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 THE SULTAN AND HIS COMMANDERS: REPRESENTATIONS OF IDEAL LEADERSHIP IN THE ŞEHNĀME-İ NĀDİRĪ

ABSTRACT

THE SULTAN AND HIS COMMANDERS: REPRESENTATIONS OF IDEAL LEADERSHIP IN THE ŞEHNĀME-İ NĀDİRĪ

Keywords: Osman II, Ganizade Nadiri, şehname, illustrated books, processions.

The aim of this thesis is to examine the text and miniatures of the illustrated version of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī (Topkapı Palace Museum Library, H. 1124), and to place it within the context of the Ottoman şehnāme writing tradition. The Şehnāme-i Nādirī narrates the accession of ‘Osmān II to the throne, as well as the campaigns and military interventions that occurred during his rule, including his Hotin campaign. This study focuses on the various representations of leadership in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī, and suggests that the book seeks to convey an image of the sultan as a strong and victorious warrior, as well as a skillful archer and hunter. Similar characteristics are attributed to the Ottoman commanders, Ḫalīl Paşa, ‘Ali Paşa, İskender Paşa and Karakaş Meḥmed Paşa, whose campaigns are also recounted in the book. The strong bonds of loyalty between the commanders and the sultan, as well as the Ottoman sense of their own superiority over their rivals, are both regularly emphasized in the text and the miniatures. Studied together with two contemporary narrative sources, Ẓafernāme and Ġazānāme-i Ḫalīl Paşa, the Şehnāme-i Nādirī reflects an effort to continue the panegyrical discourse of earlier works in the Ottoman şehnāme tradition.

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ÖZET

SULTAN VE SERDARLARI: ŞEHNĀME-İ NĀDİRĪ’DE İDEAL LİDERLİĞİN TEMSİLİ

Anahtar Kelimeler: II. Osman, Ganizade Nadiri, şehname, minyatürlü kitaplar, alaylar.

Bu tezin amacı, Şehnāme-i Nādirī’yi Osmanlı şehnāme geleneği bağlamına yerleştirebilmek için kitabın minyatürlü nüshasının (Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi Kütüphanesi, H. 1124) metnini ve minyatürlerini incelemektir. Şehnāme-i Nādirī, II. ‘Osmān’ın cülusunu, ve Hotin seferi dahil olmak üzere onun yönetimi sırasında gerçekleşmiş olan seferleri ve askeri müdahaleleri anlatır. Bu çalışma, Şehnāme-i Nādirī’deki liderlik temsillerine odaklanmakta ve kitabın, sultanın güçlü ve muzaffer bir savaşçı ve aynı zamanda becerikli bir okçu ve avcı olarak yansıtılması geleneğini devam ettirmeyi amaçladığını iddia etmektedir. Benzer özellikler, kitapta seferleri anlatılan Osmanlı serdarları Ḫalīl Paşa, ‘Ali Paşa, İskender Paşa ve Karakaş Meḥmed Paşa’ya da atfedilmektedir. Serdarlar ve sultan arasındaki sadakat ve Osmanlı’nın rakipleri karşısında kendine atfettiği üstünlük de metinde ve minyatürlerde öne çıkmaktadır. İki çağdaş anlatı olan Ẓafernāme ve Ġazānāme-i Ḫalīl Paşa ile birlikte incelendiğinde, Şehnāme-i Nādirī kendinden önceki şehnāmelerdeki Osmanlı’yı yücelten söylemi devam ettirme çabasını yansıtmaktadır.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis is a result of my seven years at Sabancı University as an undergraduate and graduate student. Here, I can only name a few members of the whole Sabancı University family to whom I am grateful. I am grateful to my thesis supervisor Tülay Artan, who introduced me to the world of illustrated manuscripts, and who taught me how to ask meaningful questions about them. I would like to thank my jury members, Hakan Erdem and Melis Taner, and in addition, Ferenc Péter Csirkés, for their valuable comments and precious advice, whichsaved me innumerable times. I would also like to offer my gratitude to Halil Berktay, who has been a great influence on me, helping to prove that one of the best ways to learn is to learn from someone who loves teaching.

My fellow history graduate students Zeynep, Nur and Ezgi have supported me greatly with their friendship, as has Fatih, who has come to my rescue many times. I cannot thank Başak enough to for the conversations, tears, and laughter we shared in our little home. I am thankful to Can, for his love and friendship that, I am sure, will last forever. Finally, I would like to thank my mother and father, Gülsüm and Orhan Yıldız, for believing in me more than I believe in myself, and supporting me in every way that they can.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………….1

1.1. The Ottoman Illustrated History Books, from Süleymān I to ‘Osmān II…………….2

1.2. Şehnāme-i Nādirī: The Manuscript, Patronage and Content……………………..….12

2. CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVE SOURCES: ẒAFERNĀME AND ĠAZĀNĀME-İ ḪALĪL PAŞA…………………………………………………………………….…..……..23

2.1. Ẓafernāme……………………………………………………………………………23

2.2. Ġazānāme-i Ḫalīl Paşa………………………………………………………………29

3. THE COMMANDERS OF THE SULTAN IN THE ŞEHNĀME-İ NĀDİRĪ……………36

3.1. Ḫalīl Paşa…………………………………………………………………………….36

3.2. ‘Ali Paşa……………………………………………………………………………...46

3.3. İskender Paşa…………………………………………………………………………50

3.4. Karakaş Meḥmed Paşa……………………………………………………………….55

3.5. İskender Ağa and Afrāsiyāb………………………………………………………….56

4. THE IMAGE OF THE SULTAN IN THE ŞEHNĀME-İ NĀDİRĪ……………………..60

4.1. An Eagerness for Ġazā……………………….………………………………………62

4.2. Wrathfulness towards the Enemy………………………………………………..…...67

4.3. The Victorious Sultan………………………………………………………………..70

4.4. The Sultan as a Skillful Hunter……………………………………………………....73

4.5. Ruler of the Land and the Sea………………………………………………………..75

5. CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………….77

BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………….80

APPENDIX I…………………………………………………………………………..…...86

APPENDIX II: IMAGES…………………………………………………………………112

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1. INTRODUCTION

In The Ghazi Sultans and the Frontiers of Islam,1 Ali Anooshahr provides a comparative analysis of three Muslim sultans of the late medieval and the early modern world, namely the Mughal emperor Bābur, Maḥmūd of Ġazna, and the Ottoman sultan Murād II. In his analysis, he pointedly does not ask whether Bābur was, in fact, “a real ġāzi;” rather, he chooses to ask “What did it mean for Bābur to present himself as or to become a ġāzi?”.2 Anooshahr analyzes a number of historical texts in his book, and he regularly emphasizes that these texts do not necessarily reflect actual historical events. Indeed, he demonstrates quite the opposite to be true; that these texts were shaped by the realities of their time.

Following along a similar line, it is the aim of this thesis to look closely at an Ottoman illustrated history of the early seventeenth-century, the Şehnāme-i Nādirī, as well as two other contemporaneous unillustrated histories, the Ẓafernāme and the Ġazānāme-i Ḫalīl Paşa, in order to understand how the political, cultural and social realities of the time produced or otherwise influenced the representations of the historical figures in these works. More specifically, this study will trace how the notion of “ideal leadership” was represented through the vehicles of certain characters, and seek to grasp what it meant for a contemporary figure to be depicted in such a way, both for the authors and for the audience of the work. To place the Şehnāme-i Nādirī in the context of the literary genre it belongs to, and to have a sense of the tradition that precedes it, we will first trace the production of Ottoman illustrated historical books from the earliest examples of the genre. Later, we will delve into the Şehnāme, the Ẓafernāme and the Ġazānāme-i Ḫalīl Paşa, with a particular focus upon the depictions of certain characters and episodes; in doing so, we will attemptto identify the symbolic and subtextual images formed through these works’ selective narration of events

1Ali Anooshahr, The Ghazi Sultans and the Frontiers of Islam: A comparative study of the late medieval and early modern periods (London and New York: Routledge, 2008).

2 Ibid, 4.

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1.1. Ottoman Illustrated History Books, from Süleymān I to ‘Osmān II

The Şāhnāme of Firdevsī, completed in the early eleventh century, consists of a collection of the epic stories of the pre-Islamic kings of Persia, including both historical and mythic figures.3 The production of illustrated copies of the book began in the fourteenth century, helping readers to visualize the adventures of the just, brave and heroic rulers that make up most of the Şāhnāme’s cast of characters.4 The image of the ideal ruler in the Şāhnāme of Firdevsī was adopted by the courts of Islamic rulers, and the book was reproduced in the languages of these courts. 5 These translations were not precise renditions of the text from the original Persian to other languages; they were, rather, adaptations of the stories to the receiving culture. The Ottoman court was not an exception in this regard. The Turkish translations of the Şāhnāme of Firdevsī were regularly copied, and these were illustrated with miniatures that placed the stories into an Ottoman context. In other words, the miniatures, too, were “translated” into the Ottoman visual language.6 The Şāhnāme of Firdevsī was translated into Turkish three times. The first translation, rendered in prose, was produced in 1450–51 for Murad II (r. 1421–44, 1446–51); the second translation was made by Şerif Amidī for the Mamluk sultan Ḳānṣū Ġavrī and completed in 1511, and the third version was the work of Medhī, during the reign of ‘Osmān II (1618–22).7

The translation of the Şāhnāme of Firdevsī at the Ottoman court – that is, the reinterpretation of the text and the miniatures - was soon to give way to the translation of

3 Dick Davis, “Introduction” in Abolqasem Ferdowsi, Shahnameh: The Persian Book of Kings, trans. Dick Davis (London: Penguin Books, 2006).

4 On the question of the illustration of the Şāhnāme, Oleg Grabar, “Why was the Shahnama illustrated?,” Iranian Studies 43, no. 1 (2010): 91-96. For a collection of perspectives on various versions of illustrated şāhnāmes, Shahnama: The Visual Language of the Persian Book of Kings, ed. By Robert Hillenbrand (Hants: Ashgate, 2004).

5 Studies on two such productions include Oleg Grabar and Sheila Blair, Epic Images and Contemporary History: The Illustrations of the Great Mongol “Shahnama” (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Firuza Abdullaeva and Charles P. Melville, The Persian Book of Kings: Ibrahim Sultan’s Shahnama (Oxford: Bodleian Library, 2008).

6 Serpil Bağcı, “From Translated Word to Translated Image: The Illustrated Şehnâme-i Türkî Copies,” Muqarnas 17 (2000): 162-76; Serpil Bağcı, “An Iranian Epic and an Ottoman Painter: Nakkaş Osman’s ‘New’ Visual Interpretation of the Shâhnâmah,” in Arts, Women and Scholars: Studies in Ottoman Society and Culture. Festschrift Hans Georg Majer, ed. Sabine Prator & Christoph K. Neumann, (İstanbul: Simurg, 2002), 2: 421-50.

7 Serpil Bağcı, “An Iranian Epic and an Ottoman Painter: Nakkaş Osman’s ‘New’ Visual Interpretation of the Shâhnâmah,” in Arts, Women and Scholars: Studies in Ottoman Society and Culture. Festschrift Hans Georg Majer, ed. Sabine Prator & Christoph K. Neumann (İstanbul: Simurg, 2002), 2: 421-50; Tülün Değirmenci, “‘Legitimizing’ a Young Sultan: Illustrated Copies of Medhī’s Şehnāme-i Türkī in European Collections,” in 13th International Congress of Turkish Art, Proceedings, ed. Geza David & Ibolya Gerelyes (Budapest: Hungarian National Museum, 2009), 157-72.

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the genre itself. Starting from the sixteenth century onwards, the Ottoman sultans began to commission their own şehnāmes. These were not about the mythical or historical figures of the past. Instead, these Ottoman şehnāmes retold the biographies of contemporary Ottoman sultans. These stories were concerned primarily with the martial and public deeds of the sultans, depicting their ascensions to the throne, their leadership abilities in battle, as well as their participation in activities such as hunting, accepting foreign envoys, celebrating religious festivities, holding discussions with their viziers, and making other public appearances. These texts were illuminated and illustrated with high quality miniatures, and were generally presented to the sultan as luxurious objets d’art.8

The Ottoman tradition of şehnāme writing was established long before the production of the illustrated copy of Şehnāme-i Nādirī that is the subject of this thesis. The Ottoman sultans of the sixteenth century, starting from Süleymān I (r. 1520–1566), commissioned illustrated history books in which stories from the lives of the sultans were written down and depicted.9 These monumental projects were carried out by groups of artists who were experienced in the arts of the book. Among them were şehnāmeci, or şehnāme authors, who could be described as official court historiographers, and the ser-naḳḳaşān, or the head of the imperial painters, who directed the illustration of these imperial projects. A number of additional artists and craftsmen of the arts of the book were involved in the production of a şehnāme, such as calligraphers, painters, illuminators and bookbinders.10

While the first Ottoman şehnāmes were produced in the beginning of the sixteenth century, starting with the Şehnāme (c. 1500) of the historian Melik Ümmī, which focused on the reign of Bayezid II (r. 1481-1512), and Şükrü Bitlisī’s Selīmnāme (1525) on the reign of Selīm I (1512-20), the tradition of the Ottoman şehnāmes truly took shape during

8 Zeren Tanındı, “Manuscript Production in the Ottoman Palace Workshop”, Manuscripts of the Middle East, C.V, Leiden, 1990-1991, s.67-99; Serpil Bağcı, Filiz Çağman, Günsel Renda and Zeren Tanındı, Ottoman Painting (İstanbul: Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, 2012), Henceforth Ottoman Painting.

9 Zeren Akalay (Tanındı), “Osmanlı Tarihi ile İlgili Minyatürlü Yazmalar, Şehnameler ve Gazanameler” (Unpub. PhD dissertation, İstanbul Üniversitesi, 1972).

10 Zeren Tanındı, “Manuscript Production in the Ottoman Palace Workshop”, Manuscripts of the Middle East, C.V, Leiden, 1990-1991, s.67-99; Emine Fetvacı, Picturing History at the Ottoman Court (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2013).

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the latter part of Süleymān I’s reign (1520-66).11 Süleymānnāme, the final volume of a five-volume Şehnāme-i Āl-i ‘Osmān, commissioned by Süleymān I from the şehnāmeci ‘Ārifī, became the model for the later illustrated Ottoman histories.12 It was also during Süleymān I’s reign that an official post of the court şehnāmeci was created, and ‘Ārifī was assigned to this job as the official court historiographer.13 The office of şehnāmeci as an institution, as well as their works and responsibilities, have been discussed by Christine Woodhead through an examination of the lives and works of five different şehnāmecis: ‘Ārifī (d. 1561–62), Eflātūn (d. 1569), Seyyid Loḳmān (dismissed by 1596–97), Ta‘līkīzāde (d. 1599–1600), and Ḥasan Hükmī (d. after 1638), who held the post for only a couple of years and did not ultimately produce a şehnāme.14 A recent study by Sinem Eryılmaz has focused in particular on the works of ‘Ārifī and Eflātūn, the şehnāmecis of Süleymān I; in it, Eryılmaz discusses the dynastic image that was created through the imperial book projects of Süleymān I.15 These projects, including the Süleymānnāme, repeatedly emphasized the centrality of the sultan, and served to promulgate the image of Süleymān I as an absolute and divinely-inspired ruler. The Süleymānnāme is a particularly notable example in this regard, with its heavy usage of symbolism and references to the history of the world and the Ottoman dynasty.16 The two other extant volumes of the Şehnāme-i Āl-i ‘Osmān of ‘Ārifī are the first and the fourth volumes. The first volume is the Enbiyānāme, the stories of the prophets; the fourth volume is the ‘Osmānnāme, the stories of the Ottoman sultans from ‘Osmān I until Bayezid I.17

11 Zeren Akalay (Tanındı), ibid. Esin Atıl, Süleymanname: The Illustrated History of Süleyman the Magnificent (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1986), 44-49; Ottoman Painting. The Persian text and a Turkish summary of the Süleymānnāme are provided in Ahmet Faruk Çelik, “Fethullah Arifi Çelebi’nin ‘Şahname-i Al-i Osman’ından Süleymanname,” (Unpub. PhD dissertation, Ankara Üniversitesi, 2009).

12 Esin Atıl, ibid, 44-49.

13 Necib Asım (Yazıksız), "Osmanlı Tarih-nüvisleri ve müverrihleri: Şehnameciler”, Tarih-i Osmani Encümeni Mecmuası 1 (1911): 425-35; Christine Woodhead, “An Experiment in Official Historiography: The Post of Şehnāmeci in the Ottoman Empire c. 1555-1605”, Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 75 (1983): 157-82.

14 Christine Woodhead, ibid.

15 Fatma Sinem Eryılmaz Arenas-Vives, “The Shehnamecis of Sultan Süleyman: ‘Arif and Eflatun and Their Dynastic Project” (Unpub. PhD dissertation, The University of Chicago, 2010).

16 Fatma Sinem Eryılmaz Arenas-Vives, ibid.

17 Esin Atıl, Süleymanname: The Illustrated History of Süleyman the Magnificent (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1986), 57-61.

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Another Ottoman şehnāme, the Şehnāme-i Selīm Ḫān, was written by the şehnāmeci Seyyid Loḳmān and illustrated by Naḳḳāş ‘Osmān. The manuscript is shorter in length and has a reduced number of miniatures when compared to Süleymānnāme, which was composed of 617 folios and sixty-five illustrations.18 Nevertheless, the Şehnāme-i Selīm Ḫān was an enormous project as well, consisting of 158 folios and thirty-nine illustrations in the final version.19 The preservation of two draft copies of the Şehnāme-i Selīm Ḫān has provided historians with an opportunity to study the production process of the manuscript via comparative analysis. The Şehnāme-i Selīm Ḫān was first studied by Filiz Çağman, who identified the two draft copies and the final manuscript, and she was also the first to analyze the varying hands of different artists who had worked on the manuscripts.20 Emine Fetvacı extended this analysis on the production process of the Şehnāme-i Selīm Ḫān by placing the text, images and illumination of the manuscript in context, and demonstrating that the messages conveyed in the text reflect different emphases present in the drafts and the final manuscript versions.21

The production of these illustrated histories was further studied in Fetvacı’s book, Picturing History at the Ottoman Court, which shed light on the patronage, production, and consumption of illustrated histories through an analysis of those produced during Selīm II’s reign.22 In this work, Fetvacı also discusses the multiplicity of images attributed to the Ottoman sultans in the various illustrated histories of the late sixteenth century. In the earliest of these works, the image of the Ottoman sultan was one of a prophetic and heroic ruler, essentially a military leader; by the time of the later sultans, such as Selīm II and Murād III, however, this image fundamentally changed. As these sultans no longer went on campaign, their depictions shifted the image of the sultan towards a more background, legitimizing role..23 However, these varying images were not necessarily mutually

18 Esin Atıl, ibid, 61.

19Filiz Çağman, “Şehname-i Selim Han ve Minyatürleri,” Sanat Tarihi Yıllığı 5 (1972–73): 411–42.

20 Filiz Çagman, ibid.

21 Emine Fetvacı, “The Production of the Şehnāme-i Selīm Hān” Muqarnas 26 (2009): 263-315.

22 Emine Fetvacı, Picturing History at the Ottoman Court (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2013).

23 Emine Fetvacı, ibid.

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exclusive, and multiple images could be attributed to one sultan in different manuscript projects, according to the historical realities.24

A crucial figure in the formulation of these images, and perhaps the most prolific and influential figure in the production of Ottoman illustrated histories in general, was Naḳḳāş ‘Osmān, who worked in the studio of the court artists (naḳḳaşḫāne) from the latter years of Süleymān I’s reign, most likely from 1559 to 1566, until the first few years of Meḥmed III’s (r. 1595-1603) reign.25 During most of his long career, he worked as the ser-naḳḳaşān.26 He worked with Seyyid Loḳmān, who was appointed as şehnāmeci by Selīm II in 1569, to produce a number of illustrated books including the Ẓafernāme on Süleymān I’s Szigetvar campaign, the Şehnāme-i Selīm Ḫān describing Selīm II’s reign, the Şehinşāhnāme on Murād III’s reign, and the Zübdetü’t-Tevāriḫ, which details the achievements of the Ottoman sultans from ‘Osmān I to Murād III.27 Ḳıyāfetü’l-insāniye fī Şemā‘ilü’l-‘Osmāniye, or Şemā’ilnāme, is another work that was completed by Seyyid Loḳmān and Naḳḳāş ‘Osmān. This work consists of descriptions of the physical appearance of Ottoman sultans from ‘Osmān I to Murād III, with text written by Seyyid Loḳmān and the portraits of each sultan produced by Naḳḳāş ‘Osmān. These portraits set the standard for depictions of the Ottoman sultans in future illustrated histories, essentially creating the classical style of Ottoman portraiture.28

It was the reign of Murād III that constituted the most prolific period for the patronage of manuscripts. He commissioned numerous books, which were to be completed

24 Emine Fetvacı, ibid.

25 Nurhan Atasoy, “Tarih Konulu Minyatürlerin Usta Nakkaşı Osman,” Sanat Dünyamız 73 (1999): 213-21; Serpil Bağcı, “An Iranian Epic and an Ottoman Painter: Nakkaş Osman’s ‘New’ Visual Interpretation of the Shâhnâmah,” in Arts, Women and Scholars: Studies in Ottoman Society and Culture. Festschrift Hans Georg Majer, ed. Sabine Prator & Christoph K. Neumann (İstanbul: Simurg, 2002), 2:421-50; Filiz Çağman, “Nakkaş Osman in Sixteenth Century Documents and Literature,” in Turkish Art: 10th International Congress of Turkish Art (Geneva, 1999), 197-206; Filiz Çağman, “Portrait Series of Nakkaş Osman,” in The Sultan’s Portrait: Picturing the House of Osman, ed. Selim Kangal (İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2000), 164-87.

26 Filiz Çağman, “Portrait Series of Nakkaş Osman,” The Sultan’s Portrait: Picturing the House of Osman, ed. by Selim Kangal (İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2000), 164-87.

27 Filiz Çağman, ibid.

28 Ottoman Painting; Gülru Necipoğlu, “The Serial Portraits of Ottoman Sultans in Comparative Perspective” in The Sultan’s Portrait: Picturing the House of Osman, ed. Selim Kangal (İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2000), 22-61.

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via the collaboration of master artists Seyyid Loḳmān and Naḳḳāş ‘Osmān.29 In addition to the aforementioned Zübdetü’t-Tevāriḫ and Şemā’ilnāme, two additional major illustrated manuscript projects were completed during his reign: the Şehinşāhnāme and the Sūrnāme-i Hümāyūn.

Şehinşāhnāme, which narrates a part of Murād III’s reign, from 1574 to 1580, was a manuscript project with fifty-eight illustrations completed under the collaboration of şehnāmeci Seyyid Loḳmān and Naḳḳāş ‘Osmān. Fetvacı has argued that the representation of the sultanic image in the illustrated histories varied at different times during Murād III’s reign, and that the task of forming and promulgating this image had by that time ceased to be the work of the grand vizier, as it had been during the time of Süleymān I and Selīm II, and had instead been taken over by the servants of the inner household.30 The fact that Murād III did not personally lead military campaigns was another factor which brought about these new variations in the sultan’s image, since it was not possible to portray him as a military leader and still remain relatively faithful to historical events.31 These variants did not represent entirely new developments of the sultanic image, however, but were rather adaptations and modifications of the already existing tradition of the “şāhnāme-type of sultan,” who is a politically and religiously legitimate ruler as well as a military leader. These adaptations and modifications were made by highlighting the elements of the archetype that fit the biography and characterstics of Murād III, such as his pious side, while portraying him as the legitimizing force behind the actions of his military commanders.32 A second volume of Şehinşāhnāme was also completed, and this work narrates and illustrates the years from 1580 to 1584 of Murād III’s reign with an additional ninety-five miniatures.33

29 Christine Woodhead, “Murad III and the Historians: Representations of Ottoman Imperial Authority in Late 16th-Century Historiography,” in Legitimizing the Order: The Ottoman Rhetoric of State Power, ed. Hakan Karateke & Maurus Reinkowski (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2005), 85-98; for an account of Murad III’s patronage of the art of manuscripts and architecture, see Aimee Elisabeth Froom, “A Muraqqa‘ for the Ottoman Sultan Murad III (r. 1574-1595) Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek, Codex Mixtus 313” (Unpub. PhD dissertation, New York University, 2001), 306-15.

30 Emine Fetvacı, Picturing History at the Ottoman Court (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2013).

31 Emine Fetvacı, ibid.

32 Emine Fetvacı, ibid.

33Ottoman Painting; Emine Fetvacı, ibid.

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Another extensive illustrated manuscript project was Sūrnāme-i Hümāyūn, depicting the festival held for the circumcision of Murād III’s son Meḥmed (later to become Meḥmed III) in 1582, and accompanied by 250 double-page miniatures. The miniatures of Sūrnāme-i Hümāyūn depict the processions of various guilds passing through the Hippodrome, as well as the sultan, the invitees, and the people of the city watching these processions.34 The fifty-two day long festival was, in itself, intended to both distract the city’s populace from the financial and military crises of the time, , as well as to make a statement of imperial strength and world dominion through the display of skills and performers culled from around the world: Arabs, Egyptians, Persians, Indians and Europeans.35 The text of the Sūrnāme details the program of the activities for each day, and the miniatures convey to us the remarkable pomp and extravagance of the festival.36

After the death of Murād III, and the dismissal of the şehnāmeci Seyyid Loḳmān by the new sultan Meḥmed III upon his return from campaign in Eğri (Eger), a fresh collaboration was begun between the new şehnāmeci, Ta‘likīzāde, and Naḳḳāş Ḥasan. This collaboration soon began to once again produce illustrated manuscript projects. Unlike most of the previous Ottoman şehnāmes, which had been written in Persian verse, the Şehnāme-i Hümāyūn, written by Ta‘likīzāde, was in Turkish and intermixed prose and verse. In Ta‘likīzāde’s introduction to the book, this change is stated to be the result of a personal wish by Mehmed III .37

The Şehnāme-i Hümāyūn provides us with an account of the Ottoman campaign in Hungary, conducted between 1593 and 1595, and led by the Grand Vizier Sinān Paşa (d. 1596). In this sense, the Şehnāme-i Hümāyūn is different in content from previous Ottoman şehnāmes; it focuses on a campaign that was led by a commander, instead of the sultan himself. More importantly, the book does not revolve around the sultan’s figure, but instead aims to provide a more general account of the campaign. There are, however, parts of the

34Ottoman Painting; Derin Terzioğlu, “The Imperial Circumcision Festival of 1582: An Interpretation” Muqarnas 12 (1995): 84-100. 35 Derin Terzioğlu, ibid, 87.

36 For an introduction to the manuscript and some of its miniatures, see Nurhan Atasoy, Surname-i Hümayun: An Imperial Celebration (İstanbul: Koçbank, 1997).

37 Christine Woodhead, Ta‘likī-zāde’s Şehnāme-i Hümāyūn: A History of the Ottoman Campaign into Hungary 1593-94 (Berlin: Klaus Schwarz Verlag, 1983), 17-19.

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book which nevertheless contribute to the personal image of the sultan. In the introduction, Ta‘likīzāde writes on the twenty merits of the Ottoman dynasty, which he states made their Empire particularly strong.38 He describes these virtues in his earlier work, Şemā’ilnāme-i Āl-i ‘Osmān, a book which resembles the Hünernāme in both style and content.39 The virtues recounted in Şehnāme-i Hümāyūn – that is, the Ottomans’ religion, geographic advantages, dynastic continuity, good knowledge of state administration, culture, and war-making abilities - are in accordance with the various traditional images portrayed in the previous Ottoman şehnāmes.

In her book – which, among other things, provides the text of the Şehnāme-i Hümāyūn - Christine Woodhead concludes that Ta‘likīzāde attempted to encourage Meḥmed III to lead his military campaigns personally, both because of his own disapproval of the sultans’ withdrawal from military leadership after Süleymān I, and because a sultan-led campaign would provide much better material for a şehnāmeci to work with in his productions.40 Indeed, his next book project was going to be the Eğri Fetiḥnāmesi, or Şehnāme-i Sultān Meḥmed-i Sālis, which depicts the Ottoman campaign on Eger led by Meḥmed III himself.41

During the reign of Aḥmed I (r. 1603-1617), not a single new Ottoman illustrated şehnāme was produced. The interests of the patrons of manuscript arts had, by this point, begun to shift in the direction of albums, which were collections of various kinds of texts, such as poetry and calligraphic specimens, combined with miniatures. These miniatures did not necessarily reflect the content of the text, and could be extracted from other manuscripts or individual pages, such as costume studies instead of narrative books. 42 However, this does not mean that, during this period, the production of illustrated history books stopped altogether. One of the more notable examples from this time was the Tācü’t-tevāriḥ, written by Sa‘deddīn Efendi (d. 1599), the tutor of Murād III, in 1574.43 This work,

38 Christine Woodhead, ibid.

39 Ottoman Painting.

40 Christine Woodhead, ibid.

41 Ottoman Painting.

42 Emine Fetvacı, “Enriched Narratives and Empowered Images in Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Manuscripts,” Ars Orientalis 40 (2011): 243-66.

43 Ottoman Painting.

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describing an earlier period in Ottoman history (between the reigns of ‘Osmān I and Selīm I) was illustrated, containing fourteen illustrations that were modelled on the Hünernāme and the first Şehinşāhnāme.44 Aside from this book, another notable example – and perhaps the work most akin to the şehnāme genre produced during reign of Ahmed I - was Muṣṭafa Ṣāfī’s Zübdetü’t-tevāriḫ, which chronicled the period from the accession of Aḥmed I in 1603 up to the work’s completion date in 1614.45 This monumental work of 650 folios emphasized the virtues that made the sultan such an ideal ruler, including his justice, honesty, piety, intelligence, modesty, generosity, horsemanship and bravery, and exemplified these attributes through the narration of stories from the sultan’s life. In this way, it was quite similar to the Ottoman şehnāmes.46 However, an illustrated copy of this book was not produced.47 Finally, one last illustrated book produced during this time, the Veḳāyi‘-i ‘Ali Paşa, provides us with an account of contemporary events. This work, written by Kelāmī, narrates the story of Yavuz ‘Ali Paşa (d. 1604), who served Aḥmed I as the grand vizier for a short period. The book was illustrated with seven miniatures.48

Illustrated books which eulogized Ottoman paşas and narrated their military campaigns – that is, ġazānāmes - started to be produced as illustrated books during Süleymān I’s rule. In the two illustrated volumes that are attributed to his patronage, the Fütūḥāt-ı Cemīle of ‘Ārifī and the Nüzhetü’l-aḫbār der Sefer-i Zīgetvār of Feridūn Aḥmed Bey (d. 1583), the Grand Vizier Sokollu Meḥmed Paşa (d. 1579) is presented as a capable grand vizier and a skilled commander and warrior.49 Similarly, the Safavid campaign of Lala Muṣṭafa Paşa’s (d. 1580) is described and illustrated in the Nuṣretnāme of Gelibolulu

44 Ibid.

45 Rhoads Murphey, “Mustafa Safi’s Version of the Kingly Virtues as Presented in His Zübdet’ül Tevarih, or Annals of Sultan Ahmed, 1012-1023 A.H./1603-1614 A.D.,” in Frontiers of Ottoman Studies ed. Colin Imber & Keiko Kiyotaki (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2005), 1:5-24.

46 Rhoads Murphey, ibid.

47 Christine Woodhead, “Reading Ottoman ‘Şehnames’: Official Historiography in the Late Sixteenth Century,” Studia Islamica, Chroniques Medievales Islamiques: Temps, Narration, Usages 104/105 (2007): 67-80

48 Christine Woodhead, ibid; Emine Fetvacı, “Enriched Narratives and Empowered Images in Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Manuscripts,” Ars Orientalis, 40, (2011), 243-266.

49 Emine Fetvacı, Picturing History at the Ottoman Court (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2013); Zeren Tanındı, “Cat. No. 286: Fütūhāt-i Jamiīla (Admirable Conquests),” in Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600-1600, ed. by David J. Roxburgh (London: Royal Academy of Arts, 2005), 449.

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Muṣṭafa ‘Ālī (d. 1600).50 A further example is Āsāfī Dal Meḥmed Çelebi’s (d. 1600?) Şecā‘atnāme, which he wrote to chronicle his time in the service of Özdemiroğlu ‘Osmān Paşa during the latter parts (1578-1585) of the Ottoman-Safavid Wars of 1578-1590. This book does not only recount and illustrate the victories of Özdemiroğlu ‘Osmān Paşa, but also includes illustrated sections on the life of the author.51 The Gencīne-i Fetḥ-i Gence of Raḥīmīzāde İbrāhīm Çavuş (d. 1600?), about Ferhād Paşa’s campaign (1583-1590) during the Ottoman-Safavid Wars of 1578-1590, represents yet another example of this type.52 As one final example, we would be remiss not to mention the Tāriḫ-i Feth-i Yemen of Muṣṭafa Rumūzī (d. 1582?), which was written at the wish of Sinān Paşa (d. 1596) and details the events that occurred in Yemen while he was serving there as the commander.53

It is evident that the production of the Ottoman illustrated history books was not limited to şehnāmes, and the production of these works was not only a result of the sultans’ direct initiatives. In fact, palace grandees played some of the most important roles in the production of illustrated manuscripts, both şehnāmes and ġazānāmes, acting as intermediaries between the sultan and the artists, as well as patrons themselves. While the grand viziers were the leading patrons of e manuscripts at the court for most of the second half of the sixteenth century – that is, aside from the sultan - the early seventeenth century brought about a shift in this role towards the the palace eunuchs, who came to increasingly dominate the commissioning of new works.54 The author of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī was also supported by a palace eunuch, Ġażanfer Ağa (d. 1603), who helped him to obtain commissions and job assignments from the sultan.55

50 Ottoman Painting; Emine Fetvacı, ibid; Gelibolulu Mustafa ‘Âlî, Nusret-nâme, ed. H. Mustafa Eravcı (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2014); H. Mustafa Eravcı, “Mustafa ‘Âli’nin Nusret-nâmesi ve Onun Işığında Yazarın Tarihçiliği” Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Tarih Bölümü Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi 24, no. 38, (2005): 163-84; Pınar Koçyiğit, “Resimli Bir Osmanlı Gazânâmesi: Gelibolulu Mustafa Âli (1541-1600) ve Nusretnâme’si (İstanbul Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi H. 1365)” (Unpub. MA thesis, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, 2012).

51 Ottoman Painting; Asafi Dal Mehmed Çelebi, Şecâ‘atnâme: Özdemiroğlu Osman Paşa’nın Şark Seferleri 1578-1585, ed. Abdülkadir Özcan (İstanbul: Çamlıca Basım Yayın, 2007); Gönül Kaya, “Resimli Bir Osmanlı Tarihi: Âsafî Paşa’nın Şecâatnâme’si” (Unpub. MA thesis, Uludağ Üniversitesi, 2006).

52 Ottoman Painting.

53 Ibid.

54 Emine Fetvacı, Picturing History at the Ottoman Court (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2013); Zeren Tanındı, “Bibliophile Aghas (Eunuchs) at Topkapı Saray”, Muqarnas 21 (2004): 333-43.

55 Tülün Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar: II. Osman Devrinde Değişen Güç Simgeleri (İstanbul: Kitap Yayınevi, 2012), Henceforth Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar.

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1.2.Şehnāme-i Nādirī: The Manuscript, Patronage and Content

Two şehnāmes were written on the subject of ‘Osmān II’s (r. 1618-1622) reign, one of which is known to have been commissioned by the sultan himself. This was the Şehnāme-i Türkī of Medḥī, a translation of the Şāhnāme of Firdevsī. This was not, in fact, a literal translation of the whole book into Turkish. Instead, it was Medḥī’s rendition of the text into a narrative that combined the epic stories of the Persian Şāhnāme with the events of ‘Osmān II’s reign. The second one was an Ottoman şehnāme, which narrated the events that occurred from ‘Osmān II’s accession to the throne in February 1618 until his return from the Hotin campaign in January 1622.

The following seven copies of the text of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī were located and studied by Numan Külekçi, in order to construct a transcription of the entire work.56

1. Süleymaniye Library, Hacı Mahmud Efendi, No. 5250

2. Süleymaniye Library, Esad Efendi, No. 2703

3. Köprülü Library, Hafız (Ahmed) Paşa, No. 280

4. İstanbul University Library, No. 3635

5. İstanbul University Library, No. 4098 (folios 213-229)

6. Austrian National Library, No. 1050

7. National Library of France, Supplement no. 160

Another transcription by Dürdar Alikılıç was based on the Austrian National Library copy.57 He also lists in his thesis the two copies in the Hacı Mahmud Efendi and Esad Efendi collections of the Süleymaniye Library. Neither Külekçi nor Alikılıç mention the only illustrated copy of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī, which is preserved in the Topkapı Palace Museum Library (Hazine 1124).58

56 Numan Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî. Hayatı, Edebî Kişiliği, Eserleri. Dîvânı ve Şeh-nâmesinin Tenkidli Metni” (PhD diss., Atatürk Üniversitesi, 1985), 324-25, Henceforth Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî.”

57 Dürdar Alikılıç, “Ganî-zâde Mehmed Nâdirî’nin Şehnâme-i Nâdirî’si” (Unpub. MA thesis, Marmara Üniversitesi, 1993), xiii.

58 Fehmi Edhem Karatay, Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi Kütüphanesi Türkçe Yazmalar Kataloğu Cilt II (İstanbul: Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi, 1961), 138.

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Şehnāme-i Nādirī was composed by Meḥmed b. ‘Abdülġanī (Ġanīzāde) (d. 1626), who wrote under the penname of Nādirī. He was a medrese graduate, and he taught in various medreses in İstanbul and Galata from 1592 to 1602. He became married to the daughter of the şeyḫülislām Sun‘ullah Efendi (d. 1612) sometime during his career as a medrese professor. He then served in Salonica, Cairo, and Edirne as a kadı, and was assigned to İstanbul in the same position by Aḥmed I in 1607. He was eventually dismissed from this post and assigned as the kadı of Galata in 1610. He served as the Anatolian and Rumelian kazasker between 1612 and 1620. After leaving this post in 1620, he passed away in İstanbul in 1627. 59 In addition to the Şehnāme-i Nādirī, he composed a dīvān, in which he wrote eulogies for the sultans Murād III, Meḥmed III, Aḥmed I, Muṣṭafa I and ‘Osmān II, as well as various palace grandees; he also included various petitions he had written, as well as a variety of complaints about the progress of his career.60

Dīvān-ı Nādirī is of particular interest for us, especially in terms of the composition of the text and the miniatures contained within the illustrated copy of the work. Külekçi lists twenty-two extant copies of the work, that include the whole or a part of the poems in the Dīvān.61 Only one of these copies, the one in the Topkapı Palace Museum Library (Hazine 889), is illustrated, and it includes only a small portion of thepoems included in other copies of Nādirī’s Dīvān. The poems in the illustrated copy refer to the reigns of Murād III, Meḥmed III and Aḥmed I; and the events that are depicted in the miniatures indicate that this copy might have been produced around 1605.62 Nevertheless, the poems that Nādirī added to his Dīvān later contain references to the reigns of Muṣṭafa I and ‘Osmān II, as well as poems that praise these sultans. At the end of his ḳaṣīde on the accession of ‘Osmān II to the throne, he tells the reader that he served Murād III, Meḥmed III and Aḥmed I by writing panegyrics for them, and begs the new sultan to allow him to continue his service.63 We have yet to determine, however, whether or not ‘Osmān II’s

59 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî”; Mustafa Uzun, “Ganîzâde Mehmed Nâdirî,” TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi (1996), 13: 355-56.

60 Külekçi, ibid.

61 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 16-17.

62 Zeren Tanındı, “Transformations of Words to Images: Portraits of Ottoman Courtiers in the Dîwâns of Bâkî and Nâdirî,” RES: Anthropology and Aestheticsi, Islamic Arts 43 (Spring 2003).

63 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 152-55.

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accepted Nādirī’s request, and whether the Şehnāme-i Nādirī represents the product of such a commission.

Nādirī’s career-related lines are not limited to those in his panegyric to the sultan. Two prominent figures to whom Nādirī wrote eulogizing poems in his Dīvān are the Chief Eunuch Ġażanfer Ağa, and the Equerry-in-Chief, ‘Ali Ağa. In his introduction to the Dīvān, Nādirī writes that the Dīvān was written at the request of ‘Ali Ağa, and he implies that it was presented to Ġażanfer Ağa.64 The significance of these two figures is also made apparent in Nādirī’s ḳaṣīdes. The poet writes several panegyrics to both ağas, and in one particular poem, in which he eulogizes both, he reveals their close relationship and hints at their kinship via ‘Ali Ağa’s marriage to Ġażanfer Ağa’s sister.65 The scant information that is available regarding ‘Ali Ağa reveals that he had a good relationship with Ġażanfer Ağa, and that they were influential in the palace in the late sixteenth century.66 Indeed, Nādirī writes in his ḳaṣīde that they were the “two wings of the state power,” and that “their personalities were the same.”67 In the poem in which he describes and praises the medrese of Ġażanfer Ağa, Nādirī also requests that he be given a position at this institution; later, in one of the miniatures in Dīvān-ı Nādirī, we observe that he did, indeed, find a position as a professor at Ġażanfer Ağa’s medrese.68

The Dīvān-ı Nādirī contains valuable material for the study of the network surrounding Nādirī, and helps us to track the course of his relationships with potential patrons, as his career progressed and as the reigning sultan changed. His panegyrics to the sultans and palace officials, as in the examples above, demonstrate his interactions with the court, as well as the connections between the influential figures that he mentions in his poems. The illustrated version, which was completed during the early years of Aḥmed I’s reign, most probably in 1605, provides us with additional content that is not covered in the text, especially through its visual portrayal of the most significant moments from the lives

64 Külekçi, ibid, 102-103; Zeren Tanındı, ibid; Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 153-54.

65 Külekçi, ibid, 206-207; Değirmenci, ibid.

66 Zeren Tanındı, “Transformations of Words to Images: Portraits of Ottoman Courtiers in the Dîwâns of Bâkî and Nâdirî,” RES: Anthropology and Aestheticsi, Islamic Arts 43 (Spring 2003), 131-45.

67 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 207.

68 Külekçi, ibid, 196-198; Zeren Tanındı, ibid; Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 163-64.

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of the figures in the book. This thesis will not focus particularly upon the Dīvān-ı Nādirī, however, as it does not contain any accounts of the short period that the Şehnāme-i Nādirī describes and illustrates. Instead, we will use an approach here that is mostly concerned with the narration of the events of ‘Osmān II’s reign by historical sources contemporary to the period.

The miniatures of the Topkapı Palace Museum Library copy of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī have been identified as the work of several different painters.69 Among them, Aḥmed Naḳşī is the only painter whose name is known today. Naḳşī’s miniature style can be characterized as essentially in the mode of classical Ottoman painting, following the model of Naḳḳāş ‘Osmān, but which nevertheless also utilized new techniques of visual depth to provide the viewer with a sense of perspective. This is particularly evident in his depictions of architecture.70 Naḳşī’s hand can be recognized in 113 different miniatures across six manuscripts and three albums.71 His earliest paintings are found in Tercüme-i Şeḳāyıḳ-ı Nūmāniye, a translation of Taşköprülüzāde from Arabic, which contains the biographies of those scholars who lived between the reigns of ‘Osmān I and Süleymān I.72 Another manuscript which was illustrated solely by Naḳşī was the Dīvān-ı Nādirī; this manuscript consists of a collection of panegyrics to the sultan and various palace grandees; prominent among these was Ġażanfer Ağa, who is known to have supported Nādirī’s book projects by mediating his relations with the palace.73 Naḳşī’s nine miniatures in the Dīvān-ı Nādirī represent the events that occurred during the period, although the poems of Nādirī have no historical content but consist only of eulogies to sultans and other high officials. Hence, the

69 Ottoman Painting.

70Süheyl Ünver, Ressam Nakşî, Hayatı ve Eserleri (İstanbul: İstanbul Üniversitesi Yayınları, 1949); Esin Atıl, “Ahmed Nakşi: An Eclectic Painter of the Early Seventeenth Century,” in Fifth InternationalCongress of Turkish Art, Proceedings, ed. Geza Feher Jr. (Budapest, 1978), 103–21; Tülay Artan, “Arts and Architecture,” in The Cambridge History of Turkey, Volume 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603-1839, ed. Suraiya N. Faroqhi (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 408-80.

71 Esin Atıl, ibid.

72Süheyl Ünver, ibid; Esin Atıl, ibid.

73 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 24-32; Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 159-60.

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miniatures extend the content of the book for an audience already familiar with the events, rather than merely illustrating the text.74

Şehnāme-i Nādirī was the third manuscript that Naḳşī worked on, but he illustrated only two miniatures in the book, one of which is a double-spread. One of these miniatures is a single-page painting which depicts ‘Osmān II at a dīvān meeting with his dignitaries (Fig. 7). The other one is an illustration of the procession of ‘Osmān II with his army on towards his Hotin campaign (Fig. 8).75 Naḳşī’s miniatures are also contained within the three manuscript copies of the Şehnāme-i Türkī that were composed by Medḥī on the orders of ‘Osmān II.76 Naḳşī’s painting style, as it developed, came to be characterized by what Esin Atıl has called his “eclecticism and humor.”77 He combined Ottoman, Persian and European elements, and added dynamism to his paintings with elements such as animated rocks and amusing details from daily life; these qualities are also evident in his two miniatures for the Şehnāme-i Nādirī.78 These miniatures will be discussed in chapter four of this thesis, in relation to the text of the book.

Şehnāme-i Nādirī narrates events that occurred during the period from 1618 to the end of 1621. The book was written in the form of a mesnevī, a practical format for long stories, and it opens with chapters of praise and prayers to God (taḥmīd and münācat), praises of the Prophet Muḥammed (n‘at) and stories of the ascension of the prophet (mi‘rāc), along with tributes to the first four caliphs of Islam (çār yār-ı güzīn); these laudatory passages were in keeping with the traditional opening of the mesnevī format. The next chapter of the work is a panegyric to ‘Osmān II. Finally, before entering into the book’s central historical narrative, there is one last chapter which discusses the reasons for the writing of the book.

74 Zeren Tanındı, “Transformations of Words to Images: Portraits of Ottoman Courtiers in the Dîwâns of Bâkî and Nâdirî,” RES: Anthropology and Aestheticsi, Islamic Arts 43 (Spring 2003), 131-45; Emine Fetvacı, “Enriched Narratives and Empowered Images in Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Manuscripts,” Ars Orientalis, 40, (2011), 243-266;

75 Esin Atıl, “Ahmed Nakşi: An Eclectic Painter of the Early Seventeenth Century,” in Fifth International Congress of Turkish Art, Proceedings, ed. Geza Feher Jr. (Budapest, 1978), 103–21.

76 Esin Atıl, ibid; Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 99-102; Tülün Değirmenci, “‘Legitimizing’ s Young Sultan: Illustrated Copies of Medhī’s Şehnāme-i Türkī in European Collections,” in 13th International Congress of Turkish Art, Proceedings, ed. Geza David & Ibolya Gerelyes (Budapest: Hungarian National Museum, 2009), 157-72.

77 Esin Atıl, ibid, 108.

78 Esin Atıl, ibid.

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Nādirī’s stated reason for writing his şehnāme is a rather conventional one. He writes that his acquaintances requested him to write a mesnevī, because the Ottomans (Rūmīyān) had, up to that point, been able to compete with the Persians in regards to their ḳaṣīdes, but there was as yet no available Ottoman mesnevī which could compare to the Persian ones in content and style. He first intended to write an Alexander romance (İskendernāme) – that is to say, a work in the genre depicting the epic adventures of İskender, a literary character formed from the convergence of İskender-i Ẕülḳarneyn, a Quranic prophet-like figure, and İskender-i Rūmī, the historical Alexander the Great.79 After describing this initial intention, however, Nādirī writes that he quickly realized, or rather heard a voice telling him, that writing an İskendernāme was useless, for the stories of Alexander consisted mostly of lies. For this reason, he writes that he instead decided to write the stories of the Ottoman sultans. He compares ‘Osmān II with Alexander to further justify his choice of subject as the worthier one. He accepts that Alexander was a respected emperor and that he conquered the world, but adds that he could not compete with ‘Osmān II, because the latter ruled the world right from his accession to the throne.80

The patron of Şehnāme-i Nādirī is not definitively known. Although two contemporary sources, Kātib Çelebi and Nev‘izāde Atāī, have reported that the Şehnāme-i Nādirī was written on the orders of ‘Osmān II, Nādirī does not provide us with a name as to who commissioned him with this work; indeed, he does not mention this even in his chapter on the reason for writing the book.81 Since the name of the patron of the book was not explicitly stated, the identity of the book’s patron must instead be deduced from the content of the book. We, of course, immediately come to the possibility that Şehnāme-i Nādirī may have been presented to ‘Osmān II upon his personal request: firstly, Nādirī describes his book as a şehnāme, and provides a long panegyric to ‘Osmān II at the beginning of his book. Furthermore, the most prominent figure in the book is ‘Osmān II. His only military campaign, the one to Hotin, is narrated in five chapters and illustrated

79 A. Abel, “Iskandar Nāma”, Encyclopedia of Islam, Second Edition, (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1997), 4:127-29; İsmail Ünver, “İskender”, TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi (2000), 22:557-9. On the first known Ottoman İskendernāme written by the fourteenth-century poet Ahmedī, see E. J. W. Gibb, A History of Ottoman Poetry Volume 1 (London: Luzac & Co., 1900), 269-84.

80 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 324-5. Most of the pages describing “the reason for writing the book” in the Topkapı Palace Museum Library copy are missing in the manuscript.

81 Külekçi, ibid, 43.

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with five miniatures, three of which are double-page paintings. This evidence is, however, by itself not enough to let us say with certainty that Şehnāme-i Nādirī was dedicated to the sultan; after all, the presence of a eulogy of the sultan, and his prominence in the work’s narrative, were normal features of any illustrated history book in the Ottoman Empire, even if the work was not commissioned by the sultan himself.

Another possible patron of the book is Ḫalīl Paşa. As will be discussed in chapter three, the grand vizier Ḫalīl Paşa is the second most regularly featured figure in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī, after the sultan. His campaigns are recounted in five chapters, and he features in three double-page miniatures; this is in contrast to the other military commanders, whose campaigns are narrated in only one or two chapters. While the number of chapters and miniatures that feature a certain character in a şehnāme is not, by itself, sufficient to determine the book’s patronage relationships, it demonstrates that certain figures were prioritized in the book’s narrative, and possibly had a hand in its creation.

Tülün Değirmenci suggests that these different possibilities may be explained by the presence of various factions among the courtiers, and Nādirī’s relationships with these factions.82 She argues that Nādirī was closer to Ḫalīl Paşa than he was to ‘Ali Paşa, and that this proximity is the reason for varying prominence of the two commanders in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī. The state of the relationships between the depicted characters and Nādirī, as well as their relationships with the patron of the book, may have played a further role in the manner of their representations in the text and miniatures. However, it is likely that there were other factors involved as well. Since we do not know how much say Nādirī actually had in the production of the miniatures of his book, we have to consider that the artists, too, were participants in the book’s content; this was particularly the case, as for the most part, the text of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī is quite formulaic in its way of describing the paşas as brave and skilled commanders. Nuances of these characters’ representation are thus understood more readily by looking at the miniatures of the book, rather than by reading the text. The text is, after all, an account of the events that occurred during ‘Osmān II’s reign, and the author provides a faithful narrative in terms of chronology - he does not omit events that happened, or invent new happenings. The miniatures, however, constitute

82 Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 244-5.

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an area of much greater artistic freedom, in that they do not have to repeat the text but form a semi-independent field of expression that the audience can read and interpret. In other words, the miniatures are not mere illustrations of what is narrated in the text, but they constitute a distinct part of the narrative. They are the products of a complex web of relations among the authors, artists, and patrons, as well as of the processes of interpretation of the text by the artists. This thesis’s aims are limited and it will leave the question of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī’s patronage unanswered; rather, we shall focus here on on the content of the book in relation to the previous and contemporaneous examples of the genre.

After stating the reasons why the book was written, the Şehnāme-i Nādirī continues with the narrative history of ‘Osmān II’s reign. The order of the events that are narrated in the book is as follows:

‘Osmān II ascends to the throne (March 1618).

Crimean prince Meḥmed Giray (d. 1629) escapes from Yedikule during ‘Osmān II’s sword-girding ceremony in Eyub, gets caught and is forgiven by the sultan (March 1618).

The Grand Vizier Ḫalīl Paşa is sent to fight Şah ‘Abbās, and Tabriz is plundered by the Ottoman army (1618).

The Crimean Han Canbek Giray fights Ḳārçıġāy Ḫān, the governor of Tabriz (1618).

Ḫalīl Paşa and Şah ‘Abbās make peace, and Şah ‘Abbās sends gifts to ‘Osmān II (1619).

The Grand Admiral ‘Ali Paşa goes on his naval campaign in the Mediterranean (1619).

The Governor of Özi (Ochakov) İskender Paşa embarks upon a Polish campaign (1620).

İskender Paşa fights the kansler, the Polish commander Stanislaw Zolkiewski (1620).

Ḫalīl Paşa captures the Italian city of Manfredonia (1620).

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The Governor of Budin (Buda) Karakaş Meḥmed Paşa conquers Vac; İskender Ağa marches on Habeş (Abyssinia); and Afrāsiyāb takes control of Basra (1620).

‘Osmān II gathers the dīvān to consult about the Polish campaign, and the Polish envoys’ requests for mercy are rejected by the sultan (1621).

‘Osmān II leaves İstanbul to embark upon the Polish campaign (29 April 1621), and arrives in Edirne (31 May 1621).

‘Osmān II marches from Edirne to the River Dniester, and Cossack soldiers are taken prisoner on the journey (June 1621).

The Ottoman army fights the sons of the Polish king, and the castle of Hotin is surrendered to the Ottomans (September 1621).

‘Osmān II starts his return from the campaign; his son is born while he is in Edirne; and the sultan finally arrives in Istanbul. He builds a kiosk and a caique to celebrate his victory (January 1622).

The book ends with a ḫātime, or epilogue, in which Nādirī states his intentions to add to his Şehnāme the further events that would occur during ‘Osmān II’s reign. However, ‘Osmān II was deposed and killed in June 1622, a few months after his return from the Hotin campaign, and thus Nādirī never got a chance to fulfill his plans.

Some of the pages of the Topkapı copy of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī are missing, and other pages were bound in the wrong places to fill the gaps caused by these missing pages. The manuscript starts at folio 1a with the thirteenth distich of the first chapter, the taḥmīd, which continues until the end of the folio 1b. Following pages of the taḥmīd, and the münacāt and na‘t were bound between 42a and 45b. 2a continues with the second half of the mi‘rāciyye. The panegyric on the four caliphs and the panegyric on ‘Osmān II follow the mi‘rāciyye in the right order. The chapter on the rationale for writing the book starts after the panegyric to ‘Osmān II, and is interrupted after its first sixth distich at the end of 4b. The rest of this chapter, and the beginning of the chapter on the accession of ‘Osmān II to the throne, are also missing. The remainder of the chapter on the accession continues at

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5a. The later pages of the manuscript are in the right order, except for the missing pages on the Vac campaign of Karakaş Meḥmed Paşa, which should have been bound from 42a to 45b.83

In this study, I will examine the text and miniatures of the Topkapı Palace copy, and rely on Numan Külekçi’s transcription for the pages that are missing in the illustrated copy, since the only differences between the two texts are minor changes of words or rhymes.

This thesis will analyze the illustrated copy of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī in terms of its continuation of the Ottoman şehnāme tradition, and the innovations that it brought to the format. In doing so, we shall focus particularly on the book’s imagery, as it relates to r the sultan and the commanders who led the various campaigns narrated in the book. In order to contextualize the Şehnāme-i Nādirī, the next chapter will survey the books written about the reign of ‘Osmān II during this period, and how these books strove to depict the sultan and other prominent figures, such as the Grand Vizier Ḫalīl Paşa. Following this, we will delve more deeply into the miniatures and text of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī. The third chapter will analyze the various depictons of the campaigns that were led by the serdārs, or commanders, of ‘Osmān II, and will focus on the similarities and differences between these depictions. The fourth chapter will focus more specifically on the portrayal of ‘Osmān II and his image as a ġāzī sultan.

The text of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī features several common themes. One repeated motif is the narration of the processions that occur when the army embarks on and returns from campaigns. Nādirī describes these processions with a great deal of attention to material details. He describes the clothing and weapons of the soldiers, as well as those of the commanders and the sultan. These passages also include long sequences of praise for the sultan, in cases where he leads the army himself, as well as paeans to the valor of the soldiers. As he does throughout his verse, Nādirī alludes to the characters of the original Persian Şāhnāme in order glorify the contemporary army and its commanders. Another recurrent theme is the description of battles. Similar to the descriptions of the army on campaign, battles are recounted as epic stories where the Ottoman soldiers prove to be brave, strong and unceasingly victorious heroes. Their weaponry is also described in the

83 Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 275n89.

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battle scenes, and the expertise of the Ottoman soldiers in using such weapons is emphasized. The dialogues that occur between the sultan and the viziers, or between an Ottoman commander and a subordinate or counterpart, represent a third common motif. Such passages highlight the bonds of loyalty between the Ottoman characters, and their self-image of superiority against their rivals.

These themes contribute to the representation of a strong and victorious Ottoman army, attributes which are further reflected in the Ottoman leaders; they also constitute the most original element of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī. As we shall see in the upcoming chapters, the Şehnāme-i Nādirī is a faithful follower of the conventions of the Ottoman şehnāme genre in terms of its depiction of characters and events. However, the long passages that contain these recurrent themes provide room for a certain degree of creativity in the text, allowing the Şehnāme-i Nādirī to posess some strikingly original expressions. Thus, the moden reader may classify the Şehnāme as part of a longer Ottoman şehnāme writing tradition, which nevertheless contains some noticeably divergent elements. These elements are most prominent in the book’s battle scenes and dialogues, and these sections will be discussed in more detail in the relevant chapters; the descriptions of the processions will be provided in the Appendix, as these sections run to significant lengths.

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2. CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVE SOURCES: ẒAFERNĀME AND ĠAZĀNĀME-İ ḪALĪL PAŞA

The events of the reign of ‘Osmān II were recorded in two contemporary unillustrated narrative sources, in addition to the Şehnāme-i Nādirī. One of these is the Ẓafernāme, which describes the sultan’s Hotin campaign, and the other is the Ġazānāme-i Ḫalīl Paşa, which recounts Ḫalīl Paşa’s life and career, including the same military exploits that are narrated in the Şehnāme. Both sources are similar to the Şehnāme-i Nādirī in terms of their descriptions of the military campaigns, particularly in regards to how the Ottomans are depicted as victorious whatever the actual course of events. The depiction of characters in these additional two sources are also in line with their representations in the Şehnāme; as an example, they describe ‘Osmān II and Ḫalīl Paşa, the protagonists of the Ẓafernāme and the Ġazānāme, respectively, as ideal leaders with an unquenchable eagerness to fight, and with excellent military skills. What follows will present examples of these depictions from these latter two sources, and will also allow us to make comparisons with the Şehnāme-i Nādirī. Taking these other two sources into consideration will help us to better understand the representations in the book, by demonstrating that these depictions and their characteristic features are not unique to the Şehnāme. They rather represent a continuation of a literary style, a style which is also evident in other prominent narrative sources of the time.

2.1. Ẓafernāme

The manuscript of Ẓafernāme-i Belāġat-‘unvān der Beyān-ı Ġazavāt-ı Sultān ‘Osmān Ḫān-ı Ġāzī was first located and studied by Yaşar Yücel, who also published a facsimile of the manuscript.84 The text of the only extant copy was transcribed by Zeynep

84 Yaşar Yücel, “Yeni Bulunan II. Osman Adına Yazılmış Bir ‘Zafer-nâme’,” Belleten 43/170 (1979), 313-64; Yaşar Yücel, Osmanlı Devlet Düzenine Ait Metinler VI: ll. Osman Adına Yazılmış Zafer-name, (Ankara: AÜ DTCF Yayınları, 1983).

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Türk Sarıışık.85 The Ẓafernāme was written by Kilari Meḥmed Çelebi under the penname Ḫāliṣī,86 and narrates a detailed account of the Polish campaign of ‘Osmān II, from the decision of the sultan to go on campaign in April 1621 to the end of the battle and the beginning of the journey back to İstanbul in October 1621. The author states that he wrote this book on the orders of ‘Osmān II.87 Although Yücel argues that the author was an eyewitness to the Hotin campaign,88 As Tezcan has pointed out, one of Ḫāliṣī’s statements in his book seems to imply that he wrote this account with the information he acquired from his acquaintances who participated in the campaign.89 If Ḫāliṣī did not actually join the Hotin campaign, the book must have been written in the time period between the arrival of ‘Osmān II in İstanbul in January 1622 and his deposition in June 1622.90 This is also possible; in another part in his book, Ḫālisī mentions that he was an accountant (maṣraf kitābeti) in the imperial pantry.91

The only extant copy of the Ẓafernāme was located by Yücel in a private library in Ankara.92 Tezcan suggests that this copy was written after the death of ‘Osmān II, judging by the phrase “raḥmetullāhi ‘aleyhi,” meaning “may God have mercy on him,” written after the name of ‘Osmān II in the book. He also concludes that this copy is not the original one, because of the repeated usage of same words in the text that would seem to signify miscopying, and a passage in the book which states that the Ẓafernāme had already been presented to the sultan, and that the sultan was pleased.93 However, the sentence that Tezcan uses to demonstrate that the Ẓafernāme pleased the sultan may also be interpreted

85 Zeynep Türk Sarıışık, “II. Osman Dönemine Aid Bir Kaynak: Zafernâme,” (Unpub. MA thesis, Ankara Üniversitesi, 1999), Henceforth Sarıışık, “Zafernâme.”

86 Yaşar Yücel, “Yeni Bulunan II. Osman Adına Yazılmış Bir ‘Zafer-nâme’,” Belleten 43/170 (1979), 313-64; Baki Tezcan, “Zafernâme Müellifi Hâlisî’nin Bilinmeyen Bir Eseri Münâsebetiyle,” The Journal of Ottoman Studies 19 (1999): 83-98.

87 Baki Tezcan, ibid.

88 Yaşar Yücel, Osmanlı Devlet Düzenine Ait Metinler VI: ll. Osman Adına Yazılmış Zafer-name, (Ankara: AÜ DTCF Yayınları, 1983), iv.

89 Baki Tezcan, ibid.

90 Baki Tezcan, “Zafernâme Müellifi Hâlisî’nin Bilinmeyen Bir Eseri Münâsebetiyle,” The Journal of Ottoman Studies 19 (1999): 83-98.

91 Baki Tezcan, ibid, 86-87.

92 Yaşar Yücel, “Yeni Bulunan II. Osman Adına Yazılmış Bir ‘Zafer-nâme’,” Belleten 43/170 (1979), 313-64

93 Baki Tezcan, ibid, 91.

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as a statement of Ḫālisī’s wish that the book be approved by the sultan, and so it does not necessarily imply that other, earlier copies exist.94

Ẓafernāme is parallel in content and discourse with Şehnāme-i Nādirī on many points. Like the Şehnāme, Ẓafernāme states that ‘Osmān II decided to go on a Polish campaign because of the regular Polish invasions of the Ottoman borderlands. The text describes the history of relations between the Poles and the Ottomans, reminding the reader that the Polish kings had abided by their agreements with the Ottoman sultans and paid their yearly tributes until Aḥmed I’s time. However, during Aḥmed I’s reign, the Polish king began to encourage the Cossacks to raid into the Black Sea regions of the Empire. Aḥmed I wanted to campaign against Poland, but he did not live long enough to do so. Since the Poles continued their activities after ‘Osmān II came to power, the sultan first sent İskender Paşa, the governor of Özi (Ochakov) to campaign into the Polish lands.95

Ḫālisī in a short passage tells us that İskender Paşa defeated the Polish army with the help of Kalgay96 Sultan and Ḳantemir Mirza, before starting with the main subject of the book - that is, the Hotin campaign. Since the conflict with the Polish was not yet settled, the sultan decided to lead a new campaign, personally. Ḫālisī explains the eagerness of ‘Osmān II to lead the campaign as due to his “brave and zealous nature.” 97 As described in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī, ‘Osmān II refuses to change his decision to lead the campaign personally, despite being advised to send a commander instead of going into battle himself. Both Şehnāme and Ẓafernāme present the image of a sultan with a hunger to prove himself in battle. In both sources, ‘Osmān II insists on leading the campaign, and justifies his desire by alluding to his ancestors, who went on campaigns and returned victorious. He, too, wants to achieve a similar feat.

94 “Gerçi tuḥfetü’l-faḳīr-i ḥaḳīr-nükte ma‘lūmdur; lākin “her ‘ayb ki sultān be-pesended hünerest” feḥvāsına ġırre olub murād eyledüm.” Yaşar Yücel, Osmanlı Devlet Düzenine Ait Metinler VI: ll. Osman Adına Yazılmış Zafer-name, (Ankara: AÜ DTCF Yayınları, 1983), 11; Sarıışık, “Zafernâme”, 60-61; Baki Tezcan, ibid, 91. Ḫālisī alludes to the well-known verse by the thirteenth-century Persian poet Sa‘dī-i Şīrāzī, possibly hoping that the shortcomings of his book will be pardoned by the sultan.

95 Sarıışık, “Zafernâme,” 66.

96 The title of Crimean crown princes. The word appears in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī in one of its earlier versions, “Ḳaġalġāy.” The more widely used version, “Kalgay” will be preferred throughout this thesis. See Halil İnalcık, “Kalgay” in TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi (2001), 24:259.

97 Sarıışık, “Zafernâme,” 69.

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Essentially the same narrative is repeated in the account of Na‘īmā, which was written in late seventeenth century and covered events from 1574 until 1651. However, Na‘īmā also noted that the Grand Vizier ‘Ali Paşa, whose naval campaign in the Mediterranean is the subject of a chapter in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī, was the one who motivated the sultan towards ġazā, and encouraged him to go on the Polish campaign.98 Other late seventeenth-century authors, Peçevī and Topçular Katibi ‘Abdülḳādir Efendi, do not provide us with an account of the conversation between the sultan and the dīvān members on the sultan’s participation in the campaign. Both Peçevī and ‘Abdülḳādir Efendi recorded that the campaign started on the orders of the sultan, but do not mention ‘Osmān II’s personal eagerness to lead the campaign.99 The Ẓafernāme and the Şehnāme, two contemporary sources that were written not only to keep historical records but also to propagate an image of a warrior sultan, emphasize the attitude of the sultan without mentioning ‘Ali Paşa’s influence; possibly this detail was intentionally omitted, as it could be seen to detract from the narrative of ‘Osmān II’s initiative.

Şehnāme-i Nādirī portrays the relationship of the soldiers with the sultan - or the commander, for the campaigns other than that of Hotin - as one that required absolute loyalty from below and was balanced by a strong sense of generosity and benevolence from above. The soldiers demonstrated unconditional dedication to the orders, and the sultan or the commander awarded them with gifts of honor and luxury in return for their services. In several cases, which will be discussed further in the following chapters of this thesis, the sultan and his commanders granted robes of honor to their supportive subordinates such as the Crimean Ḫān Cānbek Giray, and provided the soldiers of the army with gold and silver gifts. Ẓafernāme conveys a similar sense of reciprocal trust. On his way to Hotin, ‘Osmān II orders a survey for the soldiers to register themselves, and he awards the ones who do so with baḫşīş.100 The author of Ẓafernāme narrates this event as a regular payment to the soldiers, while Na‘îmâ recounts that the reason for this practice was a rumor about the

98 Târih-i Na‘îmâ, ed. Mehmet İpşirli (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2007), 2:459, Henceforth Na‘îmâ.

99 Topçular Kâtibi ‘Abdülkādir (Kadrî) Efendi Tarihi, ed. Ziya Yılmazer, (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2003), 2:705-6, Henceforth Topçular Kâtibi; Peçevi Tarihi, ed. Bekir Sıtkı Baykal (Ankara: Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1982), 2:351, Henceforth Peçevi.

100 Sarıışık, “Zafernâme,” 92-3.

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falling number of soldiers as the army proceeded on its march.101 Na‘îmâ interprets this event as a signal of the worsening relations between ‘Osmān II and the janissaries, which would escalate in time, and would eventually result in the deposition and the execution of the sultan after his return from the campaign.102 However, in the Ẓafernāme, which was written before the troublesome end of ‘Osmān II’s reign, the practice seems to be one that ensured the loyalty between the sultan and the janissaries.

‘Osmān II’s skills as an archer and hunter also constitute a noticeable theme in the Ẓafernāme. An incident is recounted in the Ẓafernāme, and repeated in the Şehnāme, in which a Cossack prisoner escapes while the other prisoners were being executed on the orders of the sultan; this incident is used to convey the almost superhuman qualities of the sultan. In Ẓafernāme, ‘Osmān II first orders his men to shoot the fugitive prisoner, and when no one is able to do so , he accomplishes the task himself. The Ẓafernāme additionaly relates that the sultan excelled in archery more than anyone else in his retinue. ‘Osmān II’s dexterity in archery is further emphasized in the Ẓafernāme with the recounting of another incident. Ḫālisī tell us that the sultan, at one point, shot an arrow from one bank of the Danube, where he was standing with his army. The arrow managed to cross the river and landed four steps away on the opposite shore.103 Ḫālisī explains to the reader that this event is further “evidence [as] to the sultan’s excellent senses.”104

The sultan’s hunting skills are similarly demonstrated in the Ẓafernāme. Unlike the Şehnāme, which describes the sultan hunting on his way back from the campaign, Ḫālisī tells us that ‘Osmān II left the capital and stopped to hunt on his way to Hotin. Regardless of the time of the hunting, both sources emphasize the amount and variety of the game that the sultan and his company hunted. Ẓafernāme tells us that the sultan went hunting with the Dārü’s-sa‘āde Ağası, Süleymān Ağa (d. 1622) and the Grand Vizier Ḥüseyin Paşa (d. 1624), and together they hunted countless animals. They could “hunt a phoenix like a

101 Na‘îmâ, 465.

102 Ibid, 476-77.

103 Sarıışık, “Zafernâme,” 83.

104 Sarıışık, ibid, 83.

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pigeon, and tie lions and leopards on their saddle rings.”105 With these cliché words, the author is praising the hunting skills of the sultan and his closest courtiers; this is something that Nādirī does in his book as well.

The result of the Hotin campaign is described in the Ẓafernāme as a victory, as is evident from the name of the work, although the campaign in fact ended with an agreement that included mutual compromises. The Agreement of Hotin guaranteed that the Poles would stop the Cossacks from raiding across the Black Sea, but also made it a condition that the Ottomans would prevent the Tatars from attacking the Polish realm.106 Peçevī later interpreted the Hotin campaign as a loss because the Ottomans belittled their rivals.107The Ẓafernāme does not refer to such details, however; instead, as in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī, it portrays an absolute Ottoman victory.

Throughout his narrative, Ḫālisī refers to Persian Şāhnāme characters that are known for their fighting skills and bravery. He also repeats the common motif of comparing the sultan to his Ottoman predecessors, especially to Süleymān I, whom Ḫālisī regards as the most successful among them. He ends his narrative by stating that such a great victory for Islam was unprecedented, and that even Süleymān I did not reach lands as distant as ‘Osmān II did.108 The claim for the current sultan to have surpassed the achievements of his ancestors is a common statement in both the Şehnāme-i Nādirī and in previous şehnāmes. Ẓafernāme continues the tradition of these other works by setting the previous sultans, especially Süleymān I, as the standard of an ideal ruler, before asserting that the existing sultan had surpassed them all.

105 “Husûsâ her ne vakt-i huceste-sâ‘atde sayd u şikâra ‘azm buyursalar, ‘anka-yı çarhı hamâme gibi sayd ve şîr ü peleng-i feleği fitrâkine kayd eylerdi.” Sarıışık, ibid, 75.

106 Dariusz Kolodziejczyk, “A historical outline of Polish-Ottoman political and diplomatic relations” in War and Peace: Ottoman-Polish Relations in the 15th-19th Centuries ed. Selim Kangal (İstanbul: Turkish Republic Ministry of Culture, 1999), 26. For the texts of both versions and their translations in English, see Dariusz Kolodziejczyk, Ottoman-Polish Diplomatic Relations (15th-18th Century): An Annotated Edition of ‘Ahdnames and Other Documents (Leiden, Boston, Köln: Brill, 1999), 376-87.

107 Peçevi, 352-4.

108 Sarıışık, “Zafernâme,” 130-1.

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2.2. Ġazānāme-i Ḫalīl Paşa

The Ġazānāme-i Ḫalīl Paşa, or Ġazavātnāme-i Ḫalīl Paşa, narrates the life and campaigns of the grand admiral (1609–11, 1613–16, 1619–23) and grand vizier (1616–19, 1626–28) Ḫalīl Paşa (d. 1629).109 Three copies of the book are located today in the Topkapı Palace Museum Library (Revan 1482), Süleymaniye Library (Esad Efendi 2139) and Vienna Austrian National Library (H.O. 72), respectively.110 In the catalogue of Turkish manuscripts in the Topkapı Palace, the author of the book was mistakenly identified as Gelibolulu Muṣṭafa ‘Ālī (d. 1600).111 However, it is not possible that ‘Ālī recorded the events of the Ġazānāme, as most of these occurred sometime after his death.112 The authorship of the book has also been attributed to Nādirī , because his penname was mentioned in the last distich of the poem at the end of the book, but Nādirī added this poem as taḳrīẓ, a eulogy of the work.113 The most probable author of the book, then, may be Vaṣfī, who was also praised for his writing skills in the same poem.114 However, other than his name, we know little else about him, and so it is difficult to say this with certainty.

The Ġazānāme is similar to the Şehnāme-i Nādirī in that its narration of events focuses specifically on those incidents that reflect the ideal and exemplary nature of the story’s main character. The book begins with the early life of Ḫalīl Paşa, when he was a member of the falconer corps of the Topkapı Palace.115 His career as the head of the falconer corps and as the commander of the janissary corps, as well as the various

109 A. H. de Groot, “Khalil Pasha, Kaysariyyeli”, Encyclopedia of Islam, Second Edition, (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1997), 4:970-72; Agâh Sırrı Levend, Ġazavāt-nāmeler ve Mihaloğlu Ali Bey’in Ġazavāt-nāmesi (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 2000), 106-7.

110 Victor Ostapchuk, “An Ottoman Gazânâme on Halil Paşa’s Naval Campaign against the Cossacks (1621),” Harvard Ukrainian Studies 14 (1990): 482-521.

111 Fehmi Edhem Karatay, Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi Kütüphanesi Türkçe Yazmalar Kataloğu Cilt II (İstanbul: Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi, 1961), 380.

112 Agâh Sırrı Levend, Ġazavāt-nāmeler ve Mihaloğlu Ali Bey’in Ġazavāt-nāmesi (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 2000), 107.

113 Victor Ostapchuk, “An Ottoman Gazânâme on Halil Paşa’s Naval Campaign against the Cossacks (1621),” Harvard Ukrainian Studies 14 (1990): 482-521.

114 “Vasfî zeyn eyledikçe evrakı / Nâm-ı nâmîsi tutsun âfâkı” Meltem Aydın, “Gazânâme-i Halîl Paşa 1595-1623 (Tahlil ve Metin),” (Unpub. PhD dissertation, Marmara Üniversitesi, 2010), 268, Henceforth Aydın, “Gazânâme.”. Uzunçarşılı and Babinger attributed the work to Vasfī. İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, Osmanlı Tarihi III. Cilt, 2. Kısım (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, 1988) 373; Franz Babinger, Osmanlı Tarih Yazarları ve Eserleri, trans. Coşkun Üçok (Ankara:Kültür Bakanlığı, 1992), 197.

115 Victor Ostapchuk, ibid.

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campaigns he participated in while holding these titles, are also included in the book.116 Among his exploits, h participated in the Eger campaign of Meḥmed III in 1596 as the head of the falconer corps, as well as fought against the Celālī rebels in Central Anatolia and Aleppo as the commander of the janissaries.117 Other exploits of Ḫalīl Paşa that are narrated in the Ġazānāme include his naval campaigns in the Mediterranean from 1609–14, his campaign against Safavid Iran in 1617–18, his naval campaign against the Italian city of Manfredonia, and his activities in the Black Sea in 1621 during ‘Osmān II’s Hotin campaign.118 The latter three undertakings, as they are recounted in the Ġazānāme, will be the main focus of this sub-chapter, as they are also narrated in our main primary source, Şehnāme-i Nādirī, and provide us with useful points of comparison.

Ḫalīl Paşa’s campaign in Ardabil is the first event which the Ġazānāme and the Şehnāme have in common. The grand vizier set out for the campaign during the rule of Aḥmed I. The death of Aḥmed I in 1617 was followed by Muṣṭafa I’s short reign, after which ‘Osmān II came to power in February 1618. The Ġazānāme provides us with a letter written by ‘Osmān II to Ḫalīl Paşa after his accession. 119 In this letter, the sultan himself recounts the issues surrounding his accession. He states that, while the Ottoman tradition of accession required the sultanate to pass from father to son, his right to be the sultan was unjustly given to his uncle Muṣṭafa, simply because Muṣṭafa was a few years older. He continues by explaining that Muṣṭafa voluntarily chose to leave the throne to ‘Osmān II, thus allowing him to become the new sultan. Following this explanation, ‘Osmān II then orders Ḫalīl Paşa to continue the campaign that he had embarked upon during Aḥmed I’s rule as the commander-in-chief, and commands that he return home with a victory.

As in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī, Ḫalīl Paşa’s Safavid campaign is portrayed as ultimately victorious in the Ġazānāme. As the book relates, when Ḫalīl Paşa arrives in Tabriz, he finds that Şah ‘Abbās has already fled. Yet, unlike the Şehnāme-i Nādirī, the Ġazānāme does not then proceed to describe a long and heroic battle scene between the

116 Ibid.

117 Ibid.

118 Ibid.

119 Aydın, “Gazânâme,” 218-9.

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Ottoman and Safavid armies. The Ġazānāme instead focuses on the strategies that were adopted by the commander-in-chief, and the correspondence between Ḫalīl Paşa and the Safavid commander, Ḳārçıgāy Han. The book showcases numerous examples of Ottoman strategic decision-making; Ḫalīl Paşa decides, for example, to not stay in Tabriz but rather to move forward, in order not to seem as though he is avoiding a decisive battle. In contrast, the Safavids are described in the book as constantly asking for peace. Ḳārçıgāy Han writes to Ḫalīl Paşa, in order to tell him that Şah ‘Abbās is requesting a peace and will accept the Ottoman conditions; the grand vizier replies that, in order to restore the peace, the Persians will have to send a hundred loads of silk and a hundred loads of gifts each year to the sultan. This account of their correspondence is mirrored in the telling of the Şehnāme. Both sources aim to create an image of a victorious campaign, and to reinforce Ottoman superiority over their enemies; as will be discussed in chapter three of this thesis, however, the campaign did not, in fact, bring much success or any new acquisitions to the Ottoman Empire. Indeed, the final peace was essentially a repetition of the conditions of the earlier agreement made between Süleymān I and Şah Ṭahmāsb in 1555.

Ḫalīl Paşa’s relationship with the sultan is characterized in the Ġazānāme as an essentially magnanimous one. The first interaction between the sultan and the commander recorded in the Ġazānāme is the aforementioned letter, in which ‘Osmān II ordered that Ḫalīl Paşa maintain his role as commander-in-chief of the campaign armies. Another letter from the sultan is delivered to Ḫalīl Paşa at the end of the campaign, after Şah ‘Abbās agrees to the terms set out by Ḫalīl Paşa and delivers the predetermined amount of gifts. These gifts arrive in Van while Ḫalīl Paşa is in Tokat, and it is while he is there that he receives the letter of the sultan. According to the letter, the contents of which were recorded by Ḫālisī, the sultan writes that he has heard about the accomplishments of the grand vizier during the campaign, and that he is content with the services that Ḫalīl Paşa had rendered.120 He adds that he has sent a sword and two robes of honor for the grand vizier in gratitude for his success.121 In this way, the author is attempting here to establish that the campaign ended with an Ottoman victory, the credit for which is largely due to Ḫalīl Paşa,; this narrative, however, does not reflect the reality of the Ottoman situation.

120 Ibid, 239.

121 Ibid, 239.

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On his return from the campaign in January 1619, Ḫalīl Paşa was dismissed from his position as the grand vizier, and was in return offered the governorship of Damascus. He declined this position and retreated to the tekke of his şeyḫ, or spiritual guide, Maḥmūd Hüdā’ī in Üsküdar; nevertheless he remained on as a vizier.122 He was appointed as the grand admiral of the Ottoman navy in December, 1619. This decline in Ḫalīl Paşa’s rank is explained, in both the Şehnāme and the Ġazānāme, as being due to reasons other than his failure in the Safavid campaign. While the Şehnāme writes that Ḫalīl Paşa was simply tired of battles, and for this reason requested a less burdensome commission, the Ġazānāme presents us with a rather different explanation. The author of the Ġazānāme writes that, although ‘Osmān II was content with Ḫalīl Paşa’s service, “those who were ambitious about gaining the position of the grand vizier told lies that affected the opinions of the young and unexperienced sultan on the grand vizier negatively.”123

After this decrease in his rank, Ḫalīl Paşa became engaged in two different naval actions as the grand admiral during ‘Osmān II’s reign. The first one of these was his campaign against Manfredonia, a city on the Adriatic coast of the Italian peninsula. As in the Şehnāme, the Ġazānāme highlights the impregnability of the castle of Manfredonia. It states that “no army of Islam has ever set foot near this castle,” and that “it was impossible to go near the castle and to climb over its towers because of the cannon and rifle fire.”124 However, the Ġazānāme recounts, the Grand Admiral Ḫalīl Paşa pays no heed to the castle’s reputation and does not hesitate to fire cannons at the castle.125 While the Ottoman cannons are able to damage the castle walls and kill enemy soldiers, skillful sailing leaves the Ottoman galleys unharmed from return fire.126

The book tells us that the castle was penetrated by Ottoman soldiers in about four to five hours.127 With the inner castle surrounded by the army, Ḫalīl Paşa finds it increasingly

122 A. H. de Groot, “Khalil Pasha, Kaysariyyeli”, Encyclopedia of Islam, Second Edition, (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1997), 4:970-72.

123 Aydın, “Gazânâme,” 240.

124 Ibid, 245.

125 Ibid, 246.

126 Ibid, 247.

127 Ibid, 247.

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difficult to make a breakthrough; at some point, he decides to wear the coat that his şeyḫ, Maḥmūd Hüdā’ī, had given him. Upon wearing the coat, Ḫalīl Paşa finds that all of his fears has disappeared, and he orders the soldiers to launch a vigorous attack upon the castle.128 The attack is ultimately successful and the inner castle submits; the Ottoman army enters the castle to collect booty.129 The Ġazānāme, like the Şehnāme, records that the conquest of the castle was ultimately untenable; it was too far away from the Ottoman lands, and too close to the Venetian and Spanish realms.130 Realizing this, the Ottoman navy decides to evacuate the castle, following the obligatory looting and burning of the town. While the biases of these two texts are obvious, information on this campaign from other sources is scarce. ‘Abdülḳādir Efendi, for example, does not mention the event in his chronicle, while the historian Na‘īmā mentions only that Ḫalīl Paşa went to Manfredonia with forty galleys and conquered the castle in three days, before burning the city, taking prisoners and collecting the booty.131 The Ottoman strategy, along with the actual events of the siege, are omitted from Na‘īmā’s account.

The next mission that Ḫalīl Paşa participated in was the Hotin campaign of ‘Osmān II, for which he offered material and strategic support. The Ẓafernāme and the Şehnāme concur on the reason for the campaign, writing that the expedition was launched to end the increasingly devastating raids of the Cossacks across the Black Sea, and to stop the Polish king from encouraging this behavior. Ḫalīl Paşa’s participation in this campaign is mentioned in the Şehnāme, but no details are provided.132 Instead, we can learn more about the details of this expedition from the Ẓafernāme and the Ġazānāme. Both sources tell us that ‘Osmān II ordered Ḫalīl Paşa to sail into the Black Sea, in order to capture the Cossack ships, called şayḳas, while the sultan was stopped over in İsakçı (Isaccea) on the banks of the River Danube. The Ġazānāme records that Ḫalīl Paşa captured twenty şayḳas full of Cossack “bandits” and brought them to İsakçı,133 while Ẓafernāme narrates that he returned

128 Ibid, 248.

129 Ibid, 249.

130 Ibid, 250-51.

131 Na‘îmâ, 457; Aydın, “Gazânâme,” 69.

132 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 394-5.

133 Aydın, “Gazânâme,” 257-8.

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to the sultan with eighteen şayḳas and two hundred Cossack prisoners.134 Both Ẓafernāme and Ġazānāme write that Ḫalīl Paşa’s success was marked by celebrations on both banks of the river, with Ottoman soldiers firing rifles and cannons.135 The sultan ordered the Cossack prisoners to be executed, and the two sources indeed provide us with details about the executions, just as the Şehnāme does. As mentioned previously, both sources also record that ‘Osmān II was pleased by the services of Grand Admiral Ḫalīl Paşa, and awarded him with two robes of honor in return for his success.136

The Ġazānāme also records various letters that were sent to Ḫalīl Paşa. Five of these letters were sent by ‘Osmān II. The first three letters, two of which were already mentioned above, were sent during the Eastern campaign. In the first letter, the recently enthroned ‘Osmān II confirms that the grand vizier will act as the commander of the Safavid campaign.137 The second letter was delivered to the commander during the campaign, and in it, the sultan assures Ḫalīl Paşa that he authorizes all of his future decisions.138 The sultan sent another letter, later, informing Ḫalīl Paşa that he is content with his services and happy with his successes during the campaign.139 The two remaining letters concern the Hotin campaign, which Ḫalīl Paşa, as the grand admiral, supported on the naval front by fighting the Cossacks’ ships in the Black Sea. In one of the letters, ‘Osmān II states that he is satisfied with the achievements of the grand admiral, who had by that time captured eighteen Cossack şayḳas.140 The last letter was related to ‘Osmān II’s order that Ḫalīl Paşa should remain in İsakçı to protect a certain bridge, which had been recently built to allow the sultan to proceed to Hotin with his army.141 In all of these letters, the sultan acknowledges and praises Ḫalīl Paşa, and provides him with the authorization to make and implement decisions as he sees fit.

134 Sarıışık, “Zafernâme,” 68.

135 Aydın, “Gazânâme,” 257; Sarıışık, “Zafernâme,” 68.

136 Aydın, “Gazânâme,” 258; Sarıışık, “Zafernâme,” 68.

137 Aydın, “Gazânâme,” 217-8.

138 Ibid, 220-1.

139 Ibid, 238-9.

140 Ibid, 257.

141 Ibid, 259-60.

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***

Both Ẓafernāme and Ġazānāme portray their main characters – that is, ‘Osmān II and Ḫalīl Paşa, repectively - as ideal military leaders. The characteristics that are attached to this notion of ideal leadership include valor, determination, and a strong belief in the inevitability of victory. The sultan is further portrayed as a skilled hunter and archer, with the Ẓafernāme containing multiple depictions of the sultan hunting and training. Ḫalīl Paşa’s relationship with Maḥmūd Hüdā’ī is also emphasized in the Ġazānāme, in an attempt to highlight his spiritual strength and piety. Both sources also underscore the absolute dominance of the sultan and Ḫalīl Paşa over their subordinates, as well as Ḫalīl Paşa’s unwavering loyalty to the sultan. All of these above characteristics are emphasized in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī as well. The Şehnāme follows the rule of ‘Osmān II, albeit with fewer details than the Ẓafernāme and the Ġazānāme, and provides us not only with descriptions of the course of events, but also with many of the same characteristics of ideal leadership. The next two chapters will focus on these characteristics, as described in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī, and will attempt to understand how this work makes use of the ideal ruler archetypes to portray the sultan and his commanders.

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3. THE COMMANDERS OF THE SULTAN IN THE ŞEHNĀME-İ NĀDİRĪ

3.1. Ḫalīl Paşa

According to Nādirī, his reason for writing an Ottoman şehnāme instead of an İskendernāme (The Book of Alexander) , was that the İskendernāme genre included fantasies and exaggerations, but an Ottoman şehnāme could tell the true stories of an Ottoman sultan.142 However, an examination of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī demonstrates that the book does not only provide a chronological account of the events that occurred from the death of Aḥmed I (r. 1603–1617) until the end of ‘Osmān II’s (r. 1618–1622) Hotin campaign in 1621, but rather also endeavors to illustrate the ideal form of military leadership; it achieves this not only through the construction of the narrative, but also visually, via the miniatures. In fact, Nādirī sometimes highlights the themes of obedience and loyalty, which, in his view, seem to be the foundation of leadership, at the expense of the factual details of events. There are also cases where he deviates from the facts to provide the audience with a more pertinent narrative, more congruent with the image of ideal military leadership than the actual course of events could portray.

The themes of obedience and loyalty occur repeatedly throughout the book, both in the text and the miniatures, in the context of military campaigns. These themes are, naturally set against regular depictions of disobedience and disloyalty, the perpetrators of which invariably receive ignoble ends. The passages where these themes are most visible are when Nādirī’s account carefully conveys the details of conversations between a superior and a subordinate in times of counsel and command; this is true whether the conversation is between the sultan and the members of his dīvān, or between the commanders of the army and their subordinates. One such commander who is representative of these ideal characteristics in Nādirī’s narrative is, of course, the Grand Vizier Ḫalīl Paşa (d. 1629).

During the period that is recounted in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī Ḫalīl Paşa appears as the first grand vizier to go personally on campaign. Four double-folio miniatures in the illustrated manuscript are related to Ḫalīl Paşa, and three of them feature his figure, which makes him the second most depicted character of the book, after ‘Osmān II. Ḫalīl Paşa’s

142 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 325. The pages on which these verses were written are missing in the Topkapı Palace Museum Library copy (Hazine 1124).

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first appearance in the text occurs when the Safavid ruler, Şah ʿAbbās I (r. 1587–1629), “exits the route of obedience” during the reign of Aḥmed I. Nādirī does not specify what exactly the disobedience of the Safavid şah against the Ottoman sultan is.143 However, according to Özer Küpeli, while the Ottoman sources tell us that the main reason for the war was Şah ʿAbbās I’s refusal to pay an annual tribute of two loads of silk to the Ottoman sultan, Aḥmed I, the real reason was the Safavids’ “intransigent” attitude regarding the borders of Azerbaijan.144 As Nādirī writes, the sultan becomes “furious and decides for his destruction.” To this end, he “charges one of his slaves [to do] battle” with Şah ʿAbbās I. The chosen slave (kul) is the Grand Vizier Ḫalīl Paşa, “the confidant of the sultan, who holds the rank of Cem” - one of the mythical kings of Iran, whose long and peaceful reign is recounted in the Persian Şāhnāme - 145 and who is the “grandest of all the honorable viziers.”146

The subject of the first miniature of Şehnāme-i Nādirī is Ḫalīl Paşa and his army plundering and destroying the city of Tabriz (Fig. 1).147 Ḫalīl Paşa is visible at the center of the right side of this double folio miniature, as the most prominent figure. In the pages that come immediately before the illustrated folios, Nādirī describes:

As the doomsday arrived and destroyed the city

Domes fell on the ground like stars

Gold and marine settled on the earth

Stars and pieces of planets fell down.148

In the left-hand-side folio, the miniature follows the text very closely. A mosque with a dome and two minarets are depicted in “gold and marine,” as stated in the verse. Flames are coming out of the door of the mosque in relation to the following couplet, this time emplaced on the corner of the illustrated folio:

143 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 334; Topkapı Palace Museum Library, H.1124, f. 10b, Henceforth TPML, H.1124.

144 Özer Küpeli, Osmanlı Safevi Münasebetleri, (İstanbul: Yeditepe Yayınevi, 2014), 91-99. 145 Mahmoud Omidsalar, “Jamšid ii. In Persian Literature,” Encyclopædia Iranica 14/5 (2012): 522-8.

146 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 334; TPML, H.1124, f. 10b-11a.

147 TPML, H. 1124, f. 13b-14a.

148 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 337; TPML, H.1124, f. 13a.

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When flames filled the pool like a hearth

Drops of flame flew out of the fountain.149

However, the right-hand-side folio of the miniature depicts a scene that is not elaborated upon by the author. On this folio, Ḫalīl Paşa is shown as the central figure of the scene, depicted as a commander who is leading and watching over his army. The prominence of Ḫalīl Paşa in this miniature - despite the fact that he is not especially notable in the related part of the narrative – can be interpreted as demonstrating his influence in the production of the manuscript, possibly due to his close relationship to the author.150 Although Ḫalīl Paşa is, generally speaking, the central figure of the chapter in which Nādirī narrates the Battle of Serav, the passage immediately beside the illustration does not mention him at all. Still, it is clear that Halil Paşa was intended to be the primary focus of this painting, due to his visual prominence and central position. We encounter an entirely different situation in the later chapters of the manuscript, where the Grand Admiral ‘Ali Paşa’s naval campaign is recounted and illustrated. ‘Ali Paşa is of course, the central figure of the text, yet the accompanying illustrations show only his fleet without providing his portrait.151 For reasons such as these, the centrality of Ḫalīl Paşa in this first miniature of the manuscript would seem to indicate that the paşa is disproportionately significant in the book.152

The looting of Tabriz by the Ottoman army is described at length in Şehnāme-i Nādirī. While the Grand Vizier Ḫalīl Paşa, assigned by Aḥmed I as the serdār-ı ekrem of the campaign in Iran, is on his way to Tabriz, Istanbul is shaken by news of the death of the young sultan. When ‘Osmān II ascends to the throne,153 among his first actions is to send a

149 Külekçi, ibid, 338; TPML, H.1124, f. 14a.

150 Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 239.

151 TPML, H.1124, f. 28b-29a.

152 Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 244-45

153 Nādirī does not give any account of the short reign of Muṣṭafa I in this part of his verse. However, he provides slight references tothe event elsewhere in the book, when he narrates the accession of ‘Osmān II. He mentions that ‘Osmān II ascended to the throne after a “false dawn”; Baki Tezcan, The Second Ottoman Empire: Political and Social Transformation in the Early Modern World (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 120.

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message to Ḫalīl Paşa, which confirms his commission as Grand Vizier.154 Ḫalīl Paşa’s presence is not mentioned again until the end of the chapter, after the verses in which the new sultan, ‘Osmān II, sends him orders to continue his campaign. The couplets that narrate how ‘Osmān II orders Ḫalīl Paşa to continue the campaign right after his enthronement are one of the few parts of the narrative where it is explicitly stated that this campaign was ordered by the sultan, and that he is the power behind it.

After the grand vizier receives the message, the Ottoman army “runs like the River Nile, drowns the cities and turns them into ruined lands like Ancient Egypt.” When they reach the city of Tabriz, they find it abandoned. The şah had already left the city and everything in it, “barely escaping with his life”155 With the enemy’s possessions left unprotected, the Ottoman soldiers decide to destroy the buildings and loot whatever luxury goods they find.156 The verse continues with a description of the city’s architectural and material details rather than concentrating on the deeds of Ḫalīl Paşa.

Nādirī’s next chapter, which includes the second miniature of the manuscript, opens with a mention of Ḫalīl Paşa as “the venerable and valorous vizier, the high and victorious advisor.”157 Ḫalīl Paşa, after disgracing the “ḳızılbāş” and destroying their ability to fight, starts a council meeting with his commanders. He demands advice from his men regarding how to draw the Safavid şah to the battlefield. He states that, “unless he [Şah ʿAbbās I] is beaten with the strike of the sword, he will not stop his disobedience. His arrogance will only disappear if he is reprimanded.” He continues that, however, the şah has “abandoned all his possessions that are dear to him as a wife would be. He has no will to fight.”158

In this passage, the “disobedience” of the Safavid şah şah is conveyed in such a way as to imply that he is a vassal of the Ottoman sultan. Ḫalīl Paşa is portrayed as the representative of the Ottoman sultan, against whom the Safavid şah rebelled, and the grand vizier is for this reason the one to reprimand the şah and to punish him, to deter him from

154 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 335; TPML, H.1124, f. 11a.

155 Külekçi, ibid, 336; TPML, H.1124, f. 12a.

156 Külekçi, ibid, 335-337; TPML, H.1124, f. 11a-12a.

157 Külekçi, ibid, 339; TPML, H.1124, f. 15a.

158 Külekçi, ibid, 339-340; TPML, H.1124, f. 15a-15b.

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further rebellious acts. In short, Ḫalīl Paşa undertakes a mission of disciplining a vassal of the sultan who had disrespected the Ottoman throne. However, this interpretation can only be made through examining the opening couplets of this campaign’s narration. The role of the sultan as the driving force behind the campaign, the one who initiated it and decided its target, is not described further after the first few lines of the text. Indeed, Ḫalīl Paşa soon becomes the sole focus of the chapter, and the location of the campaign’s driving power, up until the end of the narrative. After the campaign ends and the peace negotiations between the Ottomans and Safavids begin, Nādirī still only briefly mentions the sultan, in regards to a letter that the grand vizier sent to Şah ʿAbbās, threatening him with the sultan’s wrath. The battle and the peace negotiations are held between Ḫalīl Paşa and Şah ʿAbbās I, while ‘Osmān II remains only as a distant background figure.

The “disobedience” of Şah ʿAbbās is contrasted with the obedience and loyalty of Ḫalīl Paşa’s commanders. When Ḫalīl Paşa asks his commanders how they should entice the Safavid army on to the battle-field, Cānbek Giray (d. 1635), the han of Crimea, responds in a rousing speech. “I am the commander of the House of Chinghiz Ḫan, and Iranians are our tribute-paying subjects. Let a few deceitful Iranians come face to face with the troops of Chinghiz, I will topple the crown of the şah and make it into a nest of a falcon.”159 Ḫalīl Paşa finds this speech very pleasing and subsequently bestows upon the Tatar han a robe of honor made of silk, along with a jeweled sword.160

This is a typical example of the theme of loyalty in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī, and it is not only visible among the Ottoman actors of the book. After the conversation between Ḫalīl Paşa and Cānbek Giray, Nādirī goes on to narrate the march of Giray Ḫan’s army towards forces of Şah ʿAbbās. When Şah ʿAbbās hears that the Ottoman and Tatar forces are proceeding forwards into battle, he is, according to the text, incapacitated by fear. Then, a dialogue that is parallel to the one between Ḫalīl Paşa and Cānbek Giray Ḫan takes place between Şah ʿAbbās and Ḳārçıġāy Ḫan I (d. 1625), the governor of Tabriz.161 Ḳārçıġāy

159 Külekçi, ibid, 340; TPML, H.1124, f. 15b

160 Külekçi, ibid, 340; TPML, H.1124, f. 15b; Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 241.

161 Ḳārçıġāy Ḫan I, an Armenian-origin slave of Şah ‘Abbās I, served as a commander of regiment of musketeers in the Battle of Sufiyan, fought between Ottoman and Safavid forces in 1605. He was promoted to commander-in-chief of

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Ḫan comforts the şah by saying that he does not need to worry, because he has an abundance of soldiers and wealth. He continues to console the şah much in the same way that Giray Ḫan’s speech comforted Halil Paşa, using many of the same terms. Ḳārçıġāy Ḫan promises to destroy the enemy if the şah orders him to fight. Şah ʿAbbās provides him with soldiers and sends him off to battle with the Ottomans.162

The second miniature of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī depicts the Battle of Serav (1618) between the Ottoman and Safavid armies (Fig. 2). 163 The Tatar han Cānbek Giray joins the battle with his army under the command of Ḫalīl Paşa. At the same time, Ḳārçıġāy Ḫan fights for the Safavids, under the orders of Şah ‘Abbās, as he had promised. A long passage describes the battle between the Ottoman and Safavid forces. The battle that starts with Ḳārçıġāy Ḫan’s offensive continues for a long time without either side gaining the upper hand. Nādirī narrates the battle by describing the clashes of the soldiers and their respective equipment and weapons.

Nādirī is very descriptive and attentive to material details when he narrates the battle between the Ottoman and Safavid armies. As the battle commences, he begins by describing arrows piercing shields that had become as thin as silk from the wear and tear of incessant combat. After the arrows, he continues by describing the soldiers’ rifles: “Many a brave soldier grabbed their rifles and joined the battle like dragons.” A description of their spears follows: “The blood that drips from spears fills the helmets as if the helmets were molds of candy.” When swords come in to play, we read that, “the sound of clashing swords scared the stars.” Finally, as the battle continues, soldiers begin to use maces to “smash the heads of the enemy.”164

The double-folio miniature depicting this scene is as vivid as the text. The page on the right side of the double-page miniature shows Cānbek Giray Ḫan in the center,

the army and given the title of khan. His victory over Halil Paşa in 1617 earned him the governorship of Tabriz and Azerbaijan. Sussan Babaie et al., Slaves of the Shah: New Elites of Safavid Iran (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2004), 114-27.

162 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 341; TPML, H.1124, f. 16a-16b; Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 241.

163 TPML, H.1124, f. 18b-19a.

164 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 342-343; 16b-17b.

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watching and commanding his soldiers. A division of his army stands behind him, while Ḫalīl Paşa and his retinue are visible in the upper part of the page, supervising the whole scene. The organization of this miniature displays the central role Cānbek Giray played in the battle, but it also acknowledges that Ḫalīl Paşa was the main commander and tactician of the campaign. The left-hand page depicts the battle scene graphically. It gives the reader a visualization of almost every kind of war tool used by the Tatar and Safavid soldiers that had previously been mentioned in the verse. It is within the couplets on this double-folio painting that Nādirī ends his narration of the battle scene, stating that: “The fight went on from the morning until the night. Two armies have been fighting severely. Ottoman Tatars would not diminish. Nor would the Iranian endeavors weaken.”165

It is at this point that we can see Nādirī making significant changes to actual events in order to make his narrative better suit a şehnāme. The battle that is described in this passage, that is, the Battle of Serav, was in fact a defeat for the Ottomans.166 Instead of a realistic account of the battle and its consequences, Nādirī prefers to provide a heroic narrative with graphic and minute details. These details, which are also represented in the relevant miniature, consist more of verses in which the poet tells entertaining stories of the battle and shows off his literary technique, than passages of a historical account.

After the “stalemate,” Cānbek Giray Ḫan and Ḫalīl Paşa come together to discuss the course of the battle. At the same time, Ḳārçıġāy Ḫan and Şah ʿAbbās conduct a parallel discussion on the same topic. As the book recounts, while Ḳārçıġāy Ḫan gives bad news to the şah, leaving him anxious and upset, Giray Ḫan is in contrast rewarded with a robe of honor by Ḫalīl Paşa for his success in battle. Ḫalīl Paşa still, however, wants to confront Şah ʿAbbās himself. He comes up with a provocative method to bring the şah to the battleground. The grand vizier suggests marching on Ardabil and destroying the city; he plans to “burn the tombs of the ancestors of the şah” and to “stab his soul with the sword of sorrow,”thus forcing him out, on to the battleground.167 However, the march of the

165 Külekçi, ibid, 344; TPML, H.1124, f. 18b-19a.

166 Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 241.

167 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 345; TPML, H.1124, f. 20a-20b.

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Ottoman army to Ardabil does not lead the şah to deepen the war, but rather to plea to the sultan to spare the city.168

The third miniature of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī depicts the presents that were sent by the Safavid şah to the Ottoman sultan (Fig. 3).169 As the text recounts, the march of the Ottoman army toward Ardabil frightens Şah ʿAbbās. For this reason, he sends a letter to Ḫalīl Paşa, in which he asks the Ottomans to show mercy. Ḫalīl Paşa agrees, on the condition that the Safavid şah send a hundred loads of silk every year to the Ottoman sultan and that the practice of tabarraʾ170 would be banned in the Safavid lands. The response of Şah ʿAbbās to these demands is recorded in Nādirī’s verse, and the tone of it is extremely deferential to the sultan and compliant with the terms of their accord. The content of the letter, as provided by Nādirī, helps us to understand how Nādirī intended to portray the Safavid şah in relation to the Ottoman sultan:

I am only a slave and he is the şah who owns the throne

I am only a mote and he is the luminous sun

I am only a drop and he is the ocean that surrounds the world

I am only a dust of the earth and he is the main land.171

These words, which Nādirī puts into Şah ʿAbbās’ letter, are indicative of the Ottoman image of the relative status quo between the Safavid şah and the Ottoman sultan. The şah is imagined as a weak subordinate in relation to the majesty of the Ottoman sultan, and this position is made clear through the words that Nādirī has chosen for the şah’s response. These verses seem designed to support the notion that the fight between the Ottomans and the Safavids was one between a lord and a disobedient vassal, and that the resolution of the war came about because the şah finally recognized his status and made amends to the sultan; this notion, however, does not reflect historical reality.

168 Külekçi, ibid, 347; TPML, H.1124, f. 21a.

169 TPML, H.1124, f. 24b-25a.

170 Tabarra’, the Arabo-Persian usage of the Arabic word tabarru’ or tabarrī, came to connote the ritual practice of cursing some of the companions of Prophet Muhammad, especially Ebū Bekir, ‘Ömer, and ‘Osmān. Tabarra’ was officially practiced under Safavids until Şah İsmā‘īl II (r. 1576–1577) abolished it. However, the ritual continued to be practiced unofficially. J. Calmard, “Tabarru’, Encyclopedia of Islam, Second Edition, (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 2000), 10:20-22.

171 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 349; TPML, H.1124, f. 22a-22b.

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After positioning himself as a humble servant of ‘Osmān II, Şah ʿAbbās continues his letter by writing that he is willing to accede to Ḫalīl Paşa’s demands, which is to say, a hundred loads of silk every year. He adds that he will send countless gifts along with the required amount of silk, and will furthermore ban the practice of tabarraʾ. He continues by adding that “Those who practice tabarraʾ are now the slaves of Sunnis”172 again providing the Ottoman reader with a reference to the relative status of the Shiʿites and Sunnis, which in turn parallels the disparity between the şah and the sultan.

The terms of the treaty that are quoted in Şehnāme-i Nādirī seem to be in accordance with what is narrated in other sources of the period. Nādirī repeatedly mentions that one hundred loads of silk will be sent by Şah ʿAbbās to the Ottoman sultan every year, and that practice of tabarraʾ will be banned in the Safavid realm. Other terms, which we can gather from other sources, included the settlement of border related issues, such as the adoption of the borderlines that had been determined in the earlier treaty made between Suleyman I and Şah Ṭahmāsb, in 1555.173

Despite Nādirī’s general faithfulness to reality regarding the terms of agreement, his description of the treaty as a victory for Ottomans differs from other contemporary sources that report on the Ottoman-Safavid wars of early seventeenth century. In fact, the result of this conflict was far from being in the Ottomans’ favor. Despite the on-and-off battles that had been carried out since the reign of Aḥmed I, Ottomans received much less in the final peace settlement than they had originally demanded. Contrary to the glorious image that Nādirī provides, with the Treaty of Serav that settled the conflict in 1618, the Ottomans were forced to step back and agree to conditions that they had previously rejected.174

As Nādirī relates, the letter continues by asking Ḫalīl Paşa to postpone to deadline for the reception of the tribute, writing that, as winter is approaching, it would be impossible to send the gifts while the roads are blocked by snow. He suggests, instead, to send the tribute in the following spring. His request is accepted, and Ḫalīl Paşa returns to

172 Külekçi, ibid, 349; TPML, H.1124, f. 22b.

173 Özer Küpeli, Osmanlı Safevi Münasebetleri, (İstanbul: Yeditepe Yayınevi, 2014), 120.

174 Ibid.

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the Ottoman capital. Nādirī’s description of Ḫalīl Paşa’s return to İstanbul is somewhat evasive. He quickly mentions that, after a difficult march back to the capital under severe winter conditions, the grand vizier went immediately to visin the sultan. Upon meeting, ‘Osmān II praises Ḫalīl Paşa and honors him with another robe of honor. However, as Nādirī relates, since Ḫalīl Paşa “suffered plenty from the troubles of campaigns, he wished to be at ease from then on.”175 For this reason, Halil Paşa requests that he be transferred, and conveys his wishes to take up the role of grand admiral; according to Nādirī, the sultan accepts this request and grants Ḫalīl Paşa his commission.176 Nādirī, in this way, elegantly explains the apparent decrease in Ḫalīl Paşa’s following the grand vizier’s unsuccessful campaign against Safavid Iran.177

Although Ḫalīl Paşa is described as being tired of troublesome campaigns, he does not retire from battles for long. We encounter him again very shortly in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī, going on a naval campaign against Manfredonia in the Italian peninsula. His last appearance in the manuscript is in the miniature depicting this campaign (Fig. 4).178 The passage in which Nādirī narrates the Manfredonia campaign of Ḫalīl Paşa starts with verses of praise towards his fleet: “The renowned vizier who is magically brave, led his galleys as if he rode dragons.”179 “And he aimed for the clime of Polye, to which he proceeded with his wings wide spread.”180 Nādirī then continues by describing the city of Manfredonia, as “the Egypt or Damascus of the infidels”.181 He describes the beauty and the impregnability of the fortress.

Only after that, does Nādirī recount the battle between the Ottoman soldiers and the soldiers defending the castle, who hide behind the walls of the fortress, their black hats sticking out from behind the fortifications. After firing on the walls from some distance

175 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 350-351; TPML, H.1124, f. 23a-23b.

176 Külekçi, ibid, 350-351; TPML, H.1124, f. 23a-23b.

177 Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 235.

178 TPML, H.1124, f. 40b-41a.

179 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 370; TPML, H.1124, f. 38b.

180 Külekçi, ibid, 371; TPML, H.1124, f. 39a.

181 Külekçi, ibid, 371-372; TPML, H.1124, f. 39a-39b.

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away, the Ottoman soldiers move close to the fortress and place their ladders on the walls; they are, with some difficulty, able to enter the city. After a long fight, the fortress is surrendered to the Ottoman navy. Ḫalīl Paşa decides that the city is too far from the Abode of Islam and refuses to capture it, instead ordering his soldiers to pillage it and take everything of value. Although Nādirī does not provide us here with nearly as detailed a description as he did for the capture of Tabriz, he does describe the looting of Manfredonia in a short passage that also includes a description of the destruction of the town church. Finally, Ḫalīl Paşa goes back to İstanbul, and is honored by the sultan once again for his service. He stays on as the grand admiral, and is given gifts of gold, silver, and precious textiles.182

3.2. ‘Ali Paşa

‘Ali Paşa (d. 1621) is the commander of the second campaign that Nādirī has included in his work. Known alongside the cognomens Güzelce and İstanköylü, ‘Ali Paşa was a prominent figure in the court of ‘Osmān II. He was born in İstanköy (Kos), and successfully worked his way up to the palace through various positions in Damietta, Tunisia and Cyprus, as well as by offering generous gifts to the sultans Aḥmed I and ‘Osmān II.183 He became the grand admiral of the Ottoman navy in 1617, only to be dismissed a very short time afterwards due to his loss of eleven Ottoman galleys during a storm in the Mediterranean; despite this, he was re-assigned to the same position shortly afterwards.184 His successful naval campaign on the Mediterranean in 1619 earned him a position as the grand vizier.185 In contrast to his favorable position in ‘Osmān II’s eyes, ‘Ali Paşa was unpopular among other state officials because of his financial policies; notably, he confiscated the properties of statesmen in order to provide the treasury with new

182 Külekçi, ibid, 374; TPML, H.1124, f. 41b-42a.

183 R. Mantran, “’Ali Pasha, Güzeldje’, Encyclopedia of Islam, Second Edition, (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1986), 1:395; Baki Tezcan, The Second Ottoman Empire: Political and Social Transformation in the Early Modern World (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 132-36; Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 242-45.

184 R. Mantran, ibid, 395.

185 R. Mantran, ibid; Değirmenci, ibid, 243; Baki Tezcan, ibid, 132.

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funds.186 ‘Ali Paşa was also known to support ‘Osmān II’s decision to personally lead the Polish campaign in 1621.187 The influence of ‘Ali Paşa in ‘Osmān II’s decision to lead the campaign, however, is not mentioned in the chapter in which Nādirī narrates the dīvān meeting where this issue was discussed. In fact, the grand vizier died while he was still in Istanbul during the preparations for the campaign.188

‘Ali Paşa features in one of the chapters of Şehnāme-i Nādirī, which includes a description of his naval campaign in 1619. The chapter comes right after the one that recounts the settlement of the war with the Safavids after Ḫalīl Paşa’s eastern campaign and the delivery of tribute to İstanbul. Ḫalīl Paşa was dismissed from the grand vizierate after the unsuccessful Safavid campaign, but remained as a lesser vizier and a member of the dīvān. He was assigned as the grand admiral in December 1619. The naval campaign of ‘Ali Paşa took place during the year that Ḫalīl Paşa was absent from both grand vizierate and the grand admiralship.

The chapter on ‘Ali Paşa’s naval campaign begins with ‘Osmān II’s order to defeat the “infidels of the sea.”189 Nādirī uses several words to describe the enemy ‘Ali Paşa is fighting against, including küffār, frenk, and eşḳıyā, words which all connote European pirates. The later seventeenth-century sources do not provide us with a great deal of detailed information on ‘Ali Paşa’s naval campaign in the Mediterranean, although Na‘īmā does mention that ‘Ali Paşa captured several galleons in 1619, bringing a vast amount of spoils back to the sultan, and that this service earned him a position as the grand vizier. 190 According to Na‘īmā, the previous grand vizier Meḥmed Paşa was unhappy with this arrangement and claimed that ‘Ali Paşa acquired these spoils, not from battle, but from a prior agreement with the Venetians and French; he further claimed that ‘Ali Paşa had actually acquired much more booty than he had revealed to the sultan. Despite these claims, however, Meḥmed Paşa nevertheless lost his title to ‘Ali Paşa.191 The mühimme

186 Değirmenci, ibid, 243-244; Baki Tezcan, ibid, 132-133.

187 İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, Osmanlı Tarihi 3. Cilt (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1988), 140.

188Ibid.

189 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 353; TPML, H.1124, f. 26a.

190 Na‘îmâ, 450.

191 Ibid.

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registers record that ‘Ali Paşa protected the Mediterranean throughout the year from pirates, particularly in the region of Morea where they had become especially strong.192 The expedition of ‘Ali Paşa that is recounted in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī is, essentially, an episode of ‘Ali Paşa’s larger mission to combat piracy in the Mediterranean.

According to the text, ‘Ali Paşa set sail following the orders of the sultan. As Nādirī recounts, “he equipped his navy at once with countless galleys full of the tools of war.”193 Nādirī offers us with a rather lengthy and detailed description of the navy of ‘Ali Paşa; it seems that he was somewhat fascinated by it. The forked banners of the ships are likened to zülfikār, the sword of the Caliph ‘Ali, who is a figure Nādirī often references when discussing the bravery of Ottoman soldiers. The golden banners on the ship’s masts are also said to gleam like the sun shining over a cypress. The galleys are described as “rose-colored,” and the sea upon which they sail is likened to a green meadow. As beautiful as Nādirī’s imagery is, however, he also makes clear that these ships are strong and formidable machines of war: “Like a dragon with forty feet, they topple the ships of the foe.”194

‘Ali Paşa first sails to the Arab coast with the aim of “protecting the Mediterranean.”195 He captures “three galleons of infidels” in Sidon without battle, “each resembling a black mountain adorned with charming banners,” or “an elephant with its trunk at the front.”196 ‘Ali Paşa takes the crew of the galleons as prisoners and the cargo as booty. He then proceeds to the western Aegean coast and encounters two other galleons. These two galleons do not submit easily; a large battle takes place between them and Ottoman navy. The cannons of the galleons manage to strike the Ottoman galleys, but they do them as little harm as “a bullet would hurt a dragon.”197 Finally, the Ottoman navy

192 “82 Numaralı Mühimme Defteri (1026–1027 / 1617–1618),” (Ankara: T.C. Basbakanlık Devlet Arşivleri Genel Müdürlüğü, Osmanlı Arşivi Daire Başkanlığı, 2000).

193 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 354; TPML, H.1124, f. 26a.

194 Külekçi, ibid, 354; TPML, H.1124, f. 26b.

195 Külekçi, ibid, 355; TPML, H.1124, f. 27a.

196 “Anun her biri bir ‘aceb ḳara tağ / Nice dil-keş a‘lām ile üsti bağ. / Ya ḫūd her biri pīl-i merdüm rübā / Ki pīşinde ḫorṭumı var pür-hevā.” Külekçi, ibid, 355; TPML, H.1124, f. 27a.

197 Külekçi, ibid, 356; TPML, H.1124, f. 28a.

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seizes the two galleons, as well as “many more smaller ships that the author could not possibly cover in his writing.”198

The next destination of ‘Ali Paşa’s navy is Ağrıboz (Euboea). The grand admiral receives word that the navies of his rivals are planning a raid on the Ottoman fleet, and he decides to strike them first. “The captain of the infidels” chooses to flee the battle instead of staying to fight.199 ‘Ali Paşa chases him down to Navarin (Navarino),200 but he cannot catch the enemy’s ships, which prove to be faster and nimbler than those of the Ottomans; for this reason, he decides to abandon the hunt and return to the capital.

‘Ali Paşa returns to Istanbul with an “unprecedented” amount of booty.201 He presents “eighty loads of cash, thousands and thousands of woolen and silk fabrics, and innumerable prisoners” to ‘Osmān II.202 The sultan is so pleased with ‘Ali Paşa’s service that he not only rewards him with precious gifts, but also promotes him to the grand vizierate in 1619.

The miniature in this chapter is different in composition from the other miniatures of Şehnāme-i Nādirī (Fig. 5).203 These two pages are covered in a depiction of the sea, with battle ships sailing over it, and a small landscape with a fortress on the top-left corner of the left side page. We can easily recognize the rose-colored galleys of ‘Ali Paşa, which are depicted, in accordance with Nādirī’s description, with numerous oars and red and golden banners. The black ships in the miniature are identified as the galleons that were captured by the Ottomans.204 The miniature does not feature any recognizable characters, even omitting ‘Ali Paşa, the main protagonist of the chapter. The painting is, in fact, a portrayal of the strength of the Ottoman navy, rather than a portrayal of individuals who played a role in the event.

198 Külekçi, ibid, 357; TPML, H.1124, f. 29b.

199 Külekçi, ibid, 358; TPML, H.1124, f. 29b.

200 The name of the port appears as “Avarin” in the text. Külekçi, ibid, 358; TPML, H.1124, f. 29b.

201 Külekçi, ibid, 358; TPML, H.1124, f. 30a.

202 Külekçi, ibid, 358; TPML, H.1124, f. 30a.

203 TPML, H.1124, f. 28b-29a.

204 Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 244.

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3.3. İskender Paşa

The Polish campaign of İskender Paşa (d. 1621), the governor of Özi (Ochakov),is also recounted in the Şehnāme-i Nādiri, yet it is neither the first nor the last conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the early seventeenth century. In fact, by that time, Crimean raids into Polish lands and Cossack attacks into the Black Sea - even into the suburban areas of Istanbul – had caused severe problems in the relations between the two states.205 Ottomans were also not content with Polish interference in the operations of an Ottoman vassal, the Moldavian voivodeship.206 Following an settlement signed between the Ottomans and the Poles - the negotiations for which were handled in 1617 by İskender Paşa and the Polish grand hetman, or commander, Stanislaw Zolkiewski (d. 1620) - the two sides agreed that the Poles would prevent the Cossacks from raiding in the Black Sea and would not get involved in Moldavian affairs, and that, in return, the Ottomans would prevent the Crimeans from attacking Polish lands.207 These terms were almost immediately violated by both sides, however, and the occupation of the fortress of Hotin by the Poles added to the tension.208 This dispute once more erupted into open conflict, resulting in the Battle of Tutora in 1620, which is narrated in Şehnāme-i Nādiri as the campaign of İskender Paşa against the “kansler, the commander of the infidels;” namely, Stanislaw Zolkiewski.209

The chapter starts with the rebellious acts of “the Polish brigands.”210 As Nādirī writes, “They placed themselves near Özi, building many strongholds and plenty of boats called şayka to acquire whatever they desire. Having sailed from Özi to the Black Sea, they

205 Dariusz Kolodziejczyk, “A historical outline of Polish-Ottoman political and diplomatic relations” in War and Peace: Ottoman-Polish Relations in the 15th-19th Centuries ed. Selim Kangal (İstanbul: Turkish Republic Ministry of Culture, 1999), 25; İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, Osmanlı Tarihi 3. Cilt (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1988), 139-40.

206 İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, ibid, 139.

207 İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, ibid; Dariusz Kolodziejczyk, “A historical outline of Polish-Ottoman political and diplomatic relations” in War and Peace: Ottoman-Polish Relations in the 15th-19th Centuries ed. Selim Kangal (İstanbul: Turkish Republic Ministry of Culture, 1999), 25.

208 İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, ibid, 140.

209 Külekçi “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 364; TPML, H.1124, f. 33a.

210 Külekçi, ibid, 359; TPML, H.1124, f. 30a.

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caused much villainy.”211 The Polish king is reproached over the actions of the brigands. He responds by saying, “There is a group of a people who are called the Cossacks. They are not under our command, nor do they abide by our customs.”212 The Ottomans clearly do not accept this excuse, as Nādirī continues by writing that “These words were sheer lies to cover his corruption.”213 According to Nādirī, “Cossack is the name of those Polish bullies who are rebellious robbers.”214 The Ottoman sultan warns the Polish king that he should control the Cossacks or else there will be war. However, these threats do not deter the king.

The sultan puts İskender Paşa in charge of the attack on the Poles; furthermore, he orders the Tatar prince Kalgay Sultan to support him in this campaign. İskender Paşa sends word to Kalgay Sultan and embarks upon his expedition to Poland. The journey is described by Nādirī, who gives us details about the composition and equipment of the army. As he writes: “By [İskender Paşa’s] side were the Rumelian soldiers, the foremost brave men of those lands.”215 The military garments and weaponry of the soldiers are depicted in a rather grandiose manner in the text; examples include, “Some slayed a wolf and made a crown for himself out of its fur,” and “Each brave warrior is burning in the flames of hatred, wearing its smoke like wings of a crane.”216

As İskender Paşa and his army arrive at the Polish border, Kalgay Sultan and his army ride out to meet them. “Thousands of Tatar soldiers were looking for war.”217 The fighting skills of the Tatar soldiers are then eulogized: “They are as skilled archers as Rüstem, and they could hit the eye of an ant if they aimed at it. Their arrows could pass through granite, and pierce the sky like sunbeams.”218 The repeated and lofty descriptions of the soldier’s garments and weaponry, together with their valor and expertise in warfare, is characteristic of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī and appears in this passage as a regular motif. We

211 Külekçi, ibid, 359; TPML, H.1124, f. 30a-30b.

212 Külekçi, ibid, 359; TPML, H.1124, f. 30b.

213 Külekçi, ibid, 359; TPML, H.1124, f. 30b

214 Külekçi, ibid, 360; TPML, H.1124, f. 30b

215 Külekçi, ibid, 361; TPML, H.1124, f. 31b.

216 Külekçi, ibid, 361; TPML, H.1124, f. 31b.

217 Külekçi, ibid, 362; TPML, H.1124, f. 32a.

218 Külekçi, ibid, 362; TPML, H.1124, f. 32a.

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encounter much the same discourse in the chapters on Ḫalīl Paşa’s and ‘Osmān II’s campaigns, in which Nādirī portrays have a repetitive tone; the proficiency of the Ottoman soldiers with various kind of weapons render them each akin to Rüstem, the great warrior of Firdevsī’s Şāhnāme.219

As the Ottoman and Tatar armies mobilize and come together, the Polish king receives the news of the Ottoman advance and begins to prepare his army. As Nādirī writes, “The sultans of infidels” aided him with silver, soldier and food supplies.220 They formed a great army under the command of the kansler, Stanislaw Zolkiewski.221 Nādirī describes Zolkiewski as a powerful commander: “He had fifty castles of his own, as well as countless towns and villages. He paid tribute to the king with his bravery, but he does not often take refuge in him. He was an independent king on those lands with a high position and his own soldiers. The king praised him and presented him the robes of honor of a commander. He assigned him as the commander of the soldiers of error.”222 As the narrative progresses, the army of Stanislaw Zolkiewski encounters the “soldiers of Islam”. They camp backed by the River Prut, and construct moats on the remaining three sides of the camp. Ottoman soldiers take their places directly across from the Polish army. Nādirī ends his chapter with the two armies’ confrontation, cutting to some distiches about wine and music; this literary device provides the reader with a sort of “cliffhanger” ending and gives a brief pause between the scenes of intense fighting and the complexity of the continuous narrative.

The next chapter begins with a kind of prelude, offering us with a description of the morning before the battle of İskender Paşa’s and Zolkiewski’s armies. When the narrative returns to the battle scene, the text speaks of a frenzied clash which is dominated by the noise and dust of cannon fire and the sounds of rifles fired by both sides. “Enchanted by war,” İskender Paşa fearlessly enters into the dark smoke of the battle.223 Following this, Kalgay Sultan also enters the fray; the Tatar commander “attacked the infidels with the

219 For the full text of these descriptions, see Appendix.

220 Külekçi, ibid, 363; TPML, H.1124, f. 32b.

221 Külekçi, ibid, 363; TPML, H.1124, f. 32b.

222 Külekçi, ibid, 363; TPML, H.1124, f. 32b.

223 Külekçi, ibid, 366; TPML, H.1124, f. 35a.

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moves of a lion.”224 The soldiers devote their lives to the fight, and those who die from gunfire and other wounds become martyrs, gaining the favor of the God.

After this description of the battle, Nādirī tells us that the two armies cease to fight at night and they resume the battle again in the following morning. The battle lasts for four days, and on the fifth day the enemy begins to retreat. The Ottoman army chases them to h the River Dniester. Squeezed between the Ottoman army and the river, the Polish army is “devastated.” Some of them drown in the river, while others are cut down by the swords of the Ottomans.

As the Ottoman army proves victorious in the battle, the Moldavian Voivode Casper Gratiani, called in the text “Gaşper, the leader of the people of Boğdan” (ser-i ḫayl-i Boğdan olan Gaşper), is killed by the “commanders of Islam” on the battle-field.225 He is not the only commander to be killed in the Battle of Tutora. The kansler, Zolkiewski, “wanted to escape, leaving his belongings behind.”226 However, a soldier catches up with him while he is running away and beheads him. Later, the head of the kansler is sent to the sultan. Nādirī reserves a passage of considerable length for the death of the kansler, emphasizing the temporality of life even for the most powerful among us. “That head, which did not bow for İskender [Paşa] was slammed on the ground by the hand of the wrath. That head, which was taller than the skies, now disappeared among blood and earth.”227

Nādirī refers to several well-known figures of Firdevsi’s Şāhnāme in the passage on the death of Zolkiewski. He refers to Rüstem, one of the most popular Persian kings in the epic, known for his physical strength and fighting skills.228 As he writes, “The lowly world renders even Rüstems weak in the end.” implying that even the strongest will die.229 Another character Nādirī refers to is Afrāsiyāb, when h writes that the garden in which

224 Külekçi, ibid, 366; TPML, H.1124, f. 35a.

225 Külekçi, ibid, 368; TPML, H.1124, f. 37a.

226 Külekçi, ibid, 368; TPML, H.1124, f. 37a.

227 Külekçi, ibid, 369; TPML, H.1124, f. 37b.

228 Abolqasem Ferdowsi, Shahnameh: The Persian Book of Kings, trans. Dick Davis (London: Penguin Books, 2006), 104-106, 135-137, 154-155.

229 Külekçi, ibid, 369; TPML, H.1124, f. 37b.

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Afrāsiyāb once lived in is now sadly in ruins. Afrāsiyāb is the foremost Turanian king whose stories are told in the Şāhnāme, embodying the rivalry between Iran and Turan that constitutes a theme of central importance in the Persian epic.230 He is an evil yet sharp and strong commander, rather similar to the image of the kansler in Nādirī’s poem. Afrāsiyāb lives a very long life, but even he is not capable of defeating death. There is also a reference to the Macedonian king Alexander the Great, another hero of the Şāhnāme, as well as İskendernāme, who is depicted as a wise and able conqueror. As Nādirī writes, “The old bridge that İskender passed through is now full of villainy.”231

The miniature depicting the battle between İskender Paşa’s and Zolkiewski’s armies displays the moment most favorable to the fortunes of the Ottoman army (Fig. 6).232 It displays both the scene of the battle itself, and the commanders of the Ottoman and Tatar armies overseeing the action. The central figure on the right-hand page, who is depicted on his horse in the midst of the Ottoman soldiers, must be İskender Paşa. Indeed, Kalgay Sultan is depicted on the background of the same page, mounted and accompanied by Tatar soldiers, in a very similar manner. The left-side page matches Nādirī’s text well. It shows Ottoman and Tatar soldiers clearly pressing their advantage over the Polish army; as Nādirī’s text recounts, the Polish soldiers are shown being driven to the riverbank by the Ottoman and Tatar soldiers, and attempting to escape towards the river.

The two mounted figures in the foreground of the same page are of particular interest. We see an Ottoman soldier killing a rival by stabbing him in the neck with his sword, as the attacked soldier attempts to escape in the direction of the river. Judging by his grey beard and his characteristic golden helmet with an aigrette, the Polish soldier who is being killed could in fact be a depiction of the Polish commander Stanislaw Zolkiewski, who would have been seventy-three years old at the time. While there is little other evidence to support this assertion, when we consider that the slaying of the kansler takes up a considerable portion of the accompanying text, and that Nādirī’s distiches tell us that Zolkiewski was

230Abolqasem Ferdowsi, Shahnameh: The Persian Book of Kings, trans. Dick Davis (London: Penguin Books, 2006), 110-130; E. Yarshater, “Afrasiab,” Encyclopædia Iranica, I/6, (2012), pp. 570-576.

231 Külekçi, ibid, 369; TPML, H.1124, f. 38a.

232 TPML, H.1124, f. 35b-36a.

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beheaded by an Ottoman soldier while fleeing from fear,233 it seems reasonably safe to attribute this figure to him.

3.4. Karakaş Meḥmed Paşa

In one of the chapters of Şehnāme-i Nādirī, three further events are narrated together. These are the conquest of Vac, by Karakaş Meḥmed Paşa (d. 1621), the Governor of Budin; İskender Ağa’s march on Abyssinia; and the recapture of Basra by Afrāsiyāb (d. 1624), the governor of that particular province. Unfortunately, the pages of the Topkapı Palace Museum Library copy of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī which recount the story of Karakaş Meḥmed Paşa’s conquest of the Castle of Vac are no longer extant in the manuscript; instead of these pages, pages containing prayers to God (münācāt) praises of the Prophet Muḥammed (n‘at), and the narration of the prophet’s mi‘rac, or ascension, (mi‘rāciyye) are culled from another part of the book and used to replace the missing pages234 These pages are traditionally part of the introduction to a work in the mesnevī format, in which Şehnāme-i Nādirī was written, and so we can assume that they originally belonged to the first few chapters of the book.235

We are able to follow the lost pages in the Topkapı copy via Külekçi’s transcription, which is based upon the other surviving copies of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī.236 Nādirī starts the chapter with a description of Vac, a fortress near the River Danube, from which tribute was paid to the Ottomans. Nādirī praises the town, similarly to how he had previously admired Manfredonia in the chapter on Ḫalīl Paşa’s naval campaign. He describes the beauty of the fortress, its impregnability, and the power and skills of the soldiers who protect the fortress. He further praises the bounty of the surrounding lands: “The garden of paradise is jealous of those lands that yields three hundred thousand dirhems of produce every day.”237 Nādirī

233 “Koyup bār u büngāhını Kansler / Firār ihtiyār itdi hūn der-ciger

Düşüp ardına bir dilīr-i cihān / Kesüp başını itdi kanın revān.” Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 368; TPML, H.1124, f. 37a.

234 TPML, H.1124, f. 42a-45b.

235 E. J. W. Gibb, A History of Ottoman Poetry Volume 1 (London: Luzac & Co., 1900), 76-77.

236 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 375-76.

237 Külekçi, ibid, 375.

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leaves us with an impression of an impossibly strong fortress, rich in treasure, which only the majesty of the Ottoman army can overcome.

Nādirī continues by explaining the rationale for the campaign. Vac was conquered and annexed to Budin, and had been a part of the abode of Islam for several years. However, “the great king of Nemçe” - that is to say, the Habsburg emperor – had upset this situation by seizing Vac. Karakaş Meḥmed Paşa is sent to Budin as the governor, and he sees that the province has become ruined by “the infidels.”238 After “adorning those lands with his justice,” he desires to reconquer Vac. In contrast to the other chapters of Şehnāme-i Nādirī, in which various battles are embellished by grandiose and epic detail, here there is no description whatsoever of the conduct of the battle during Karakaş Meḥmed Paşa’s reconquest of Vac. In only five distiches, Nādirī remarks upon both the fast journey of Meḥmed Paşa to Vac, likening him to the archangel Gabriel; his arrival to the castle and his easy entry inside, due to the inattentiveness of the guards; and, finally, his conquest of the fortress. The brevity of the account of the conquest suggests that, despite the formidable description of the fortress in the text, Meḥmed Paşa was able to take the castle without much of a struggle; indeed, Na‘īmā’s short account of the conquest of Vac by Meḥmed Paşa remarks that it took place via a cordial arrangement, and did not interrupt the peace that had already been established between the Ottomans and the Habsburgs.239

3.5. İskender Ağa and Afrāsiyāb

After describing the activities of Karakaş Meḥmed Paşa, Nādirī’s account continues by detailing İskender Ağa’s march on Abyssinia, followed by Afrāsiyāb’s recapture of Basra. Both figures are not viziers, and are therefore not referred to in the text by titles such as “vezīr-i hatīr” or paşa. In fact, their names do not even appear in the title: the title of the chapter on Karakaş Meḥmed Paşa, İskender Ağa and Afrāsiyāb reads “The conquest of the Fortress of Vac near Budin by Karakaş Paşa and the conquest of the province of Abyssinia

238 Külekçi, ibid, 376.

239 Na‘îmâ, 458.

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and the annexation of the province of Basra by the servants of the felicitous conqueror.”240 In contrast with the other headings of the book, which regularly include the names of the commanders whose campaigns are recounted in the relevant chapter, the second part of the title does not mention İskender Ağa’s and Afrāsiyāb’s names or positions. In fact, the only mention of İskender Ağa in the text comes about when Nādirī writes that he eventually became the governor of the province of Abyssinia, following the success of the campaign.241 The text’s reference to Afrāsiyāb is limited as well. Nādirī only refers to an “ağa of the riflemen” (ağası tüfengīlerin), named Afrāsiyāb, who leads the intervention in Basra.242 Although the inclusion of their stories in Şehnāme-i Nādirī demonstrates their significance to Nādirī and to the patron of the book, they appear as more distant figures because of the limited references in the text to their names, positions and deeds.

Nevertheless, Nādirī does offer us concise summaries of these events. As he recounts, the former governor of the province of Abyssinia, Maḥmūd Paşa, is betrayed by his deputy and killed by his soldiers. This deputy then takes control over the province. The sultan assigns İskender Ağa as the new governor of Abyssinia, and sends him there to restore order. Nādirī does not record the name of the mutinous deputy, but rather refers to him only as “the traitor,” with an occasional reference to his position as kethüdā. “The traitor” manages to escape to the Indian Ocean, but as he is sailing across the sea his ship sinks and he perishes. İskender Ağa enters the fortress of Sevakin, the residence of the governor of Abyssinia, and asserts his control over the rebellious province.

Following this, he briefly recounts events in Basra for the final portion of the chapter. An Arab emir, Mübārek (d. 1616-17), conquers the environs of Basra with the help of the Safavids, before passing away and leaving two sons behind. The sons fight for command of the lands their father conquered, but both die in battle. Although Külekçi refers to the subject of this chapter as “The conquest of Vac by Karakaş Meḥmed Paşa, and

240 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 375.

241The event is recorded in a brief passage in Na‘īmā’s account, which does notprovide the name of İskender Ağa. “Habeş halkı, beylerbeyileri Mahmud Paşa’yı katl eyleyip cadde-i itâ‘atten inhirâf göstermişler idi. Serkeşlerinin başı kesilip müceddeden teshîr ve kılâde-i itâ‘ate idhâl olunmaları babında hüsn-i tedbir olundu.” Na‘îmâ, 458. A list of Ottoman governors of Abyssinia does not include İskender Ağa’s name either. See Cengiz Orhonlu, Osmanlı İmparatorluğunun Güney Siyaseti: Habeş Eyaleti (İstanbul: Edebiyat Fakültesi Matbaası, 1974), 183-84.

242 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 379.

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the march of İskender Ağa on Abyssinia and Basra,”243 the recapture of Basra was actually accomplished by Afrāsiyāb, the governor of Basra, who had bought the right to control the province from the previous Ottoman governor, ‘Ali Paşa, in 1596.244 As Nādirī writes, Afrāsiyāb seizes the opportunity to attack and conquer the lands around Basra following the deaths of Mübārek’s heirs. He characterizes Afrāsiyāb as a kind of Rüstem-like figure, the agha of the riflemen. Although the enemy is numerous and strong, Afrāsiyāb is able to overcome them with ease. “He drowns the Arab soldiers in the earth, and defeated the Iranians.”245 In the end, more than thirty fortresses are captured, and all of the lands around Basra are conquered; Afrāsiyāb is ultimately victorious.

***

Şehnāme-i Nādirī recounts nine military campaigns and interventions in total, and only one of them is led by the sultan. The remaining eight are led by other commanders, including the Grand Vizier and Grand Admiral Ḫalīl Paşa; the Grand Admiral ‘Ali Paşa,; the Governor of Özi, İskender Paşa; the Governor of Budin Karakaş, Meḥmed Paşa; the Governor of Abyssinia, İskender Ağa; and the Governor of Basra, Afrāsiyāb. There is a clear difference in the way that Nādirī treats the first four figures in comparison to İskender Ağa and Afrāsiyāb, particularly in terms of how extensively they are referred to and accounted for in the book. Besides this disparity, however, the other four paşas are hardly given equal treatment either. As an example, while Ḫalīl Paşa’s campaigns cover a considerable part of the book – there are five chapters on his campaigns and three miniatures which depict him - ‘Ali Paşa is not even depicted in the only miniature that accompanies the chapter on his campaign.

Nevertheless, there are also repeated themes and motifs in all of these chapters that give a stylistic consistency to the work. İskender Paşa’s campaign in Poland, for example, is recounted in extensive detail, and at several points resembles the discourse of those chapters which detail Ḫalīl Paşa’s campaign. A common motif that occurs in both sections

243 Külekçi, ibid, 44.

244 Rudi Matthee, “Basra Between Arabs, Turks and Iranians: The Town of Basra 1600-1700,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 69 (2006): 53-78.

245 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 379; TPML, H.1124, f. 47a.

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of the text is the unwavering valor and nobility of the Ottoman army, observable in the

appearance, actions and skills of the soldiers. The text’s description and praise of ‘Ali

Paşa’s navy also emphasizes the strength and capability of the Ottoman military forces. The

importance of obedience is another point that is regularly repeated in these chapters. The

relationship of obedience and reward between Ḫalīl Paşa and Tatar han Cānbek Giray, as

they fight against Şah ‘Abbās and the Governor of Tabriz Ḳārçıġāy Ḫan, are paralleled in

İskender Paşa’s collaboration with Kalgay Sultan against the Polish commander Stanislaw

Zolkiewski and his ally, the Moldavian Voivode Casper Gratiani. İskender Ağa’s and

Afrāsiyāb’s marches on Abyssinia and Basra are also reactions against the disobedience of

lesser actors: the mutinous deputy of Maḥmud Paşa, and Mübārek’s heirs, respectively.

Overall, these chapters seek to portray an Ottoman army that is unwaveringly strong and

capable, even when it is led, not by the sultan himself, but by the adept commanders that he

assigns.

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4. THE IMAGE OF THE SULTAN IN THE ŞEHNĀME-İ NĀDİRĪ

In keeping with the ġāzi-sultan image he wished to project, ‘Osmān II (r. 1618 –

1622) is depicted in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī as a heroic military character, particularly in

regards to the various deeds recounted in the last chapters of the book. These chapters

narrate his counsel in the dīvān regarding an upcoming campaign in Poland, his departure

from Istanbul for the Polish campaign, and his expedition through Edirne to the River

Danube; they culminate in his battle with the son of the Polish king in Hotin, his return

from the campaign, and, finally, his arrival back in the Ottoman capital. Each of these

chapters is illustrated with a miniature that complements the imagery produced by the

text.246 In fact, the text and the miniatures are equally effective in forming the image of

‘Osmān II as a ġāzi-sultan, for the scenes chosen to be illustrated are drawn from the many

heroic events recounted in the text, and their compositions reflect notions of an ideal ġāzīsultan

in a military setting.

The participation of sultans on military campaigns had long been an issue in the

Ottoman narrative sources, and this was particularly so by ‘Osmān II’s time; many of the

sources pointed to those sultans who had reigned after Süleymān I, and the considerable

decrease in their mobility and military activity, as the reason for recent Ottoman defeats

and the cause of the eventual decline of the Empire.247 That ‘Osmān II worked to revive the

ġāzī-sultan image can be deduced from several of his actions during his short reign.248 The

most clearly visible of these was his participation in the Hotin campaign. There are other

actions, however, that can also be interpreted as contributions to his incipient image as a

ġāzī-sultan; notably, this includes his marriage to Ākile, who was the daughter of the

246 Külekçi, ibid, 380-422; TPML, H.1124, f. 47b-77a,

247 Regarding the stance of contemporary Ottoman sources on the participation of sultans on military campaigns,

and the interpretation of this stance by modern scholarship, see Hakan Karateke, “On the Tranquility and Repose of the

Sultan” in Christine Woodhead (ed.), The Ottoman World (London and New Yok: Routledge, 2012), 116-29.

248 Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 250-52; Gabriel Piterberg, An Ottoman Tragedy: History

and Historiography at Play (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003), 18-21.

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şeyḫülislām Es‘ad Efendi and hence a free-born Muslim woman. This choice was contrary

to the custom for Ottoman sultans, and was breaking with over a century of precedent.249

‘‘Osmān II’s clampdown on the taverns and coffeehouses of Istanbul, as well as his austere

choice of clothing, represent further possible attempts to realize and promote his ġāzī-sultan

image.250

The chapters of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī which focus upon ‘Osmān II heavily

emphasize his image as a ġāzī-sultan, particularly by elaborating upon his participation in

military combat and his leadership of the campaign. In accordance with the features of the

Ottoman şehnāme genre, the sultan is portrayed as a unfalteringly victorious warrior and

commander. This portrayal is constructed through the usage of various tropes and motifs

that were common to the Ottoman şehnāmes. The following sub-chapters will analyze these

aspects of the sultanic image, and in particular, how they were applied to the description of

‘Osmān II in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī. These include his eagerness for battle, his wrath against

his enemies, and his skills in securing victories, his abilities in hunting, and other prominent

qualities of kingship. These characteristic aspects of sultans in the Ottoman şehāme genre

are crafted in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī in a way that reflects the realities of the time. Although

the account of the events is generally in line with the historical record, the interactions

between the characters and the results of these events are subtly drawn to reflect those traits

most exemplary of an ideal Ottoman ruler, even if these at times appear to be contradictory.

For these reasons, the Şehnāme-i Nādirī can be interpreted as a part of ‘Osmān II’s

larger project to promulgate an image of himself as ġāzī-sultan, particularly by focusing

primarily on the military aspects of this image. Although the religious implications of the

ġāzī image are also hinted at throughout the book, with numerous references to his personal

piety and religious zeal, these references are usually incidental to the military actions of the

sultan. As an example, the main reason for ‘Osmān II’s Hotin campaign is stated to be the

regular raids of the Cossacks into the Black Sea and the intransigence of the Polish king;

249 Gabriel Piterberg, ibid, 18-21.

250 Gabriel Piterberg, ibid.

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the religious service done by ‘Osmān II in “defeating the infidels” is mentioned only briefly

at the end of the narration of the campaign.251

4.1. An Eagerness for Ġazā

Nādirī begins his account of the deeds of ‘Osmān II with his counsel in the dīvān.

As Nādirī writes, ‘Osmān II summons his viziers, the two sadr, the şeyḫülislām, and his

tutor. At the meeting, the sultan’s concerns become evident: “his [the Polish king’s] fire

was not extinguished, and the flames of his miserable riot have blazed yet again.”252

The miniature depicting the dīvān meeting shows ‘Osmān II sitting in the center,

with the members of the dīvān at his sides, listening to the sultan respectfully (Fig. 7).253

The viziers of ‘Osmān II are placed on the right side of the page; the religious scholars are

on the left side. The viziers who joined these dīvān meetings are identified in the

seventeenth-century primary sources, as well as in the secondary literature. Among the

viziers, the one who is sitting next to the sultan is regularly identified as the Grand Vizier

Ḥüseyin Paşa.254 However, Ḥüseyin Paşa only became the grand vizier after ‘Ali Paşa died

in March, 1621, during the preparations for the campaign. This figure is thus more likely to

be a portrait of ‘Ali Paşa, who, according to Na‘īmā, was influential in ‘Osmān II’s

decision to launch a campaign against Poland. The second figure on the right is Gürcü

(Hadım) Meḥmed Paşa (d. 1626), who is markedly prominent in other miniatures of the

book as well.255 The other viziers who were present in the dīvān meeting include the viziers

Nakkaş Ḥasan Paşa, Cigalazāde Maḥmūd Paşa, Meḥmed Paşa and Receb Paşa, according

251 For more on the motivation for launching the Polish campaign: Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 380-384; TPML,

H.1124, f. 47b-50b. For promoting Islam by defeating infidels: Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 416; TPML, H.1124, f. 72b.

252 Külekçi, ibid, 380; TPML, H.1124, f. 47b.

253 TPML, H.1124, f. 49a.

254 Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 252.

255 Tülay Artan, “Arts and Architecture,” in The Cambridge History of Turkey, Volume 3, The Later Ottoman

Empire, 1603-1839, ed. Suraiya N. Faroqhi (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 408-80.

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to the account of ‘Abdülḳādir Efendi.256 As depicted in the miniature, the sultan is facing

the scholars, conversing with a figure to the right of him; this figure can be identified as his

tutor ‘Ömer Efendi (d. 1622), while the second figure on the same side can be identified as

the şeyḫülislām Es‘ad Efendi (d. 1625).257

‘Ömer Efendi was an influential figure during the reign of ‘Osmān II,258 and his

prominent position in the miniature demonstrates his significance. Despite his lower rank in

comparison to the other religious scholars, he sits closer to the sultan than the şeyḫülislām

does, and is depicted conversing with him. He is also the only religious figure whose name

is mentioned in the text of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī. Another prominent figure in this

miniature, and in the whole illustration program of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī, is Süleymān Ağa,

who appears in every miniature in which the sultan is also depicted. He features in these

paintings very prominently, and is always depicted close to the sultan, although his name is

never explicitly mentioned in the text. In the miniature depicting the dīvān meeting, he, too,

appears standing on the left. His proximity to and influence on the sultan are recorded by

other, near-contemporary sources of the seventeenth-century, and his prominence in the

miniatures of the book raises questions regarding his possible role in the commission and

production of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī.259

The text continues to describe the discussions between the sultan and the attendants

of the dīvān meeting. ‘Osmān II asks his high officials regarding what is needed to

overcome the Polish king. He does not receive any satisfactory responses. Finally, he offers

his own opinion: he states that he personally should go on a campaign against the Polish

lands, in order to “tear the impure body of the cursed Polish king into pieces with his sharp

sword.”260 There is some dissension among members of the dīvān, many of whom find it

unnecessary or dangerous for the sultan to join the campaign; they advise him to assign one

256 Topçular Kâtibi, 705; Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 252.

257 Tülün Değirmenci, ibid, 252.

258 Baki Tezcan, “The 1622 Military Rebellion in İstanbul: A Historiographical Journey,” The International

Journal of Turkish Studies, 8, (2002), 2-34; Tülün Değirmenci, ibid, 22-23.

259 Tülün Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 264-65.

260 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 380; TPML, H.1124, f. 48a.

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of his commanders to lead it. ‘Osmān II is, however, nevertheless determined to take this

opportunity to lead a campaign, and return victorious in the manner of his ancestors. He

convinces the dīvān that he will lead the campaign. The members respond obediently,

saying that “it is our obligation to obey your commands.”261

‘Osmān II’s determination to lead the Polish campaign himself is also demonstrated

by his correspondence with the Polish king. Nādirī provides the reader with a letter that was

reportedly written by the Polish king to ‘Osmān II, begging the sultan for mercy. The poet

constructs the text of the letter in such a way as to imply that the relationship between the

Ottoman sultan and the Polish king is one, not of equals, but between a master and vassal.

The Polish king is frightened when he receives the news that ‘Osmān II has ordered

the army to prepare for campaigning. According to Nādirī, he immediately regrets his

previous wrong-doings, and sends an envoy to the Ottoman sultan with a letter of apology.

His letter starts with the customary praise of ‘Osmān II, and then enumerates the various

offenses that have angered the Ottoman sultan. The Polish king then pledges loyalty to the

Ottoman sultan, writing that all of his ancestors have been servants of the Ottoman sultans,

and that the Ottoman sultans had always been merciful towards them. He wants to assure

‘Osmān II that the Cossacks, who caused all of the recent trouble in the Black Sea, are not

under his command, and that he did not order them to raid along the Black Sea coast. He

even offers his services to fight against the Cossacks, sparing the Ottoman sultan from the

exertion of a campaign.262 ‘Osmān II immediately sends the envoy and the letter back to the

Polish king. When the envoy arrives at the court of the Polish king and reports back, the

king becomes even more fearful and sends a second envoy. The sultan does not even allow

the second envoy to enter the capital; rather, he sends a group of officials to stop him a few

stations away from the city. The second Polish envoy is forced to return without even

delivering his message to Istanbul.263 Nādirī thus demonstrates the alacrity with which

‘Osmān II decides to go on campaign, apparently confident of returning in triumph.

261 Külekçi, ibid, 381; TPML, H.1124, f. 48b.

262 Külekçi, ibid, 382-383; TPML, H.1124, f. 49b-50a.

263 Külekçi, ibid, 383-384; TPML, H.1124, f. 50a-50b.

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Finally, the departure date for ‘Osmān II’s much awaited campaign arrives. Nādirī

begins his chapter on the army’s march to Hotin by describing the coming of spring, which

had been set as the first day of the campaign. With the time of bahar comes the time of

sefer; as Nādirī writes, “When the şāh-like spring comes (…), the routed winter deserts

those lands.”264 For this reason, as the spring of 1621 arrives, ‘Osmān II orders preparations

for the campaign to commence.

Nādirī describes the procession of the sultan and the army from the İstanbul in great

detail, mirroring the details provided in the accompanying miniature. Nādirī’s description

begins with the sultan and dwells upon officials and soldiers of various positions, guiding

the reader to the depictions of the same figures in the painting. The characteristics that

Nādirī provides for each group or character reflect their heroic natures, and they are

furthermore described alongside their rather pompous clothing and equipment.

We may take Nādirī’s description of the sultan as an example. Nādirī starts by

portraying the splendor of the sultan through his clothing and equipment. The sultan girds a

fully jeweled dagger on his waist. Nādirī likens the jewels on the dagger to drops of water

running through a golden channel. He then compares the sultan’s “royal body” to a sea in

which the dagger swims like a rockfish. The sultan girds a sword adorned with jewels, that

resemble a dragon, and Nādirī describes the moment that he puts on his sash and scabbard..

He then girds a jeweled quiver, which Nādirī claims resembles a fountain, albeit one that

sheds fire instead of water. His tent is wrapped, not with a golden chain, but with a dragon

and a phoenix. When “the şāh of the şāhs, the enemy-hunter” mounts his horse, stars fall

from the sky.265

Viziers are the next to be described, after the sultan. “The land-conquering, heroic

viziers” armed with their battle equipment, are each “the şāh of plentiful slaves” and

“higher in rank than many of the ancient rulers.”266 Following this, Nādirī comes to the

commanders of the soldiers, who are wearing jeweled armors and who are each “a Rüstem

264 Külekçi, ibid,, 386; TPML, H.1124, f. 52a.

265 Külekçi, ibid, 387; TPML, H.1124, f. 52b-53a.

266 Külekçi, ibid, 388-389; TPML, H.1124, f. 55a.

66

of the time.”267 The janissaries are marching in front of the procession. Nādirī describes

them as the Bektāşiyān, holding their fire-spewing snakes. Cebecis are the next to be

described by the poet, wearing helmets, and like the brave soldiers of the Bektāşiyān, they

are described holding their rifles. Nādirī likens the artillerymen to Behrām-ı Gūr, the

Sasanian king Behrām V, who is also a popular character in the Şāhnāme of Firdevsī.268

They follow the Bektāşiyān with cannons and rifles, holding aloft their green banners.

Sipāhīs join the procession with their red and yellow banners, which Nādirī imagines as a

field of tulips. Each of these soldiers are like “Ḥaydar-ı Nāmdār,”269 and their red, yellow,

white and green forked banners flutter like ‘Ali’s forked sword, zülfiḳār.270

The double-folio miniature depicting the procession of the sultan and the army for

the Polish campaign is perhaps the most grandiose painting of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī (Fig.

8).271 In parallel with Nādirī’s verse surrounding the illustrated pages, the right-hand page

places ‘Osmān II in the center, with his golden-embroidered fur robe, mounted on a horse

with an equally splendid harness. The sultan is accompanied by his guardsmen and the

black eunuch, and followed by troops holding colorful banners which Nādirī describes at

some length in his verse. The verse that decorates the illustrated right page also draws the

attention of the reader to the troops of the sultan: “The banners of the king of kings are all

along the way, while the troops of warriors are marching elegantly.”272

The left page of the miniature depicts the viziers leading the whole procession, each

one arranged in order of rank.273 The viziers are followed by high ranking officials and

religious scholars, among whom the head of the descendants of the Prophet Muḥammed is

267 Külekçi, ibid, 389; TPML, H.1124, f. 55a

268 C.L. Huart & H. Massé, “Bahrām” in Encyclopedia of Islam, Second Edition (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1991) 2:938-9;

Enver Konukçu, “Behrâm-ı Gûr,” in TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi (1992), 5:356.

269 Ḥaydar (literally, lion) is one of the epithets of ‘Ali b. Ebu Ṭālib, the fourth caliph and the son-in-law of the

Prophet Muḥammed. A more frequently used version is Ḥaydar-ı Kerrār. See DİA, “Haydar,” TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi

(1998), 17:24.

270 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 391; TPML, H.1124, f. 56a.

271 TPML, H.1124, f. 53b-54a.

272 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 387; TPML, H.1124, f. 53b.

273 Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 257.

67

recognizable by his green turban. Besides this figure, the religious character of the march is

marked by a banner that bears the names of Prophet Muḥammed, the four caliphs, and the

grandsons of the prophet, as well as the tevḥīd formula, stating the oneness of the God.The

janissaries are lined up alongside the procession of the high officials. The two pages of the

painting are connected not only by the continuity of the procession, but also by the

existence of a crowd watching this spectacular parade in a line in the front, adding a

colorful audience to the noise and pomp of the setting.274

4.2. Wrathfulness towards the Enemy

The next chapter of Şehnāme-i Nādirī recounts the various events that happened

during the army’s journey from Edirne to the River Dniester. The sultan stays in the Edirne

Palace for a while. We read that, as the army proceeds, a pavilion is built for the sultan “on

the waterfront.”275 The sultan spends “many days in that pavilion, providing justice and

illuminating the universe.”276 He bestows upon the ġāzīs gold and silver as campaign

bonuses (sefer bahşişi). He then orders that Ḫalīl Paşa, who has become the grand

admiral,277 go and “hunt” the enemy – that is, the Cossacks - in the Black Sea.278 As the

text relates, “Ḫalīl Paşa’s flame-like, rose-colored galleys set sail in the darkness of the

Black Sea.”279 The Ottoman galleys and Cossack şaykas280 fought each other across the

water; in the end, the Cossack ships are seized by the Ottoman fleet, and many Cossacks

are taken prisoner.

274 TPML, H.1124, f. 53b-54a.

275 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 393; TPML, H.1124, f. 58b.

276 Külekçi, ibid, 394; TPML, H.1124, f. 58b.

277 This change in rank, as well as Nādirī’s perspective on it, are discussed in Chapter 2 and 3.

278 Külekçi, ibid, 394; TPML, H.1124, f. 59a.

279 Külekçi, ibid, 394; TPML, H.1124, f. 59a.

280 Şayka: a kind of boat used in the Black Sea. V. Bahadır Alkım et al., Redhouse Turkish-English Dictionary,

(İstanbul: Sev Matbaacılık ve Yayıncılık, 1998).

68

While this naval battle between the Ottoman and Cossack forces is taking place, the

sultan arrives at the banks of the River Danube. The prisoners are brought to Ḫalīl Paşa,

and he takes them to the sultan. According to Nādirī, the Ottoman treatment of the

prisoners was harsh:

“The king of kings showed his wrath to the prisoners, all of them were put to death and

perished. Some were beaten under the feet of elephants and swallowed by the earth, turning

into dough. Their bodies were flattened and resembled the paintings on a church wall.

Those who saw the ones who were smashed by elephants thought that they were bacon.

Some were burnt and disappeared, they experienced the infernal torture. Fire spread over

the parts of their bodies; their bodies shed fire. Behold the spells of the heaven, they turned

many men into salamanders. Some were killed by two galleys, each pulling from their feet.

The curious state of the men of the time resembled that of the people of Nīmten.”281

After this passage, delineating the various macabre means by which the Ottoman

army killed its prisoners, the narrative continues with the march of the army towards

Poland. When they reach the River Prut, they encounter further detachments of Cossacks.

The Cossacks notice the oncoming Ottoman soldiers, and the majority of them flee from

the area. Some of the rest hide in a dark cave, and others hide in the thicket surrounding the

cave. The sultan orders his soldiers. already “accustomed to victory,” to fight them.282 The

soldiers set fire to the opening of the cave so that the smoke kills the Cossacks inside. They

skin the ones who escape the cave “like foxes.”283

After a short clash with the remaining Cossacks in the thicket, the Ottoman soldiers

bring the prisoners to the sultan, encamped on the waterfront. The sultan orders that the

prisoners to be killed. While the order is being performed, one of the prisoners escapes and

dives into the water. Nādirī rather joyfully recounts the prisoner’s shock as, having almost

281 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 397-398; TPML, H.1124, f. 60a-60b. Nādirī refers to people of Nīmten, an

“imaginary race of creatures shaped like men cloven from head to fork, one half being male and the other female” V.

Bahadır Alkım et al., Redhouse Turkish-English Dictionary, (İstanbul: Sev Matbaacılık ve Yayıncılık, 1998).

282 Külekçi, ibid, 399; TPML, H.1124, f. 61a.

283 Külekçi, ibid, 399; TPML, H.1124, f. 61a.

69

escaped, he is shot in the neck by the sultan’s own arrow. The one-page miniature in this

chapter of Şehnāme-i Nādirī depicts the moment when ‘Osmān II shoots the fugitive

prisoner (Fig. 9).284 The sultan is depicted holding his bow and sitting on his throne under a

canopy, accompanied by his guardsmen and Süleymān Ağa. The arrow that the sultan has

just shot is depicted, buried deep into the neck of the prisoner, as he still attempts to swim

away from his inevitable execution. Other prisoners are being herded into the middle of the

scene, between the sultan’s forces and the river. The chapter continues with Ottoman

soldiers burning the forest to disperse the rest of the Cossacks hiding there, and executing

hundreds of them “without mercy;” Nādirī’s narration then continues with verses of praise

for the “outstanding ghāzīs,” who had succeeding in “eliminating the cursed people.”285

This chapter, entitled as the “Departure of the sultan from Edirne, arrival of the

victorious soldiers to his presence, the sultan’s arrival to the River Dniester on the border of

the land of the infidels, and some incidents that occurred on the way”286 largely narrates the

various occurrences that took place during the march of the Ottoman army to Poland. The

chapter revolves around the different deeds of the Ottoman soldiers under the sultan’s

command, before the actual battle starts. In the text, the sultan is depicted as a ruthless

leader, maintaining an undiminished devotion to ġazā all the way from the beginning of the

campaign. His attitude is wrathful, and his orders are fierce. The Ottoman soldiers are

depicted as unfailingly loyal, motivated by an eagerness to fight, and they conduct their

orders to kill prisoners without complaint.

The most striking part of the chapter, the narration of the first clash with the Cossacks

and the execution of the Cossack prisoners, is also the subject matter of the only miniature

accompanying this chapter. The miniature reinforces what is emphasized in the text,

depicting the sultan in a heroic pose right after the moment he shoots his arrow at the

fugitive prisoner. The reader can thus visualize ‘Osmān II’s abilities as an archer, as well as

his power to punish any discord and disobedience against his orders. The scene also

284 TPML, H.1124, f. 62a.

285 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 400; TPML, H.1124, f. 62b.

286 TPML, H.1124, f. 57a.

70

demonstrates the sultan supervising the execution of his orders, which enables him to

interfere during a moment of disorder.

4.3. The Victorious Sultan

Nādirī closes the chapter with a depiction of Cānbek Giray Ḫan’s participation in the

conflict, providing the Ottoman army with troops who “have knowledge of the science of

war” and granting his support for the upcoming Battle of Hotin, which is the subject of the

next chapter of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī.287 Since the Polish king is old and sick, he sends his

son to lead the battle against the Ottoman army. The son of the king reaches the Castle of

Hotin on the coast of the River Dniester. According to Nādirī’s account, with thirty

thousand Cossack soldiers and supporting forces from the Habsburg Empire, the total

number of the Polish forces comprises almost two hundred thousand men.

The narration of the Battle of Hotin is as long and epic as any of the previous battle

scenes in Şehnāme-i Nādirī. It includes descriptions of the Ottoman’s masterful use of

battle tools such as rifles, arrows, swords, and maces and celebrations of their abilities in

combat. As Nādirī writes, the intense fighting between the two forces “raises dust to

heavens.”288 After a battle of three to four days, the Polish army abandons close combat,

but nevertheless remains in their camp and continues to fire rifles and cannons at the

Ottomans from a distance. The Ottoman soldiers continue to attack, and the battle stretches

on; eventually, it reaches its fortieth day. When the Polish king attempts to send military

aid to the battlefield, the Nogay bey Ḳantemir Mirza289 manages to intercept the ships

287 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 401; TPML, H.1124, f. 63a.

288 Külekçi, ibid, 408; TPML, H.1124, f. 63a.

289 The relations between the Ottoman Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth involved principalities

such as Moldavia, the Ukrainian Cossack hetmanate, the Crimean khanate and the Nogay horde. The chief of the Nogay

horde, Ḳantemir, was already known for his attacks into Poland in support of İskender Paşa’s campaigns in 1618 and

1620, years before the Hotin campaign. His contributions to the Hotin campaign gained him even more prestige with

sultan. Dariusz Kolodziejczyk, Ottoman-Polish Diplomatic Relations (15th-18th Century): An Annotated Edition of

‘Ahdnames and Other Documents (Leiden, Boston, Köln: Brill, 1999), xvi-xviii; Mihnea Berindei, “La Porte Ottomane

face aux Cosaques Zaporogues, 1600-1637”, Harvard Ukrainian Studies 1(1977): 273-307.

71

carrying these supplies. He brings the provisions to the sultan, and they are distributed

amongst the Ottoman soldiers.

The sultan orders Ḳantemir Mirza to “destroy the Polish lands”, and the mirza

executes these orders.290 He goes to “the Polish climes” with six groups of soldiers in a

month, and brings back “three hundred thousand prisoners” to the sultan.291 One hundred

and fifty thousand of these prisoners are executed, with an additional thirty thousand

villages are destroyed; many large cities are demolished, and only a few fortresses are

spared. All of the Cossack troops are defeated, and the Polish lands are conquered. The

Poles beg the Ottoman sultan for forgiveness. Finally, the king pays tribute, and agrees to

obey the commands of the sultan. He evacuates the fortress of Hotin, and agrees that

Cossacks will no longer sail on the Black Sea. According to Nādirī’s narrative in his

Şehnāme, then, the Hotin campaign can only be characterized as a resounding success.

The painting depicting the battle of Hotin is one of the most dynamic and minutely

detailed miniatures of the entire Şehnāme-i Nādirī (Fig. 10).292 The sultan is depicted at the

top of the right-hand page, sitting under a canopy accompanied by his guardsmen and a

black eunuch. On the foreground of the page, Ottoman soldiers are holding Polish prisoners

and killing them, while battle drums are drawn being played and cannons are fired toward

the Polish camp depicted on the facing page. The left page displays the Polish camp

surrounded by a moat. Ottoman soldiers are attacking the camp, and both sides are firing at

each other. The Polish soldiers who are outside the moat are pictured running towards the

camp, fleeing close combat as per Nādirī’s verse. The mounted group of soldiers at the topright

corner of the page have been interpreted as the supporting soldiers of Ḳantemir

Mirza,293 hence it is possible that the opposite corner displays the aid sent by the Polish

king, which will be stopped and seized by the mirza.

290 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 409; TPML, H.1124, f. 69a.

291 Külekçi, ibid, 410; TPML, H.1124, f. 69a.

292 TPML, H.1124, f. 67b-68a.

293 Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 261.

72

The Agreement of Hotin, which was signed on 9 October 1621, did involve

assurances by the Polish that the Cossacks would no longer cause trouble on the Black Sea.

On the other hand, it also included a condition stipulating that the Crimean Tatars no longer

attack the Polish lands. Moreover, the clause that requires the Polish king to pay tribute to

the Ottoman sultan exists only in the Ottoman version of the agreement, and not in the

Polish text. In fact, the Polish never accepted this latter term, and the disagreement caused

trouble in the future relations of the two states.294

After recounting the results of the Battle of Hotin, Nādirī makes an effort to

aggrandize the achievement of ‘Osmān II: “What a praiseworthy victory and an obvious

conquest is granted to the triumphant sultan! None of the previous sultans witnessed such a

crushing of the enemy.”295 Here, the poet is referencing an earlier moment in the text -

‘Osmān II’s council meeting - where the young sultan stated his wish to be a ġāzī like his

ancestors. Now, according to Nādirī’s narrative, ‘Osmān II not only succeeds in his wish,

but he also achieves an even greater victory than the previous ġāzī sultans ever managed.

Yet, historically speaking , the results of the Battle of Hotin were not particularly beneficial

for Ottomans. The Polish resistance against the Ottoman attack was successful, and the

Agreement of Hotin was a result more of Polish endurance than the Ottoman attack. Hence,

the terms of the agreement were not directly in favor of the Ottomans. Rather, the

agreement was an effort to restore the peace that had been established after İskender Paşa’s

successful campaigns in 1617 and 1620,296 the latter of which is the subject of a previous

illustrated chapter in Şehnāme-i Nādirī.

294 Dariusz Kolodziejczyk, “A historical outline of Polish-Ottoman political and diplomatic relations” in War and

Peace: Ottoman-Polish Relations in the 15th-19th Centuries ed. Selim Kangal (İstanbul: Turkish Republic Ministry of

Culture, 1999), 26. For the texts of both versions and their translations in English, see Dariusz Kolodziejczyk, Ottoman-

Polish Diplomatic Relations (15th-18th Century): An Annotated Edition of ‘Ahdnames and Other Documents (Leiden,

Boston, Köln: Brill, 1999), 376-87.

295 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 410; TPML, H.1124, f. 69b.

296 Dariusz Kolodziejczyk, “A historical outline of Polish-Ottoman political and diplomatic relations” in War and

Peace: Ottoman-Polish Relations in the 15th-19th Centuries ed. Selim Kangal (İstanbul: Turkish Republic Ministry of

Culture, 1999), 25.

73

4.4. The Sultan as a Skillful Hunter

The penultimate chapter of Şehnāme-i Nādirī is related to ‘Osmān II’s return from the

Hotin campaign. “When the ġazā was accomplished, the exalted sultan reverted to his

throne with glory and success, and paraded with pomp and circumstance.”297 As Nādirī

writes, the sultan arrives in Edirne to stay in the palace for a few days. While he is in

Edirne, he goes on the battue,298 and this hunting party is described at length by Nādirī. He

describes the setting, in which animals are driven into a circle, and the circle is filled with

smoke from the fire of rifles.299

The discourse employed by Nādirī during the passage on hunting in Edirne is replete

with references to the sultan’s authority and his ġāzī image. A rabbit and a fox are caught

by a hound, a bird in a tree is shot in the eye with an arrow, a cheetah “commits ġazā” and

kills a swine, partridges “give their lives willingly” for the sultan, and a hawk crashes into a

stork, a crane and a goose. Through what seems, to the modern reader, to be amusing

scenes in which wild animals are cast as the actors of an action-documentary, Nādirī

conveys a subtextual message which supports the sultanic image. Swine had symbolized

non-Muslims in Ottoman literary imagery from very early on, and the Ottoman sultan or

commander who hunted them were usually represented by lions.300 The cheetah killing

swine as a “ġazā” is Nādirī’s interpolation of a well-known allegory, placed right after the

“victory” over the said “infidels.” Here, Nādirī is referencing Solomon, the Biblical and

Quranic prophet-king who had the power to communicate and rule over animals: “Wild

297 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 411; TPML, H.1124, f. 70a.

298 A type of hunting that was practiced with the help of beaters who drove the game animals towards the hunters.

It was mostly performed in the hunting parks in and around Edirne. Tülay Artan, “Ahmed I’s Hunting Parties: Feasting in

Adversity, Enhancing the Ordinary” in Starting with Food: Culinary Approaches to Ottoman History, ed. Amy Singer

(Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2011), 93-138.

299 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 412; TPML, H.1124, f. 70b-71a.

300 Melis Taner, “‘Power to Kill:’ A Discourse of the Royal Hunt During the Reigns of Süleyman the Magnificent

and Ahmed I” (Unpub. MA thesis, Sabancı University, 2009), 44-49.

74

animals and birds obeyed the exalted Solomon-like sultan in hunting.”301 Thus, following

depictions of the obedience of viziers, soldiers, vassals and even enemy kings to the

Ottoman sultan, the book describes even wild animals and of nature itself bending to the

will of the sultan.

It does not come across as a surprise, then, that Nādirī reserves a long passage for

hunting, especially so if we take into consideration the common view of hunting as one of

the duties of the sultan, and even more so of a ġāzī sultan. It is also known that ‘Osmān II

had a personal fondness for such activities. Moreover, it has been argued that the royal

sport of hunting was viewed as a responsibility of a sultan, and indeed this activity iss welldocumented

in narrative and illustrated books, especially for Süleymān I’s and Aḥmed I’s

reigns.302 It could also be expected that this scene would be illustrated with a miniature

showing the sultan’s hunting skills, as was the practice for previous illustrated histories of

the Ottoman dynasty.303 Strangely, however, a scene of ‘Osmān II hunting was not chosen

as a subject to be illustrated in the book. The miniature in this chapter of Şehnāme-i Nādirī

depicts ‘Osmān II in his pavilion in Topkapı Palace, and in his imperial caique, both of

which were, according to Nādirī, newly-built for the celebration of the victorious campaign.

The reason for this choice could be that the martial and archery skills of the sultan were

already covered in the previous miniatures. If an economical depiction was to be made, it

does makes a certain sense that the only miniature in the chapter depicts a new and

significant subject in a book, particularly since none of the chapters in the book feature

more than one miniature.

301 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 414. Twenty-four distiches (probably one folio), including this one is missing in

the related pages of TPML, H.1124.

302 Tülay Artan, “A Book of Kings Produced and Represented as A Treatise on Hunting”, Muqarnas 25 (2009):

299-330.

303 Serpil Bağcı, “Visualizing Power: Portrayals of the Sultans in Illustrated Histories of the Ottoman Dynasty”,

Islamic Art 6 (2009): 113-28.

75

4.5. Ruler of the Land and the Sea

Before the construction of the new kiosk and caique, there is one more episode in

Nādirī’s verse that is of importance. While ‘Osmān II is hunting and spending time in

Edirne palace, his son is born. After staying in Edirne with the newly-born şehzāde for

some time, the sultan and his entourage depart for Istanbul. According to Nādirī, the sultan

is welcomed by the people of the capital with great joy. “Especially the leaders of Islam

revered the sultan, because he favored the religion, and he defeated the people of error

(dalāl ehli).”304 Nādirī then, once more, compares the sultan with the previous sultans, as

he did after the alleged success of the campaign. He writes that “No other sultan did what

he did at this age, that is, to go on the pilgrimage of ġazā. At this age, only ‘Ali went on

ġazā, and he is the guide of the sultan.”305

Finally, the sultan sits back on his throne in the Topkapı Palace. “The ruler of the

land and the sea desired to leave a monument on the land and the sea.”306 Thus, ‘Osmān II

decides to order the construction of a pavilion and an imperial caique. He assigns his vizier

and bostancıbaşı Meḥmed to take charge of this order; according to the text, “he pleases the

sultan by completing both.”307 The last miniature of Şehnāme-i Nādirī depicts the sultan in

his new imperial caique on the water, and in his new pavilion (Fig. 11).308 Both sides of the

double-page miniature feature ‘Osmān II; in the left-hand page, we witness his enjoyment

of the new caique and in the right, he is sitting on his throne in the pavilion. Besides him

are Süleymān Ağa and another figure, most probably Meḥmed Paşa, who oversaw the

completion of the two projects.309 The miniature is different from the previous pictures in

the book in that it has a much more static composition, providing the audience with a sense

304 Külekçi, “Gani-zâde Nâdirî,” 416; TPML, H.1124, f. 72b.

305 Külekçi, ibid, 416; TPML, H.1124, f. 72b.

306 Külekçi, ibid, 417; TPML, H.1124, f. 73a.

307 Külekçi, ibid, 417; TPML, H.1124, f. 73a.

308 TPML, H.1124, f. 73b-74a.

309 Değirmenci, İktidar Oyunları ve Resimli Kitaplar, 250-52; Gabriel Piterberg, An Ottoman Tragedy: History

and Historiography at Play (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003), 262-63; TPML, H.1124, f.

73b-74a.

76

of stability and calmness. It displays the “victorious” ġāzī sultan back in his palace, ruling

the Empire, comfortable in the knowledge that he acquired the charisma and legitimacy he

had sought in leading a campaign.

77

5. CONCLUSION

This thesis has attempted to offer a close reading of the illustrated Şehnāme-i Nādirī,

with the aim of placing it into the broader context of the Ottoman şehnāme writing

tradition. The study has mainly focused on the depiction of the characters and the events

that are described in the book, and tried to identify the characteristic qualities that are

attributed to these main figures. Exploring these qualities has allowed us to draw the

contours of the conceptual ideal of leadership, particularly as they are delineated in the

Şehnāme-i Nādirī. While many alternative readings of the manuscript are possible, the one

that has been presented here is one that views its narrative of the various events that

occurred during the reign of ‘Osmān II as being constructed of three interconnected layers.

One layer is the account of historical facts. Although Nādirī molds the events and

their consequences into a shape more characteristic of the şehnāme genre, the format in

which imperial glories are told, he still provides the reader with a general and fair account

of events, as well as the notable figures who were involved in these events. The miniatures

of the illustrated copy follow the text very carefully in many cases, helping support this

account. Another layer we must take into account is Nādirī’s efforts to demonstrate his

pride in his own verse. This is noticeable in the long passages where he describes the

architecture of Tabriz and Manfredonia, the acts of fighting during battles, and the material

details of the booty that the Ottoman soldiers captured.

A strikingly common theme throughout the narrative is the regular appearance of

processions.310 Various marches of the army led by one of the commanders or by the sultan

are described in great detail in the text. The material equipment of the soldiers, such as their

clothing, their numerous weapons, decorations on the harnesses of the horses, and the

banners of the Ottoman army, are described side by side with the bravery of the soldiers

and the glory of their commanders. Such passages are ideal examples of Nādirī’s originality

in şehnāme writing. While the book as a whole is a continuation of the Ottoman şehnāme

tradition, Nādirī’s long descriptions of processions result in a novel interpretation of the

genre.

310 See Appendix.

78

The third layer we must examine is where Nādirī’s text and the miniatures of the

illustrated copy come together to create an ideal image of leadership. This image is put

forward through the actions and interactions of the characters, as they deal with reported

events. In the chapters featuring the commanders of the sultan, Nādirī represents the ideal

military leader, who is eager to face and fight the enemy, and obedient to the orders of the

sultan; we see how the Ottoman sultan can count upon the loyal support of his

subordinates, such as Cānbek Giray, who also highlights the theme of loyalty through his

relationship to Ḫalīl Paşa. The chapters that are related to the sultan, on the other hand,

represent ‘Osmān II as an absolute ruler and warrior, who is as ready for battle as his

commanders, and who leaves no room for the smallest disobedience. His skills as an archer

and hunter are underscored to mold his image into the proper shape for a protagonist of a

şehnāme.

The representation of ideal leadership in the Şehnāme-i Nādirī sits comfortably

among other book projects which narrate the events of ‘Osmān II’s reign. These two

narrative sources - the Ẓafernāme, which concerns the Hotin campaign of ‘Osmān II, and

the Ġazānāme-i Ḫalīl Paşa, which details the career and campaigns of the Grand Vizier

and Grand Admiral Ḫalīl Paşa - seek to create a similar image for their own respective

protagonists. The similarity of these representations demonstrates the continuation of a

tradition that had developed during the reign of Süleymān I, with the first Ottoman

şehnāmes and ġazānāmes. The characterization of these events and characters remained the

same despite, the evolution of the historical circumstances.

This manner of reading the Şehnāme-i Nādirī helps us to understand the outlook

that the producers of Ottoman şehnāmes - that is to say, not only the artists and craftsmen

who actually produced these works, but also the patrons who made these productions

possible by commissioning and financing them - intended to reflect in these imperial books.

However, this method, which concentrates mostly upon the content of the Şehnāme-i

Nādirī, has also the effect of raising more questions than it answers. One question that

immediately comes to mind relatesto the personal networks of the characters that are

depicted in the book. A detailed study of the biographies of prominent figures of the book,

such as Ḫalīl Paşa, Gürcü Meḥmed Paşa, Süleymān Ağa, and ‘Ömer Efendi could shed

79

light on their relationships to each other and to ‘Osmān II, helping us to have a better grasp

on the circumstances under which the Şehnāme-i Nādirī was produced.

Another question which deserves to be answered relates to the identity of the patron

of the book. While it is clear from the text that the patron of the work looked favorably

upon the aforementioned figures , an in-depth study is required as to the respective

influence of each of them in the production of the manuscript, and, more generally, as to

the role that they played in crafting ‘Osmān II’s public image. The question of the book’s

patron leads us to further questions regarding the producers of the book. The illustrated

Şehnāme-i Nādirī is mainly a product of the partnership between its author, Ġanīzāde

Nādirī, and the head painter Naḳşī, who directed its illustration and painted some of its

miniatures. This partnership is also evident in the Dīvān-ı Nādirī, which was illustrated

solely by Naḳşī himself. It is clear that further studies of this partnership could reveal

important information on the motivations behind the production of the Şehnāme-i Nādirī.

Answers to these questions will serve to enlighten us about still unexplored issues

regarding this Şehnāme, as well as Ottoman şehnāmes in general, and will hopefully

enhance the contribution that this thesis makes to the already extant literature on this

subject.

80

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86

APPENDIX I:

The procession of ‘Osmān II to Eyub for his sword-girding ceremony311

Ḳuşandı ḳılıç anda ḫūrşīd-vār

Ana maşrıḳ oldı revāḳ-ı mezār

O tīġ-ı muraṣṣa ki şāhānedür

Ẓafer murġına āb ile dānedür

Çekildi rikāb-ı şehe bir semend

Ki reşk eyler ana sipihr-i bülend

Meger gerdeni bir kiyānī kemān

Zih olsa n’ola ana zerrīn-‘inān

‘Aceb ḫūb-raḳḳaṣ-ı ṣūr-ı ẓafer

Ana çār-pāre gümüş na‘ller

Cebīninde var şemse-i cevherī

Se-dīde o ṣāḥīb-ḳırān aşḳarı

Süvār oldı fermān-dih-i rūzgār

Esed üzre ḫurşīd-i raḫşende-vār

Mücevher otāḳa olup şu‘le-zen

Nişān virdi bir ebr-i pür-berḳden

311 Külekçi, “Ganî-zâde Nâdirî,” 327-9.

87

Ya şehbāzdur cevheri zeng-dār

Hümā ẓıllına vardı ṣandı şikār

Çü deprendi ol nerre-şīriyle

Zemīn ü zemān oldı pür-zelzele

Çıḳup çarḫa āvāz-ı zerrīne kūs

Mehābetden itdi güneş ḫāk-būs

İrişdi Srāfīl’e bang-ı nefīr

Dem-i ṣūr-ı aḥyādan oldı ḥabīr

Biḥār-ı sipāh oldı cümbiş-künān

Revān ebrhāy-ı ġurīniş-künān

Vezīrān-ı dānā-dil-i hūş-yār

Önince semend-i sa‘ādet süvār

Anun her biri Rüstem-i dāstān

Vezīr adına līk ḫusrev-nişān

Süleymān ki sulṭān-ı mümtāz idi

Umūrında Aṣaf’la dem-sāz idi

Bu şāh-ı cihān eylesün serveri

Ki yanında var nice Aṣaf’ları

Önince revān oldı a‘lām-ı dīn

Ḥaḳāyıḳ-şināsān-ı ehl-i yaḳīn

88

Skender ki şāh-ı felek-tāc idi

Arisṭo-yı dānāya muḥtāc idi

Bu şāhun rikābında var bī-ḳıyās

Aristo gibi nice ḥikmet-şinās

Ṣolāḳlar çekildi olup cilve-ger

Zer-üsküf güneş ṣorġıcı şu‘leler

Ya-ḫūd Ka‘be-i cāha cārūbdur

Anun çün güneş gibi merġūbdur

Açılmış ḳumaş-ı münaḳḳaş o yol

Ana sīm-naḳş-ı ḳaranfildür ol

Olup her biri şekl-i sīmīn-teber

Teber-serleri halḳa teẕkīr ider

Revān-şāṭırān-ı zer-endūde tāc

Ki her biri ister güneşden ḫarāc

O tāc oldı fānūs-ı şem‘-i ẓafer

Çıḳar pirehenden żiyā ṣanma zer

Ya zer-baft pūşīde ḫar-gāhdur

Ki iḳbāl ol ḫar-gehe şāhdur

Bu ḥali bilür her ẕekī vü ġabī

Ki destār-ı mihrün odur ḳalıbı

89

Gidüp çāvşān ferd-i āyīn ile

Güneş gibi hep gürz-i zerrīn ile

Degül gürz o bir necm-i dünbāle-dār

Ki evc-i şerefde olur āşikār

Olup çöb-i zer üzre zerrīne gūy

Naẓar nāvekin itdiler sū-be-sūy

Yise şeş-perīn düşmen-i bī-sebāt

Ana teng olur ḫāne-i şeş-cihāt

O deste hüner çarḫınun miḥveri

Hilāl-ı felekdür anun her biri

Virüp pençde şeşperi ana ād

Şeş ü beş ana düşdi naḳş-ı murād

Gidüp başda cünd-i Bektāşiyān

Dilāver dilīrān-ı pür-ḫāşiyān

Gice ṣubḥ-ı ṣādıḳ gibi nūr-baḫş

Güneş gibi zer-üsküf eyler dıraḫş

Yem-i cenge keştīdür ol serverān

Gice dāmeninde açar bādbān

Anun her biri kūh-veş gergeden

Cenībinde ki şāh-ı düşmen-şiken

90

Zer-üsküfle ḫam uçlı bu kilk hemān

Hilāl u güneşdür ki itmiş ḳırān

Degül yüklük üstinde bir küleng

Duḫān ṣaldı bir şem‘a-i zerd-reng

Feres-rān olup şāh-ı ‘izzet-ḳarīn

Revān oldı rūh-ı zamān ü zemīn

Selāmına cān atdı ḫalḳ-ı cihān

N’ola olsa ḫam-geşte ḳadler kemān

Dü-tā ḳadler oldı hilāl-i şühūr

O ḫūrşīdden itdiler kesb-i nūr

Du‘āya el açdı siġār ü kibār

O yol nehr ü her su nihāl -i çenār

Olup pence-i mihr evce revān

Du‘asına ḳaldırdu el āsümān

Yol üstinde ḫāke olup zer-nisār

Gül evrāḳını dökdi bād-ı bahār

Yem-i desti engüştden mevc hīz

N’ola olsa mānend-i kef nuḳre-rīz

Vİrür merd-i muḥtāca sīm ü zeri

Ne sīm ü ne zer beẕl ider güheri

91

BU vech üzre sulṭān-ı gerdūn ḫırām

Ḫırāmān olup itdi taḫtın maḳām

İlāhī maḳāmında pāyende ḳıl

Ana cümle eltāfun erzende ḳıl

The Polish campaign of İskender Paşa312

Süvār oldu raḫş-ı ṣabā sür‘ate

Revān Leh mülkini ġārete

Ṭaḳındı güneş gibi zerrīne tiġ

Ḫurūş itdi mānend-i ġarrende mīġ

Yanınca revān Rūmili ‘askeri

O mülkün ser-āmed dilāverleri

Meger baḥr-ı rūm idi ‘asker hemān

N’ola anda yelkenler olsa ‘ıyān

Alaca yılan Ḳostanise meger

Çatal bayraġı birle mār-ı dü-ser

Çü rūmī siperdür anun ekseri

‘Alī’dür ki kapmış der-i Ḫayber’i

Per ü bālı var yelkenün murġ-vār

Semenderdür ol ḳırmızı rengi nār

312 Külekçi, “Ganî-zâde Nâdirî,” 361-2.

92

Yeşil yelkeni ṭayr-ı ḫużrat-nümā

İçinde seri rūḥ-ı ehl-i hüdā

Kimi öldürüp muşt ile gürg-i ner

Anun postını tāc idinmiş geyer

Ġazāl-ı veġā nāfesidür o tāc

Ana mūy-ı ser misk-i ‘anber revāc

Pelengine pūşun cüdāsı diraḫt

Diraḫtun velī nūr u ẓıl laḫt laḫt

Yanar āteş-i kīne her merd-i ceng

Anun dūdı başında per-i küleng

Kimisi geyüp ḳaz göküsi cebe

Biner āb-ı ṣāfī-ṣıfat eşhebe

‘Araḳ-çīn geyer nice fāyıḳları

Sever nā-şüküfte şaḳāyıḳları

Ḳurarmış yayın bir Tehemten-reviş

Şaḳāyıḳ küşād olmaġa başlamış

Olup Ḳostanise mehīb ejdehā

Degül ṭopı yutmış henüz ol ġıdā

Kimi ser bürehne ṣokar başa per

O mecnūn-ı perḫāşa bir murġ-ı ser

93

Çıḳup çarḫa gül-bang-ı zerrīne-nāy

Sipihr oldı āzurde hūy u hāy

O deryā-yı ḳahr oldı cünbiş-künān

Ol ebr-i ‘aẕābī ġurīniş-künān

Süm-i raḫş ile nīzeler germ-hīz

Felek pāre pāre zemīn rīz rīz

Zemīn gerd olup çıḳdı gökden yana

Ḳucup çekdi pehlūye arżı semā

Şerer-bār olup na‘l-i sümm-i sütūr

Semender-misāl oldı bī-ḥad ṭuyūr

Toz itdi felek baḥrin enbāşte

O ṭopraḳda toḫm erzeni kāşte

‘Alemler açup şuḳḳa-i perniyān

Per ü bāl açup uçdı sīmurġ-sān

Leh’ün itdi serḥaddine çün duḫūl

Ḳaġalġāy sulṭānda buldu vuṣūl

Sipāh-ı Tatar’ı hezārān hezār

Sitīzende mānend-i çerşmān-ı yār

Dilīrān-ı Cengīzi-i şīr ü zūr

Ṣabā-seyr ü ḫūnī sıbā‘ u ṭuyūr

94

Çemendür ki eṭrāf-ı telde mekīn

Rü’ūsında ḳalpakda ki pūstīn

‘Aceb tīr-zen-i ḳavm-i Rüstem-kemān

Urur çeşm-i mūr-ı iderse nişān

Oḳı seng-i ḫārādan eyler güẕer

Deler çarḫı mānend-i nūr-ı baṣar

Yeter ḳamçısı ḫvāri-i düşmene

Ki ejder kemendi ṣalar gerdene

İki ‘asker ol yirde cem‘ oldılar

O yir oldı baḥreyne mecma‘ meger

Procession of ‘Osmān II and the army for the Polish campaign313

Nücūmı ḥakīmān-ı hey’et-şinās

Suṭurlāb ile oldı sā‘at-şinās

Suṭurlāb-ı mihr ile bercīs hem

Bu ḫıdmetde olmışdı sābit-ḳadem

İrişdi çü vaḳa‘ādet-eser

Olundı cihāndār-ı dehre ḫaber

Çeküp dergehe raḫş-ı pür şevketi

Şitābında esb-i ṣabā sür‘ati

313 Külekçi, “Ganî-zâde Nâdirî,” 386-92.

95

Didiler ki bismi’llah ey şeh-nişān

Şükkūhında mehdī-yi āḫır-zemān

Yirinden ṭurup ol şeh-i ser-firāz

İdüp evvelā Haḳ’ḳa yüzbin niyāz

Ṭaḳındı bele ḫançer-i pür güher

Güher ḳaṭre-i ebr o mizāb-ı zer

Vücūd-ı şerīfi yem-i serveri

Güherden ḳaya balıġı ḫançeri

Ḳuşandı çü şemşīr-i gevher-nişān

O dem baġladı ḳahr-ı ḫaṣma miyān

Muraṣṣa‘ ḳılıç ejder-i mühre-dār

Ne ejder o kim mühresi bī-şumār

Ṭaḳındı cevāhirlü bir tīrkeşi

Ki çeşme ṣalar şu‘le-i āteşi

Meger yaḳmaġa düşmen ü kişverin

O ‘anḳa semenderden almış perin

Degül ol otākā vü zencīr-i zer

Ki ‘anḳa vü ejder ṣarılmış meger

Yā-ḫūd ol otākā seḥāb-ı siyāh

Çeker çarḫa bir ejder-i kīne-ḫvāh

96

Çıḳup ol şehen-şāh-ı düşmen şikār

Semend-i ṣabā seyre oldı süvār

Çü deprendi ol raḫş-ı hicā hücūm

Şerer ṣaçdı gökden döküldi nücūm

Çıḳup çarḫa gül-bang-ı kūs-ı raḥīl

‘Alem şuḳḳası ṣaldı ẓıll-i ẓalīl

Ṣafīr -i nefīr oldı āfāḳ-gīr

Serāsīme ol ṣayḥadan çarḫ-ı pīr

‘Alem-hāy-ı şāhen-şehi ser-be-evc

Ḫırāmında cengāverān fevc fevc

Sipeh ṣaldı dünyāya zilzāl-i saḫt

Felek pāre pāre zemīn laḫt laḫt

Yedekler ser-ā-pā muraṣṣa‘ seleb

Meger cümlesi kūh-ı kān idi heb

Olup zelzele cünbīş-i tevsenān

Ẓuhūr eylemiş cümle aḥcār-ı kān

Ya çarḫ-ı sevābit anun her biri

Dıraḫşān nücūm anda cevherleri

Ya-ḫūd her biri bir yem-i dür-nisār

Ki māhī-i şemşīr ü ḳalḳanı var

97

‘Alem mehcesi çıḳdı gerdūna dek

Ol engüşterīne zümürrüd felek

Olup mehcenün gümüşi kelpeteyn

Çeküp encümün dişlerin virdi şeyn

Olup bād ile şuḳḳa gerdūn-resān

Felek fülki buldı ‘aceb bād-bān

Tüfengün bulup dūd-ı ‘ūdın güneş

Olur şuḳḳadan farḳına şāl-keş

Ḳad-ı tūġı bir āb-ı bālā-devān

Ki fevvāre-i ḫusrevīden ‘ıyān

Degül tūġı ṣad-rişte-i āb-ı nāb

Ser-i ābdan ḫāke eyler şitāb

Çıḳup çarḫa gül-bāng-ı ġarrende-yāy

Felek oldı ser-geşte-i hūy u hāy

‘Ömer-nām olan ḫvāce-i pādişāh

Ki olmışdı şāh-ı efāżıl-penāh

O gün anları itdi ḥüsn-i siġāl

‘Ömer itdi icrā-yı neyl-i kemāl

Degül ṣūf o Nīl üzre emvāce baḳ

Hem aḥle’l-miyāha olur mā-ṣadaḳ

98

Esüp başlı bir Nīl kabarmış o mā

Ki destārlar mevc-i pür-kef-nümā

Dilāver vezīrān-ı kişver-sitān

Binüp sāz-ı ceng ile oldı revān

Anun her biri şāh-ı gerdūn-ġulām

Ki bir mülk-i mahṣūṣı var ḫās-nām

En alçaḳları bī-ḳabūl-ı cedel

Şehān-ı ḳadīmün çoġundan ecel

Anun her biri gösterip bir alāy

Süvār itdi bir cünd-i ceng-āzmāy

Muraṣṣa‘-cebe serverān-ı dilīr

Ki evlād-ı ṣāḥib-ḳırāna naẓīr

Sütūrānı raḳḳaṣ idi dil-sitān

Eteklik o raḳḳaṣa bergüstvān

Anun ekseri Rüstem-i rūzgār

Ki bebrine pūş idi ebreş-süvār

Revān oldı sulṭān-ı mālik-riḳāb

Ḫaṭ-ı üstüvā-rāh u şāh āfitāb

Önince kerāmetle Bektāşiyān

Ṭutar her biri mār-ı āteş-feşān

99

Zer eskef güneşdür ki bedr-i bedīd

Yanında keçe bir seḥāb-ı sefīd

O yüklik ocaḳ başıdur zer-nişān

Per-i murġ anun farḳı üzre duḫān

Giçe ḳaṣr-ı zer-kār-ı şāh-ı veġā

Ki dāmānı bir perde olmış ana

Ṭokınduḳça cevlān-gehün ṣarṣarı

Ṣalar maḳrama fetḥe dāmenleri

Kemīne suḳurlāt-ı aḫdar ġılāf

Zer-eskef güneş k’anda var inkisāf

Çuḳa virdi bād -ı yem-i aḫdarı

Gice rīg-i ebyaż ki sāḥil yeri

Tüfeng ellerinde demirden ḳalem

Siyeh dūdıdur ana miskīn raḳam

‘Adūvānı tīz isteyüp oldı zār

Anun çün ṣaçar ana rengīn şerār

İderler duḫān lūledür her tüfeng

Hele buldı ruḥṣat ana merd-i ceng

Ṭutan gerçi bunlar velī old duḫān

‘Ācebdür ki olmış ‘adūdan ‘ıyān

100

Cebecilerün cündi āhen-ḳabā

Zer-endūde miġferle cevlān-nümā

O tūġ-ı beyāżı ki miġferdedür

Ki mecmū‘u serdür hevā-gerdedür

Nücūm olsa vāḳıf eger şānına

İder idi ḳıl anı dendānına

Fişek hāvanıdur o miġfer meger

Yanup ṣaldı bālā-devān şu‘leler

Ya fevvāredür miġferi dāyimā

Nice rişte-i āli serdür hevā

Ya-ḫūd devḥa-i nev-nihāl-i enār

Aġarmış şitāda olup berf-vār

Tüfeng ile bunlarda āteş-feşān

Misāl-i dilīrān- Bektāşiyān

Çü minfāh idi ellerinde tüfeng

Bulurdı anunla ‘alev nār-ı ceng

‘Araba süvār oldı hep topciyān

Anunla olur ṭop-ı rūyin revān

Bulup ejder-i ṭopa anlar ẓafer

‘Arabayla Behrām-ı Gūr oldılar

101

Anun da çoġı ḳullanurlar tüfeng

Geyer sebz yelken o merdān-ı ceng

Per ü bāl açup sebz yelkenleri

Ẓaferdür o ṭūṭīlerün sükkeri

Sipāhiler ardınca oldı süvār

Ḳızıl ṣarı bayraḳları lāle-zār

Şafaḳdur meger bayraḳ-ı la‘l-sān

Ki rümḥ-i simāk üzre olmış ‘ıyān

‘Aceb güher-i bayraḳ-ı zerd-gūn

Ki geh birine itdi ceẕb-i sütūn

Beyāżı anun şem‘-i rümḥa żiyā

Ki bir cānibe egmiş anı ṣabā

Anun sebzini berk-i ter ḳıl ḥayāl

Ki aşlanmış ol berk ile bir nihāl

Anun her biri Ḥaydar-ı nām-dār

Çatal bayraḳı kāfire zülfeḳār

Dü şāha olup garden-i düşmene

Kefen bir mıḳaṣdur ten-i düşmene

İderler nice ejdehāyı şikār

Per ü bāl-ı terkeşle simurġ-vār

102

Ḳoyup dūşe ol rümḥ ile bayraġı

Olur düm-i simurġ iki bayraġı

Olup ḫod zer ortada āfitāb

Degül terkeş iki bölünmiş seḥāb

Oyup per-i peykān ile āb-dār

Birisinde ḳavs-ı ḳuzeḥ āşikār

Ġubār eyledi āsümāna şitāb

Ruḫ-ı āfitāb oldı müşkīn niḳāb

Zemīn oldı gerd-i sipehden semā

Nücūm-ı felek seng-i rīze ana

Ġubār-ı zemīn itdi çarḫı münīr

Ḳamer oldı ol hāk içinde ‘aẕīr

Girüp ana cāmūs-ı sevr-i semā

Olur ba‘żı ‘użvī siyāhī-nümā

Çü mülk-i Leh’e vardı şāh u sipāh

Nümāyān olup nice bin bār-gāh

Anı seyr iden ṣandı bī-irtiyāb

Yem-i ‘asker içre hezārān ḥabāb

Dırāzı anun ḫod u pesti siper

Sepīdi vü zerdi ile sīm ü zer

103

Olup çār-sū-yı sipāhı feżā

Anun çün sipāhīyle pür dāyimā

Her ol ḫayme kim oldı zengār-reng

Sipihr olmış ol pür-sürūşān-ı ceng

Ya-ḫūd hindüvāne güli gūy-ı zer

Yinüp nıṣfı ḳalmışdı nıṣf-ı diger

Meger mıṣr-ı naṣr oldı ol ḫayme-gāh

Sefīdi şeker kelle sebzi külāh

Çü memnū‘dur bāde-i lāle-gūn

O meyḫānenün cāmı hep ser-nigūn

Feżā āsümān ḫaymelerdür nücūm

Olurlar şeyāṭīn-i küfre rücūm

Ḳamerdür ana ḫayme-i pādişāh

Ṣoḳaġı anun hāledür gerd-i māh

Bedenli ṣoḳaġı ki maḳbūldür

Hemāna ḥiṣār-ı Stanbul’dur

Cevāmi‘ ḫıyām-ı ṣafā-güsteri

Ayaṣofya’dur ḫayme-i ekberi

İnüp bār-gāhına şāh-ı cihān

Ten-i ḫaymeye oldı rūḥ-ı revān

104

O dem ṣadr-a‘ẓam-ı vezīr-i ḫatīr

Sipeh-dār-ı sulṭān-ı gerdūn-serīr

Dilāver-i dilīr felek-menzilet

‘Alī-kef Ḥüseyin Ḥasan menḳıbet

Çeküp ḫalḳa bir tuḥfe ‘ālī-sımāṭ

Sımāṭ eyledi anlara inbisāṭ

Ṭurup anda bir hafta ṣāḥib-ḳırān

Binüp ba‘d-ezān rāha oldı revān

Edirne ḳonaġına çün vardı rāh

Biraz anda meks itdi ‘ālem-penāh

Procession of the army from Edirne to the bank of the River Danube while the sultan

stays in the Edirne palace314

Ser-āmed şehen-şāh-ı ṣāhib-ḳırān

‘Adū-küş cihān-dār-ı kişver sitān

Çü bir ḳaç gün anda ḳarār eyledi

‘Adāletle naẓm-ı diyār eyledi

Ḳopup yerlerinden sipāhān-ı şarḳ

O deryāya iḳlīm-i ġarb oldı ġarḳ

314 Külekçi, “Ganî-zâde Nâdirî,” 393.

105

Gelüp cünbişe nice yüz bin sipāh

Nehārı ġubār itdi şām-ı siyāh

Dem-i nāy idüp çarḫı pür velvele

Yire ṣaldı sümm-i feres zelzele

Gelüp cūşa tā ḥadd-i ekrāddan

O deryā-yı kīn oldı kim emvāc-zen

Dilīrān-ı Āmid’ün ‘askeri tīz-mīġ

Ki bārānı peykān idi berḳi tīġ

Ocaḳlıḳlarından çıḳan kürdler

Firūzende nīrān-ı duzaḫ-şerer

Olup cilve-ger ḫayl-i Şām u Ḥaleb

Hücūm itdi şīrān-ı mülk-i ‘Arab

Ṣaf-ı Şāmiyān tīre-şām-ı şenā

Şerār-ı tüfengi nücūm-ı belā

Atar ḫayl-i Şehbā şihāb-ı felek

İder dīv-i bed-ḫvāha dünyāyı teng

Ḳonup sāḥile ḫayl-i āyin-ẓafer

Leb-i āba dendān idi ḫaymeler

Ṣu yanında kim naṣb oldı ḫıyām

Leb-i Nīl ehrāma oldı maḳām

106

Procession of ‘Osmān II from the Edirne palace to the bank of the River Danube

Tezelzül bulup şarḳ u ġarb-ı cihān

Ḳıyām-ı ḳıyāmetden oldı nişān

Süm-i raḫş ile nīzeler sehm-nāk

Zemīn pāre pāre felek çāk çāk

Çü vākt oldı sulṭān- ṣāhib-ḳırān

İdüp ḳaṣd-ı ḫaṣm oldı cünbiş-künān

Ederine sarāyından itdi ḫurūc

O bāz itdi evc-i ġurāba ‘urūc

Ṣalup ṣubḥa gülbāng-ı zerrīne nāy

Kim itdi felekde melek dest ü pāy

Ġāv-ı kūsdan zehreler oldı çāk

Biri birine girdi eflāk u ḫāk

Sülüs kāfidür şekl-i zerrīn-nefīr

Ki yazmış anı āb-ı zerle debīr

O kāfun mü’eddāsı teşbīh-i tām

Ki ceng oldı hem-tā-yı rūz-ı ḳıyām

Ḫırāmende a‘lām-ı şāhen-şehi

Şimāl ile cünbīde serv-i sehī

‘Alem üzre kim çarḫ-ı efrāşte

‘Alem şāhdur pīl-i berdāşte

107

Şehen-şāha bir bir yitüp ol ḫuyūl

Ḳarışmaḳta baḥr-ı muḥīṭe süyūl

Bu resme gidüp şāh-ı ‘ālem-penāh

Ṭuna nehrine müntehī oldı rāh

Passage of the army over the bridge built on the River Danube315

Şürū‘ itdi ‘asker mürūr itmege

Süvār u piyāde ‘ubur itmege

Ni‘al ile ile zer mehçeler kīne-ḫvāh

Serāsīme anlarla māhī vü māh

Giçüp rūz u şeb cün-i āyīn ẓafer

Otuz günden artuḳda itdi güẕer

İdüp ‘aks zer-i cevşenān āb-ı nār

Ḥabāb-ı firāvānı oldı şerār

Ṣırāṭ oldı üstinde pül bī-gümān

Güẕār eyledi andan İslāmiyān

İdüp mülk-i Boġdan’ı ġarḳ ol sipāh

Çekildi Leh’e şāh-ı devlet-penāh

Ḫırāmende ḫayl-i ẓafer rehberi

İrişdi Purut nehrine yolları

315 Külekçi, “Ganî-zâde Nâdirî,” 398.

108

Procession of ‘Osmān II from the Polish campaign to Edirne316

Şükūhında sulṭān-ı mülk-i yaḳīn

Bu resme olur taḫt-ı dāniş-nişīn

Ki kār-ı ġazā çünki oldı tamām

Rücū‘ itdi sulṭān-ı ‘ālī maḳām

Dönüp taḫtına ‘izz ü iḳbāl ile

Ḫırām eyledi ferr ü iclāl ile

Yemīn ü yesārında fetḥ ü ẓafer

Pes ü pişi dārāyi-i baḥr u ber

Şikeste küleh kūşe-i devleti

Küşāde ‘alem şuḳḳa-i şevketi

Ruḫı āfitāb-ı sipihr-i fütūh

Ana nisbet ile sühā mülke yūh

Yolından ẓafer buldı şāh-ı cihān

Reh-i pāy-ı taḫtına oldı revān

Çü menzil-geh oldı ana Edrine

Ẓafer meysere meymenet meymene

Bulup taḫt-ı sāni-i mülke vuṣūl

Sarāy-ı dil-ārāya ḳıldı duḫūl

316 Külekçi, “Ganî-zâde Nâdirî,” 411-2.

109

Feżāsında meyl-i şikār eyledi

Bir iki gün anda ḳarār eyledi

Procession of ‘Osmān II and the army from Edirne to İstanbul317

Olınca müyesser ḥuṣūl-ı merām

Sa‘ādetle şāhen-şeh itdi ḫırām

Stanbul’a ‘azm itdi ṣāḥib-ḳırān

O rūh-ı cihān oldı rāha revān

Şu sā‘at ki yaḳlaşdı vaḳt-ı vuṣūl

Sa‘ādetle şehre iderken duḫūl

Döşendi nice aṭlas-ı mu‘teber

Süpürdi solaḳlar egüp ḫāke ser

İnüp spāyine ḳaṣr-ı billūrdan

Ser-ā-ser döşetdi güneş nūrdan

Çü pā-būsına teşne oldı cihān

Döşendi ana aṭlas-ı āsümān

Velī eski olmaḳla ol bī-sebāt

Güẕer ḳılmayup itmedi iltifāt

Şu ‘unvān ile girdi ṣāḥib-ḳırān

Ki ḥayretde ḳaldı zamīn ü zemān

317 Külekçi, “Ganî-zâde Nâdirî,” 415-6.

110

Fürūzān-‘alem şuḳḳasından ẓafer

Seḥāb içre berḳ-i cihān cilve-ger

Aḳar tūġlardan zülāl-i veġā

‘Araḳ-rīz olur kākül-i dil-rübā

Dem-i nāy sūr-ı Serāfil-vār

‘Adu ḳırduġın itmede āşikār

Ġırīvinde pīl üzre bir ḫıṣba kūs

Meh ü mihre itdürmekde ḫāk-būs

Çıkup ḳarşuya cümle ḫalḳ-ı cihān

Du‘āsiyle olmaḳda raṭbü’l-lisān

Ḫusūsā ki ā‘lām-ı dīn-i mübīn

Ayaġına itmekde vaż‘-ı cebīn

Ki himmetle iḥyā-yı dīn eyledi

Ḍalāl ehlini ḫāsīrin eyledi

Eger mümkin olsa ṣıġār u kibār

Ana cevher-i cān iderdi nisār

Bu şevketle girdi şeh-i nev-civān

Ten-i şehre baḫş eyledi tāze cān

‘Aceb şāh-ı Cem-cāh mümtāzdur

111

Dilīr-i civān-baḫt u ser-bāzdur

Bu sinn içre bir şāh anı itmedi

Bu yoldan ġazā ḥaccına gitmedi

Bu sinde ‘Alİ itdi ancaḳ ġazā

‘Aliyy-i velīdür ana reh-nümā

Giçüp taḫt-ı mülkine sulṭānumız

Yirine oturdı hele cānumız

112

APPENDIX II: IMAGES

Figure 1. Ottoman army plundering Tabriz,

TPML, H. 1124, 13b-14a.

113

Figure 2. Battle of Serav between Ottoman-Crimean and Safavid forces,

TPML, H. 1124, 18b-19a.

114

Figure 3. Gifts sent by Şah ‘Abbās arriving in İstanbul,

TPML, H. 1124, 24b-25a.

115

Figure 4. Ḫalīl Paşa’s naval campaign on Manfredonia,

TPML, H. 1124, 40b-41a.

116

Figure 5. Ottoman navy under ‘Ali Paşa’s command,

TPML, H. 1124, 28b-29a.

117

Figure 6. İskender Paşa’s Polish campaign,

TPML, H. 1124, 35b-36a.

118

Figure 7. ‘Osmān II holding a discussion at the dīvān,

TPML, H. 1124, 49a.

119

Figure 8. ‘Osmān II and the army proceeding for the Hotin campaign,

TPML, H. 1124, 53b-54a.

120

Figure 9. ‘Osmān II shooting the fugitive Cossack prisoner,

TPML, H. 1124, 62a.

121

Figure 10. Ottoman-Polish battle during the Hotin campaign,

TPML, H. 1124, 67b-68a.

122

Figure 11. The new kiosk and caique built by ‘Osmān II,

TPML, H. 1124, 73b-74a.