hippocrates and Galen as the most significant medical
authorities. The centers in Southwest Europe emerged as centres of learning
and translations.
The intellectual standstill in medieval Europe improved through the 12th century
translation activity. Works during this era by those like Constantine the African
and later Gerard of Cremona (1140-1187) of Toledo filled the gaps in European
intellectual, scientific and cultural knowledge and laid the foundations for the
Renaissance in Europe.
THE TOLEDO SCHOOL OF TRANSLATION
The Toledo school of translation was established in the City of Toledo in Spain
between 1126-1151 by the archbishop of Toledo. (Badawi, 1991 p. 1) The
general characteristic of the Toledo School is that the translators were affiliated
68
to the Church and they were in search of texts to be translated. (Delisle, 1995,
p. 117). The translator were to chose travel in search of finding texts which they
can translate. Very many foreign translators came to Spain for this purpose.
Adelard of Bath, Hermann of Dalamatia, Plato of Tivoli, Robert of Chester,
Rudolph of Bruges, John of Seville, Hugo of Santillana and Gerard of Cremona
all came to acquire texts and to translate them at the crossroads of Europe
where it met the Islamic word and Islamic medical heritage (Delisle, 1995, p.
195).
We can argue that in 12th century translation activity the religious discipline and
systematization enabled the translation activity to be more unified and
successful. If we remember the success of 8th century translations having
prepared linguistically and systematically for translation activity, the same idea
is true for 12th century translations. The translations were done by clergy who
were dedicated to work in full discipline. The language of Latin was bettered in
terms of scientific terminology and grammar. Almost all of the Greaco-Arabic
and Greek texts were translated numerous times.
GERARD OF CREMONA
Gerard of Cremona (d. AD 1187) worked under the patronage of Bishop
Raymond who initiated the regular school of translators in Toledo. Between
1150 and 1180, Gerard of Cremona translated in Toledo major Islamic works of
9th and 10th century and by those works made great contributions to the
development of medicine in Latin West. (Luscombe, 2005, p. 486) He
translated over seventy books from Arabic. Among the books he translated were
the surgical part of al-Tasrif of Al-Zahrawi, Kitab al-Mansuri of al-Razi and the
Qanun (Canon) of Ibn Sina. His translation of The Canon of Medicine is his
greatest contribution to the Latin West.
The most important translated work of the Arabic medicine is the Canon of
Medicine of Ibn-i Sina. That this work should be mentioned as more distinctive
69
than any other works is due to the fact that after its translation it became the
major source of medical learning for Europe until the 16th century. From the 12th
to the 16th century, the teaching and practice of medicine were based almost
solely on this work. The Canon of Medicine was translated in its entirety
between 1150 and 1187 by Gerard of Cremona,
OTHER LATIN TRANSLATORS
Adelard of Bath
Adelard of Bath has lived between 1080-1152. He was a translator who made
various journeys in search of Arabic texts in Spain, Sicily and Syria.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelard_of_Bath)
Michel Scot
He studied in Spain and later become astrologer to Frederick II of Sicily. While
in Toledo he translated Al-Hayah (Astronomy) by Al-Bitruji, and while in Sicily he
translated Avicenna's comments on the Zoology of Aristotle.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/michelscot)
John of Seville
He worked under the patronage of Bishop Raymond. He translated some of the
works of Avicenna, Qusta Ibn Luqa and Al-Farhani.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/johnofseville)
Gundisalvi
(Domenico Gonzales) translated al-Kulliyat of Ibn Rushd (Colliget of Averroes),
the Urjuza of Ibn Sina (Cantica Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd's Commentary on it.
70
He also translated Kitab al-Nafs (anima) and Kitab al-Shifa (Sufficientia ) of
Avicena. (Glick, Livesey, Wallis, 2005, p. 203)
Faraj Ibn Salim (Faragut, Faririus)
He is a Jewish Sicilian translator who translated al-Hawi of Al-Razi and Taqwim
al-Abdan (tacuini) of Ibn Jazlah. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/farajibnsalim)
71
SOME EXAMPLES OF ANCIENT GREEK AND ARABIC MEDICAL TEXTS
USED AS MEDICAL SOURCES BY LATIN WEST.
Fig .26. A page from Latin translation of Avicenna’s great work “Canon of
Medicine.
Source: (http:www.loc.gob/exhibits/vatican/medicine.html)
This text was used by Latin speaking West as the major source of medical text
until 17th century.
72
Fig 27. A page from “De usu Partium” of Galenic medicine transcribed in 15th
century.
Galen’s De usu partium which was written in the 2nd century A.D. is on
physiology and anatomy. The below text is in Greek and has illuminated the
medicine in Renaissance.
Source: (http://www.loc.gob/exhibits/vatican/medicine.html).
73
Fig 28. A page from Hippocratic Work in Greek transcribed in 15th century.
This manuscript is Hippocrates’ Works in Greek which was transcribed in 1514
in Rome . The original work dates back to 5th century BC.
Source: (http:www.loc.gob/exhibits/vatican/medicine.html).
74
Fig 29. A page from Hippocrates, Hippocratis octoginta volumina. Hippocratic
work translated into Latin.
It was translated into Latin by Marco Fabio Calvo, in Rome in 1515 and was
printed in 1525.
Source: (http:www.loc.gob/exhibits/vatican/medicine.html).
75
TRANSLATIONS AND MEDICINE
“ Medical translations is the most universal and oldest field of scientific
translation because of the homogeneous ubiquity of the human body and
the venerable history of medicine” (Fischbach, 1998, p. 17)
As it is mentioned by Fischbach (1998, p. 17) history of medicine is one of the
oldest written tradition of recorded texts. In this respect, as being a universal
subject having direct effect on the human life, it has always been the subject of
interest . Since antiquity, the search for medical sources has always been
humanity's quest for attaining knowledge. All through the ages translation
activity was instrumental in passing this information between cultures who have
been in need of learning ways to heal the sick and learn about the causes of
diseases. In this respect, medical texts have been translated into different
languages throughout the history.
When the historical remoteness of scope of this thesis is considered, we come
across to various difficulties. As mentioned by Potter (1990, p.169) the oldest
available ancient medical texts of Greek and Latin dates from the 9th century
A.D. Considering the time when Hippocratic Corpus is documented which is 4th
century B.C. the task of translation has been a huge obstacle for the translators
of the Mediveal Islam and Latin West. During the antiquity there were not very
many people compatible in language. Rendering a medical translation also
makes the field more challenging during its own time. For instance there were
not more than twenty people who can read and write Arabic at the time when
the Muslim religion was introduced. The same is true for Latin. The Latin
language also has gone through various stages during its development.
However with the great efforts of translators of the Middle Ages both in Muslim
world and in the Latin west, the languages were developed and medical
terminologies were established for each civilization. With the 8th century
translation activity, the Arabic language has become the language of science.
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Latin likewise became the language of science for many centuries as a result of
12th century translation activity.
Creating a terminology can only be possible by studying the discipline and
conveying that discipline to a given language. Since medicine is a technical
subject, the terms can only be formed via studies conducted in the given
language and by phrasing that subject matter in the same language. The
reason why Greek became a language of medicine lies beneath the fact that the
Greek had advanced in this discipline. During that period, these advancements
were written down in Greek. These texts made Greek the language of medicine.
The methods of the Ancient Greek in medicine, since they were quite prominent
in this discipline, were learned by their successors. Translation had a major role
in this transfer between cultures.
Since medical studies were conducted in Greek, it is this very language that
forms the basis of medical terminology. Therefore, the discoveries and
innovations were named with words chosen from the same language.
In other words it took a great effort to be able to render translations in medicine.
In translating medical texts terminology is the most important factor which
determines the success of translation. Without creating the terminology of the
target language, the translations cannot be rendered fully. During the 8th
century translation movement Hunain Ibn Ishaq has created most of the medical
terminology in Arabic. Arabic was studied in grammar, terminology during the
Islamic Caliphate . The translation methods and principles were brought into
conformity with grammar. This has prepared the translators as well as physician
to create their texts with uniform Arabic.
However the importance of intermediary language “Syriac” should be
mentioned. As a matter of fact, most of the physicians/translator of the Islamic
era were of Christian Syriac who are competent in Greek, Syriac and Arabic. As
Frothingham (1884, p. 200) also regarded Syriac is “the sacred language of the
converted Eastern people and it was the means by which Greek culture was
77
commutated to the Arabs”. Therefore we can say that through the help of Syriac
language and culture, Greek knowledge was introduced to the lands where they
lived which is today’s Middle East.
The history of medicine is the history of medical translations in many ways. With
each translation movement, an enlightenment has occurred. For instance with
the 8th century translation movement great physicians of Islamic civilization was
born. Avicenna, Al Zahrawi, Rhazes, can be named out of many. The same
process is true for the 12th century translation movement by which Latin West
established great learning centres and indulged in translation activity and writing
commentaries which resulted in production of original works like Vesalius.
When we study the history of medicine from the Ancient times until the 15th
century one significant truth arises. It is the fact that medicine owes great debt
to translators. Translators became prominent in the Middle Ages. Their
personalities and lifestories gives us clues about their success.
It would not be wrong to say that the translators were identified with the period
in which they translated. The following reason can be given for this matter.
When we look at the conditions surrounding the Middle Ages, we can observe
various difficulties. The limited number of persons, who can both conduct
medical research and speak more than one languages can be given as an
example to these hardships. This was especially the case in the field of
medicine, since the language of medicine is based on its terminology. The
scarcity of the people having a good command of language and knowledge of
medicine, can explain why some prominent translators had come to forefront in
various centuries.
As Ülken (1935, p. 182) pointed out, the translation activity was undertaken by
notable people who had compiled commentaries about Ancient Greek, Syrian
and Alexandrian medical knowledge. Writing commentaries signifies the depth
of knowledge and contributes to the medical learning. Ülken (1935, p. 183),
lists the names of those prolific translator-physicians as Yuhanna Bin Batriq,
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Ebu Zeyd Hunain Ibn Ishaq, Ishaq bin Huanyn, Isa Ibn Yahya, Sabit bin KUrre,
Kusta Ibn Luca, Ibn –En –Nefis and many more.
Particularly during the period under study in this thesis, translators were guided
by their own intuition and following their own logic of what was appropriate.
Their thinking and approach were therefore often shaped by factors external to
the translation activity such as religion, tradition and political situations of their
time. Hunain Ibn Ishaq and his assistants were supported by the Abbasid's
Caliphate's whose ideology was to consolidate its strenght by the intellecual
treasures brought into Arabic language. Whereas Constantine the African and
other European translators were also supported by the Christiendom and the
European states which were to fullfill their lack of intellectual and scientific
depravity.
TRANSLATIONS OF ANCIENT MEDICAL TEXTS AND TRANSLATION
THEORY
Translation theories have only been developed during the last four decades.
The field in the case of medicine also makes the translation activity unique.
Since antiquity, translating texts have faced with the problem of how to transfer
the original text into the receiving culture. Especially when the translation
activity is considered in medicine, it becomes a more challenging task. It did
even became an obscurite activity.
Translation of medical texts is a special field of translation and have
terminology specific to that field. It is essential that these texts be translated
without any loss of meaning, since it is related with human health. The text
therefore was translated word-for-word. Since the meaning of the text is
much more important than communication, the form of the text was strictly
observed and structure of phrases was preserved completely. Due to the
fact that the subject is concerned with health, it is necessary to act carefully
so that there is no loss of meaning in the translation; that is, if the text is
mistranslated or if its translation is incomplete, then vital importance of the
subject is ignored, which should be strictly avoided when translating
medical texts. (Erten, 1995, p. 44 )
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As mentioned by Erten, (1995, p. 45) ideally medical translations due to its
uniqueness for having a special terminology and subject matter needed to be
translated semantically. For this matter, the translations are to be done word by
word without leaving out any information. In an effort not to leave out any
information or rendering inaccurate translation each word was translated from
the original since the subject is related with human health which needs to be
translated accurately. The method suggested by Erten is true for the medical
translations in the modern world. However, it has been the major concern for
the translations of medical texts in the Medieval times as well. Because the
objective for mediaval translation is also to transfer the meaning of the subject
matter. It is the human health and must be transferred accurately without
leaving anything out. The concern of rendering the meaning of text without
showing too much liberation due to the subject matter also has been the main
idea. However considering the time and the condition under which translations
were taking place during the Medieval times, it bacame more difficult. In order to
bypass the linguistic, terminologic and conceptual challenges, freer translation
were adopted. According to Sneddon (1999, p. 337) the translators were loyal
to the meaning of the medical text but they did not refrain from collecting
information from different sources while translating. This does not mean being
free in transfering the meaning it is only a method which medical translators can
use in order to accurately transfer the meaning. It is the beginning of scientific
enlightenment and effort were made to render the meaning. If we consider
those challenges this approach is quite understandable.
The study of Peter Newmark's concept of Communicative and Semantic
translation will provide a better understanding to the practice used by the
ancient translators in their translations of medical texts. According to Newmark,
(1988, p. 36), semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the
semantic and syntactic structures of the target language allows, the exact
contextual meaning of the original. On the other hand, communicative
translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to
that obtained on the readers of the original.
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However, when we study the translation of ancient text which is the subject of
this thesis the method varies. The descriptions and explaining the subject
matter in a utilitarian and practical way possible becomes the goal of such
translations. As mentioned by Newmark, (1981, p. 69)the translations of a
medical text by Galen or Hippocrates would attempt to clarify all the fact of the
text as though the original text were being explained to a modern reader – any
equivalent-effect is only the imagination.
Constantine the African's way of giving Latin names to the original Arabic
medical texts as could be observed in the book of Isagoge (Isagoge is the
Latinized name of the first medical Latin translation from Arabic source) is a
type of practice which is an effort to adapt the title to the Latin speaking culture
by Latinizing the original name. (Jacquard, 1996, p.964). It would make the
audience to accept the texts as it fits to the culture. As it will be remembered,
the translation activity of 12th century was sponsored by the Church and all the
translation were done on behalf of church. (Delisle, 1995, p. 118). The titles
when they sound familiar to cultures in the case of Isagoge which has Greek
connotation rather than Arabic is illustrative for this purpose.
Technical translations are mainly domesticating, intending to support scientific
research and intends to build an intelligent terminology. Because it aims at
transferring the medical knowledge and the medical terminology to the target
language and target culture so the target culture will learn and benefit from the
new medical information. (Venuti, 1998, p. 44)
Persian translation tradition from Arabic into Persian after Islam became
dominanant in the lands of Persian rule can be a good example for
domesticating the translated texts into the target culture. As mentioned by
Hakkak (1998, p. 515) translation were altered in a way to meet the needs of
the target culture by using some strategies such as shortening, abridging and
such. The translation activity was in other words tailored for the receiving culture
using various techniques. For example, in the 1080s Mohammad Mansur of
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Gorgan composed a Persian manual of ophthalmology entitled based on his
translation of work on eye called as Nur Al Oyun (Light of Eyes) written
originally by an Arab scientist Ali B. Isa. Persian translator organized it in a
question and answer format to make it easily accepted and understood.
(Hakkak, 1998, p. 516)
The constraint of translation of a foreign text were overcame with adopting freer
style as mentioned above had helped the scientific information passed to the
target culture in such a practical way.
Just as in the Persian tradition, similar practical and utilitarian translation was
adopted by notable translator - Hunayn Bin Ishaq in order to overcome the
difficulties he has while he was translating. Gutas(1998, p. 139) quotes
Hunayn's own comments about his translation style and why he used the
method while translation Galen medical text “ On Medical Names (De
nominibulus medicialiblus).
“ In the following passage Galen quotes Aristophanes. However, the Greek
manuscript, from which I translated this work into Syriac, contains such a
large number of mistakes and errors that it would have been impossible for
me to understand the meaning of the text had I not been so familiar with
and accustomed to Galen's Greek speech and acquainted with most of his
ideas from his other works. But I am not familiar with the language of
Aristophanes, nor am I accustomed to it. Hence, it was not easy for me to
understand the quotations, and I have therefore omitted it.
I had an addition reason for omitting it. After I had read it, I found no more
in it than what Galen had already said elsewhere. Hence, I thought that I
should not occupy myself with it any further, but rather proceed to more
useful matters. ” (Gutas, 1998, p. 140)
It can be stated that the translation theory of the Medieval Europe was
centered around two major translation norms. One is the translation norm
practiced by Boetius – who initiated literal (de verbo ad verbum) style. The
second translation norm is based on Cicero's theory that describes translation
as an interpretation made by an orator. According to Strayer (1989, p. 139),
Boetius’ approach to translation fines the translation theory of the Middle Ages.
He quotes a paragraph of Boetihus summarizing his style;
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“I fear that I shall commit the fault of the faithful interpreter when I render
each word by a word corresponding to it. The reason for this approach is
that in the writing in which knowledge of the subject matter is sought, it is
not the charm of limpid speech but the unsullied truth that has to be
expressed. Therefore I feel I have been most useful if, in composing books
of philosophy in the Latin language, through the integrity of a completely full
translation, not a single letter of the Greek is found missing.” (Strayer,
1989, p. 139)
What we mean by the “de verbum de verbo” method of translation should be
explained here to be able to understand the concept better; It is the
replacement of each term in the original text with an equivalent term in the new
language which means one Greek word was to be replaced by one Latin word.
Such method apparently produces various difficulties. Despite the fact that this
method was widely used and even the 12th century translation norm was
associated with de verbum de verbo method, it has created various awkward
translations. Yet, when the inadequacy of the language and technical formation
of the translators and the lack of intellectual heritage are taken into
consideration, this practice should be regarded as quite understandable.
Rendering each word with one or two Latin words has aimed at filling the
deficiency in Latin in terms of terminology and right phrases. It should be
regarded as the natural outcome of that era and also valued as sincere efforts
to transfer the knowledge for the benefit of the humanity.
According to Haskins,(1926, p. 615) who has commented on the translation
practise of mainly the 12th century translation activity stated that the mentioned
era was painfully literal. The translators of that period were replacing each word
they translate with a Latin equivalent and they do it not for the sake of their
ignorance but in an effort not to miss any meaning of the texts written by
authorities such as Aristotle, Plato and such.
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HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF TURKISH MEDICINE AND MEDICAL
TEXTS
Turkish language came to be used as the official language by Seljuk Turks in
the eleventh century. (Paker 2004: 571). During that time the Islamic medical
learning was dominant. However by the 12th century, scientific activities
including medicine began to decline. (Kahya, Erdemir, 2002, p. 411).
Seljuks came to appear as the in Anatolia starting from the 11th century and
that geography came to be dominated by Turkish population. During the
Seljukids period, the educational system was overhauled and medreses made
their appearance as religious learning centers were astronomy and medicine
had also a place (Kahya and Erdemir, 2000, p. 412). The Seljukids also
attached great importance to public health thus undertook the construction of
hospitals and public baths across their empire. The current research institute
for the history of medicine of Kayseri, was in fact originally built as a hospital
during this period (Kahya and Erdemir, 2000, p. 412).
Ottomans continued the support for medreses based on the classical Islamic
model and used to build them nearby hospitals as medicine became an
important subject of their curricula. It was during this period of the Ottoman that
most physicians documented their work and published their methods in Turkish
language with the intention to spread their knowledge within the Ottoman
Empire to the maximum possible extend. They followed the classical Islamic
medical works and their major contribution during this period was the
development of medical terminology in Turkish language (Ihsanoglu, 2006).
There were however, a few physicians who preferred to document their work in
Arabic language. Jamal al-Din Aksarayi stood out among them as he made a
classification of the diseases known then, giving his method for diagnosis,
listing medicaments given for treatment and explaining procedures for some
simple surgical operations that were performed at the time, particularly related
84
to skin diseases (Kahya and Erdemir, 2000, p. 412). Another physician from the
fourteenth century worth mentioning here is Hadji Pasha for he wrote his main
works in Turkish and then translated them himself into Turkish language
summarising parts of them. An example of this is his work titled “Shifa al-Eskam
ve Deva al-Alam” which in Turkish became “Muntehab-I Shifa” (Kahya and
Erdemir, 2000, 413).
FIRST TURKISH MEDICAL TEXTS
The following list of Turkish works has been compiled by Suveren and Uzel
(1988, p. 126-141) and presents the medical works that have been produced
until the time of Fatih Sultan Mehmed.
Tuhfe-i Mübarizi
Tuhfe-i Mubarizi is written by Hekim Bereket who is known to have settled in
Aydın during the reign of the famous Turkish Bey, Aydınoğlu Mehmet Bey (1330
– 1340). Hekim Bereket is known as the writer of first medical book in Turkish.
Source: (Süveren, Uzel 1988, p.127-141).
Hülâsa
It is a book written by Hekim Bereket. It comes together with other books of
Hekim Bereket, namely Tuhfe-i Mübarizi and Tabiatname. After some brief
theoretical information on medicine, the book mentions all illnesses and
diseases from body top to bottom, following the traditional Islamic method used
since the Ancient Times. Source: (Süveren, Uzel 1988, p.127-141).
Edviye-i Müfrede
This book is written by Ishak bin Murad of Gerede (Geredeli Murat) around
1390. According to sources, this book was based on Cürcani’s Zahire-i
Harzemşah and Avicenna’s “al-Qanun”. The first chapter mentions drugs and
plants in alphabetical order. Along with their Turkish names, the Arabic and
Persian names of the plants were given, as well. In addition, their method of
usage was explained. Moreover, the recipes for several types of body aches
85
such as headache, aches in the eyes or ears, were given at the end of this
chapter. Source: (Süveren, Uzel 1988, p.127-141).
Translation of Câmi al Müfredat al-Edviye ve'l-Agdiye
The writer of this text is not known which is a translation of the book of
Ziyaeddin İbn Baytar (? - 1248) written in Arabic, which was made under
request from Aydınoğlu Umur Bey between 1340 and 1348. This book gives
names of drugs in Turkish and Greek in alphabetical order. Source: (Süveren,
Uzel 1988, p.127-141).
Translation of Kâmil al Sınaâat al-Tıbbıye
This book is a translation made under request from Aydınoğlu Umur Bey, of the
book written by Mecusi Ali bin Abbas who was the personal doctor of
Büveyhoğlu Aduc Al-Davle and one of the first Muslim writers. Source:
(Süveren, Uzel 1988, p.127-141).
Müntehab al-Şifa
This book was initially written in Arabic under request from Aydınoğlu İsa Bey by
Hacı Paşa in Ayasluk in 1381, under the title of Şifa al-Eskâm and Deva al-
Alam. Hekim Hacı Paşa was greatly renowned for this book and called
“Avicenna of Anatolia”. Hacı Paşa summarized his book between 1397 and
1398, and called the book Kitab al Saate vel İkbal. This summarized version
became popular under the name of "El-Kümmi el-Celâli". Later, Hacı Paşa
translated this summarized version into Turkish again under request from
Aydınoğlu İsa Bey and called it Müntehab al Şifa. Source: (Süveren, Uzel 1988,
p.127-141).
Teshil al-Şifa
This book is written by Hekim Hacı Paşa. considered Müntehab al-Şifa as
extremely long and difficult to grasp; therefore he omitted some theoretical and
difficult parts of it and summarized it for the second time in Turkish in 1408. The
name of this manuscript is Teshil al-Şifa. The manuscript is arranged in four
areas.
86
• Theoretical medicine.
• Practical medicine.
• Food, beverages and drugs
Cause of diseases, indications and drugs. Source: (Süveren, Uzel 1988, p.127-
141).
Tarvih al-Ervah
This book is written by Hekim Ahmedî (Taceddin ibrahim bin Hızır) (1334-1413)
Hekim Ahmedi, became protégé of Germiyanoğlu Süleyman Şah following his
education in Egypt. Later he was affiliated to the Ottomans and worked for
Bayezid I (nick-named "Yıldırım" -“the thunderbolt”), Emir Süleyman and Çelebi
Sultan Mehmed. Source: (Süveren, Uzel 1988, p.127-141).
Yadigâr
It was written under request from Timurtaş Paşazade Umurbey Çelebi by Ibn
Serifoglu. Since Umurbey was executed in 1413, it could be reasonable to
assert that this book was written at the beginning of the XV century. It mentions
general hygiene, indications of diseases, symptomathology and medical
curriculum, pharmacology and treatment. As a curriculum book, this manuscript,
based on the works of Avicenna and İbn Baytar, was extremely important during
its period. Source: (Süveren, Uzel 1988, p.127-141).
Hülâsat al-Tıp
This book is written by Hekim Hayrettin. At the end of the XIV century, there
were other books bearing the same title as Hülasa of Hekim Bereket,
Hayreddin’s book was one of them. It was written under request from İsfendiyar
Beyzade Kasım Bey of Çandaroğulları. Source: (Süveren, Uzel 1988, p.127-
141).
87
Hülâsa
This book was written by Cerrah Mesud which is composed of thirty chapters,
this book contains information on surgery. Reis al-Cerrahin Ali Tahir bin
Muhammed was referred as the writer in the copy registered with İsmihan
Sultan 332 at Süleymaniye Kütüphanesi. Although Cerrah Mesud was only the
translator, the book is known among the medical historians as Cerrah Mesud's
book. Source: (Süveren, Uzel 1988, p.127-141).
İlyasiye
This book is written in Arabic on behalf of İlyas Bey Muzaffereddin İlyas of
Menteşeoğulları (1402-1421), by Mehmed bin Mahmud of Sirvan. This book
was translated into Turkish upon request, again, from İlyas Bey. Source:
(Süveren, Uzel 1988, p.127-141).
Bahname-i Padişahı
It is a Turkish translation made between 1388 and 1390 under request from
Yakub Bey II, Sultan Yakub bin Devlet Han, who was one of the Germiyan Beys.
The original was written in Persian in dedication to Nâsır-ı Tusi. Due to the fact
that it failed to gain popularity, it was translated for Sultan Murad II again from
the original Persian version into Turkish by Musa bin Mesud. Source: (Süveren,
Uzel 1988, p.127-141).
Kitab-ı müntehab
This book was written under request from Çelebi Sultan Mehmed between the
years 1403 and 1413. The writer states the importance of medicine among
other sciences and considers lack of Turkish books in this field as a significant
handicap. Source: (Süveren, Uzel 1988, p.127-141).
Miftah ün-Nur ve Hazâin üs-Sürur
It was written under request from Kötürüm Bayezid Beyoğlu İsfendiyar Bey of
Çandaroğulları (1392-1440) by Mumin bin Mukbil of Sinop. It mentions anatomy,
hygiene and eye diseases especially. Source: (Süveren, Uzel 1988, p.127-141).
88
Zahire-i Muradiye
It was written in dedication to Sultan Murad II in 1437 by Mumin bin Mukbil of
Sinop. It contains 358 sheets and was written in five chapters, bearing high
didactic value. The fact that this book is referred as source material reveals its
scientific value. Although the book mentions all diseases, it focuses especially
on eye diseases. In addition, it contains illustrations of the instruments used for
eye operations and cauterization. The writer also includes his own observations
in the book. Source: (Süveren, Uzel 1988, p.127-141).
Translation of Akrabadin
The original Akrabadin was written in Arabic. The translation of Akrabadin was
done by Serefeddin Sabuncuoğlu (Şerefeddin bin Ali bin Elhac İlyas) (1386-
1470) in Turkish. Source: (Süveren, Uzel 1988, p.127-141).
Cerrahiye-i Haniye
This book is written by Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu (1386-1470). The last three
chapters of Kitab al-Tasrif fit-Tıp, written by Ebul Kasım Zahravi of the 11th
century Islamic Medicine. Zahravi was a famous physician and surgeon of
Andalusian Islamic world, contain surgical issues. Sabuncuoğlu himself added
three chapters further to those three chapters mentioned above, and presented
it to Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror in 1465. The most distinctive
characteristic of this book is the illustrations of operations it contains. It brought
innovation to Islamic world in this sense, because human figure is forbidden in
Islam. Although Ebul Kasım gave only the illustrations of instruments in his
book, Sabuncuoğlu added to them drawings depicting the techniques of
operation and surgical interventions. This is the first book which contains human
figure in Islamic world. Source: (Süveren, Uzel 1988, p.127-141).
89
CONCLUSION
In today's world we have access to printed versions of books, texts and
documents. We can enjoy the high technical printing means which facilitate and
make it easier, faster and precise reproduction of texts, as well as providing a
healthy background for translation activity. Nowadays we have access to a
large number of glossaries, dictionaries, thesaurus and most importantly the
ultimate virtual encyclopaedia – the Internet, providing us with all kinds of
information at the tipof our fingers within seconds.
When the translation activity is carried out from original or copied manuscripts
under difficult quality conditions, which the modern world has long forgotten, it
becomes a formidable challenging task. Depending upon the calligraphy of the
copyist rather than on the modern printing means, which facilitate producing
readable versions of texts, makes translation a much more error-prone
undertaking.
The same can be said about the medical science in today's world. We are
fortunate for having all kinds of high-technology disease detection techniques,
such as x-ray scans, MRI scans and laboratory and testing facilities. However,
human civilization has gone through huge challenges and had to overcome
obstacles for thousands of years to reach to that level of comfort and technical
advancement.
This thesis shed light into how the medical learning process emerged and
developed through the translation activity and how translation activity has run
into major struggles and stages throughout the ages since ancient times.
The historical coverage in this thesis begins with the period of ancient Greek
starting from the time of Hippocrates, who is regarded as the founder father of
modern medical learning,
90
Ancient Greek Medicine which started by the Hippocratic Medicine in BC 500
marks the early foundations of modern medicine. The knowledge that existed
thousands of years was preserved, transferred and advanced. Translation
activity plays a crucial role in this process of dissemination of knowledge.
Without translation knowledge in any field cannot be shared by different culture
which enrich and advance the knowledge. Therefore, the translation activity
contributed to the development of any science including medicine. Medicine as
having a unique terminology required much more attention and loyalty in
translations. Throughout history the medical translations evolved to reach to
its current status.
The texts of ancient Greek medicine are crucial in being the major sources of
translation. How Greek medicine became the major source of translation as
well as reference source? We must know that in medical translations creating
terminology is the determinant factor. Whoever manages to create the
terminology takes the leading part in that field. Creating a terminology can only
be possible for the culture which creates innovative discoveries and phrasing
that in the same language. In the historical perspective ancient Greek medicine
formed the medical terminology as they were far more advanced in this
discipline than any of their comtemporaries. Their innovaties studies and
discoveries in medicine were recorded in writing in their everyday language,
which is Greek. These texts made Greek the language of medicine.
The methods of the ancient Greeks in medicine, since they were quite
prominent in this discipline, were learned by their successors. Translation
activity enabled the transfer of the Greek knowledge into other cultures. The
texts were the first recorded knowledge on medicine dating back to history as
old as 400 BC. Hippocratic Corpus which contained major medical texts are
very important which created a medical tradition called ancient Greek medicine.
The texts of Hippocratic Corpus and Galenic medicine were translated into
various languages including Syriac, Hebrew, Turkish, Arabic, Latin.
91
Two major translation movements occurred in theperiod between the
Hippocratic era and the 15th century, when major medical developments were
also achieved. The first is the 8th century translation movement which witnessed
the greatest translation efforts in which texts of Greek and Syriac were
translated into Arabic. Major scientific, philosophical ancient Greek texts were
translated into the medieval Islamic tradition and thus enriched this culture. The
second is the 12th century translation movement which many Greek and Arabic
texts were translated into Latin and thus enriched the medieval European
culture. The translation activity of both movement comprised of not only medical
texts, but other fields such a philosophy, astrology, mathematics etc. However,
focusing on this period is crucial to present how translation activity in that
period contributed to the dissemination of medical knowledge and paved the
way to advancement of medicine.
The 8th century translation movement focuses translation of Greek and Iranian
texts into Arabic during the Abbasid’s period. The Arab culture in the Middle
East had begun to rise with the Islamic empire. After the adoption of Islam, the
Arabic language was adopted as the official language . The Islamic Rule had
become dominant in the area stretching from the Arabic Peninsula to the
Iberian Peninsula between the 7th to 12h century and the language of Kuran –
Arabic became the common language of administration, law and sciences. The
Abbasid Islamic Caliphate and mainly the ruler of the Abbasid Empire
advocated the translation activity. The preaching of the Koran and the Prophet
Mohammad which advocates “ seeking of knowledge” - which is the main
ideology - shaped Islamic medicine. The pre-Islamic medical traditions of the
Sasanian empire, which derives much of its sources from Greek tradition has
inspired the Caliphate’s interest in translations. Islamic medicine is based on
ancient Greek medicine and the medical traditions of nations which live under
the Islamic Empire. For instance Arabic, Turkish Iranian, and Indian nations'
medical traditions and the translations and traditions of ancient Greek mainly
formed the Islamic medicine in which all the texts were written in Arabic.
92
As a result of all this, the Islamic empire sought ancient Greek medical
knowledge, as well as pre-Islamic medical learning sources, and acquired it into
its civilization through translation activity.
In this period, Arabization of the medical terminology relied heavily on accurate
translations, and, Hunayn ibn Ishaq is identified with the translation activity of
the 8th century, particularly with his authentic works on ophthalmology. Studies
on Hunayn agree that his medical translations made both practical and
theoretical contributions to the world of medicine and played a huge role in
making Arabic the language of medicine.
The science of medicine provides its own proof that it has developed with the
works of many Muslim medical scientists such as Avicenna (Ibn Sina), Ibn al-
Nafis and al-Razi, and with their commentaries on the medical works written
before them. The medical knowledge that became available through translation
was further enriched and developed with annotations/comments on previous
works, in addition to the own opinions and researches of the medical scientists
and philosophers of the era.
There are hardly any original medical traditions or innovations made in medieval
Europe. The same is true for any original medical writings. It has mainly drawn
its ideas and sources from Greek antiquity and the Islamic medical tradition. It
was a combination of existing ideas from antiquity, and mainly influenced by the
translations of Arabic medical texts
Starting from the late antiquity and the early medieval times until the 12th
century, we can definitely argue that the perception of medicine was based on
the concept of sin combined with superstition. During the early middle ages,
after the fall of the Roman Empire, standard medical knowledge was based on
Greek and Roman texts preserved by monasteries. Again during
93
the early middle ages, the origins and the cure of the diseases were thought to
be caused by destiny, sin and astral influences. We can say that during the
early periods, no medical traditions were established.
Latin Europe, which went through its dark ages from the 4th century to the 12th
century, became acquainted with the science of medicine through the crusades
to the east and the geographic closeness of the Andalusian Muslims, and
realized that they had to close their gaps by studying the translations of these
Arabic medical works.
This new era of translation, which started in the 12th century, brought many
significant translators to the fore, as in the 8th century. Constantine the African
and Gerard de Cremona translated the major works of Arabic medicine into
Latin. As a result, Europe gained knowledge in medicine and started to
rediscover the ancient Greek medicine. In the 11th century, Constantine the
African translated the works of Hunayn ibn Ishaq written in the 9th century, and
offered them to Europe. In particular, he contributed to enrichment of the
Salerno School of Medicine with these translations. In the 12th century, Gerard
de Cremona translated Avicenna’s book, which was then studied as the main
reference book in all medical schools in Europe for centuries.
In this period, called Greco-Arabian by some, Arabic and Greek medical works
were discovered by the West, and learned by sending Christian students to
Islamic medrasas specializing particularly on medicine. Medical translations
from Arabic into Latin proved valuable sources that contributed to the
establishment of Europe’s first medical school, the Salerno School of Medicine.
The systematic and organized medical translations done during the huge
translation movement of the 8th century also allowed Latin Europe to learn and
translate from the Greek medical works. In Europe, the Salerno School of
Medicine and the Toledo School of Translation contributed vastly in translation
of the science of medicine into Latin. These centres are dubbed as the drivers
of the 12th century
94
Renaissance, a period of enlightenment during which they fed knowledge all
over Europe with regard to medicine and translated into Latin the medical works
of the Greek and Islamic civilizations. The knowledge transferred to the West
was not limited only to medicine. The richness in philosophy, mathematics and
other areas of science and culture was also carried across to the West with the
translation movement of the 12th century. It should never be forgotten that
translation has made great contributions to a gigantic development in civilization
such as the Renaissance.
95
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http:www.loc.gob/exhibits/vatican/medicine.html
Adelard_of_Bath. Retrieved on 24 April, 2009.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelard_of_Bath.
Michelscot. Retrieved on 24 April, 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/michelscot
105
John of seville Retrieved on 24 April, 2009.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/johnofseville
Faraj ibn salim. Retrieved on 24 April, 2009.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/farajibnsalim
Ihsanoglu, E. (2006). An Overview of Ottoman Scientific Activities. Foundation
for Science, Technology and Civilisation. Retrieved March 10, 2009,
http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=629
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APPENDIX I
SOME OF THE MOST IMPORTANT ARABIC MEDICAL BOOKS THAT WERE
TRANSLATED TO LATIN (Khairallah,1946, pg. 150 )
IBN SINA (AVICENNA)
• AL-QANUN FI AL-TIBB (The law of Medicine, The Canon) was translated
by Gerard of Cremona and revised by Andreas Alpagus (1520). There
were other translations either in full or in part.
• Urjuza (Cantica Avicenna) was translated by Armangaud and revised by
Armangaud.
• Cantica with Commentary by Ibn Rushd, was translated by Armangaud.
• Al-Adqiyah al-Qalbiyah (Cardiac Remedies, De Viribus Cordis ) was
translated by Arnold of Villanova(1312) and revised by Alpagus.
• Kitab al-Nafs (The Soul, Anima) was translated by John of Seville and
Gundisalvi.
• Physics was translated by Gundisalvi
• Metaphisiss were translated by Gundisalvi and Francisco Mecerata.
• Al-Ma'ad was translated by Andreas Alpaus.
• Al-Sakanjabin (Acetic Sirop, De Syropo Acetoso) was translated by
Alpagus.
• Kitab al-Shifa (Sufficientia )was translated by John of Seville and
Gundisalvi. Also by Antonius Franchantius. Vecentius.
• Abbreviations Animalium (Ibn Sina's version of Aristotle's Zoology) was
translated by Michel Scot.
AL-RAZI (RHAZES)
1. Al-Hawi (Continens) was translated by Farragut.
2. Al-Mansuri (Liber almansorum) translated by Gerard of Cremona.
3. Al-Mudkhil ila al-TIbb (intorductiruis in Medicine), trnslated by Gerard of
Cremona.
4. Kitab al-Asrar (Book of Secrets) translated by Gerard of Cremona.
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5. Kitab al-Taqsim w-al Tashjir (Liber Divisionem) was trasnalted by Gerard
of Cremona.
6. Kitab al-Aqrabathin (Antidotarium)
7. Kitab al Fusul (Aphorismi)
8. Al-Jadari w-al-Hasbah (Small-pox and Measles)
9. Sharaf al-Fasd (Cateriis ac Ventosis)
HUNAIN IBN ISHAQ (JOHANNITIUS)
1. Isagoge Johannitii was translated anonymously.
2. De Oculis was translated by Constantinus Africanus.
ALI IBN ABBAS AL-MAJUSI (HALY ABBAS)
1.Al-Kitab al-Maliki or Kamil al-Sina'ah al-Tibbiyah (liber Regius) was
translated first by Constaninus Africanus without giving the name of the author.
He published it under the title of Pantegni. In 1127 it was translated by Stephan
of Antiouch under the title of Liber Reguis.
ISHAQ IBN SULAYMAN AL-ISRAILI (ISAAC JUDAEUS)
1. Kitab al-Humamayat (Fevers) was translated by Constantinus.
2. Kitab al-Istaqsat (The elements) was translated by Gerard of Cremona.
3. Al-Aghthiah w-al-Adqiyah (diets and Drugs ) was translated by Gerard of
Cremona.
4. Al-Hudud w-al Rusum (definitions and descriptions) was translated by
Gerard of Cremona)
IBN JAZLAH (BENGESLA)
1.Taqwim al'Abdan (Tacuini Aegritudinum) translatd by Farragut.
IBN BUTLAN.
1.Taqwim al-Suhhah (Tacuimi Sanitatis) translated by Farragut.
YUHANNA IBN MASAWAYH (Mesue Sr.)
1. Kitab al-Fusul (Aphorisms) was translated anonymously.
2. Kitab al-Humayyat (Fevers) was translated anonymously.
3. Kitab al-Sumum (Poisons) was translated anonymously.
4. Al'Amal bi-al-Yadd was translated anonymously.
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ISA IBN ALI (Jesu Haly)
1. Tathkirat al-Kahhalin (Tractus de Oculis) translated anonymoulsy.
IBN ZUHR (AVENZOAR)
1. Al-Taysir (Facilitatio) translated by Parvicinus (1280) and by John of
Capua.
IBN AL-BITRIQ
1. Secretom Secretorum was translated by John of Toledo.
IBN RADWAN
1. Commentary on the Small Art translated by Gerard of Cremona.
2. Commentary on Tetrabbilion, translated by Alphonse of Castille.
IBN RUSHD (AVERROES)
1. Al-Kulliyat (Colliget) translated by Armengaud and by Banacossa of
Padua.
2. Commentary on the Urjuza, translated by Armengaud.
3. Theriac, was translated by Andreas Alpagus.
4. Poisons, was translated anonymoudlsy.
5. Lazative Drugs, was translted anonymously.
ABU AL-QASIM AL-ZAHRAWI (ABULCASIS)
1. Al Tasrif (The surgical Part, Chirurgia) was transalted by Gerard of
Cremona.
2. Al-Tasrif (The formulary) was translated by simon of Genoa and
Abraham of Tortosa.
Al-MAWSILI (CANAMASALI)
1.Al-Muntakhab fi ilaj al-Ayn (Liber Passionibus oculararum) was translated
anonymoulsy.
IBN MAYMUN (MAIMONIDES)
1. De Regimi Sanintatis ad Soldanum was translated by Armengaud and by
John of Capua.
2. Aphorism was translated anonymously.
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QUSTA IBN LUQA
The Difference Between the Soul and the Spirit, was translated by John of
Seville.
IBN SERABIUM
1. Practica was translated by Andreas Alpagus
2. De Simplicibus was translated by Abraham of Tortosa
De Brevarium was translated by Gerard of Cremona.
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APPENDIX II
Translator Arabic Original Translation
Constantine the African Hunayn Ibn Ishaq and Hubaysh Iohannitus
Anonymous. Southern Italy 11th century Masa il fi al-tibb Isagoge ad Tegni Galeni
Constantine the African Ishaq ibn Suleyman Al-Israili Isaac Israeli
Southern Italy, 2nd half of 11th century Kitab al-Hummayat Liber de febribus
Kitab al-Aghdhiya Liber de dietis universalibus et particularibus
Kitab al Bawl Liber de urinis
Hunayn Ibn Ishaq Constantine Africanus
Tarkib al-ayn Liber de oculus
Ali Ibn Al Abbas Al-Majusi Constantine Africanus
Kamil al-sina a al-tibbiya Pantegni
Ishaq Ibn Imran Constantine Africanus, Rufus
Al-Maqala fi al-Malikhulayi De melancolia
Ibn Al-Jazzar Constantine Africanus
Zad al-musafir wa-qut al-hadir Viaticum
Kitab tiamd al-adwiya al mufrada De gradibus
Ibn Al-Jazzar Constantine Africanus
Kitab al-Mid'a Liber de stomacho
Kitab al-Judham De elephantiasi
Zad al-musafir De coitu
Anonymous, 2nd half of 11th and Yuhanna Ibn Masawayh Iohannis Damasceni
1st half of 12th century Nawadir al-tibb Aphorismi
Stephen of Pisa Ali Ibn Al-Abbaos Al-Majusi Haly Abbas
Antioch, 1st half of 12th century Kamil al sian'a al tibbiya Regalis dispositio
John of Seville Qusta ibn Luqa Costa Ben Luca, Constabulus
Spain. 1st half of 12th century Risala fi al-Fasl bayna al-ruh wa-al-nafs De differentia spiritus et anime
Gerard of Cremona Ali Ibn Ridwan Haly Rodohan
Toledo, 2nd half of 12th century al -Sina a al-saghire Expositio ad Tegni Galeni
Yuhanna Ibn Sarabiyun Serapio
Al-Kunnash al-Saghir Practica, Breviarium medicine
Al-Kindi Iacob Alkindi
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Translator Arabic Original Translation
Risala fi Ma'rifat quwa al adwiya De gradibus
Al-Razi Rasis
Al Kitab al-Mansuri fi al-tibb Liber ad Almansorem
Taqsim al-ilal Liber divisionum
Kitab al-Mudkhal ila al-tib Introductio in mediciman
Awja'al-mafasil De egritudinibus iunturarum
Kitab al-Aqrabadhin Antidotarium
Ishaq Ibn Sulayman Al-Israili Isaac Israeli
Kitab al-Hudud wa al-rusum De elementis
Kitab al-Ustuquassat De definitionibus
Al-Zahrawi Albucasis
al-Tasrif li-man ajiza an al-tasnif Chirurgia
Ibn Sina Avicenna
Kitab al-Qanun Liber Canonis
Ibn Wafid Abenguefit
Kitab al-Adqiya al-mufrada Liber de medicamentis simplibus
MARK OF TOLEDO Hunayn Bin Ishaq Iohannitius
Toledo 2nd half of 12th cc Masa il fi al-tibb Libe isagogarum
Giles of Santarem Al-Razi Rasis
Maqala fi sirr sina at al tibb De secretis medicine, Aphorismi Rasisi
Rufin of Alexandria Hunayn Bin Ishaq Hunen
Murcia, 2nd half of 13th cc Masa il fi al-tibb Liber questionum medicinalium discentium
in medicina.
Dominicus Marrochinus Ali Ibn Isa Jesu Hali
Murcia, 2nd half of 13th cc Kitab Tadhkirat al-kahhalin Epistola de cognitione infirmaitatum
oculorum
Bonacosa Ibn Rushd Averroes
Padua, 2nd hafl of 13th century Kitab al-Kulliyyat Colliget
Arnald of Villanova Ibn Sina Avicenna
Montpellier, 2nd half of 13th cc Maqala fi Ahkam al-adwiya al-qalbiya De viribus cordis
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112
Translator Arabic Original Translation
Abu al-Salt Abuzali
Kitab al-Adwiya al-mufrada De medicinis simplicibus
Profatius and Bernardus Honofredi Ibn Zuhr Avenzoar
Montpellier, 2nd half of 13th cc Kibat al-aghdhiya De regimine sanitatis
Armengaudus Blaisius Ibn Sina-Ibn Rush Avicenna-Averroes
Montpellier, 2nd half of 13th cc al-Urjuza fi al-tibb Cantica cum commento
John of Capua Ibn Zuhr Avenzoar
Padua, 2nd half of 13th cc Kitab al Taysir Theisir
Faraj Ben Salem Al-Razi Rasis
Sicily, 2nd half of 13th cc Al-Hawi Continens
Sicily 2nd half of 13th cc Ibn Butlan Ibn Botlan, Elluchasam Elimithar
Kitab Taqwim al-sihha Tacuinum sanitatis
Simon of Genoa Pseudo-Ibn Sarabiyun Serapio
Abraham Tortuensis Liber de simplicibus medicinis
Italy 2nd half of 13th cc
Al-Zahrawi Albulcasis
al-Tasrif li-man ajiza an al-tasnif Liber Servitoris
SOURCE: Jacquard, D. (1996). The Influence of Arabic Medicine in the Medieval West. Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic
Science.2. London: Routledge, 903-930.
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APPENDIX III
- INTERVIEW WITH PROF DR. ESIN KAHYA. DATE APRIL 13, 2009.
Prof Dr. Esin Kahya is a retired Professor from Ankara University and is
currently an Advisor to Turkish History Institute. Kahya has translated Ibn-I
Sina’s Canon of Medicine from Arabic into Turkish. This interview is conducted
with Kahya about her views on major translation movement in the Medieval
Islam and Medieval Europe as well as her valuable experience in translating
Classical Texts on Medicine.
ESIN KAHYA
She was born in Ankara in 1941. She graduated from the Faculty of Languages,
History and Geography (Dil, Tarih Coğrafya; DTCF) in 1964. Between 1973 and
1974 she stayed in London on a scholarship, and during this period she
continued her research at the Well Come Institute and British Library. In 1974
she took up classes related to her field of research at the Cambridge University
Department of Philosophy. In the second half of 1974 she conducted research
at Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. She was the Associate Dean at DTCF, in
1986. Between 1994-1997 and 1997-2001 she served as the Head of
Department of Philosophy at the same faculty. She is still pursuing her career as
a lecturer at the Institute of Health of Ankara University. Kahya has twenty-six
books and over one hundred articles published.
Main works of Esin Kahya:
• On Sekizinci Yüzyılda Tabii Bilimler (Biology in the Eighteenth Century) (1980)
• Üroloji Tarihi (The History of Urology) (1980)
• Felsefeye Giriş (Introduction to Philosophy) (For high school students, cowritten
with M. Türker Küyel, S. Tekeli and K. Gürsoy 1985-1990)
• Shemseddin Itaki’s The Illustrated Treatise on the Anatomy of the Human
Body, Hundred Great Books of Islamic Civilisation (1990)
• Kültür Tarihi (The History of Culture) (co-written with a group, 1990)
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• Turkey and Turkish People From The Beginning of the Ancient Ages to Today
(with an English and Turkish group, TÜTAV, 1991)
• Yabancıların Gözüyle Türkler ve Türkiye (Foreigners View on Turks and
Turkey) (with a group, TÜTAV, 1993)
• Bilim Tarihi (The History of Science) (with S. Tekeli, M. Dosay, R. Demir, H. G.
Topdemir, and Y. Unat, 1993)
• Cabir b. Hayyam (Turkish Religious Foundation, 1995)
• İbn Sina, el-Kanun fi’t-Tıb (Translation from Arabic to Turkish, v. 1, v.2 AKM,
1996)
• On Dokuzuncu Yüzyılda Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Tıp Eğitimi ve Türk
Hekimleri (Medical Education in the Ottoman Empire in the Nineteenth Century
and Turkish Physicians) (AKM, 1997)
• Hint’te Bilim (Science in India) (Nobel Kitabevi, 1998)
• Medicine in the Ottoman Empire (Nobel Kitabevi, 1998)
• Bilimin Işığında Osmanlı’dan Cumhuriyete Tıp ve Sağlık Kurumları (From the
Ottoman Empire to Turkish Republic, Medicine and Medical Institutions in the
Light of Science) (with A. Demirhan Erdem, Turkish Religious Foundation, 2000)
• Science of Medicine in the Ottoman Empire (Hamdard Foundation, 2002)
• Bilim Etiği ve Bilim Tarihi (Ethics and the History of Science) (with B. Arda, AÜ,
2004)
• Dokuzuncu Tıp Tarih Kongresi Kitabı (The Ninth Congress on History of
Medicine)(ed.) (2006)
Works
Biyoloji Tarihi -İlk Uygarlıklardan On Dokuzuncu Yüzyıla- -(The History of
Biology- From the First Civilizations to the Nineteenth Century) Author (İmge)
Osmanlıdan Cumhuriyete Tıp ve Sağlık Kurumları – (From the Ottoman Empire
to Turkish Republic, Medicine and Medical Institutions) Author (Turkish
Religious Foundation)
115
Question: According to which criteria Classical texts are translated in the
medical history?
Kahya: The texts having major influence in terms of science over many
centuries has been the criteria for translation.
Question: What are the prominent difficulties that emerge in medical translation
from a classical language?
Kahya: The language is fundamental in literary translations, but the important
thing in technical translations is that the terminology should be conveyed
correctly. For example the term “stone of lazaward” is Arabic – since there is no
equivalent in Turkish terminology, an Arabic terminology has to be used. "Lapis
Lazuli" has to be used since there is no Turkish word for that term. The most
important difficulty in medical translations is being unable to find the equivalent
of the term concerned in your language. For example, when the translator could
not find in target language the word for a plant in a medical book which
mentions local plants, he/she tries to describe it. However, it is impossible to
generate a good translation product by describing it. Avicenna’s works were
influenced to a large extent by Indian medicine, and these books mentioned
names of the plants specific the regions in India. These were all transliterated.
They mentioned many types of peas and walnuts, but we cannot make any
distinction among them. Giving definitions of them is not satisfactory and does
not work; so we use Arabic-Latin dictionary for this purpose. There is no
problem with the Arabic language, but when it comes to terms, the problem
appears. It becomes extremely hard to give the right names of plants, animals
and diseases. When there is no equivalent of a term in your language, you
transliterate it and explain the terms in footnotes. For example, turnip wine is
not a kind of wine as we understand but is a kind of medicine; so when you
cannot find any equivalent of the subject term, you would make transliteration
and explain it. Dioscorides' book named Materia Medica mentions some local
plants. These plants grow in Asia but they have no equivalent names in Arabic
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since they are local plants. Arabians made transliteration from the Greek
language and the Latins made transliteration from Arabic, in turn. Avicenna
defines 250 types of headache and gives a term for each type and then gives a
definition. Again, it is quite difficult to translate them since there is no equivalent
of these terms in your language. In those times, explanations on diseases were
extremely detailed. Definition of nephritis, for example, is extremely detailed,
because there were no diagnosis techniques at those times unlike today. For
this reason, definitions and explanations are extremely detailed. We have many
techniques today, but they did not have any then. Pulse could be given an
example for this situation. Avicenna defined 800 types of pulse at that time.
They used the five senses in order to make a diagnosis. It was for this reason
that detailed description was extremely important at that time.
Question: What are the characteristics of translation activity in the field of
medicine carried out in the 8th century?
Kahya: First of all, it is important to point out that there had been studies on
language before the translation activities in 8th century. There were language
schools in Kufe and Basra. They were not language school but rather ecoles of
language. They laid out the principles about using the correct grammar, as in
the basis of generating new terms. This period lasted about one hundred years.
When we look at the first translations, we see that proper names were left as
the original. For example, Plato translated his name as “Eflatun”, since “p” does
not exist in Arabic, thus “Eflatun” is easier to pronounce. But he did not apply
this phonetic transfer to scientific terms, meaning he did not directly transfer a
word from one language to another. He came up with counterparts in the target
language. Methodology is important in translation activities. One has to look at
this matter in line with the methodology. Scientists supported and listened to
those, who were conducting studies in languages. When different opinions
clashed, they reached a consensus, deciding on following the grammatical
rules. Individuals from various religious beliefs contributed to Islam in that
period like Umayyads, then Abbasids. We can not talk about a unity in terms of
117
religion, but a political unity did exist. Thinking (as in philosophy, logic,
mathematics, medicine) in a given language, brings along the emergence of
scientific terms.
Question: Syrian translators contributed a lot to the translation activities in the
8th century. Can you elaborate on this matter?
Kahya: When Athens was closed down, the Orthodox went to Byzantine. They
were divided into branches. Some went to Edessa, which is now Urfa. Sapur,
the ruler of Persia in that period, invited some others to his country. Persia was
governed very well back then. The Orthodox who went to Persia were provided
with hospitals and their needs were met. But they were Nestorian clerics and
due to the rules of their religion they were not allowed to get married. The
Persian told them to abandon their religious traditions and marry Persian
women. In the meantime, the Islamic Empire called them to go to Baghdad. Due
to the pressure that they were facing in Persia, these clerics went to Baghdad.
They spoke Greek, hence they started to translate texts from Greek to Syriac.
Then they translated from Syriac to Arabic. Hunayn wrote a dictionary of terms.
He generated terms in line with the grammars of Greek, Arabic and Syriac.
Afterwards, new words continued to be produced.
Question: We see original medical texts like Hippocratic Corpus which is
followed by its Arabic, Syriac or Latin translations. Other than those two types of
text we come across medical commentaries? Can elaborate on the importance
of commentaries?
Kahya: With the translation activities in the field of medicine, we see translated
texts. Then we see texts in the form of commentaries. Some perform verbatim
translations on the source texts. If there are interpretations then we see
commentaries. Commentaries emerge with the changes in the conditions, in
which the society lives. It emerges with new information and ideas. In the 14th,
15th and 16th centuries, commentaries were written on the works that were
originally written in 9th-10th and 11th centuries. In scientific terms, of course
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there are differences. We see these differences in the commentaries.
Commentaries bear interpretations. It is natural that these differences emerge
between the original text and a commentary written in two different centuries.
The conditions which shaped the society changed and different opinions were
being raised regarding science.
Question: Was the same work done on translation activities that took place in
the 12th century?
Kahya: In 12th century, the first translation activities were performed from Arabic
to Latin. After the 14th century, Europe was introduced to Humanism via Greek
classical works. Studies on language were conducted. The way to achieve this,
is to improve the language that lags behind the others. This is what Latins did.
They formed a logic, set out the rules of the language. The church had the
organizing role. Laid out the rules about how to form words. Then they
generated new words, similar in form, without breaking those rules. Christianity
have a good system. The Christian religion has its theology. In monasteries and
churches, translation activities were performed into Latin, and intensive studies
on language were conducted. The clergymen worked systematically under the
discipline of the church. They were knowledgeable about language. For the
Europeans, religions or sects were not important. Sabit Ibn Kurra worshipped
the stars but he also was a very important figure in astronomy and mathematics.
There were no propaganda of religion in science. It never happened.
Question: You translated Avicenna's major work “Kanun” (“The Canon of
Medicine” in English, “El-Kanun fi't-Tıb” in Arabic) from Arabic to Turkish. What
can you tell us about Avicenna's place in medical world?
Kahya: Avicenna read everything, observed closely, evaluated all the
experiments and observations and commented on everything. This was all
based on his accumulation of knowledge. He was a very systematic person.
What distinguished him from others was that he dealt with the philosophy of
medicine. That was a lot more different than what other doctors had written.
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Avicenna wrote about the philosophy of medicine, e.g. “what is medicine?, what
is a disease? etc.”.When Avicenna's work “Kanun” was translated, all that was
done was to write it in Latin alphabet. The Arabic (Arabism) method was used.
During the period in which Avicenna lived, we can see the mindset of the West
in 19th century. Avicenna has not been a medical doctor, he was a physician
which means he incorporated medicine with philosophy. Because he has
worked on mathematics, logic, philosophy at the same time. His medical works
has influenced the history of medicine over many centuries. He has laid down
the principles of medical philosophy.
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