529

 T.R.
ISTANBUL MEDENİYET UNİVERSİTY
INSTITUTE OF GRADUATE STUDIES
INTERNATIONAL OTTOMAN STUDIES
QARASUVBAZAR: A CRIMEAN CITY AT THE EDGE OF TWO
EMPIRES (1750s-1900s)


Throughout the existence of the Crimean Khanate, Qarasuv (also known as
Qarasuvbazar) was an important economic and commercial center. It was under the
control of the Kalga-sultan, who was the second important figure in the Khanate. In
addition, Qarasuvbazar was under the patrimony of one of the most powerful and
influential Crimean clan – the Şirin. Qarasuv was one of the most developing and
promising cities of the times of the Crimean Khanate. The changes that the khanate
went after the Russian annexation of 1783 can be seen on the micro-example of one
particular city. This work examines the history of Qarasuv from the moment of its
foundation, its development and importance from the point of view of the history of
Crimea, as well as its role in interstate relations.
Keywords: Crimean Khanate, Qarasuv, Qarasuvbazar, Ottoman-Crimean relations,
Russian-Crimean relations, urban history
iv

Kırım Hanlığı'nın varlığı boyunca, Karasuv (Karasuvbazar olarak da bilinir) önemli
bir ekonomik ve ticari merkezdi. Hanlığın ikinci önemli şahsiyeti olan kalga sultanının
kontrolündeydi. Ayrıca Karasuvbazar, Kırım'ın en güçlü ve etkili ailelerden biri olan
Şirinler'in merkezlerden sayılırdı. Karasuv, Kırım Hanlığı döneminin en gelişen ve
gelecek vaat eden şehirlerinden biriydi. 1783 Rus ilhakından sonra hanlığın geçirdiği
değişiklikler, şehrin mikro örneğinde görülebilir. Bu çalışma, Karasuv'un kurulduğu
andan itibaren tarihini, gelişimini ve Kırım tarihi açısından önemini ve devletlerarası
ilişkilerdeki rolünü incelemektedir.
Anahtar kelimeleri: Kırım Hanlığı, Karasuv, Karasuvbazar, Osmanlı-Kırım ilişkileri,
Rusya-Kırım ilişkileri, şehir tarihi
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
İMZA SAYFASI .......................................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ iii
ÖZET ........................................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................. v
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... vii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................... viii
NOTES ON TRANSLITERATION ............................................................................ x
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER 1. DESCRIPTION OF QARASUV .......................................................... 9
1.1. CITY MANAGEMENT .................................................................................. 17
1.2. RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN OF 1737 ................................................................... 20
1.3. RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN OF 1771 ................................................................... 23
1.4. QARASUVBAZAR TREATY ....................................................................... 24
1.5. TREATY OF KÜÇÜK KAYNARCA ............................................................ 26
CHAPTER 2. POPULATION ................................................................................... 30
2.1. THE POPULATION OF QARASUVBAZAR DURING THE CRIMEAN
KHANATE PERIOD ............................................................................................. 30
2.2. POPULATION CHANGES AND MIGRATIONS IN THE END OF 18th
CENTURY- BEGINNING OF 19th CENTURY .................................................... 33
2.3. MAIN ETHNIC COMPOSITION OF THE CITY ......................................... 38
2.3.1. CRIMEAN TATARS ............................................................................... 38
2.3.2. KARAITES ............................................................................................... 40
2.3.3. KRYMCHAKS ......................................................................................... 43
2.3.4. ARMENIANS ........................................................................................... 46
2.3.5. GREEKS ................................................................................................... 48
2.3.6. RUSSIANS ............................................................................................... 50
2.4. MAALLE DURING THE CRIMEAN KHANATE PERIOD ........................ 51
2.5. MAALLE DURING THE PERIOD OF RUSSIAN EMPIRE ........................ 54
2.6. RELIGION ...................................................................................................... 56
CHAPTER 3. CRAFTS AND TRADE ..................................................................... 59
3.1. TRADE IN QARASUV .................................................................................. 59
vi
3.1.1. BAZAARS AND ÇARŞI ......................................................................... 60
3.1.2. CARAVANSERAIS ................................................................................. 62
3.2. TRADE DURING THE PERIOD OF RUSSIAN EMPIRE ........................... 66
3.3. CRAFTS DURING THE CRIMEAN KHANATE ......................................... 70
3.4. CRAFTSMEN OF QARASUV DURING THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE ............ 74
3.5. CRAFTING GUILDS ..................................................................................... 78
CHAPTER 4. ARCHITECTURE OF QARASUVBAZAR ...................................... 80
4.1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE ARCHITECTURE OF MEDIEVAL
QARASUV DURING THE CRIMEAN KHANATE AND IN THE RUSSIAN
EMPIRE ................................................................................................................. 80
4.2. TRADE BUILDINGS OF QARASUVBAZAR (caravanserais) .................... 85
4.3. RELIGIOUS BUILDINGS IN THE CITY ..................................................... 86
4.4. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OF QARASUVBAZAR ........................ 94
4.5. SOCIALLY SIGNIFICANT ARCHITECTURE OF THE CITY ................... 95
CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................... 95
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................... 97
APPENDIX – 1 ........................................................................................................ 114
APPENDIX – 2 ........................................................................................................ 115
APPENDIX – 3 ........................................................................................................ 119
APPENDIX – 4 ........................................................................................................ 120
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Population of the Qarasuv city from the mid-17th century to the late 18th
century …………………………………………………………………………..…. 29
Table 2. List of the Qarasuv’s quarters from the sicils
…………………………………………………………………………………….... 50
Table 3. List of the Qarasuv’s quarters in the end of 18th century to the late mid-19th
century……………………………………………………………...……………..... 52
Table 4. List of the Qarasuv’s çarşı ……………………………………………...... 58
Table 5. List of the Qarasuv’s bazaars …………………………………………...... 59
Table 6. List of the Qarasuv’s khans/caravanserais ……………………………...... 60
Table 7. List of architectural structures that need to be registered in 1926 …..…….. 81
Table 8. List of mosques built during the Crimean khanate ………………………. 87
viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
F. Fund
ГАРК [Государственный Архив Республики Крым] State Archives
of the Republic of Crimea
c. [страница] page
s. [sayfa] page
ИТУАК [Известия Таврической ученой архивной комиссии] News of
the Tavric Scientific Archive Commission
DİA Diyanet İslam Ansiklopedisi
p. page
ч. [часть] part
в. [век] century
гг. [годы] years
т. [том] volume
Q.Ş.S. [Qarasuv Şer’iyye Sicilleri] Sicil notes of Qarasuv
fol. folio
h. [hüküm] verdict
оп. [опись] inventory
л. [лист] sheet
д. [дело] case
вып. [выпуск] issue
сост. [составитель] compiler
ред. [редактор] editor
B.O.A. Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi
об. [оборот] back side [of the page]
OHRIS [Крымский областной комитет по делам музеев и охраны
памятников искусства, истории, старины и народного быта]
Crimean Regional Committee for Museums and Protection of
Monuments of Art, History, Antiquity and Folk Life
ix
Glavnauki [Главное управление научными, научно-художественными
и музейными учреждениями] Main Directorate of Scientific,
Artistic and Museum Institutions
d. died
H. Hicri
PCE [Народный Комиссариат Просвещения] People's
Commissariat of Education
Crimean CEC [Крымский Центральный Исполнительный Комитет]
Crimean Central Executive Committee
NKVD [Народный Комиссариат Внутренних Дел] The People's
Commissariat for Internal Affairs
x
NOTES ON TRANSLITERATION
In the process of writing this work, it was not easy to determine the use and
spelling of some proper names. The difficulty lay in the different transliteration in
Russian, English, Crimean Tatar and Turkish languages. Each of these languages was
used in the process of studying the literature on this topic. Because the topic of this
work is one of the Crimean Tatars’ cities it is only logical that rules of linguistics of
the Crimean Tatar language were taken into account. In addition, the frequency of
repetition of geographical and administrative names used in the work was taken into
account. Thus, I decided to write the name of the city as Qarasuv and Qarasuvbazar,
which are equivalent names for historical reasons. Due to the difference in the spelling
rules in the Turkish and Crimean Tatar languages, the same city in Turkish
historiography is known as Karasu/Karasubazar. However, in this work, the Crimean
Tatar spelling will be used. In addition, other geographic names found within the
geography of the Crimean Peninsula will also be spelled in the Crimean Tatar
language. Links and possible quotes from Turkish sources will be used in accordance
with the original.
Furthermore, the administrative and religious positions that were used during the
times of the Crimean Khanate deserve special attention. As the same terms and names
were used in the Crimean Tatar and Turkish historiography,; they were reflected in the
same way in Russian historiography, but in accordance with the local transliteration, I
decided to keep the Turkic-language spelling of these terms.
Some Turkic words, terms, or sayings were italicized. Praying house for
Muslims was spelled as “mesjit”, and the bigger one was mosque (very rare, if it is
important as proper name it could be written as “cami”).
In Turkish historiography, the inhabitants of Iran also were known as “ajems”.
This term was also very common in Crimea, especially in Qarasuvbazar. As can be
seen further in this study, Armenian merchants who arrived from Iran and settled in
this city were called “ajems”. Their number was very impressive, and the quarter
where they settled was named Ajem Maallesi. Since from an ethnographic point of
view, they are not Iranians / Persians in the usual sense, and this term within the city
characterized a very specific group of people, and, moreover, to this day has remained
xi
in the memory of the local population, I decided not to translate this word, but to reflect
its transliteration as close as possible to local pronunciation. Thus, hereinafter, the term
Ajem will be used.
In addition, links to sources in the text were written exactly in the language in which
they were read. Latin transliteration of all sources which were used is indicated in the
bibliography.
1
INTRODUCTION
The history of Crimea from the 15th to the 20th century can be divided into two
periods, when the Ottoman Empire and then the Russian Empire had the predominant
influence in the region. Despite the fact that in the middle of the 15th century an
independent state named Crimean Khanate was formed on the territory of the Crimean
Peninsula, throughout its history it was subjected to direct or indirect influence from
larger and more developed neighbor-states. Since the beginning of their existence, the
Crimean rulers have shown themselves to be strong, independent leaders, able to
maintain diplomatic relations with their much stronger ally, the Ottoman sultan.
However, not limited to this, they have repeatedly proved their importance as a
military force to be reckoned with, more than once coming to the aid of the Turkish
troops. In turn, it is also worth taking into account the desire of the Muscovy to
strengthen and expand its borders. Since the end of the 17th century this state took the
modernization of its military power seriously, which very soon proved to be
successful. Against the background of Moscovy's efforts, the Crimean Khanate did not
differ much in the development and strengthening of both its military organization and
political immunity. Moreover, the strong influence of the Ottoman Empire was felt
right until the end of the khanate existence. Thus, by the end of the first half of the 18th
century, the Russian state had achieved certain successes in the political, diplomatic,
and the military areas. Subsequent results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774
can serve as the direct confirmation of these facts. Clearly, such successes of Moscow
negatively affected the Crimean statehood and the Khanate’s possible independence.
Under the influence of the Ottoman sultans the Crimean government retained a number
of privileges, income, lands and succession of the rulers. Later on, with the forcible
arrival of the Russian administration to the territories subject to the Crimean Khanate
in 1783, this situation changed dramatically.
Given the complex, centuries-old record of military and diplomatic interactions
among the Crimean Khanate, the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire, this thesis
zooms into a study of a specific city in the Crimean Khanate, Qarasuvbazar. Moreover,
using it as an example of one of the Crimean settlements, the case helps trace the
2
change in the life of city’s populace and functioning of the city that took place after
the Russian annexation in 1783. This thesis aims at being an important step in the study
of the historic dynamics of a particular 18th century city in the Crimean Peninsula,
which has always been on the crossroads of the strong regional powers.
The study is designed to visually demonstrate the changes that the Crimean
Khanate went through after the Russian annexation of 1783, using the example of
Qarasuvbazar. It aims at structuring the relatively small amount of information about
the history of the city that has survived to this day. Most often, scientific works of this
type focus on a specific period - either “Ottoman” or “Russian” - and in general, such
studies do not allow crossing the selected time boundary. Although, due to the scope
and limitations of this work, this study cannot fully bridge this historical gap. It serves
as a deliberate attempt to account for the existing historical records and to draw
attention to the existing periodization problem in the scientific studies by examining
the exemplary case at the crossroads of the centuries.
In other words, during the course of reading this work, one may not only observe
the linear history of Qarasuvbazar, but also analyze the impact caused by the direct
change of the administration of the entire region as a whole, and the city, in particular.
The work examines the importance and significance of the city, its functioning and
building structure, as well as political and economic life. In addition, its ethnic
composition, the currently known data on the quantitative and religious diversity of
Qarasuvbazar are assessed in a separate section.
It is necessary to shed the light about the title of this work, and, more specifically,
about the name of the city itself. In the overwhelming majority of Russian and Turkiclanguage
literature the word “Qarasuv” is recorded as “Karasu / Karasubazar (Qarasu
/ Qarasubazar)”. However, from the point of view of the Crimean Tatar linguistics,
this is not entirely the correct spelling. If you understand the intricacies and delve into
the details, the name of the city originates from the name of the specific river, on the
banks of which the city was founded – Qarasuv. If one translates it from Crimean
Tatar, “qara” stands for “black”, and “suv” refers to “water”. As mentioned above, the
use of this toponym without the letter “v” is widespread, which is incorrect, because
in the language of the local population that gave the name, water will be “suv”. “Su”
3
means “border”, and also on the southern coast of Crimea (where another dialect of
the Crimean Tatar language is used, different from Qarasuvbazar’s, but close to
Turkish), it is used in the meaning of “water”. In the course of this work, I decided to
follow the rules of writing this toponym in accordance with the conventions and
requirements of the local language and dialect. Thus, hereinafter, the city under study
will pass as “Qarasuvbazar” and “Qarasuv”.
The time period covered by this study begins in the mid-18th century and
continues practically until the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries.
According to the original plan, the time frame was more specific and compressed, it
was assumed that the study would relate to the period roughly from 1750’s to 1850’s.
The expansion of the time frame was facilitated by a wide range of archival
information found for the late 19th and early 20th centuries. For the most part, these
primary sources are related to the demographic situation and changes in this area. In
addition, the few data on the architecture of the city that were found in written sources
did not fit into the time frame mentioned above.
The main distinguishing aspect of this research work is the ability to cover two
completely different periods of the history of one city, which followed each other
without interruption. Thus, it becomes possible to track the specific changes that
Qarasuv underwent throughout its long history of existence. In addition, one can see
the imposition of a new state system, which came from a different culture, had a
different religion, as well as a political, economic and agricultural system. Thus, using
a micro-example of the realities of a typical medieval (in structure) city, which fell
under the expansive policy of the Russian Empire in the late 18th - early 19th centuries
we can imagine the fate of other cities on the Crimean Peninsula.
The first chapter is about the geographical position of Qarasuvbazar, as well as
the climatic conditions of the city and its surroundings. In addition, the features of city
management, as well as its brief history of foundation and development in the time of
Crimean Khanate will be discussed.
The second chapter is fully devoted to the population of Qarasuv, its quantitative
and ethnic composition. It is worth noting that the quantitative data are given not only
according to official data and censuses, but also according to the sources left by
European and Russian travelers who visited Crimea from the end of the 18th century
4
to the end of the 19th century. Separately, we examined the largest ethnic groups living
in this city, among which were the Crimean Tatars, Krymchaks, Karaites, Armenians,
Greeks and Russians. In addition, special attention is paid to the division of the city
into quarters, a list of the names of these quarters (maalle in Crimean Tatar language)
during the times of the Crimean Khanate and the Russian Empire is given. Thus, it is
possible to track changes in the demography of the city, as well as in the very structure
of Qarasuv. At the end of the chapter, a short description of the various religions of
the inhabitants of the city is given.
The third chapter describes and evaluates one of the most essential aspects of
Qarasuvbazar as the Crimean trading capital – international and local trade the city
was engaged in, as well as the handicrafts. Two comparable periods of the city's history
are analyzed separately. Special attention is paid to the markets - permanent and
temporary, and caravanserais. In addition, the thesis explains new concepts for the
Crimean region that came along with the Russian administration, such as the notion of
“the honorary citizenship”, as well as the emergence of the merchant class among the
urban residents, and its subdivisions. Both sicil and archival records provide a detailed
description of the goods and household items that were used and sold in the city at that
time. Throughout the analysis, this work assesses how certain crafts have changed, as
well as the quantity and quality of the goods that were produced by local craftsmen.
In the fourth chapter, under the heading “The Architecture of Qarasuvbazar”, a
general description of both the medieval Qarasuv, belonging to the Crimean Khanate,
and the changes that befell the city during the period of the Russian Empire are
presented. Unfortunately, there are practically no descriptions of medieval buildings
in the city, not to mention the buildings themselves. An attempt was made to evaluate
the commercial buildings of Qarasuv, religious buildings, premises reserved for
schools and colleges, as well as socially significant buildings such as hammams and
coffee houses separately. Religious temples are presented most fully in this chapter,
but even here there is too little descriptive information about each individual religious
building.
As for specific literature that was used in this research, there are two books which
directly place Qarasuv as the main subject in their study, so it cannot be said that this
city is fully unknown to the researcher. However, compared to the quantity of the
5
research about Bahçesaray, Eski Qırım, and even Aqmescit-Simferopol, it stays much
more unknown and understudied. The two books mentioned are “Karasu Kazası (1683-
1744) Kırım Hanlığı'nda bir Yerleşme Örneği” by Nuri Kavak and “Kırım
Karasubazar’da Sosyo-Ekonomik Hayat” by Zeynep Özdem. Both are based on the
surviving sicil notebooks of the city of Qarasuv, dating from 1682/1684 (notebook No.
25), 1698/1699 (notebook number 33), 1716/1717 (notebook number 47), 1743/1744
(notebook number 65). I got acquainted with the copies of the above-mentioned four
sicil notebooks in the Republican Crimean Tatar Library named after I. Gasprinsky.1
In addition, in the State Ottoman Archives in Istanbul, I managed to find several
documents indirectly related to Qarasuv. These were documents of the 19th century,
which indicated that despite the change in the political situation of the peninsula,
friendly encounters and trade relations between the population of the Ottoman Empire
and the inhabitants of Crimea remained the same.
Not all primary sources and records describe the particular time frame in which
the traveler visited Crimea. However, the famous “Seyahatname” by Evliya Çelebi
provides us with the information on time when Crimea Khanate were still strong and
prosperous. More specifically, he visited Crimea in 1641 during the reign of Bahadır
I Geray Khan, and in 1657, when he met then Crimean Khan Mehmed IV Geray Khan.
During his journey through the lands of the Crimean Khan, the traveler visited the
fortress of Or-Kapı, the cities of Kezlev, Aqmescit, Qarasuv, Bahçesaray and Kefe. In
addition to the geographical and climatic notes of this region, Çelebi talked about
trade, the local population, praised the Crimean rulers, explained local customs and
peculiarities. Despite the fact that one should be careful with the data indicated by
Çelebi in his records, he is an irreplaceable source for researchers of this city. Of
course, there are some inaccuracies that can be double-checked by the records of the
sicils, as well as by the archival data that have survived from the period of the Russian
Empire. Regarding other relevant sources from this period, unfortunately, we find a
large omission of information here. Very little mention of the city and its surroundings
is found in Abdulgaffar Qırımi’s “Umdet ul-akhbar”. For the rest, we have to rely on
indirect references to Qarasuv in the secondary sources describing this period. The
1 The originals of which are kept in the National Library of Russia in St. Petersburg.
6
“Gülbün-i hȃnȃn” by the Crimean prince Halim Geray Sultan,2 unfortunately, was only
useful for placing the political functions of Kalga-Sultan. The notes of the Prussian
military Manstein, who lived in the first half of the 18th century, and left behind
interesting information regarding the Russian campaigns of 1736 and 1737, were very
informative.
As for the period of the Russian Empire, the sources of this time are much more
diverse. In the Republican State Archives of the Republic of Crimea, I have found,
examined and used both the provincial funds, which are broader in the temporal and
administrative sense, and the records more specific to Qarasuvbazar. The first
category, for example, includes such funds as the Foundation of the Chancellery of the
Taurida Governorate (ГАРК [State Archives of the Republic of Crimea], F. 26, 36.202
storage units, 1803-1917), the Fund of the Taurida Provincial Government (ГАРК, F.
27, 44.884 storage units, 1803-1917), Fund of the Commission established for the
analysis of disputes over lands and for the determination of obligations on the Crimean
Peninsula (ГАРК, F. 24, 808 storage units, 1800-1810), Fund of the Investigative
Commission for the eradication of abuse in the Taurida province (ГАРК, F. 23, 307
units storage, 1816-1819), Fund of the Taurida province for zemstvo and city affairs
presence (ГАРК, F. 42, 1463 items of storage, 1901-1918), Fund of the Tauride
provincial noble deputy assembly (GARK, F. 49, 6.071 items, 1803 -1919).
The second category, which directly contained the local city archives, consisted
of such valuable funds as the Fund of the Qarasuvbazar City Duma (ГАРК, F. 169,
279 storage units, 1795-1879) and the city government (ГАРК, F. 356, 39 storage
units, 1874-1920), Fund of the Qarasuvbazar bourgeois council (ГАРК, F. 177, 17
storage units, 1849-1914), Fund of the Qarasuvbazar police department (ГАРК, F.
427, 30 storage units, 1799-1882), Fund of the Qarasuvbazar Kaymakam court (
ГАРК, F. 486, 1 item, 1786), the City Hall Fund (ГАРК, F. 65, 417 items, 1800-1866),
the Fund of the Roman Catholic Court (ГАРК, F. 179, 344 items, 1782- 1871), the
City Orphan's Court Foundation (ГАРК, F. 180, 89 storage units, 1828-1918) and
others.
2 Widely known historian work about Crimean history and biographies of the Crimean
khans, was published in 1811.
7
During the Russian period, a much larger number of foreign travelers visited
both Crimea and Qarasuvbazar. This, in turn, led to an increase in the number of
written sources of eyewitnesses about the area. Notes of such foreign travelers as
Elizabeth Craven, Charles Henry Scott, Ebenezer Henderson, Maria Guthrie, Mary
Holderness, Lady Andrew Neilson, Frederic Dubois de Montperreux, Henry Danby
Seymour and many others, later published as full-fledged books, gave us the
opportunity to learn something new about the city or just proved early known records.
In addition to foreign travelers who visited the Crimea in the 18th-19th centuries
we also see many Russian scientists, academics, travelers, the Russian elite and the
military, who, having visited the newly formed Taurida province, left their notes and
observations about these places, and also what interests us most in this work - about
the city of Qarasuvbazar. Among the Russian travelers, who were later published, the
works of Pallas, traveler Pavel Sumarokov are very important, both of these people
were in the Crimea at about the same period - in the 1780-1790s. The memoirs of
Princess Gorchakova, where she shared her impressions of the Crimea in general and
Qarasuv in particular, were useful and informative. Also, memorandums of State
Secretary Catherine II, gave us clarifying information about the visit of the Empress
to the Crimea in 1787. An important contribution was also made by memorable books
and descriptions of the population, which were published directly during the period
described. In addition to these sources, many travel guides to the Crimea of the late
19th century were written by different authors. All of these sources influenced the
description and promotion of this work to varying degrees, but one way or another,
each of them was important in its own way.
Early research studies on this and similar topics have also greatly contributed to
this work. Separately, it is worth noting the encyclopedic article titled “Karasubazar”
by Hakan Qırımlı. Also, the article by R. Airchinskaya, published in 2008,
“Qarasubazar - the city of prosperity”, and the study of I. Abdullayev “Mosques of
Qarasubazar 1783-1939” were very useful in general educational and comparative
terms for this thesis.
In conclusion, it should be noted that each study has its own limits in used
sources. There is always more to read and add, and I can only hope that this work will
8
become another auxiliary source for studying the history of this amazing city in the
future.
9
CHAPTER 1. DESCRIPTION OF QARASUV
The Crimean Peninsula, which is surrounded by the Sea of Azov from north and
east, and by the Black Sea from south and west, is conventionally divided into three
parts. Most of the land is occupied by the steppe zone in the north, then from north to
the south goes Crimean Mountains and finally coast, which in the Crimean Tatar
language called “yalı boyu”.
The Crimean Khanate was divided into six Kaymakamlıks, which also included
Qarasuvbazar1. We know exactly all the names of kaymakams that were in power at
the time of the first Russian annexation of Crimea. As far as it considers our topic it
should be known that Murtaza Ağa was the kaymakam of Qarasuvbazar. The city of
Qarasuv was the center of the eponymous Kaymakamlık, which, moreover, was
divided into nine more Kadılıks. In 1783, we see that there were nine Kadılıks in the
Qarasuvbazar Kaymakamlık: Qarasuvbazar, Din Çongar, Nasıp, Argın, Burulçak,
Boçalat, Orta Çongar, Küçük Qarasuv, and Tamak. In total, there were 312 villages in
this Kaymakamlık.2
Qarasuvbazar, like other large cities of Crimea, is located in the foothill part of
the peninsula. The city is based on both banks of the Büyük Qarasuv River and its
tributaries – the smaller rivers Sarı-Suv and Tana-Suv (Tanas). 42 km southwest of
Qarasuv is based Aqmescit (the current capital of the Crimea, Simferopol), in 40 km
on the east is Eski Qırım (Staryy Krym) and in 60 km to the southeast, there is Kefe
(Feodosiya).3
Qarasuv was the fourth largest city in medieval Crimea. Only twice as less in
population as the Crimean capital, it retained its significance as the largest handicraft
center for a long time. Also, it enjoyed the status of the trading capital of the khanate,
which passed to the city from Eski Qırım.4
1 Starting from here, all names of the area and all Turkic original names will be spelled as it
is in the Crimean Tatar transcription.
2 Ф. Лашков, «Камеральное описание Крыма 1784 года,» ИТУАК 6 (1888): с. 37.
3 Hakan Kırımlı, “Karasubazar,” DİA 24, s. 472.
4 В. Возгрин, История крымских татар I, (Санкт-Петербург: Нестор-История, 2014),
с. 293.
10
Qarasuv was surrounded by many villages and gardens, which determined the
activities of the people living there. The local soil, the abundance of water sources,
and the microclimate of the region disposed to the horticultural and viticulture
industry. The city was located in a valley surrounded by mountains, on the western
side, where there were no mountains, the valley goes down to the level of the Sarı-Suv
river. As for the climate, in Qarasuvbazar it is very hot in the summer and cold in the
winter. Full-flowing rivers passing through the city during the rainy seasons – in spring
and autumn – repeatedly overflowed the banks and flooded Qarasuv.5
Büyük Qarasuv river takes its name from the color of the riverbed, colored in
places by the sediments of the dark clay. This river begins on the Karabi Yayla, where
it forms from the union of seven streams, making up a full-flowing river. Büyük
Qarasuv bends over the western part of Qarasuvbazar, where in the past it irrigated
many gardens and vegetable gardens, set in motion water mills, and, in some way,
served several local factories. Despite many meanders of the river, severe blocking of
some of its parts with stones, brushwood, and stumps, Büyük Qarasuv stretches for
128 km. With proper usage, this river could irrigate a vast expanse of land.6
Küçük Qarasuv was formed from nine small springs, it connected with Büyük
Qarasuv before it flows into the Sivaş Strait. Both of these rivers flow into Salgir (the
longest river of the peninsula) about 64 km after an independent flow. In the summer
season, this river often dries out. Sarı-Suv river is one of the mountain springs that
originate in the vicinity of the Tatar village named Sultan Saray, then connected to
several other springs, merges with the waters of Büyük Qarasuv. However, when
spilled this small spring causes great harm.7
It is known that the kaza, which bore the name of its main city, Qarasuv, got its
name from the river that flowed within its borders. This fact is recognized by all
researchers.8 The city remained known as Qarasuv throughout the entire existence of
5 П. Паллас, Наблюдения, сделанные во время путешествия по южным
наместничествам Русского государства в 1793-1794 годах (Москва: Наука, 1999), с.
111.
6 В. Кондараки, Универсальное описание Крыма III (Николаев: Тип. В. М. Краевского,
1873), с. 93.
7 Кондараки, Универсальное описание, с. 99.
8 Nuri Kavak, Karasu Kazası (1683-1744) Kırım Hanlığı’nda bir Yerleşme Örneği (Bursa:
On-Mat Öner Matbaacılık, 2014), s. 20-21.
11
the Crimean Khanate. Kadı notebooks for 1743-1744 confirm this. Besides, in the
same notebooks, one can find that the city is mentioned as "mahmie-i Qarasu"9 - in
this context, "mahmie" means a large protected city.
The name Qarasuvbazar, for the most part, begins to appear in notes and
documents of travelers and merchants of the Western world, mainly from the 18th-19th
century.10 It is noted that no official orders to rename the specified city from Qarasuv
to Qarasuvbazar have been found.11
The name Qarasuvbazar is translated from the Crimean Tatar as “market on the
Black river”. This name remained outside the city until the middle of the 20th century.
After the deportation of the Crimean Tatars, many names of cities and villages were
changed, including Qarasuvbazar, which after 1944 became Belogorsk.12
As for the date of the city’s foundation, there is still no exact answer to this
question. But most researchers agree that such an important trading post on the
Qarasuv river existed from the 13th century.13 According to another version, Qarasuv
was founded after the siege of Kefe in 1475, when merchants from that city fled from
the Ottoman army.14
However, it is also worth taking into account the fact of the establishment of the
new post of kalga-sultan by the Crimean Khan Mengli I Geray in 1475.15 For the first
time in the history of the Crimean Khanate, the eldest son of the Khan, Mehmed Geray
Sultan, was appointed as the first heir to the throne of the Crimean Khanate. Such
Crimean cities as Aqmescit and Qarasuvbazar immediately came under the direct
control of the kalga-sultan.16 From this, we can conclude that the city existed before
1475.
9 Zeynep Özdem, “İnsanları, Mekanları ve Kurumlarıyla bir Kırım şehri: Karasubazar (17.
Yüzyıl Sonlarından 18. Yüzyıl Ortalarına Kadar),” Karadeniz Araştırmaları Balkan, Kafkas,
Doğu Avrupa ve Anadolu İncelemeleri Dergisi 11 (2006): s. 72.
10 Zeynep Özdem, “Kırım Karasubazar’da Sosyo-Ekonomik Hayat (17. Yüzyıl Sonlarından
18. Yüzyıl Sonlarına Kadar)” (Yüksek Lisan Tezi, Kırıkkale Üniversitesi, 2006), s. 12.
11 Kavak, Karasu Kazası, s. 20.
12 Л. Кравцова и др., Административно-территориальные преобразования в Крыму
1783-1998 (Симферополь: Таврия-Плюс, 1999), с. 396.
13 Kırımlı, “Karasubazar,” s. 472.
14 Nurettin Ağat, “Kırım Şehirleri: Karasubazar,” Emel 58 (1970): s. 8.
15 Carl Max Korpeter, “Kalghay,” The Encyclopedia of Islam IV, p. 499.
16 Halim Geray sultan, Gülbün-ü Hanan - Kırım Hanları Tarihi (Istanbul: İÜ Avrasya
Enstitüsüö 2013), s. 35.
12
The location on the ancient caravan route ensured Qarasuv the status of an
important trading point. The city was densely populated and very diverse,
representatives of various nationalities and religions lived peacefully in it.17 Despite
some climatic features (researchers argue that the location and dampness of the city is
among the contributors to fevers, and other similar diseases18), Qarasuv has always
been a densely populated, lively city, gathering merchants and artisans not only from
cities of the Khanate but also from other states.19 Also, the number of architectural
structures that were built in the 16th century (such as Tekiye Khan mosque, Büyük
mosque, Şor mosque, Büyük and Küçük Taş-khan20, etc.) indicate the speed at which
this city developed.21
Located on the ancient caravan route, Qarasuv from the first days of its existence
was in the center of trade of the entire peninsula.22 Although the neighboring city of
Eski Qırım for a long time retained the status of the trading capital of the khanate,
Qarasuv very soon took its place and did not compromise on it until the end of the
khanate's existence.
By the end of the 16th century, in terms of population, Qarasuv became one of
the largest cities on the peninsula. The constantly growing number of urban quarters23
confirms this fact (it grew from 32 to 42 in 70 years).24 From 1624 to 1675,
Qarasuvbazar was attacked and plundered four times by the Zaporozhian Cossacks. In
the 18th century it was occupied by Russian troops several times.
Taking advantage of its location, namely, halfway between the Kefe port and the
capital Bahçesaray, Qarasuv for a long time performed the role of a “collecting city”
17 Günümüz Türkçesiyle Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnamesi, kitap 7, c. 2, (İstanbul: Yapı Kredi
Yayınları, 2011), s, 548; Ağat, “Kırım Şehirleri,” s. 8.
18 Паллас, Наблюдения, с. 111.
19 П. Сумароков, Путешествия по всему Крыму и Бессарабии в 1799 г. с историческим
и топографическим описанием всех тех мест (Москва: Университетская типография
«У Риднеера и Клаудия», 1800), с. 51.
20 Khan, here and further, caravanserai.
21 Nuri Kavak, “Kırım’ın Karasu Kazası 1683-1744 (Şer’iyye Sicillere göre)” (Doktora tezi,
Gazi Üniversitesi, 2008), s. 21.
22 С. Сосновский, Крым. Путеводитель (Симферополь: Таврия, 1979), c. 241.
23 Turkish mahalle is maalle in Crimean Tatar language.
24 О. Гайворонский, Страна Крым: Очерки о памятниках истории Крымского
ханства (Симферополь: ФЛ Аблаева Н. Ф., 2016), c. 48.
13
and a crossroads of Crimean roads, which is now assigned to Simferopol.25 Tatars from
Uskut26 exported the grape harvest to Qarasuv for sale, qapsikhors27, in turn, brought
grain.28 In general, the surrounding villages brought their goods to the city and thus
supported local trade. That is why, the prices for goods in Qarasuv were significantly
cheaper than in other cities of Crimea. Moreover, the city was famous for its handicraft
production. Morocco and leather, candle, soap, pot, brick, tile factories, smithies, etc.
they worked regularly both during the times of the Crimean Khanate and during the
times of the Russian Empire. Their products were in great demand both in the local
and foreign markets. Gardens, which yielded fruit and vegetables in abundance, also
constituted an important part of the city's trade. Various kinds of livestock were sold
in the local market every week and at more than affordable prices.29
The Crimean Khanate occupied a special place in the politics of the Ottoman
state from the very beginsacxzning of their relationship. At the beginning of these
relations the khanate could declare its independence in the elected rulers and the choice
of the direction of its own policy. Over time one can notice how the state of affairs has
changed. At least until the middle of the 17th century the Crimean Khanate was
perceived as an ally state, and therefore the relationship was built accordingly. Both
sides were Muslim states, and were also somewhat dependent on each other's
geopolitics.30
The question of the khan's dependence on the Ottoman padishah seems difficult.
First of all, because throughout the existence of the Crimean Khanate, minted coin
with the name of the khan, just as in the khutba, the name of the Crimean ruler was
mentioned first of all (at least until the 1580s). Considering that both of these facts are
perceived in the Muslim world as indisputable signs of the independence of the ruler,
we cannot speak of the direct vassalage of the Crimean Khan. In addition, on the
territory of the khanate, it was the khan, and not the sultan, who was perceived by the
25 Гайворонский, Страна Крым, c. 46.
26 A village on the southern coast of Crimea.
27 Residents of the village of Qapsikhor, on the southern coast of Crimea.
28 Паллас, Наблюдения, c. 94, 97.
29 Паллас, Наблюдения, c. 111.
30 M. Ivanics, “The Miltary Co-Operation of the Crimean Khanate with the Ottoman Empire
in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century,” The European Tributary States of the Ottoman
Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century (Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2013), p. 275.
14
local population as the arbiter of justice (in saying so that’s also indicates the
independence of the descendants of Genghis Khan as rulers).31
Even the seeming compulsion to join the military campaigns of the Ottomans,
according to the historian M. Ivanics, was beneficial to both the Ottoman and the
Crimean side in ideological and material aspects.32 The Ottomans did not interfere with
the principle of dividing the military booty of the Tatars. Although they tried to control
the direction and number of their raids on neighboring lands. Thus, one can speak of
some control by the Ottoman Empire. In practice, however, the Ottomans appeared to
have trouble controlling the Tatars even when they were crossing their own territories.
33 As for the prestige of the title of the Crimean Khan, before the reign of Süleyman
the Magnificent, the khans of Crimea were respected because of their Genghisid origin.
But during the period of the Thirteen Years’ War, at the end of the 16th century,
situation completely changed.34 Despite this, in the 17th century one can trace the
dynamics of the foreign policy of the Crimean rulers, in particular in Eastern Europe,
although they were forced to correlate their actions with the Ottoman policy of that
time.35 In addition, tension in relations between these two states arose from time to
time on the basis of military campaigns that were unprofitable for the Crimean
Khanate, due to the high cost, both materially and physically. 36
Many official positions used in the khanate were taken from the example of their
use in the Ottoman Empire (for example, kadı, katip, naib, etc.). In addition, the
division of the territory into kadılıks, as a way of dividing the territory into
administrative and legal divisions, were also common in these two states. In addition,
the Crimean Khanate borrowed some types of taxes from the Ottomans, usually, this
type of tax went to military expenses. 37
31 N. Krolikowska, “Sovereignty and Subordination in Crimean-Ottoman Relations
(Sixteenth-Seventeenth Century),” The European Tributary States of the Ottoman Empire in
the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century (Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2013), p. 56.
32 Ivanics, “Military Co-Operation,” p. 278.
33 Krolikowska, “Sovereignty and Subordination,” p. 52-53.
34 Ivanics, “Military Co-Operation,” p. 294; Krolikowska, “Sovereignty and Subordination,”
p. 58.
35 Ivanics, “Military Co-Operation,” p. 295.
36 Krolikowska, “Sovereignty and Subordination,” p. 53.
37 N. Krolikowska, “The Law factor in Ottoman-Crimean Tatar Relations in the Early
Modern Period,” Law and Empire: Ideas, Practices, Actors, (Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2013), p.
189.
15
In general, despite the common religious and ideological experience, in many
areas one can note the difference in approach and management. Undoubtedly, the
Crimean Khanate drew valuable experience from the Ottoman administration. Starting
approximately from the period of the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, one from the
family or relatives of the ruling khan was kept under the care of the Ottoman court,
where he received the appropriate education and gained experience. With this order of
things, it is not surprising that certain ways of doing business and approaching the
solution of issues of national importance converged in these two countries. However,
this does not mean that everything was the same. In addition to the Ottoman influence,
the Crimean Khanate also took into account the Mongolian and Islamic traditions,
which affected the life of the population and the inheritance of power
Completely different era began after the dramatic change of power in 1783. The
Russian system of government differed significantly both from that adopted in the
Crimean Khanate and from the one that was effective under the Ottoman Empire. The
period of “accustoming” the new government to the local population of the peninsula
- and vice versa - continued until the beginning of the 19th century. Even then it could
not be said that the integration of the new political system was fully completed. The
difference in language, religion, form of government, administrative and executive
power were enormous. The local population of the peninsula - especially its Muslim
part - was rapidly leaving their native lands. Being in disagreement with the changes
in ancient traditions, and also fearing political, religious and ideological persecution.
Some of the changes introduced by the imperial government will be discussed in more
detail below. Taking all of the above into account, we will consider in more detail
some aspects of the life of an ordinary Crimean city and the changes that it underwent
in the 18th-19th centuries.
Such an important economic center of the khanate was formally under the
control of the first heir of the state. The position of the first heir to the Crimean Khanate
was first introduced by Mengli I Geray Khan in 1475 for his son Mehmed Geray
Sultan.38 Even though earlier in the Mongolian states, the institution of hereditary
38 В. Смирнов, Крымское ханство под верховенством Оттоманской Порты до начала
XVIII в. (Санкт-Петербург, 1887), с. 353.
16
power was present, such a title was first introduced and began to be used in the
Crimean Khanate. By order of the khan, it was decided that the main city for the first
heir would be Aqmescit. Kalga-sultan also had many opportunities and privileges
which khan had but on a smaller scale. Under his direct influence and control were the
lands from Aqmescit to Qarasuvbazar.39 Funds for the treasury of the heir also came
from the city taxes of these two cities. Besides, he had an income from some customs
and salt lakes.40
The palace, as well as the council (divan) of the kalga-sultan, was a miniature
copy of the same institutions of the khan. If the khan did not participate in the military
campaign, kalga-sultan led the Crimean troops (in this case, the number of troops was
less than those under the leadership of the khan). While the khan led his army, the
kalga led the right-wing of it. In case of unrest on the part of the Ottoman Sultan or
the Crimean aristocracy, a diplomatic solution to the problems was expected from the
kalga-sultan.41 It is also known that the most influential dynasty of the khanate, Şirins,
also had the position of kalga-sultan. It is also should be note that the already
mentioned Şirins had an important influence on Qarasuv.
During the khanate period, Qarasuvbazar and the vicinity of the city were a
patrimony and fiefdom of the Crimean aristocratic families.42 This applies primarily
to the most influential and powerful family of the khanate - the Şirins. Since the first
years of power in the Crimean lands of the Geray clan, the Şirins held the highest
positions in the state. They were so powerful and close to the ruling house that they
were the only ones that could not only marry the sisters and daughters of the khans but
also add their family name “Geray” after their own.43
In Qarasuvbazar there was a palace, a khan, a caravanserai, a mosque, and a
madrasah built by the Şirin beys. The remains of the only caravanserai that has
survived to this day - Büyük Taş-khan, also bears the name of Sefer Gazi Ağa. Sefer
39 И. Тунманн, Крымское ханство (Симферополь: Государственное издательство
Крым АССР, 1936), с. 29.
40 Halil İnalcık, “Kalgay,” DİA 24, s. 259.
41 Korpeter, “Kalghay,” p. 500.
42 Паллас, Наблюдения, с. 151.
43 H. Seymour, Russia on the Black Sea and Sea of Azov: Being a Narrative of Travels in the
Crimea and Bordering Provinces; with Notices of the Naval, Military, and Commercial
Resources of those Countries (London: John Murray, Alberies Street, 1855), p. 242.
17
Gazi was the chief adviser of the two ruling khans, as well as an influential
representative of the Şirin family. Also, it is known that not far from Büyük Taş-khan
was Küçük Taş-khan, which was also known as Şirin bey khan.44
The lands of the Şirin beys stretched from Qarasuv to Kerch, along the border of
the Kefe sanjak, which belonged to the Ottoman sultan.45 Also, other Crimean clans
settled near Qarasuv. Such were, for example, the Barıns, who lived mainly in the
villages around Qarasuv. The Argın clan lived in large numbers on the lands from
Aqmescit to Qarasuvbazar.46 In addition to them, in the Qarasuv Kadılık one could
find villages and estates belonging to the Sedceut and Kipçak clans.47
In Russian sources the limestone mountain, towering not far from Qarasuvbazar
was called “Şirin’s mountain”. The reason for this was that whenever the Şirin and
other clans were dissatisfied with the actions of the khan, they gathered a council to
negotiate against him, and this mountain was always the meeting place.48
1.1. CITY MANAGEMENT
Management of both the entire region and the city itself was in many ways
reminiscent of a similar institution of management in the Ottoman Empire.
Administrative positions in the Ottoman Empire were conventionally divided into ehli
örf and ehl-i ilim. On the one hand, there were representatives of religion (mufti,
muderris, naib, nakibül-eşraf, etc.) that had influence on city’s life. And on the other
hand, there were all the other representatives of the bureaucracy who were not tied to
religion (for example, the head of the Janissaries, bölükbaşı, odabaşı, etc.). Not only
the appointed officials took part in the management of Qarasuv, but also the kalgasultan
and representatives of the Şirin, Argın, and Barın clans significantly expanded
44 Kavak, “Kırım’ın Karasu Kazası,” s. 22.
45 H. İnalcık, Kırım Hanlığı Tarihi Üzerine Araştırmalar, (İstanbul: TİB Kültür yayınları,
2017), s. 89; Seymour, Russia on the Black Sea, p. 242.
46 Паллас, Наблюдения, с. 151.
47 Ömer Bıyık, “Osmanlı Yönetiminde Kırım (1600-1774)” (Doktora tezi, Ege Üniversitesi,
2007), s. 49.
48 Паллас, Наблюдения, с. 112.
18
and at the same time complicated the management system of the entire region. It was
also one of the main differences from the system adopted in the Ottoman Empire.49
The city of Qarasuv came under the control of the kalga-sultan simultaneously
with the emergence of this position in the khanate. 10,000 kuruş was paid from the
taxes of the city to kalga.50 However, the actual management of the city was the
responsibility of the kadı. We have several examples of emr-i şerifs (signed by the then
kalga-sultans) with orders to appoint particular persons to the posts of nakibül-eşraf
and bölükbaşı.51
Being responsible for the management of not only the city of Qarasuv, but also
the entire region of the same name (kaza), the kadı possessed the highest executive
power. The spheres of activity of the kadı were so wide that it is natural that in each
separate area he had subordinate people responsible for each area.52 So, the chief of
the janissaries was responsible for the safety and security of the city. It is also worth
noting that to maintain the security in the city, warriors from various detachments were
called up (for example, Janissaries, cebeci, topçu, etc.).53 Also, there were such
positions as bölükbaşı and odabaşı, the performers of which were called to monitor
the safety and order in the city.
Among the other assistants of the kadı were naib (literally, deputy kadı),
muhtesib (who was checking the conformity of the price and quantity of the sold/issued
goods), katip (secretary), muhzır (representative of the law who implemented the
rulings of the court decisions), etc. Mufti was an important representative of religion
in the city. Taking into account that in the Crimean Khanate there was no position for
şeyh ül-Islam, as in the Ottoman Empire, the highest position in religion, issuing the
fatwa, remained the mufti. The influence of the mufti in the Crimean Khanate was
great, as indicated by their position at the khan's council (divan). Moreover, their role
in the religious and social life of the people was even greater than their political
influence.54
49 Kavak, Karasu Kazası, s. 37-38.
50 Korpeter, “Kaghay,” р. 500.
51 Kavak, Karasu Kazası, s. 40.
52 İlber Ortaylı, “Osmanlı Devleti’nde Kadı,” DİA 24, s. 69.
53 Özdem, Kırım Karasubazar, s. 24-26.
54 Kavak, Karasu Kazası, s. 60-65, 67.
19
As expected, the situation changed after the establishment of a new government
throughout the peninsula. Even though Qarasuv played a large role as a trade center of
the former khanate, and was also the administrative capital of the peninsula several
times (including the time of the Russian rule in Crimea), already in the second half of
the 19th century in written sources, Qarasuv begins to appear mainly as a “provincial
town”. A provincial town was a settlement that bore the name rights of a city but was
not an administrative center.55
As it should be expected some changes were made to the management of the city
as well. Thus, the board of directors of Qarasuv was headed by the mayor; among his
subordinates, several new positions should be noted – burgomaster, ratman, mayor,
and others. In addition, one more big, but not surprising change should be noted - all
high-ranking positions after the arrival of the Russian Empire in Crimea were held by
representatives of various ethnicities except the Crimean Tatars.56 Of course, the
Crimean Tatars still took part in the life of the city, but their functions began to be
limited to the roles of administrative assistants, secretaries, etc.
In 1785, Catherine II published the “Charter on the Rights and Benefits of the
Cities of the Russian Empire”, which secured a single estate status of the urban
population, regardless of professional activity under the name “bourgeoisie”. A
tradesman was any city dweller who owned real estate in the city, was engaged in trade
or craft, paid taxes, and performed public services. There was also a so-called
“honorary citizenship”. This title could be awarded to a city dweller at the request of
the city council for exceptional activities aimed at the prosperity and well-being of a
particular city. A feature of this status should be considered an exemption from
recruitment, from the capitation salary and corporal punishment. In addition, an
55 Л. Фейгин, Путеводитель по Крыму и справочная книжка, с приложением
некоторых календарных сведений, расписаний железных дорог и пароходов,
подробной карты полуострова и планом Севастополя (Москва, 1888), с. 59; Княжна
Горчакова, Воспоминания о Крыме, ч. 2, (Москва: Типография общества
распространения полезных книг, 1884), с. 111.
56 ГАРК, Ф. 100, оп. 1, д. 21, л. 1; ГАРК, Ф. 65, оп. 1, д. 95, л. 3.
20
honorary citizen had the right to participate in elections for immovable property in the
city and to be elected to city public offices.57
After 1783, the system of estates adopted in the Russian Empire also began to
operate in Crimea. Thus, the entire urban population was divided into eight categories:
the nobility, the clergy, “real urban inhabitants” (that is, those who own real estate),
merchants registered in the guild (more on this in the third chapter), artisans in
workshops, nonresident and foreign merchants, eminent citizens with a capital of at
least 50 thousand rubles, as well as other townspeople. The previously mentioned letter
of Catherine also introduced the institution of the General City Duma, consisting of
the elected Mayor and Vowels58 (one from each of the six categories of citizens). The
Duma formed its own executive body - the six-seat City Duma, in whose meetings one
representative from each category took part. The Mayor was the chairman. The City
Duma resolved issues of ensuring the well-being, security, and prosperity of the city,
the resolution of intra-class disputes, and urban planning. The Duma acted under the
supervision of the Governor of the Crimea. To get the right to participate in the
elections to the City Duma, it was required to meet the following characteristics: to
reach the age of 25, own real estate, industrial or commercial enterprises, and / or
engage in handicrafts or small trade, represent any class. It should be noted that legal
entities and women participated in the elections through representatives.59
1.2. RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN OF 1737
One way or another, any medieval city has its period of unavoidable changes.
For Qarasuvbazar, such changes began in the 1730s in a very dramatic way. Military
campaign between the Russian and Ottoman empires at all times were also
accompanied by fights between the Crimean and Russian soldiers. Despite the fact that
the results of the war of 1735-1739 were disastrous for Russia, by the end of the same
57 А. Яновский, «Гражданство почетное,» Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и
Ефрона т. IXа, с. 523-524.
58 The one who could speak and explain what actually peoples are wanted.
59 В. Пащеня, Государственное управление в России и Крыму в конце 18 – 19 вв. (1783-
1990) (Симферополь: ИП Бровко, 2016), c. 71-72.
21
century the Russian Empire received everything it fought for. But for Qarasuv, this
military campaign was the beginning of the end, a point after which the city never
regained its former greatness.
After a devastating raid on the Crimea (Bahçesaray and Aqmescit suffered the
most60) under the leadership of General Münnich in 1736, the capital of the Crimean
Khanate was temporarily moved to Qarasuv.61 In 1737, a similar military campaign
was again organized by the Russians under the leadership of Field Marshal Lacy. In
the summer of this year, the 40,000 soldiers of Field Marshal Lacy, with the support
of the Kalmyks, forced the Sivaş and broke into the Crimea. On July 23, the Russian
army was located 26 versts (27.7 km) from Qarasuv.62 Here they were attacked by
Crimean army, which were led by their khan Feth II Geray. At first, the attack was
quite strong, but an hour later the Crimean corps was put to flight and hid in the
mountains.63
The Russian troops remained in their former camp, but the light cavalry of the
Kalmyks raided the nearby villages - robbed, burned houses, and also captured people
into slavery (according to various sources, from 600 to 1,000 people were enslaved).
On July 25, General Douglas was entrusted with a vanguard of 6,000 men - part of the
infantry, part of the dragoons, and light cavalry - to march on Qarasuv. At a height,
near the city, a camp was seen occupied by the Turks, their total number were in an
amount of 12,000 (in other sources 15,000) warriors. Marshal Lacy reinforced
Douglas' detachment with two more regiments of dragoons and ordered an attack on
the city, which was done - the Turks fled after a small skirmish. The entire population
of Qarasuv left the city, only a few Greek and Armenian families remained. Thus,
Qarasuv was occupied with minimal resistance, plundered, destroyed, and
60 Абдульгаффар Кырыми, Умдет ал-Ахбар, II (Казань: Институт истории им. Ш.
Марджани, 2018), c. 168.
61 В. Смирнов, Крымское ханство под верховенством Оттоманской Порты в XVIII в.
(Одесса, 1889), c. 61.
62 Н. Сеит-яхья, «Военные действия в Крыму в 1735-1736 гг.,» Qasevet 33 (2008): c. 49.
63 К. Г. Манштейн, Записки Манштейна о России. 1727-1744 гг., (Санкт-Петербург:
Типография В. С. Балашева, 1875), c. 125.
22
burned.64 Cossacks and Kalmyks were instructed to penetrate as far as possible and
burn houses of the local population.
At the time of Lacy's campaign, there were up to 6,000 houses in the city, almost
all of which were built of stone, 38 mosques and tekke, one Gregorian and one
Orthodox church, 50 watermills, and many other public buildings.65 The Russian
detachments were greatly enriched at the expense of the residents of Qarasuv, which,
having fled in a hurry, and did not have time to hide their valuable property. The next
day - July 26 - the Crimean army appeared on the opposite side of the Qarasuv River.
The hot battle ended with the retreat of the Crimean army.66 Despite such a success,
the Russian army very soon began to suffer from the lack of food for soldiers and
horses, also, fever and illness began to spread among the soldiers.67 Thus, without any
struggle, the Russian army turned back, the military campaign, which was quite
successful at first glance, did not bring the Russian Empire any political victory in the
Crimean area.
The city never recovered from this raid. Despite the attempts of Mengli II Geray
and Şahin Geray khans to rebuild the city anew, Qarasuv never regained its former
splendor.68 This is confirmed by literally every published memoir of foreign travelers
who visited here in the second half of the 18th century and in the first half of the 19th
century.69
The dynamic development of political events at the end of the 17th century and
the first half of the 18th century naturally affected the local Crimean population. Even
64 Кырыми, Умдет ал-Ахбар, c. 173.
65 Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall, Kırım Hanlığı Tarihi, çev. Seyfi Say, (İstanbul: İnsan
Yayınları, 2013), c. 145.
66 Манштейн, Записки, c. 126-127.
67 Johann Wilhelm Zinkeisen, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Tarihi, v. 5, (İstanbul: Yeditepe,
2011), s. 512.
68 И. Абдуллаев, «Мечети Карасубазара (1783-1939 гг.),» Мир Бекира Чобан-заде,
(Симферополь: НАТА, 2013), c. 109.
69 Миледи Кравен, Путешествие в Крым и Константинополь в 1786 г., (Москва:
Типог. У Риднгера и Клаудия, 1795), c. 270-271; Maria Guthrie, A Tour Performed in the
Years 1795-6, through the Taurida, or Crimea, the Antient Kingdom of Bosphorus, of the
Once-Powerful Republic of Tauric Cherson, and All the Other Countries on the North Shore
of the Euxine, Ceded to Russia by the Peace of Kainardgi and Jassi (London: Nichols and
Son, 1802), p. 196-197.
23
before the military campaigns of the Russian Empire in the 1770s, there was a certain
division among the Crimean Tatars among those who intended to support the
traditional way of life and actively resist any changes that might appear after the
imposition of a new order by Russia. Another part of the people, it should be noted - a
much smaller part of it - sought to modernize their state, and also hoped to get out of
the influence of the Ottoman Empire, and both goals could be achieved with the help
of the Russian Empire.70
1.3. RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN OF 1771
The Russian campaign against Crimea in 1771 was supposed to ultimately
decide the fate of the Crimean Khanate and its political position on the world stage.
By that time, only the Nogai had firmly declared their separation from the Ottoman
Empire.71 In 1771, Russian military detachments led by Prince Dolgoruky, one after
another, without much effort and resistance, seized and plundered the Crimean cities -
Orkapı, Kezlev, Qarasuv, and Bahçesaray. At the same time, in the east, General
Shcherbatov also effortlessly took first Arabat, then Yenikale, Kerch, and Kefe. Under
the threat of the Russian fleet in Azov, the Taman Peninsula also surrendered very
quickly.72
The Ottoman commander-in-chief, serasker Ibrahim Pasha, after the news of the
surrender of Orkapı, left his post in the city of Qarasuv and went to Kefe. From Turkish
sources we learn that Ibrahim Pasha tried to prepare the defense of Kefe, assuming in
advance that the enemy would go there. He thought that there was a real chance to
protect the city from invasion. But then the former kalga Şahin Geray sultan
intervened, whom Empress Catherine II appointed as the Crimean khan instead of
70 В. Грибовский, и Д. Сень, «Крымское ханство в период 1772-1783 гг. и судьба
крымскотатарской государственности,» История татар с древнейших времен: в 7 т.
Т. 4 Татарские государства XV-XVIII вв. (Казань: Институт истории им. Ш. Марджани
АН РТ, 2014), с. 267.
71 Е. Дружинина, Кючук-Кайнарджийский договор 1774 года (его подготовка и
заключение), (Москва: Издательство академии наук СССР, 1955), c. 131.
72 Zinkeisen, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Tarihi, s. 667.
24
Sahib Geray khan, who in turn was elected by the Crimean beys.73 Şahin Geray khan,
with a military detachment supporting his candidacy, ordered Ibrahim Pasha to retreat
immediately. Taking into account all the attendant circumstances, the governor of
Kefe, Mehmed Pasha was forced to leave the city along with the Ottoman soldiers.
Ibrahim Pasha, however, remained in Kefe but was soon imprisoned by the Russians.74
This situation clearly shows the split of the Crimean population, led by the khans
appointed to this position by the Ottoman sultan on the one hand, and Şahin Geray
khan, as well as the Şirin beys who supported him, on the other. During this campaign,
Qarasuv, in fact, was surrendered by the Nogays, who favored the Russian Empire,
and at that time were still present in the Khan's army.75
The occupation of the Crimean Peninsula by the Russians became the main event
of 1771. With the loss of Crimea, the Ottoman state lost its most important ally and
could no longer dispose of the military forces of the Crimean Khan. In addition, the
successful outcome of this campaign for the Russians allowed them to dictate
additional conditions for concluding peace with the Ottomans. If earlier they claimed
only the fortresses of Kerch and Yenikale, thus seeking the exit of the Russian fleet to
the Black Sea, now they demanded that Ochakov and Kinburun be transferred to them
as well.76
1.4. QARASUVBAZAR TREATY
The situation in Crimea changed after the start of the Russian-Ottoman war in
1768, and especially after the Russian-Crimean pact which was signed in 1772 in
Qarasuvbazar. A preliminary act on the obligation of the Crimean Tatars to secede
73 Official representatives of Empress Catherine II initially recognized the legitimacy of the
power of the Sahib Geray, but very soon changed their loyalty in favor of the Şahin Geray
Sultan.
74 İ. Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, Osmanlı Tarihi, c. 4, (Ankara: TTK, 1995), s. 408-409.
75 В. Возгрин, История крымских татар, II (Санкт-Петербург: Нестор-История, 2014),
с. 346.
76 Дружинина, Кючук-Кайрджийский договор, c. 141, 146.
25
from Ottoman state, enter into an alliance with Russia, and declare themselves an
independent people, was signed in Qarasuvbazar on June 25, 1771.77
On November 1, 1772, representatives of the Crimean aristocracy, under
pressure signed an agreement in Qarasuv, which later became the basis for the Treaty
of Küçük Kaynarca. This treaty declared the independence of the Crimean Khanate,
and also under its terms the Russian fleet was allowed to enter the Black Sea, which
had been closed for them until then.78 Sahib II Geray khan, appointed to the post of
khan in 1771, was recognized as an independent ruler by the Russian Empire in the
person of the authorized general Evdokim Shcherbin. The Treaty of Qarasuvbazar was
signed from the Russian side by Shcherbin and Sahib Geray khan - from the Crimean
side. In addition to the signature of the khan, the peace treaty contained the signatures
of the Şirin bey Can Geray, the great vizier Bahadır Ağa, Şagpal bey Mansur, Ismail
bey Argın, as well as representatives of the Nogai hordes: the Edishkul horde - Karaşag
Murza, the Edisan horde - Temir Şah Murza, Budjjak horde – Katir Şah Murza, the
Dzhambuylutsk horde - El-Murzag Murza.79
The Treaty of Qarasuvbazar spells out such points as eternal peace between
Russia and Crimea, the adoption of laws and rituals remains with the decision of the
khan, the election of the khan will depend on the general consent of the people. The
election and resolution of the khan will be reported to the Russian court. Big and Small
Kabarda will belong to the Russian Empire. Russia promises to protect and preserve
the Crimean Tatar region in all its rights and initial conditions, and besides, during the
martial law, Russian troops occupy all the Crimean fortifications. Yenikale and Kerch,
after the end of the war, went into the use of the Russian Empire. Also, the Russian
consulate will function properly in Crimea.80 It is necessary to note several clauses of
this agreement, indicating its inequality. Such points can be considered the
requirement for the establishment of a Russian permanent embassy in Bahçesaray,
77 Крым в развитии России: история, политика, дипломатия. Документы архивов
МИД России, (Ижевск: Принт, 2018), c. 87-88.
78 Возгрин, История, II, c. 349-351.
79 Крым в развитии России, c. 96.
80 Крым в развитии России, c. 96-98.
26
while the establishment of the same in Moscow was not even discussed. In addition,
the right to free trade on the territory of the peninsula was declared. These and other
clauses of the Qarasuvbazar Treaty give reason to consider it colonial, similar
agreements were used by European states of that period during negotiations with the
countries of the East. According to some historians81, the Qarasuvbazar treaty was
concluded in very difficult and dramatic circumstances. It rather served as a guarantor
of the safety of the Crimean population, which was exterminated by Russian troops.
Many dissenters hid for a long time in the mountains and forests of the peninsula,
hoping in this way to wait out the invasion of the Russian troops. In addition, these
same groups of people, organizing small sorties to spoil the harvest, burn the grass,
poison the water that was used by the enemy troops. We must pay tribute to these
"partisan" tactics - this prevented the accumulation of a large number of Russian troops
on the territory of the peninsula. But even despite this, the enemy units found a way to
fight back, exterminated the civilian population, burned their homes.82
Therefore, this treaty cannot be considered either a fully conscious action, much
less desirable for Crimea. Other researchers point out that the treaty, although
unwanted for the Crimean side, could be profitably used for both sides, neither the
Crimean Khan nor the Crimean nobility took any measures for this.83
1.5. TREATY OF KÜÇÜK KAYNARCA
The Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Russia and Ottoman Empire was
signed in the small Bulgarian town called Küçük Kaynarca on July 2184 1774. This
contract consists of 28 articles and two separate articles. Negotiations were conducted
from the Ottoman side by Nişanci Resmi Ahmed Efendi and Ibrahim Munib Reis
Efendi. The Russian Empire, on the other hand, was represented by Prince Nikolai
Repnin. In the presence and with the signature of Count Pyotr Rumyantsev, the
81 А. Мальгин, «Карасубазарский мирный договор 1772 г. Заключение и итоги», Крым.
Проблемы истории, ред. А. Юрасов, (Москва: Индрик, 2016), c. 100.
82 Грибовский, «Крымское ханство,» с. 270, 271.
83 Мальгин, «Карасубазарский мирный договор», c. 100.
84 K. Beydilli, ‘Küçük Kaynarca Antlaşması’, DİA XXVI, s. 526. In Russian documents it’s
10 of July, because of calendar change (Крым в развитии России, c. 106-107).
27
agreement was signed and concluded, from the Ottoman side it was signed by the
vizier Mussun-zade Mehmed Pasha.85
In addition to the usual clauses in such treaties on the armistice and the fate of
defectors, clauses on the change of faith by subjects of both states, the rules of
international trade were also included. Furthermore, the permanent presence of the
Russian ambassador or consul in Istanbul was agreed upon, and the use of the empress
title, equated to the title of padishah, in all acts and letters was
discussed.86 Additionally, at the negotiations, the fate of the lands seized from both
sides was decided. So according to the agreement, the Ottoman Empire would get
Bessarabia, Voloskoye, and Moldavian principalities, all the Archipelago Islands, and
Ochakov. In turn, the Russian Empire received at its disposal Kinburn, Kerch,
Yenikale, Azov, fortresses Bogdadchuk, Kutatis, and Shegerban (Georgia and
Mingrelia). Big and Small Kabarda passes into the possession of the Crimean Khan.87
The most important and well-known clause of this agreement was and remains
the declaration of independence of the Crimean Khanate. According to the Treaty, the
Ottoman sultan remained the caliph of the khanate. The borders of the independent
khanate were declared the lands between the rivers Berda, Konka, and the Dnieper,
besides, all the land up to the Polish border, lying between the South Bug and the
Dniester should also be considered as khan’s.88 Also, the Ottoman Empire was obliged
to pay the military expenses of the Russian Empire in the amount of 15 thousand sacks,
which was equal to 7,500,000 piastres, i.e. 4,500,000 rubles.89
On April 21, 1777, Şahin Geray khan, by a letter notified Count Rumyantsev
that the Crimean population voluntarily refused to elect khan, both according to
85 Дружинина, Кючук-Кайнарджийский договор, c. 268-273.
86 Beydilli, “Küçük Kaynarca Antlaşması,” s. 526.
87 Крым в развитии России, c. 107-119.
88 Дружинина, Кючук-Кайнарджийский договор, 280-284.
89 Крым в развитии России, c. 118.
28
religious and traditional customs.90 Taking into account all the achievements of the
Russian Empire in the field of expanding its own territories, it should be noted the
undermined influence of the Ottoman state on the Crimean Khanate. Despite the small
hope of Ottoman intervention under the pretext of spiritual ties with the Muslim
population of the peninsula, the Crimean lands remained under Russian influence until
the very end of the Russian Empire.
After the annexation, the Russian military unit at Qarasuvbazar was headed by
O. Igelstroman. This unit consisted of three hussars, four infantry regiments and a
“Jager Battalion” led by Prince Volkonsky. Also, in the unit there were 39 field
artillery guns, as well as three more regiments of the Don Cossacks.91
In 1783, in Qarasuvbazar, wooden buildings in most of its territory were burned
or dismantled for firewood. Only a small number of stone buildings remain in the city
center. Residents of the city, returning from the forests, where they hid during the
hostilities, began to restore it. The city came to life and returned to its usual course,
but in a much more modest size.92
Academic Pallas in his notes mentions that after the establishment of the
Russians in the Crimea, new landowners used hewn stones from Tatar cemeteries to
build new houses.93 Under the Russian Empire, Qarasuvbazar began to enter the
Simferopol district. During her famous trip to Crimea in 1787, Empress Catherine II
stayed in Qarasuvbazar (05/26/1787 - 05/30/1787).94 A palace was built specifically
for her on the banks of the Qarasuv.95
90 Н. Дубровин, Присоединение Крыма к России, Том I, 1775-1777 гг. (Санкт-
Петербург: Тип. Императорской академии наук, 1885), с. 493-494; Смирнов, Крымское
ханство, II, c. 179.
91 А. Лугачева, «Камеральное описание Крыма 1784 г. Как свод статистических
сведений о социально-экономическом развитии региона», Ученые записки №4 (48)
(2018): c. 3.
92 Возгрин, История, II, c. 408.
93 Паллас, Наблюдения, c. 111-112.
94 Памятные записки А. В. Храповицкого, статс-секретаря императрицы Екатерины
II (Москва: Университетская типография, 1862), c. 31.
95 Ф. Миранда, Путешествие по Российской империи, (Москва:
Наука/Интерпериодика, 2001), c. 63.
29
One way or another, all of the above events led to a complete change of power
in the territory of the former Crimean Khanate. After the Russian Empire was able to
annex these lands, new institutions of power were established, mass migrations began,
the whole nature of local political and socio-economic relations changed.
30
CHAPTER 2. POPULATION
2.1. THE POPULATION OF QARASUVBAZAR DURING THE
CRIMEAN KHANATE PERIOD
Being a large shopping center, Qarasuvbazar has always attracted many people
from all over the world - not only Crimea, but also Anatolia, the Caucasus, and the
Balkans. Since the 16th century the city grew and expanded rapidly. By the end of the
century Qarasuvbazar was one of the largest cities on the Crimean Peninsula.1 The
constant influx of people and goods did not stop until the annexation of the Crimean
Khanate in 1783.
Despite the fact that the numbers given by Evliya Çelebi should be approached
with caution, he wrote that there were 5,500 houses in the city, owned by Muslims.
According to rough estimates, this equates to 22-27 thousand people (only the Muslim
population).2 He also mentioned that 2,000 Armenians, 500 Greeks, and 300 Jews
lived in the city.3 So, it can be said that about 30,000 people lived in the city at that
time.4 This number continued to grow in the 18th century.5 Unfortunately, we do not
have any more accurate information about the population in this period of history.
From 1624 to 1675 Qarasuvbazar was attacked by the Cossacks four times.
However, it suffered much more damage during the campaign of the Russian troops
led by Lacy and Douglas in 1737. After the attack of the Russian troops that year, only
1,000 houses remained untouched. In the meantime, population of the town decreased
to approximately four-five thousand people.6 Population, suffered heavy losses during
the Russian campaigns of the 18th century, significantly decreased in comparison with
1 Сосновский, Путеводитель, c. 241.
2 Kavak, “Kırım’ın Karasu Kazası,” s. 117.
3 Günümüz Türkçesiyle Evliya Çelebi, s. 551.
4 Özdem, Kırım Karasubazar, s. 35.
5 Özdem, “İnsanları,” s. 72.
6 Kavak, “Kırım’ın Karasu Kazası,” s. 117.
31
the previous number. By the time of the annexation of Crimea, 759 Muslim families
and 808 Christians7 lived here. In other sources, we find information that in 1784 there
were already 1,567 houses8, which only confirms the previous figures.
As for the ethnic diversity of Qarasuvbazar, we find approximately similar
information in various sources. The city was home to a large number of Tatars,
Armenians, Krymchaks, and Karaites, as well as Greeks and Russians. Judging by the
entries in the kadıasker's notebooks, Armenians, Urum, Persians, Jews, Gypsies, and
Copts have lived on the peninsula and in this city since the founding of the Crimean
Khanate. Taking into account that Qarasuv was located at the intersection of the routes
from the Crimea to the Caucasus and vice versa, Circassians could often be found in
the city as well. Also, in the sicils of Qarasuvbazar, you can find a mention of Arabs,
Poles, Kurds, and Lazs.9
Starting from the 15th century, Qarasuvbazar became home to a large number of
Krymchaks who previously lived in Kefe. In 17th century more than half of the total
number of Krymchaks of Crimea lived in Qarasuvbazar.10 However, in Evliya Çelebi's
“Seyahatname”, we can find that all Jews living in Qarasuv were Karaites11, which
contradicts other available facts.
Also, from the records in the sicils of different years, you can see a large number
of immigrants from the Ottoman Empire. Most of them, being traders, came from
various cities of Anatolia and the Balkans, such as Trabzon, Diyarbakir, Sinop,
Erzurum, Konya, Edirne, Giresun, Bolu, Çorum, Izmit, Tokat and others.12
In several sources related to the period of the Crimean Khanate, one can find
information about the separation of the Muslim and non-Muslim population of the city.
This can be explained by the fact that historically, Muslims of Qarasuvbazar settled on
7 Тюркские народы Крыма, c. 226.
8 Гайворонский, Страна Крым, c. 48.
9 Q.Ş.S., c. 65, fol. 31b, h. 147; Q.Ş.S., c. 33, fol. 101a, h. 912; Q.Ş.S., c. 33, fol. 16b, h. 130;
Q.Ş.S., c. 33, fol. 28b, h. 255.
10 K. Banek, “The Krymchaks: An Ethnic and Religious Group,” Anthropos (2014), p. 239.
11 Günümüz Türkçesiyle Evliya Çelebi, s. 551.
12 Q.Ş.S., c. 25, fol. 113b, h. 1138; Q.Ş.S., c. 25, fol. 112b, h. 1134; Q.Ş.S., c. 25, fol. 68a, h.
732; Q.Ş.S., c. 25, fol. 36b, h. 372; Q.Ş.S., c. 25, fol. 36b, h. 373.
32
the right bank of the Qarasuv River, and non-Muslims, in turn, on its left bank.13
Despite this, by the end of the 18th century we see how this situation begins to change.
In archival documents, there are numerous testimonies that Muslims and
representatives of other religions lived close to each other.14
Table 1. Population of the Qarasuv city from the mid-17th century to the
late 18th century
Author Period Population
Evliya
Çelebi15
1666-1667 Approx. 30.000
Second half of the 17th
century16
Approx. 35.000
After 173717 Approx. 4.000-
5.000
The 1780s18 Approx. 4.500
13 Günümüz Türkçesiyle Evliya Çelebi, s. 548; Ağat, “Kırım şehirleri,” s. 8.
14 ГАРК, Ф. 27, оп. 1, д. 11141, л. 27; ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 96.
15 As estimated by Nuri Kavak, see Kavak, “Karasu Kazası,” s. 107.
16 Özdem, “İnsanları,” s. 72.
17 Kavak, Karasu Kazası, s. 106.
18 Ж. Ромм, Путешествие в Крым в 1786 г. (Ленинград: Издание Ленинградского
государственного университета, 1941), c. 40.
33
2.2. POPULATION CHANGES AND MIGRATIONS IN THE END OF
18th CENTURY- BEGINNING OF 19th CENTURY
After the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire, almost the primary
problem faced by the tsarist government on the peninsula was the sparse population of
the region. Thus, one of the ways to solve this problem was free distribution of land to
landowners from the inner Russian provinces. However, very soon this caused outrage
among local residents. The Russian government initially declared the inviolability of
the traditional rights and customs of the local population. At the same time, the
distribution of allotments on the peninsula took place without a qualitative accounting
of the land fund of the Crimean Tatar owners, which often caused conflicts between
those who lived on this territory for a longest time and those who came after the
annexation.19 When trying to resolve such conflicts, landowner deputies deliberately
concentrated negative assessments of the Crimean Tatar population so that property
rights issues were considered not in a legal context, but in a political one. Thus,
landowners tried to emotionally pressure the authorities with the help of widespread
stereotypes about the Crimean Tatars and the Crimean Khanate.20
According to Müstecip Ülküsal21, about half a million of the Turkic population
lived on the territory of peninsula during the time of the Crimean Khanate. On the eve
of the Crimean War, this figure was already 295,357. This sharp decline in the
population of this region was because of many political and demographic reasons. For
example, we should consider that from the 1780s until the first half of the 20th century
there were several massive waves of emigration. For the most part Muslim population
of Crimea emigrated to the territory of the Ottoman Empire. But even despite this, the
19 Д. Конкин, «Российские помещики в Крыму (конец XVIII – начало XIX вв.): Новые
люди со старыми взглядами,» Материалы по археологии, истории и этнографии
Таврии XXIII: с. 756-757.
20 Конкин, «Российские помещики,» с. 759.
21 Founder of important for Crimean Tatars magazine – Emel.
34
numerical preponderance of the Muslim population on the peninsula continued until
1914.22
In the Cameral description of Crimea of 1784, it was recorded that at that time
55,023 Tatars and Jews (only males) lived throughout Crimea, not counting the
nomads.23 An attempt to understand the issue of specific numbers of people living both
on the entire peninsula and in Qarasuvbazar seems to be a very difficult task. This is
due to discrepancies in the data of different sources, both official and private. So, for
example, according to traveler Sumarokov in 1803, 187,977 people lived on the
peninsula. A. M. Shchekatov believed that in 1804 there were 207 thousand people in
Crimea, of which 73 thousand were male Crimean Tatars. From further research, it
became clear that both Sumarokov and Shchekatov were wrong.24 According to
Crimean governor D. B. Mertvago, in 1804, 245,734 people were living in Crimea
(excluding the city of Sevastopol). In 1823, governor D. V. Naryshkin reported that
the number of Crimean Tatars continued to decrease and amounted to 102,632 people.
The total population in the province in 1825 was 314,399 people.25 Population of
Qarasuvbazar in 1897 was 12,968, as it is known from first general census of the
population of the Russian Empire. From the very same census we call say that at the
time absolute number of all Tatars in Crimea was 187,943.26
Also, as a result of the 4th and 5th census conducted in 1792 and 1796, it was
found that the total number of inhabitants on the peninsula was 156,400. 87.6% were
Crimean Tatars, 4.3% - Russians, 1.9% - Greeks, 1.7% - Gypsies, 1.5% - Karaites,
1.3% - Ukrainians, 0.8% - Jews, 0.6% - Armenians, and 0.1% - Bulgarians.27
22 M. Ülküsal, Kırım Yolunda bir Ömür. Hatıralar, (Ankara: Şafak Matbaacılık, 1999), s.
335.
23 Лашков, «Камеральное описание,» ИТУАК 6: c. 39.
24 А. Непомнящий и А. Кравчук, «Крым в начале преобразований: на обочине
Империи,» Крым – проблемы истории (Москва: Индрик, 2016), с. 145-146.
25 Непомнящий, «Крым в начале преобразований,» с. 146.
26 Н. Тройницкий, Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, XLI.
Таврическая губерния (Санкт-Петербург, 1904), с. 6, 8.
27 Я. Водарский, О. Елисеева и В. Кабузан, Население Крыма в конце XVIII — конце XX
века (численность, размещение, этнический состав) (Москва, 2003), с. 121, 122.
35
Several emigration waves of the Crimean Tatars, as well as difficulties of
resettlement of Slavic people which came from territories of the Russian empire, led
to even greater desolation of the peninsula. It is also necessary to take into account
forced resettlement of the Christian population of Crimea to the territory of presentday
southeastern Ukraine in 1778. In addition, the idea of Pan-Slavism can be traced
in the politics of Russia at that time. The Russian Empire tried to “average” the
population as much as possible, uniting it under one banner of the imperial house of
the Romanovs, the orthodox faith and Pan-Slavistic ideas. Thus, all those who did not
agree with this policy, and did not want to obey the current order of things, tried to
leave the territory of the empire as soon as possible. This hit the indigenous Muslim
population of annexed Crimea especially hard, which can partially explain the massive
waves of emigration.28
From the Cameral description, we learn that in Qarasuv, after the wars and
robberies of the last sixty to seventy years, a little more than seven hundred houses
remained, some of which required serious repair work.29 Also, after the wars of recent
years and the subsequent annexation, most of the population left the city and emigrated
to the Caucasus and Asia Minor.30 The traveler Romm (1786) learned from the
Qarasuvbazar kaymakam that there were approximately 3,500 Tatars in the city, this
number also included women with children (approx. 400-600).31 Traveler Miranda
(1786-1787), based on his observations, concluded that 5,000 people lived in
Bahçesaray, 2,000 in Qarasuvbazar, 3,000 in Feodosia (Kefe), 3,000 in Kezlev, and
800 in Aqmescit.32
Pallas (1793-1794) said that there were 1,500 male permanent residents in
Qarasuvbazar. From ethnical point of view 1,000 were Crimean Tatars, more than 200
were Karaites, the same number of Armenians (mostly Gregorians), about 100 Greeks,
28 S. Erkan, ‘Kırım Kafkasya ve Doğu Anadolu Göçleri (1878-1908),’ Doktora Tezi,
Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi, 1993, s. 36
29 Ф. Лашков, «Камеральное описание,» ИТУАК 7 (1888): с. 25.
30 Абдуллаев, «Мечети Карасубазара,» с. 109.
31 Ромм, Путешествие в Крым, с. 40.
32 Миранда, Путешествие, с. 73.
36
and very few Russians. Also, he noted the presence of Italians, Jews - counting their
total number as 200 people. Separately, he points out that there were no more than a
thousand women.33
In 1794-95 in Qarasuvbazar, local imams conducted a population census,
according to which the bourgeois (townspeople) were recorded: Greeks - 48,
Armenians - 37, Russians - 11, Catholics - 3, male Tatars - 826, female Tatars - 246.34
In 1802, there were about 3 thousand inhabitants in Qarasuvbazar. In 1870, already 16
thousand people lived in the city.35 In the notes of the Lady from the banks of the Alma
River (Mrs. Andrew Neilson), published in 1855, it was indicated that the population
of Qarasuvbazar were 15,000 people.36 In the census of the urban population of Crimea
by 1889, 13,414 people lived in Qarasuvbazar.37
According to the Taurica Treasury Chamber in the second half of the 19th century
49,586 people (only males were counted) lived in Crimea. The number of townspeople
in the major cities of the peninsula was also indicated, for example, in Qarasuvbazar,
there were 1,699 male towns people.38
In the second half of the 19th century, the Crimean authorities noted in official
reports a massive departure of the Crimean Tatars from the peninsula. Because of such
a sharp decrease in population, Crimean government was instructed to introduce
measures to stop such escapes.39 But they did not bring the desired effect. As a result,
in 1860 alone, about a hundred residents of Qarasuv were known to have left the
peninsula without a permit and a passport.40 Next year, another 1,026 inhabitants
received their passports and went to the Ottoman lands.41
33 Паллас, Наблюдения, с. 111.
34 Р. Аирчинская, «Карасубазар – город благоденствия,» Голос Крыма, 8 августа
(2008): с. 7.
35 В. Кондараки, Универсальное описание Крыма, ч. 14, (Санкт-Петербург, 1875), с. 53-
54.
36 Mrs. Andrew Neilson, The Crimea: Its Towns, Inhabitants, and Social Customs, (London:
Partridge, Oakey and co., 1855), р. 86.
37 Пащеня, Государственное управление, с. 77.
38 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 268, л. 2.
39 ГАРК, Ф. 356, оп. 1, д. 1, л. 14.
40 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 235, л. 33-34.
41 Аирчинская, «Карасубазар,» с. 7.
37
The archival records of the early 20th century noted that the Muslim population
in Qarasuvbazar was 9,000.42 The total for the same period was indicated as 18.860
inhabitants.43 Guidebooks of the late 19th - early 20th century provided a variety of
figures for the city's population. For convenience, let's place them on a table:
As for the ethnic diversity of the city as a whole, all travelers repeat that Crimean
Tatars (Tatars), Greeks, Armenians, Jews, Karaites and Krymchaks, and Russians
lived in Qarasuv in both Ottoman and Russian periods. 44 The traveler Gustav Radde
(1852-1854) noted that in Simferopol (Aqmescit), Qarasuvbazar, Feodosia (Kefe),
most of the inhabitants were Tatars, but there is also a significant number of
Armenians, Greeks, Karaites, and Russians.45 Johann Tunnman, in turn, noted that
many Armenians, Greeks, and Jews lived in the city, and also separately pointed out
the presence of Tatars and Turks.46
Even though a very large number of the Muslim population (both local and
foreign) of the Crimean Khanate left these lands after the annexation of 1783, in the
archives we can find references to subjects of the Ottoman Empire. Some continued to
live here even after the change of state, others arrived at the beginning of the 19th
century. For a variety of reasons, these people lived on the territory of the Crimean
Peninsula, worked, traded, and died. So, in the archival records, we find a list of
subjects of the Ottoman Empire and their main occupations (in 1830s). They worked
as bakers, masons, shoemakers, tailors, silversmiths and goldsmiths, paper traders,
dyers, and others. For the most part, they were Armenians and Greeks. 47
42 ГАРК, Ф. 27, оп. 1, д. 11141, л. 27.
43 ГАРК, Ф. 42, оп. 1, д. 534, л. 7.
44 E. Henderson, Biblical Researches and Travels in Russia (London, 1826), р. 371; C. H.
Scott, The Baltic, the Black Sea, and the Crimea: Comprising Travels in Russia, a Voyage
Down the Volga to Astrakhan, and a Tour through Crim Tartary (London, 1854), р. 214.
45 Г. Радде, Крымские татары (Киев: Стилос, 2008), с. 71.
46 Туннман, Крымское ханство, с. 37.
47 B.O.A., HR.SFR.1, Dos. №33, göm. №74, 23.05.1872; B.O.A., HR.SFR.1, Dos. №33, göm.
№83, 25.05.1872; ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 88, л.2-4; ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 96, л. 1-2.
38
2.3. MAIN ETHNIC COMPOSITION OF THE CITY
2.3.1. CRIMEAN TATARS
Crimean Tatars are a Turkic-speaking, Muslim autochthonous population of
Crimea. Representatives of many civilizations entered the peninsula and took part in
the ethnic process, and they determined the peculiarities of race, language, religion,
and traditional culture, the economic type of sub-ethnic groups of the Crimean Tatar
people. The ethnic core of the people was formed in the 4th-16th centuries as a result of
the synthesis of non-Turkic tribes (Tauro-Scythians, Goths, Alans, etc.) with Turkic
tribes (Bulgars, Pechenegs, Kipchaks, etc.).48
Traditionally, the Crimean Tatar language is referred to as the Kipchak Turkic
subgroup of the Kipchak languages. However, the three Crimean Tatar dialects have a
heterogeneous origin: South Coast dialect belongs to the Oguz group, the steppe
dialect belongs to the Nogai subgroup of the Kipchak language. The middle dialect,
being basis of the literary language, mostly belongs to the Kipchak-Cuman group, but
also has great Oguz influence.49
Researchers still did not agree on the quantitative composition of the population
in Crimean Khanate (1441-1783). For example, they named numbers from 100
thousand people to 4 million people. In modern literature, we found such calculations
as 250-300 thousand people lived in the Black Sea steppes and in the Crimea itself in
the middle of 18th century. But by the end of the century, the active emigration of
Crimean Tatars (mainly steppe inhabitants) began. The Crimean Tatar population
48 Р. Куртиев, «Особенности условий этногенеза и этнической истории крымских
татар,» Этнография Крыма XIX-XX вв. и современные этнокультурные процессы,
(Симферополь, 2002), с. 76.
49 Тюркские народы Крыма: Караимы. Крымские татары. Крымчаки, ред. С. Козлов,
Л. Чижова, (Москва: Наука, 2003), с. 147-148.
39
decreased by almost half. In 1783, the quantitative composition of the Tatar population
was 120 thousand people. 50
During the mass emigration of the Crimean Tatars, some beys' families followed
the majority of population. So, we know that the Barın and Sedceut clans, who lived
for the most part on the estates around Qarasuv, practically completely left the territory
of the former Crimean Khanate after 1783.51 Representatives of other beys' families,
for example, Şirin, Argın, Kipçak clans for the most part did not leave their homes.
Also, they tried to maintain an active role in the local administration. They were
engaged in promoting education and raising the culture of the local population.52
At the times of the Crimean Khanate, Crimean Tatars were fully present in the
city life of Qarasuvbazar. From the executive branch to small artisans and merchants,
representatives of these nation could be found everywhere. After the arrival of the
Russian administration, this situation began to change. In the following years, until the
1920s, the Crimean Tatars ceased to occupy managerial positions in the city
administration. They could still be found in local councils and dumas, but now they
held lower positions of scribes, chiefs, caretakers at courts.53
Despite the decrease in influence among the local authorities, due to their
number, the Crimean Tatars, in all times, had a great influence in the handicraft
workshops of Qarasuv. In the lists elected to the post of head chief of handicraft in
1858, we find the names of the Crimean Tatars both in the post of chief and in various
roles of assistants.54
In general, after dramatic changes of the 18th century in the Crimea it was no
wonder that population of these lands suffered economic difficulties. At a meeting of
50 Тюркские народы Крыма, с. 150.
51 Паллас, Наблюдения, с. 151; Y. Öztürk, “Doğu Avrupa Türk Mirasının Son Kalesi:
Kırım Hanlığı,” Doğu Avrupa Türk Mirasının Son Kalesi: Kırım (İstanbul: Çamlıca, 2015),
s. 44.
52 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 88, л. 1; ГАРК, Ф. 27, оп. 1, д. 11199, л. 1; ГАРК, Ф. 100, оп. 1,
д. 2124, л. 8; ГАРК, Ф. 42, оп. 1, д. 1414, л. 6.
53 ГАРК, Ф. 180, оп. 1, д. 21, л. 1; ГАРК, Ф. 65, оп. 1, д. 95, л. 1-2.
54 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 217, л. 7; ГАРК, Ф. 65, оп. 1, д. 95, л.3; ГАРК, Ф. 42, оп. 1, д.
490, лл. 2, 3, 7.
40
the Indispensable Council, which was formally the highest advisory body of the
Russian Empire, held on April 17, 1802, it was noted that the reason for the economic
decline of this region was the constraint of its inhabitants, namely those who lived here
for generations, which in turn forced the population to massive resettlement.
Therefore, it was decided to free the local population from the land claims of the new
landowners. Based on this, it was assumed that in land disputes, preference would be
given to the Crimean Tatars.55 However, according to the preserved archival records,
it can be said that in practice, not all such decisions were really taken into account.56
Previously, those in need, who regularly received material and food assistance from
both the local authorities of the Crimean Khanate, waqfs, and wealthy locals, did not
find such strong support in the new state. Thus, the lists of those in need of food
received by the local administration grew every year. The largest number of those in
need was among the Crimean Tatars.57 It should be noted, however, that the anti-Tatar
position of some of the Russian landowners in Crimea did not find sympathy and
support in the final decisions of the imperial government, which is confirmed by the
absence of openly discriminatory documents against Crimean Muslims (while there is
documentary evidence regarding Jews).58
2.3.2. KARAITES
The Karaites are people professing the religious doctrine of Karaimism, which
is based on the recognition of exclusively the authority of the Torah (Pentateuch) and
denial of the authority of the Talmud and any other interpretations of the Written
Torah. With this, the Karaites opposed themselves to the Talmudic Jews. Taking into
account the confessional affiliation, the word “Karaim” is derived from the Hebrew
55 Конкин, «Российские помещики,» с. 764.
56 ГАРК, Ф. 23, оп. 1, д. 15; ГАРК, Ф. 24, оп. 1, д. 60; ГАРК, Ф. 24, оп. 1, д. 72; ГАРК,
Ф. 24, оп. 1, д. 59; ГАРК, Ф. 24, оп. 1, д. 2; ГАРК, Ф. 24, оп. 1, д. 74; ГАРК, Ф. 24, оп. 1,
д. 283; ГАРК, Ф. 24, оп. 1, д. 284; ГАРК, Ф. 24, оп. 1, д. 285; ГАРК, Ф. 24, оп. 1, д. 382;
ГАРК, Ф. 24, оп. 1, д. 385.
57 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 60, лл. 1-2.
58 Конкин, «Российские помещики,» с. 764.
41
words “kara” – “read”, “karai” – “reader”, i.e. a person who in religious matters
adheres to the reading of the text, namely the Holy Scriptures. The Karaites, which
live on the territory of the former Russian Empire, and above all in the Crimea,
consider themselves an independent people, whose ancestors most likely began to
settle on the Crimean Peninsula in the 12th-13th centuries, and some groups, probably
much earlier.59
There are two main versions of the origin of the Karaites: Semitic and Khazar.60
The term “Karaite” has a double meaning and denotes both nationality and an adherent
of the Karaite faith of any nationality. As for Crimean Karaites, their name determines
both nationality and religious affiliation.61
The earliest Karaite settlers in the Crimea in the 13th-14th centuries (the first
evidence of the Karaites in the Crimea goes back to 1278). They were Turkic-speaking,
having adopted the local Turkic language as a spoken language from their Tatar
neighbors. Nevertheless, Hebrew was still used as the language of liturgy, worship,
business correspondence, and poetry. Only in the end 19th century and then in 1930s,
the Tatar and Karaite languages began to be introduced into the Karaite liturgy.62 The
earliest known translations of the sacred texts into the Karaite and Tatar languages
were from 17th-18th centuries.63
The language of the Karaite people belongs to the Kipchak-Cuman subgroup of
the Kipchak group of Turkic languages. Crimean Tatar language is one of the closest
languages, especially its steppe dialect. A common language that would be used by all
Karaites does not exist. Also, there is no common Karaite literary language at all.64
59 Тюркские народы Крыма, с. 16.
60 Ю. Полканов, Караи – Крымские караимы – Тюрки. История. Этнография.
Культура (Симферополь, 1997), с. 18.
61 И. Баранов, «Самоназвание и термины национального именования крымских
караимов-тюрков (крымских караев),» Крымские караимы. Историческая
территория. Этнокультура (Симферополь: Доля, 2005), с. 128.
62 Previously in the Karaite literature they were referred as "colloquial jargon".
63 М. Кизилов, «Караимы,» От киммерийцев до крымчаков, (Симферополь: Доля,
2010), с. 258, 261.
64 Тюркские народы Крыма, с. 29-30.
42
In Crimean Khanate period, representatives of these people could be found in
Çufut kale and Mangup kale, in the regions of Bakhchisaray, Eski Qırım, Sudak, Kefe,
Aqmescit, and Qarasuvbazar. In 1800, the number of Karaites in the whole of Crimea
was 4,000 people. By the beginning of the 20th century this figure has doubled.65 Evliya
Çelebi noted that the Jewish population of Qarasuvbazar was fully represented by the
Karaites66, which turns out to be incorrect.
During the time of the Crimean Khanate, according to most narrative sources,
the Karaites enjoyed certain tax benefits from representatives of the khan's
administration.67 After the annexation of Crimea, the Karaites, like other Jews, fell
under the discriminatory measures of the new government. It was expressed in the
requirement to pay a double tax to the state. In 1795, after numerous appeals from the
local Karaite population and statements about the difference between them and
ordinary Jews, Empress Catherine II agreed to remove the double tax from them,
leaving only the payment that was obligatory for all urban residents and merchants.68
Also, they were allowed to acquire land properties.69
In 1863, due to the absence of a Karaite prayer house in Qarasuvbazar, local
Karaites had to perform their religious rites in the Feodosia synagogue.70 Only by the
end of the 19th century the Karaites managed to draw attention to the absence of a
prayer house for them in Qarasuv. The Karaite society rented a house in the Yıldırım
quarter from a local resident. However, since the house was in relative proximity to
the Orthodox Church, this caused problems in the religious and legal part of the issue.71
Around the same period, the Karaites managed to register another building in Qarasuv
65 Полканов, Караи, с. 25-26; Тюркские народы Крыма, с. 17.
66 Günümüz Türkçesiyle Evliya Çelebi, s. 551; Seyyar Suleymanov, “Kırım Karayları,”
(Doktora Tezi, Uludağ Üniversitesi, 2012), s. 56.
67 Д. Прохоров, «Караимы и проблема монетного производства в Крымском ханстве:
историографический аспект,» Этнография Крыма XIX-XXI вв. и современные
этнокультурные процессы (Симферополь: СГГ, 2012), c. 424.
68 Г. Кириенко, «Ордера графа (князя) Платона Александровича Зубова правителю
Таврической области,» ИТУАК 23 (1895): с. 18-19.
69 Д. Прохоров, «Еврейское население Таврической губернии в конце XVIII – начале
XIX в.: статистика, народное образование, организация религиозной жизни,» Крым:
проблемы истории (Москва: Индрик, 2016), c. 172-173.
70 ГАРК, Ф. 241, оп. 1, д. 64, л. 1.
71 ГАРК, Ф. 241, оп. 1, д. 597, л. 1.
43
as a prayer house, as well as a school for teaching Karaite children. The building was
reportedly used as a prayer house for a long time, but it was not properly registered.72
Despite the difficulties in getting used to the new state immediately after the
annexation, by the middle and end of the 19th century Karaites firmly took their place
in the city life of Qarasuvbazar. The surnames of some families of Karaites (Boboviç,
Babakay) can be found in the lists of the City Council, and the ranks of wealthy citizens
of Qarasuv.73 Karaites were often engaged in small-scale trade (trade-in fruits, flour,
dairy products, cigar paper, ready-made garments, etc.).74
2.3.3. KRYMCHAKS
The Krymchaks are the self-name of representatives of a small ethnicconfessional
community, which was formed on the territory of the Crimean Peninsula
in the medieval period of history as a result of the integration of representatives of
different ethnicities who professed Judaism. Judging by the written sources, the
descendants of the Crimean Jewish population of Byzantium and Khazaria75 became
the core of the future community.76
The ethnonym “Krymchak” was first recorded by the Russian administration in
1859 for the first time.77 Krymchaks is a late and rather conventional term, which arose
only after the annexation of Crimea to designate local Turkic-speaking Jews-
Talmudists. It was necessary because they were sharply different from the rest of the
Jewish population which begun to settle in the Crimea after 1783.78 In sources of an
72 ГАРК, Ф. 241, оп. 1, д. 395, лл. 7, 9.
73 ГАРК, Ф. 42, оп. 1, д. 450, л. 1.
74 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 215, л.10-11.
75 Тюркские народы Крыма, c. 370.
76 Sometimes the Krymchaks are mentioned as Jews of Constantinople (Воспоминания о
Крыме, c. 112).
77 В. Леванда, Полный хронологический сборник законов и положений, касающийся
евреев, от Уложения Царя Алексея Михайловича до настоящего времени, от 1649 до
1873 гг. (Санкт-Петербург: Типография К. В. Трубникова, 1874), c. 920-921.
78 М. Кизилов, «Крымчаки,» От киммерийцев до крымчаков (Симферополь: Доля,
2010), c. 270.
44
earlier period, both originating from the Krymchak community and other authors, the
ethnonym “Krymchak” is not used.79 There was one try to simplify understanding of
Krymchak’s origin by naming them as “Tatarified Jews”.80
The Crimean language belongs to the Kipchak group of Turkic languages.81
They have a synagogue in common with other Jewish rabbis, but separate from the
Karaites.82 The territory that Krymchaks occupied on the Crimean Peninsula changed
depending on the political and economic situation. During the 10th-16th century they
mostly lived in the south of Crimea.83 In the 16th century they lived mostly in
Qarasuvbazar, Aqmescit and in the mountainous area (Mangup kale and Çufut kale).
By the end of the 15th century they settled in Qarasuvbazar and lived there for the next
400 years, as a close-knit group, located mostly on the left bank of the Qarasuv River.84
In a later period - the end of the 18th century - Krymchaks could also be found in Kefe,
Eski Qırım, Bahçesaray.
After the annexation, about 800 Krymchaks remained on the entire peninsula
(they lived mostly in Qarasuvbazar and Kefe). By that time there were 93 houses in
Qarasuvbazar that belonged to Krymchaks.85 By the middle of the 19th century their
number increased to 1,300 people, and by the end of the century there were already
4,600 Krymchaks, and more than half of them (57%) lived in Qarasuvbazar.86 In other
sources of the late 19th century notes that there were more than 2,000 Krymchaks in
Qarasuvbazar.87 In another source over the same years, we find that 5,700 of them
lived in Qarasuv.88
79 И. Ачкинази, Крымчаки. Историко-этнографический очерк (Симферополь: ДАР,
2000), c. 226-227.
80 Новейший иллюстрированный путеводитель по Крыму и Кавказу на 1897-1898 гг.,
ред. К. Раисов (Одесса: Тип. Исакович и Бейленсон, 1897), c. 9.
81 Ачкинази, Крымчаки, c. 227.
82 Сосногорова, Путеводитель, c. 285.
83 Which can be explained by the early existence of the Khazar Kaganate on this territory.
84 Banek, “The Krymchaks,” p. 239.
85 Тюркские народы Крыма, c. 376-377.
86 Banek, “The Krymchaks”, p. 240; Сосногорова, Путеводитель, c. 283.
87 Сосногорова, Путеводитель, c. 285; Новейший иллюстрированный путеводитель, c.
102.
88 Nesrin Güllüdağ, “Kırımçak Türkçesi Grameri,” (Doktora tezi, Fırat Üniversitesi, 2005), s.
70.
45
In the “Qarasuvbazar period” of their history (from early 16th century to 1942),
the Krymchak community lived compactly in the eastern part of the city along the left
bank of the Qarasu River. This area at the beginning of the 20th century was called
“Krymchak side”.89 In an archival record dating from the beginning of the 20th century
(1911) it was noted that mainly Krymchaks live in the quarter of Büyük mosque.90
The attitude to the Krymchaks on the part of the administration of the Crimean
Khanate was quite tolerant. Unfortunately, after 1783 they became subjects of
discriminatory measures of Russian legislation against Jews. This were expressed in
both political and economic constraints.91 For example, since 1794 a double taxation
rate was established for Jews.92 It should be noted that the Krymchaks, like other Jews,
were issued a residence permit, which also indicated their physical characteristics. In
the event of departure from their place of permanent residence, they had to go to the
police and present their documents, after which they could receive a special ticket
indicating the period of stay in the new area.93
In the 19th century the main occupations of the Krymchaks were handicrafts
related to leather production. Among them were the production of leather and
morocco, various footwear, saddlery, and the manufacture of hats.94 Usually the craft
coexisted with petty trade. A small part of the community in the second half of the 19th
century was quite prosperous and was engaged in various trade operations.95
Even though in the second half of the 19th century Krymchaks began to settle
more often in other Crimean cities, Qarasuv remained their most important center.
89 Ачкинази, Крымчаки, c. 240; Крым. Путеводитель, ред. К. Бумберг, Л. Вагин, Н.
Клепипин, В. Соколов, (Симферополь: Типография Таврического губернского
земства, 1914), c. 634.
90 ГАРК, Ф. 27, оп. 2, д. 11141, л. 26.
91 Тюркские народы Крыма, с. 377.
92 Прохоров, «Еврейское население», с. 172.
93 Пащеня, Государственное управление, 102.
94 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 215, лл. 7-11.
95 Воспоминания о Крыме, с. 112; Ачкинази, Крымчаки, с. 239.
46
There were three pray houses, as well as their spiritual school.96 The most numerous
families of Krymchaks living in Qarasuvbazar were Achkinazi, Bakshi, Peysakh.
Shortly before the start of the Crimean War, part of the Qarasuvbazar Krymchaks
received permission to move to the North-Western Crimea in the area of Donuzlav
Lake for farming. However, after the end of the military campaign, by the tsar's decree,
they were forced to return to their former place of residence - Qarasuvbazar.97
2.3.4. ARMENIANS
The first evidence of the presence of Armenians in Crimea dates back to the
Byzantine period. But an organized Armenian community began to take shape on the
territory of the peninsula only in the 11th-13th centuries.98 In the first half of the 14th
century, with the settlement of Armenian migrants in Crimea, a populous colony of
Armenians was formed in the eastern coastal region of the peninsula, with a rather
diverse and variegated internal composition. Part of the population of the colony were
local Armenians who settled on the Crimean Peninsula in the earlier periods of the
Middle Ages. The other part moved here from various regions of Armenia and Cilicia.
A significant proportion of the Armenian population in the middle of the 14th century
were settlers from city of Sarai (the capital of the Golden Horde). Thus, in the second
half of 14th century Crimean Armenian community represented both local and the most
diverse regions of Historical Armenia.99
The Armenians who came to Crimean Peninsula from Ottoman state for trade
and handicraft affairs usually settled in Eski Qırım, Sudak and Kefe. In the course of
time they were subjected to Turkization and some of them completely lost their native
96 Banek, “The Krymchaks,” р. 241.
97 Ачкинази, Крымчаки, с. 239-240.
98 М. Араджони, «Армяне,» От киммерийцев до крымчаков (Симферополь: Доля,
2010), с. 209.
99 Т. Саргсян, «Обзор этнографии крымских армян (XVIII-XIX вв.),» Этнография
Крыма XIX-XX вв. и современные этнокультурные процессы (Симферополь, 2002), с.
236.
47
language. Armenian communities during this period already had several churches and
monasteries. Most of the Armenians were engaged in handicrafts, trade, including
transit; usury; military affairs.100
The Armenians of Crimea can be conditionally divided into two groups: one
lived in this territory before the 1783, and the other was a new wave of settlers called
here by the Russian government. The first group, during the time of khanate, paid the
khan a personal tax and tithe from all their garden and rural products, but for this, they
did not participate in military campaigns. Some of the representatives of these people
settled in the main headquarters of the nomadic population of the khanate, as well as
in the main ports of the region. Also, the Armenians were conventionally divided by
religion into Armenian Gregorians and Armenian Catholics. The number of the
Catholics was always much less.101
In 1778, as a result of the eviction of Christians organized by the Russian
authorities, 12,598 Armenians were taken out of Crimea. For various reasons, only
1,500-2,000 Armenians were allowed to stay. About 2,000 Armenian Catholics settled
in Yekaterinoslav102, where they received permission to return to Crimea in 1787.103
Soon their ranks were replenished with new settlers from Eastern and Western
Armenia. The Commemorative Book of the Tauride Province (1867) contains
statistical data concerning Qarasuv. According to these data, there were 722
Gregorians, and 756 Catholics.104
The language of the Crimean Armenians in the 19th century resembled Western
Armenian, but with abundant use of Russian, European, Turkic, Persian words and
expressions.105 In archival documents dated 1804, there is a record that the
Qarasuvbazar Armenian Catholics were exempted from military and other duties in
100 Араджиони, «Армяне,» с. 214.
101 А. Скальковский, Опыт статистического описания Новороссийского края, ч. 1
(Одесса: Типография Нитче, 1850), с. 285-286.
102 Now the Dnipro city (nowadays Ukraine).
103 Саргсян, «Обзор этнографии,» с. 238.
104 Ханацкий, Памятная книга, с. 299.
105 Саргсян, «Обзор этнографии,» с. 240.
48
the Russian Empire.106 Despite its small population, the Armenian Catholic Church of
Qarasuvbazar was one of the richest churches in Crimea.107
Mainly Armenians traded in the largest caravanserai of Qarasuvbazar, Sefer
Gazi Ağa khan.108 Evliya Çelebi has a clarification that these were Iranian (Persian)
Armenians. By the end of the 19th century most of Qarasuvbazar trade was in the hands
of the Armenians. They also owned a large number of real estates in the city and
shops.109
Numerous Armenian schools operated in Simferopol (Aqmescit), Evpatoria
(Kezlev), Eski Qırım, Kerch, Qarasuvbazar, and some other cities. For example, there
was Catholic school founded by local Armenian priest, Minas Meditsi, in Qarasuv in
1820. In this school children learned Armenian and Russian languages, Math and
Grammar.110 Initially they belonged to the spiritual zemstvo, but by the end of the 19th
century these schools were transferred to the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public
Education.111
2.3.5. GREEKS
During the early Middle Ages, there was active process of interethnic
integration. It led to the formation of some similar cultural features, as well as elements
of common self-awareness among the descendants of the late Antique population.
Moreover, it was reflected in the name “Romei/Rum”. This name indicated, first of
all, group’s political and religious identity. Over the next centuries, a rather rare
process took place on the territory of the peninsula, during which a new identity group
106 ГАРК, Ф. 49, оп. 1, д. 116, л. 1.
107 Крымские путешествия Луи де Судак, Фернан де Мели, Альфред Рамбо.
Французские путешественники в Крыму, XIX в., перев. Г. Беднарчик, (Симферополь:
Н. Орианда, 2014), 159.
108 Özdem, “İnsanları,” s. 74-75.
109 Сосногорова, Путеводитель, c. 284-285.
110 ГАРК, Ф. 100, оп. 1, д. 217, л. 58.
111 В. Васильев, Н. Чемодуров, «Роль земств Таврической губернии в развитии
народного образования в нач. XX в.,» Крымский архив 4 (23) (2016): с. 34-35.
49
was formed by the confluence of people that were not related by kinship. From the 12th
to the 17th centuries the main consolidating factors were the commonality of religion
(Greek Orthodoxy), the Greek language and culture. Also, a common territory and
political citizenship (at that time, the principality of Theodoro) played its role in this.
There was real need to rally in front of an external threat: the nomads of the steppes
and the Genoese.112
After Southern Crimea became an Ottoman sanjak, the influx of Turks and
Crimean Tatars gradually began to increase. Then Tatars begun to settle together with
the Greeks, making up ethnically mixed villages. As a result, after some time Christian
population of the Southwestern Crimea completely switched to the Crimean Tatar
language. For example, at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries Greek inscriptions
disappeared.113
There were not many Crimean Greeks, we know that because of Russian census
in the 1770s. Together with the Armenians and Italians, number of Greeks did not
exceed 50,000 people of both sexes. They lived on the peninsula in only four kadılıks:
Bahçesaray, Aqmescit, Qarasuvbazar, and Kefe. There were 52 Christian villages
inhabited by Greeks, Armenians, and Georgians. Also, in the city of Bahçesaray they
had 485 houses, in Aqmescit - 23, Qarasuvbazar - 808, Kezlev - 81, Kefe - 222, and in
Balaklava - 24 houses.114
Before 1783, the Crimean Greeks practically lost their traditions, language, and
culture. Some of them were Islamized. The activities of the Greek Orthodox Church
at that time were aimed at keeping their flock from converting to Islam. Priests
published the gospel, liturgical and religious books in Greek and Tatar languages.115
On July 28, 1778, resettlement of Christian population begun. It was led by
Metropolitan Ignatius of the Gotha-Kefiysk and supervised by the commander of
112 М. Араджиони, «Крымские греки,» От киммерийцев до крымчаков (Симферополь:
Доля, 2010), с. 199.
113 Араджиони, «Крымские греки,» с. 202.
114 Скальковский, Опыт статистического описания, с. 273-274.
115 П. Кесмеджи, Греки Крыма (Симферополь: Медиацентр им. И. Гаспринского,
2018), с. 198-199.
50
Crimean corps, Lieutenant-General A. Suvorov. Christians (a total of 31,386 people),
among them Greeks (18,408 people), Armenians (12,598 people), Georgians (219
people), Vlachs (161 people) were forced to the nowadays Southern Ukraine. Many of
the settlers died in the steppes from the cold and lack of food. In 1783, 10,000 Greeks
remained in the Crimea, and they were joined by others who had moved out in 1778.
116
In 1825 the Greek community in Qarasuvbazar opened specialized school for
both girls and boys on its own money.117 In the Commemorative Book of the Tauride
province for 1867, it is indicated that the number of Orthodox in Qarasuv (which were
represented majorly by the Greeks) was 1,693.118 In this city, the Greeks were engaged
in the production of soap and candles119, some of them were able to achieve positions
in the local administration120, but most of them were engaged in local trade and
handicrafts.
2.3.6. RUSSIANS
Even though the Slavic population was always represented on the Crimean
Peninsula, it has never outnumbered the local Turkic-speaking peoples up until the
middle of the 20th century. Despite the regular raids of the East Slavic tribes to the
Crimea, until the 18th century there is absolutely no information about Russian
settlements on the territory of the peninsula. Of course, in the early period of medieval
trade, representatives of different peoples and religions, including Russians, were
coming and sometimes even constantly lived in Crimea. However, their number never
outweighed the number of other similar traders. Also, we must not forget about the
Slavic prisoners captured by the Crimean horsemen in numerous military campaigns.
They, even having converted to Islam, belonged to separate groups (çora), within
116 Скальковский, Опыт статистического описания, с. 276, 277.
117 ГАРК, Ф. 100, оп. 1, д. 269, л. 1; ГАРК, Ф. 100, оп. 1, д. 217, 4.
118 Ханацкий, Памятная книга, с. 299.
119 Паллас, Наблюдения, с. 205
120 ГАРК, Ф. 42, оп. 1, д. 76, л. 18.
51
which marriages were concluded. Besides for centuries they preserved the physical
differences of the members of such sub-ethnic enclaves.121
After the Russian annexation, the local government actively tried to organized
the resettlement of the Slavic population to Crimea. After the Crimean War and the
abolition of serfdom, the number of Russians who moved to the territory of the
Crimean Peninsula for permanent residence increased sharply. Still, the geography of
Slavic settlement on the peninsula was not uniform.122
Russians, albeit in a small percentage, were always present in the lists of
merchants and traders of Qarasuvbazar.123 Also, individual craft industries were
virtually exclusively represented by the Russians (for example, cooper craft).124
2.4. MAALLE DURING THE CRIMEAN KHANATE PERIOD
From the very beginning the Muslim population of Qarasuv preferred to settle
on the mountainous area of the city. Considering, the commercial and economic
importance of Qarasuvbazar, the number of non-Muslim foreigners who came to the
city for work and stayed here for permanent residence increased over time. They
settled close to each other, eventually forming their neighborhoods. So, for example,
Persian (Iranian) Armenians formed their neighborhood - Ajem maalle.125
Sometimes it was easy to find out who lived in a particular neighborhood only
from the names of the quarters – Çingene, Ajem, Kenise, Rum. Sometimes the name
could also indicate some iconic structure – most often it was a mosque (Tahta mesjit,
Jami-i Kebir (Kebir mosque), Şor mosque). In some cases, the name of the quarter
121 Возгрин, История, I, с. 237, 239, 240.
122 А. Киселева, «Русское население Крыма в конце XIX в.,» Этнография Крыма XIXXX
вв. и современные этнокультурные процессы, (Симферополь, 2002), с. 60.
123 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 200, л.1; ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 150, л.16-17 об; ГАРК, Ф.
169, оп. 1, д. 265, л.287-304.
124 Москвич, Иллюстрированный практический путеводитель, с. 633.
125 Özdem, Kırım Karasubazar, s. 40.
52
drew attention to the local famous gardens (Bahçi içi, Kara agaç). Very often you could
find the name of an important person in the city, as usual it was someone from the city
administration or just a locally respected person (Sinan Geray/Şahin Geray/Şan Geray,
Hacı Arslan, Nakib Efendi, Hacı Şahmurad, Seyid Hasan).126 During the time of the
khanate, the most populated neighborhoods of Qarasuv was the Jami-i Kebir (Kebir
mosque) maallesi.127
Although some of the names of the quarters directly indicate that non-Muslims
live there, it does not always mean that they never settled in traditionally “Muslim”
quarters. Evidence of the proximity of representatives of different religions is found
on the pages of local sicils.128 In subsequent years, such a mixed neighborhood will
become commonplace.129
Table 2. List of the Qarasuv’s quarters from the sicils130
1. Kebir mosque
2. Ajem
3. Hacı Ismail
4. Hacı Şaban
5. Çorum
6. Nakib efendi
7. Kıbtiyan
8. Hacı Aşir
9. Hacı Şahmurat
10. Hacı (Şeyh) Receb
efendi
11. Hacı Baki
12. Sinan Geray
126 Kavak, “Kırım’ın Karasu Kazası,” s. 27.
127 Özdem, Kırım Karasubazar, s. 43.
128 Nuri Kavak, “Kırım Tatarları’nda Gündelik Hayat (XVII.-XVIII. asır),” Doğu Avrupa
Türk Mirasının Son Kalesi: Kırım (İstanbul: Çamlıca, 2012), s. 157.
129 Yıldırım quarter – ГАРК, Ф. 323, оп. 1, д. 75, лл. 1 об.-3; Büyük mosque quarter –
ГАРК, Ф. 27, оп. 1, д. 11141, л. 27.
130 Özdem, “İnsanları, mekanları,” s. 73; Kavak, Karasu Kazası, s. 28-29.
53
13. Şor (Şor mosque)
14. Hacı Salih
15. Kara ağaç
16. (Kurban) Ali efendi
17. Seyid Hasan
18. Hacı Kudreş efendi
19. Sadık efendi
20. Tahta mescit
21. Hacı Hasankeldi
22. Hacı Bünyad
23. Kara Çora
24. Çingene
25. Çeşme
26. Hacı Kara Ali
27. Hacı Esenkeldi
28. Kenise
29. Tarhanlı
30. Aq Toprak
31. Hacı Arslan
32. Rum
33. At pazarı
34. El-hac Şaban
In the process of studying the sicil records, I was able to compare both of the
above lists of Qarasuvbazar quarters with the original records. In addition, other data
found during the writing of this paper also helped shed light on the accuracy of Kavak
and Özdem's data. You can observe the difference in reading, as well as differing in
the transliteration of some names and names of quarters. In one way or another, both
researchers made some omissions in the list of the names of quarters, and this can be
traced not only from the records of the sicils, but also from later sources. So, Z.
Özdem's list lacks, for example, the Kurban Ali efendi quarter, in which, as we know,
54
there was a mosque of the same name, and which, in turn, is present in N. Kavak's list.
In addition, it seems to us that Özdem could have made a mistake in reading the Hacı
Esenkeldi quarter, most likely this is the Hacı Hasankeldi quarter, already noted in the
list. Also, as for Kavak, we do not see the names of such quarters as Rum, Kara Çora,
Sinan Geray, the names of which we meet in one form or another in later period
records. In general, the list indicated by Özdem is the longest of all (both the period of
the Khanate and the times of the Russian Empire), but it is necessary to take into
account the already indicated shortcomings and be careful in further work on this topic.
2.5. MAALLE DURING THE PERIOD OF RUSSIAN EMPIRE
Later, from the archival data of the Russian Empire, we can see at least part of
the same maalles. Over time, the population of the city has undergone significant
changes, as well as the structure of the city and its quarters. The archival records
mention that the quarter (maalle) of Kara Çora is considered the second largest in terms
of population.131
Table 3. List of the Qarasuv’s quarters in the end of 18th century to the late
mid-19th century132
1. Yıldırım
2. Kara Çora
3. Şor mosque
4. Acı Murat
(Şahmurat, Şamrat)
5. Acı Arslan
131 ГАРК, Ф. 27, оп. 1, д. 12039, л. 7.
132 Аирчинская, «Карасубазар,» c. 7; ГАРК, Ф. 27, оп. 1, д. 2662, л. 2; ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп.
1, д. 60, л. 2 об.-3; ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 150, л.16-17 об; ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 235, л.
33-34.
55
6. Khan mosque
7. Acı Osman
8. Bahçi içi
9. Acı Eli (Acıbey,
Hacıbey)
10. Tahta mosque
11. Çilterli
12. Büyük mosque
13. Ulu haniy
14. Ajem
15 Şahin Geray (Şan
Geray)
16. Yeni mosque
17. Kara Halil
18. Ali efendi
19. Hanlık
As you can see, the number of quarters has decreased at least in double. This can
be easily explained by the large waves of migration of the local population, which were
mentioned above. It is also necessary to remember several destructions of the city
during the Russian campaigns of the late 18th century. It is worth noting that the names
of the remaining residential areas have not actually changed. However, some names,
like Hacı Şahmurad, have changed in everyday language, and even in the documentary
they were displayed, as they were pronounced - Şamrad (another example is Şahin
Geray - Şan Geray). Of the new names, one can notice Hanlık, Kara Halil, Bahçi içi,
Ulu Haniy and Çilterli. An interesting detail is that the previously familiar
neighborhoods, which immediately indicate the ethnic or religious affiliation of the
people who lived there, have actually disappeared. This applies to the quarters of Rum,
Kenise, and Çingene, although you can still see the Ajem quarter. The quarters
containing the names of the local mosques simply reflected the location of the religious
56
building, rather than indicating the religious affiliation of the local residents. On a
simple comparison of two lists of residential areas, you can see the dynamics of change
in the number of population of Qarasuv.
2.6. RELIGION
Being such poly-ethnical city as Qarasuv, it is no wonder how much diverse
religious life here was. Islam, Orthodoxy, Gregorianism, Catholicism, Judaism,
Karaimism are just an incomplete list of religions of Qarasuv. Temples of these
religions were represented in the city according to the number of believers.
Evliya Çelebi wrote that there were twenty-eight mosques in Qarasuv, five of
which were used as Friday mosque (i.e., they are cathedral mosques).133 In the 1730s,
it is known that the number of mosques in the city increased to thirty-eight. However,
after the military campaign of 1737, very little remained of these mosques. From that
time its former greatness was never returned even despite the attempts of Mengli II
Geray Khan and Şahin Geray Khan to restore the city.134 There is also a mention that
during this period there were two churches in the city, one of which belonged to the
Armenians.135 In the last years of the khanate, there were twenty one mosques and one
tekke in Qarasuv.136
According to the Cameral description (1783), there were seventeen mosques,
one tekke, and three mektebs in Qarasuv at the time.137 Pallas writes that at the end of
the 18th century there were twenty-three mosques in the city. Also, he mentions three
churches, one of which was Catholic. The Jews had a synagogue as well.138 Pavel
133 Günümüz türkçesiyle Evliya Çelebi, s. 552.
134 Абдуллаев, «Мечети Карасубазара,» c. 109.
135 Ağat, “Kırım Şehirleri,” s. 8.
136 Абдуллаев, «Мечети Карасубазара,» c. 109.
137 Лашков, Камеральное описание, ИТУАК 7: c. 38.
138 Паллас, Наблюдения, c. 111.
57
Sumarokov, during his trip to Crimea in 1799, noted that there were eighteen mosques
and three churches in Qarasuv: Greek (Orthodox), Armenian (Gregorian), and
Catholic (Armenian-Catholic).139
In 1805, according to information provided by local mufti Seit Memet Efendi,
there were twenty-two mosques in Qarasuvbazar: eight Friday mosques and fourteen
regular ones.140 During the Crimean War, there were already twenty-three mosques in
Qarasuv.141 This was the maximum number of mosques that functioned during the
Russian Empire in Qarasuvbazar. Out of twenty-three mosques, only Yıldırım mosque
has survived. It was built at the beginning of the 19th century. 142
In 1867, twenty-three mosques, five churches, four synagogues, and one
monastery (tekke) were registered in the Memorial book of Qarasuv. 143 By the end of
the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century the city had fifteen mosques, four
churches, and six synagogues.144 Some of these mosques stood until the early 20th
century and were liquidated by the local government mainly due to unsuitability for
spiritual services. Also, they were unsuitable due to the desolation and dilapidation of
the building itself.145 During the times of the Crimean Khanate, there were nineteen
waqfs in Qarasuv.146 By the end of the 19th century there were only thirteen waqfs in
Qarasuv.147
Several churches functioned for the needs of the Christian population. By the
time of the annexation of the Crimean Khanate, three intact and three destroyed
churches were recorded in Qarasuv.148 In the archival records, we find the names of
139 Сумароков, Путешествие, c. 51.
140 И. Александров, «К истории учреждения Таврического магометанского духовного
правления,» ИТУАК 54 (1918): c. 354-355.
141 ГАРК, Ф. 26, оп. 1, д. 15652, лл. 3, 33, 50.
142 H. Kırımlı, vd., Kırım’daki Kırım Tatar (Türk-İslam) Mimari Yadigarları (İstanbul:
Bilnet, 2016), s. 646.
143 Ханацкий, Памятная книга, c. 301.
144 ГАРК, Ф. 42, оп. 1, д. 534, л. 7.
145 See ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1493; ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1495; ГАРК, Ф. Р-
663, оп. 10, д. 1486.
146 A. Türk, “Kırım Hanlığında İslamiyet,” Doğu Avrupa Türk Mirasının Son Kalesi: Kırım
(İstanbul: Çamlıca, 2012), s. 141; Kavak, Karasu Kazası, s. 101-104.
147 ГАРК, Ф. 42, оп. 1, д. 492, лл. 33-33 об.
148 Лашков, «Камеральное описание,» ИТУАК 7, c. 36.
58
two Orthodox churches: the Qarasuvbazar Greek cathedral St. Nicholas church149 and
the Qarasuvbazar St. Ilyinin church.150
149 ГАРК, Ф. 302, оп. 1, д. 1.
150 ГАРК, Ф. 303, оп. 1, д. 3.
59
CHAPTER 3. CRAFTS AND TRADE
3.1. TRADE IN QARASUV
During the period of the Crimean Khanate, almost all coastal cities were very
actively involved in both domestic and foreign trade. Such seaports as Kefe and Azak
played an important role in the Black Sea trade. Both of these cities served as
irreplaceable links for the transportation of goods from the Caspian Sea region to
Anatolia, and vice versa. Through Kefe’s port was arranged supply of fabrics (wool,
silk, cotton) and spices to Akkerman.1
Bahçesaray and Qarasuvbazar had great importance as inner cities of the
peninsula.2 In the middle of the 17th century Qarasuv occupied a prominent place in
the economic and cultural life of the khanate.3
The goods that came to Kefe from the east were sent to Azak through the kaza
of Qarasuv. The same road lay ahead for the items of trade that came from the Azak
port. It was noted that the goods that arrived at the Kefe’s port from Iran and the Far
East were primarily sent to Qarasuv. Then they were distributed there for sale and
further shipment. Thus, it becomes clear that the main role assigned to this city was
trade in imported goods. Although trade had brought the main bulk of income to the
city of Qarasuv, handicrafts, followed by animal husbandry, agricultural products, and
war booty were indispensable source of income as well.4
As in many centers of the Ottoman Empire, the largest cities of the Crimean
Khanate housed the slave markets. In Crimea, such cities were, of course, Bahçesaray,
1 H. İnalcık, Toplum ve Ekonomi Üzerine Arşiv Çalışmaları, Incelemeler, 2. Bsk. (İstanbul:
Eren Yay., 1996), s. 212-213.
2 Zeynep Köse, “Kırım Hanlığı’nda Kölelik,” (Doktora Tezi, Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam
Üniversitesi), s. 18.
3 У. Боданинский, «Карасубазарская старина,» Собрание сочинений, т. 1 (Казань-
Симферополь: Институт истории им. Ш. Марджани, 2019), c. 115.
4 Kavak, Karasu Kazası, s. 230.
60
Qarasuv, Kezlev, as well as Kefe, which, although it belonged to the Ottomans, was
located on the territory of the peninsula.5
In general, at the time of the active development of the khanate, Qarasuv was a
city that collected all trade routes from north to south and west to east. Local traders
often traveled from here to the Black Sea steppes to trade with the Nogai tribes. Also,
merchants often went to the Caucasus to exchange goods with the Circassians and
Abazas.
Foreign merchants in Qarasuv were mostly represented by immigrants from Iran,
as was known from sicil records. The presence of merchants from the Moscow
principality and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth should also be noted.6 Traders,
especially foreigners, needed to have a permit to sell the imported products, certified
by the kalga sultan. It was noted that all merchants, regardless of religion, were
forbidden to trade without permission in neighboring districts and villages.7
According to Evliya Çelebi, in the second half of the 17th century the city had
eight caravanserais and 1,140 trade shops. Of these, 105 were shops of buza merchants,
ten were coffee shops, and another forty were meyhanes (establishments where
alcoholic beverages were sold).8
3.1.1. BAZAARS AND ÇARŞI
The difference between a bazaar and a çarşı was determined by whether the
trading place had a roof and whether the market was permanent. The bazaars were a
place for the trade without a roof and they were opened on certain days. Çarşı called
5 Köse, “Kırım Hanlığı’nda Kölelik,” s. 72.
6 Kavak, Karasu Kazası, s. 106-109.
7 Özdem, “Karasu Kazası,” s. 116.
8 Günümüz Türkçesiyle Evliya Çelebi, s. 550.
61
the grouped covered shops, which stood in the center of the city at predetermined
places, which were always the same.9
According to one of the travelers who visited Qarasuv in the middle of the 19th
century there was a large Egyptian market (Mısır bazaar), where prices for grain
(wheat, corn, millet, rye) crops were set for the entire region.10 It is known that
Pabuççular çarşısı, i.e. shoe market, was located in the Şor quarter. All bazaars, except
for Şor Bazaar, were located in the city center. Yukarı-Orta-Aşagı çarşısı, as well as
Eskiciler çarşısı were located in the Kebir mosque quarter.11 Evliya Çelebi mentions
Yaycılar çarşısı12 in his work, however, researchers did not find the mention this
market on the pages of sicil notebooks. However, in the sicils, there is a record of the
so-called Sultan çarşısı (Suk-i Sultaniler), where goods that were legally seized (often
they were goods that were sold without legal permission, also it could be lost items
whose owners were not found) could be sold. At this market the auction system
operated. It was located next to one of the main mosques in the city – Tekiye Khan
mosque.13
Table 4. List of Qarasuv’s çarşı14
1. Şeyh Abdulaziz çarşısı
2. Gürkancılar çarşısı
3. Eskiciler çarşısı
4. Kalpakçılar çarşısı
5. Kuyumcular çarşısı
6. Egerciler çarşısı
7. Körükçüler
9 M. Pakalın, Osmanlı Tarih Deyimleri ve Terimleri Sözlüğü, v. 1 (İstanbul: M.E.B.
Yayınları, 1993), s. 30.
10 Mrs. Andrew Neilson, The Crimea, р. 87.
11 Özdem, “Kırım Karasubazar’da,” s. 67; Q.Ş.S., c. 33, fol. 49a, h. 1; Q.Ş.S., c. 47, fol. 55a,
h. 4.
12 Эвлия Челеби, Книга путешествия, Крым и сопредельные области (Симферополь:
Доля, 2008), c. 147.
13 Q.Ş.S., c. 25, fol. 114b, h. 3.
14 Kavak, Karasu Kazası, s. 79-80.
62
8. Eskigiler
9. Kerestegiler
Table 5. List of Qarasuvbazar’s bazaars15
1. Şor bazaar
2. At bazaar
3. Davar bazaar
3.1.2. CARAVANSERAIS
According to Evliya Çelebi, in the middle of the 17th century, there were eight
active caravanserais (khans) in the city. However, the names of these khans (except
Sefer Gazi aga khan and Şirin bey khan) weren’t named.16 From the sicil records, we
learn about two more caravanserais and their names.
It should be noted that some of caravanserais had several names. Sometimes it
was the reason why some researchers were mistaken in this topic. It could be seen in
the list of caravanserais in the book of Zeynep Özdem. Şirin bey khan in different
documents and different periods was known as Küçük khan and as Şirin bey khan
(there were other names, however, these are the ones that were used in sicil records).
At Özdem’s book we can see both of these names as separate caravanserais.
15 Kavak, Karasu Kazası, s. 80.
16 Günümüz Türkçesiyle Evliya Çelebi, s. 549.
63
Table 7. List of Qarasuv’s khans/caravanserais17
1. Sefer Gazi Ağa Khan
2. Şirin Bey Khan (Küçük Khan)
4. Çakmak Atalık Khan
5. Ahmed ağa Khan
6. Feyzullah Khan
7. Boşnak Khan
8. Timas Mirza Khan
9. Nakib Emir Ali efendi Khan
10. Hacı Osman Khan
It should be noted that every caravanserai had its trade policy. In each of them,
only a certain type of product could be sold, sometimes such restrictions affected
merchants of a certain region.18 One of such caravanserais that were having restrictions
on merchants was Sefer Gazi Ağa khan. It was named after the chief adviser of the
khans Islam III Geray (1644-1654) and Mehmed IV Geray (1654-1665). He also was
a representative of the Şirin clan. As mentioned before, some of the markets were
named after important individuals who made a great contribution to a city or had a
good reputation. Sefer Gazi ağa khan was known as Büyük Taş Khan and Upper Taş
Khan. In addition to the Qarasuvbazar caravanserai, Sefer Gazi Ağa founded several
waqfs throughout the khanate. Also, in Aqmescit there was his palace and garden, in
Kezlev a bridge was built in his name, and in Bahçesaray there was another palace.19
This Qarasuvbazar caravanserai is the last of the 17th century buildings, whose
physical presence we can observe. The date 1654/1655 (1065 H.) can be found on the
plaque, now hung on the only survived wall. It should be considered that Sefer Gazi
17 Kavak, Karasu Kazası, s. 82.
18 Kavak, Karasu Kazası, s. 232.
19 O. Aslanapa, Sanat, Tarihi, Edebiyatı ve Musikisiyle Kırım (Ankara: Yeni Türkiye, 2003),
s. 46, 47, 49.
64
Ağa did not build this khan, but only repaired and put it into proper form.20 That’s why
the year indicated above is not the date of construction, but only gives us an idea of
when it was renovated and possibly expanded. This khan was located in the very center
of the city, around it there was çarşı (it could be assumed that it was Kalga çarşısı).
From the side, the caravanserai looked like a well-fortified fortress, as it was numerous
times said by different travelers who visited this city. The building was two-storied,
with a total of 120 rooms.21 In this caravanserai, only Iranian Armenians were allowed
to trade. The main goods distributed here were fabrics of various origins, types, and
colors. There were coffee shops in the center.22
In the 19th century the actual owners of Taş Khan were considered the Armenian-
Gregorian community of the city.23 By the end of the 19th century the caravanserai
began to serve both as a warehouse and a local coffee house.24 In 1891, part of its walls
collapsed, and several shops attached to its walls were damaged.25 By the beginning
of the 20th century only the western part has survived.26 According to U. Bodaninskiy,
who visited the city on an expedition in the 1920s, the remains of Sefer Gazi Ağa khan
were in a dilapidated state and were used as a stable.27
In addition to Büyük Taş Khan, fabrics were also sold in Timas Mirza Khan. The
difference was that in Timas Mirza khan only local merchants could sell their products.
On one side of this caravanserai there was a çorekçi shop, on the other - the beginning
of one of the city’s çarşı. Timas Mirza was the only Qarasuv caravanserai, which was
known as bezazistan28 as well. 29
20 Гайворонский, Страна Крым, s. 47.
21 Челеби, Книга путешествия, s. 148.
22 Путеводитель по Крыму и справочная книжка, с приложением некоторых
календарных сведений, расписаний железнодорожных дорог и пароходов, подробной
карты полуострова и планов Севастополя, сост. Л. Фейгин (Москва, 1888), c. 59.
23 Москвич, Иллюстрированный путеводитель, c. 634.
24 Новейший иллюстрированный путеводитель, c. 102.
25 Путеводитель по Крыму, сост. Н. Головкинский (Симферополь: Типография Стифо,
1894), c. 406.
26 Б. Засыпкин, «Памятники архитектуры крымских татар,» Крым №2 (4) (1927): c. 159.
27 Охрана и изучение памятников истории и культуры в Крымской АССР:
исследования и документы, сост. А. Хливнюк (Симферополь: СГТ, 2008), c. 126.
28 A certain type of covered bazaar, where precious items (such as jeweler, silk fabric, etc.)
were kept and sold.
29 Q.Ş.S., c. 25, fol. 50b, h. 1; Q.Ş.S., c. 25, fol. 112b, h. 6.
65
The valuable goods and precious jewelry were sold in Ahmed ağa khan. Even
though it was carefully guarded, evidence of the theft of valuables has been preserved
in the sicil records. Boşnak Khan (Bosnian Khan/caravanserai) was located in Şor
quarter. It was built with a contribution of Bosnalı Hacı Mehmed Ağa and was named
after him. In the sicils, the date of its construction recorded as 1697-1698 (1109 H.).
There were many shops, as well as its own mesjit. The main goods were slaves
captured in battles by Crimean soldiers. Nakib Emir Ali efendi khan was also in the
Şor quarter. Feyzullah khan was located in Hacı Bünyad quarter, not far from the main
road, inside the çarşı.30
Small Taş khan was built as vizier market, but of a smaller size.31 This
caravanserai had several names that were used with regular frequency at different
times. First of all, it was known as Şirin bey khan, but also as Small (Maliy) Taş khan,
Küçük khan, Lower Taş khan (caravanserai). The name of a specific representative of
the Şirin clan, on whose funds this caravanserai was built, still is unknown. Şirin Bey
khan mainly served as slave market.32 In addition, an open market for slaves (köle
bazaarı) was organized on a wide square next to the caravanserai near the bridge.33 On
the other side of the caravanserai there was a bathhouse - Şirin Bey Hammam. The
Small Khan was located in the Çorum quarter (the eastern part of the city).34 By the
beginning of the 20th century Small khan preserved better in comparison with above
mentioned Sefer Gazi Ağa khan.35 From the records of Bodaninskiy and Zasypkin it
is known that the structure has preserved stone walls on three sides. Inside, it had a
vast courtyard and a two-story room. Şirin bey khan was covered with tiles, like all
other structures of Qarasuvbazar. The date of its construction goes back to the 17th
30 Q.Ş.S., c. 33, fol. 64a-65b, h. 1; Q.Ş.S., c. 25, fol. 65a, h. 1; Q.Ş.S., c. 25, fol. 62b, h. 3.
31 Р. Абдуджемилев, «Карасубазарский караван-сарай «Таш-хан»,» Мир Бекира Чобан-
заде (Симферополь: НАТА, 2013), c. 106.
32 Q.Ş.S., c. 25, fol. 65a, h. 1.
33 Köse, “Kırım Hanlığı’nda Kölelik,” s. 73.
34 Q.Ş.S., c. 25, fol. 57b, h. 4.
35 Москвич, Иллюстрированный путеводитель, c. 634.
66
century.36 At the beginning of the 20th century the building was leased to Qarasuv
citizen named Mimishev.37 Slaves were also traded in Hacı Osman khan.38
3.2. TRADE DURING THE PERIOD OF RUSSIAN EMPIRE
In the Russian Empire, the merchant class was a special class that united people
who engaged not only in trade but also in production. Belonging to this class was
initially achieved by purchasing a special certificate (for six months or a year), it
should be renewed routinely. Thus, the merchant class was the only class, which
required a monetary contribution in order to become its member. The Manifesto of the
Freedom of the Nobility of 1762 and the Letter of Grant to the Nobility in 1785
approved the division into the following estates: nobility, clergy, peasantry, merchants,
and bourgeoisie. The merchant class was exempted from the poll tax, corporal
punishment (for merchants of the First and Second Guilds), and recruitment.
Merchants had the right to move freely, with so-called “passport privilege”. The
voluntary registration of merchants in one of the three guilds in the beginning of 1775
was a widespread phenomenon. The First Guild included persons who declared
(voluntarily) a wealth of more than 10,000 rubles. To be included in the Second Guild
one’s wealth should be from 1,000 to 10,000 rubles, as for the Third Guilt members,
their capital was from 500 to 1,000 rubles.39 A guild fee was set at 1% of the declared
capital.40
36 Засыпкин, «Памятники архитектуры,» c. 159.
37 Абдуджемилев, «Карасубазарский караван-сарай,» c. 107.
38 Özdem, “Karasu Kazası,” s. 92.
39 In other sources we can see that merchants with an income of 10 to 50 thousand rubles
were ranked as the First Guild, from 5 to 10 thousand rubles – as the Second, and from 1 to 5
thousand rubles – as the Third Guild. (В. Пащеня, Государственное управление в России
и Крыму в конце 18 – 19 вв. (1783-1990), (Симферополь: ИП Бровко, 2016), с. 71.
40 С. Михеев, «К вопросу о динамике развития купеческого сословия Российской
империи через призму эволюции Российского законодательства,» Известия ПГПУ им.
В. Г. Белинского, 2011, №23, с. 531.
67
In 1832 the title of “honorary citizenship” was introduced to encourage
merchants or stimulate merchants’ activities.41 To become an honorary citizen, one
had to be a member of the First Guild for ten years, or at least twenty years member
of the Second Guild. The right to become an honorary citizen was acquired by a
birthright or by a petition (grant).42 Representatives of the Karaite families of Qarasuv,
Boboviç43 and Şişman had the status of hereditary honorary citizens of the city of
Qarasuvbazar.44
Eminent citizens and merchants of the First Guild had the right to conduct
foreign trade, and also could apply the Court. The Third Guild was abolished in 1863
and the merchants became available to all segments of the population. Because of the
reform of 1874 the exemption of this class from military service was canceled, and the
merchants began to leave their organization. By the beginning of the 20th century the
development of the Russian merchants was already going downward.45
The list of Qarasuvbazar merchants who declared capital in 1852 included fiftyeight
people. Among them only one (Russian) belonged to the Second Guild, and the
rest were representatives of the Third Guild. It can also be noted that there were fifteen
women among the merchants of the Third Guild.46 In the lists from 1861 to 1864,
twenty-four nonresident merchants declared their wealth. In 1870, only forty
Qarasuvbazar merchants renewed their capital (five of them were women).47 In 1874,
seventy-four merchants from Qarasuv declared their capital.48 There were only forty
merchants in Qarasuv in the 1880s who wished to renew their certificate as a merchant
class.49
41 Михеев, «К вопросу,» с. 529.
42 О. Платонов, Тысяча лет русского предпринимательства: из истории купеческих
родов, (Москва: Современник, 1995), с. 32-34.
43 ГАРК, Ф. 42, оп. 1, д. 450, л. 2 об.
44 ГАРК, Ф. 241, оп. 1, д. 597, л. 43.
45 Михеев, «К вопросу,» c. 531-532.
46 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 200, л. 1-2.
47 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 265, л. 58, 68 об.-69, 287-304.
48 ГАРК, Ф. 356, оп. 1, д. 1, л. 96.
49 ГАРК, Ф. 356, оп. 1, д. 14, л. 1-2.
68
Sumarokov noted that the location of the city was ideal for trade, and also
described it as spacious and populous. At the turn of the 18th century in Qarasuvbazar,
there were up to 1,300 shops, together with bakeries, as well as those that were in the
khans. There were eleven khans in the same period.50
It is clear from Lady Craven's notes that morocco was the main commodity in
the city. In terms of quality, variety, and cost, it distinguished itself favorably among
other products. According to the testimony of the French traveler Frederic Dubois de
Montperreux, the main income of the inhabitants of Qarasuvbazar was the sale of fruits
and raisins.51 The gardens of Qarasuv and nearby neighborhood did produce fruits and
vegetables in abundance, and the local villages also produced many fruits.52 According
to Mrs. Andrew Neilson, Qarasuvbazar had the largest grain selection in Crimea.53
As to the notes of the Latin American traveler Miranda, it can be assumed that
by the end of the 18th century it was not only Iranian Armenians who could trade in
the main caravanserai of Qarasuv - Sefer Gazi ağa khan, but also Turkish and Jewish
merchants. Miranda also mentions the apparent cheapness of pack animals available
in the local markets.54 In the first half of the 19th century when Qarasuvbazar was still
glorious for being a trade center of the peninsula, travelers repeatedly agreed that the
best horses, saddles, harnesses, weapons, and cloaks were sold here.55 This is also
confirmed by Pallas, who visited Crimea around the same period as Miranda.56
However, by the end of the 18th century, Qarasuv traded mainly with local villages and
rural populations.
Mary Holderness, who visited Qarasuv in the first half of the 19th century, also
spoked of the variety of local products (there were about two hundred shops selling
fruit alone) and their cheapness.57 Fruits came to the local market from the orchards of
50 Сумароков, Путешествие, с. 51.
51 Монпере, Путешествие, с. 115.
52 Паллас, Наблюдения, с. 111.
53 Mrs. Andrew Neilson, The Crimea, р. 87.
54 Миранда, Путешествие, c. 64-65.
55 Пассек, Очерки Крыма, c. 37.
56 Паллас, Наблюдения, c. 111.
57 M. Holderness, New Russia. Journey from Riga to the Crimea, by Way of Kiev with Some
Account of the Colonization, and the Manners and Customs of the Colonists of New Russia
(London: Printed for Sherwood, Jones and Co., 1823), р. 92.
69
Feodosia, Simferopol, and Yalta counties.58 The surrounding villages brought their
produce to the city and supported trade, so prices were more moderate here than
elsewhere. For example, the inhabitants of the Uskut village brought grapes to
Qarasuv, from which local Jews made wine. Grain for sale was supplied from the
Kapsikhor village.59 Mrs. Andrew Neilson, who visited Crimea in the middle of the
19th century, spoke of the variety of leather goods made by local artisans. She also
mentions that the khans and the main coffee houses were located in the central streets
of the city.60
Guidebooks of the late 19th century often mentioned that Armenians were mainly
engaged in trade in the city.61 However, if you look at archival records and official
statistics, you can understand that this area was much more ethnically diverse. For
example, trade of Crimean wine, fruits, various food products, cigarette paper,
clothing, footwear, and hats was widespread among the Krymchaks.62 In addition, they
did such types of activities as leatherworking, the production of morocco, knives, and
sewing of Tatar hats.63
It should be noted that among the merchants of various nationalities represented
in Qarasuv and traditionally engaged in trade, there were also women. As in many
other spheres of life of this period of world history, they manifested themselves much
less often in written sources. However, this does not mean their passivity and inaction.
Yet, among the records we found, there is no evidence that Crimean Tatar women were
engaged in trade in the same way as, for example, Armenian or Jewish women did.
Among the lists of traders who submitted their capital for reporting for different years
of the 19th century we did not find a single Crimean Tatar woman.64
58 Путеводитель по Крыму, с. 407.
59 Паллас, Наблюдения, с. 94, 97, 111
60 Mrs. Andrew Neilson, The Crimea, р. 86, 87.
61 Путеводитель по Крыму, Фейгин, с. 59; Воспоминания о Крыме Княжны Е.
Горчаковой, ч. 2, (Москва: Типография общества Распространения Полезных Книг,
1884), с. 112.
62 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 215, л. 7-11.
63 Воспоминания о Крыме, с. 112-113; Энциклопедический словарь, с. 457-458.
64 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 265, л. 287-304; ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 200, л. 1-2.
70
As mentioned in the previous chapter, the annexation of the former lands of the
Crimean Khanate to the Russian Empire did not deter Ottoman subjects from trade and
handicraft in Crimea. In archival records of 1832, we found information about more
than 150 Ottoman subjects (mostly Armenians and Greeks) who were engaged in
Qarasuv trade. Of these, thirty people made paper, more than twenty-five worked in
bakeries, fifteen people made shoes. There were also masons, tailors, dyers, soapmakers,
goldsmiths, and silversmiths.65 In the found list, the earliest date of the
appearance of these artisans in the city was listed as 1807 (the latest, at the time of
writing, was 1832).
In addition, the archival records contain lists of Turks and other foreigners
engaged in permanent trade in Qarasuv. From the same list, it is clear that two of them,
for example, were engaged in the wine trade, and the amount of money in circulation
at the moment was 800 rubles. Another Turk traded in tobacco, with a total turnover
of 400 rubles. Some traded in “Turkish goods”66 in the amount of 8,000 to 10,000
rubles. In this list from 1831, there were sixty-three merchants.67 A certain tax was
also levied on foreign traders. So, in 1832, 182 foreign citizens were collected to
submit in the amount of 5,018 rubles.68
3.3. CRAFTS DURING THE CRIMEAN KHANATE
Almost from the beginning of the existence of the Crimean Khanate,
Qarasuvbazar was known as the main trading point after Eski Qırım.69 As a result, it
enjoyed the status of a market of all-Crimean importance70, both on the peninsula and
beyond. Trade routes passing through the city played a very important role in the
development of local production and handicrafts. In Qarasuv, artisans worked for both
65 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 96, л. 1-3; Пассек, Очерки Крыма, с. 37.
66 The wording of the archival record.
67 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 80, л. 2-4.
68 Аиргинская, «Карасубазар,» c. 7.
69 А. Уманец, Исторические рассказы о Крыме (Севастополь: Севастопольский
листок, 1887), с. 217.
70 Возгрин, История крымских татар, I, с. 293.
71
the domestic and foreign sales markets. So, it is not surprising that this city was the
center of the Crimean manufacturing industry.71
Local leather production was very popular; morocco (finely processed leather)
made in Qarasuvbazar, was distinguished by its softness. In addition, a wide selection
of colors was available. Also, local jewelry manufacturers were known for their
craftsmanship. Qarasuv’s town markets supplied all kinds of grain products. Travelers
who visited this city shared their observations about a wide variety of pottery. The
entire region was renowned for its diverse range of useful industries and quality
manufacturing.72 Crimean clay was mined in various regions of Crimea, including in
the vicinity of Qarasuvbazar, and then transported in large quantities to Istanbul, where
it was used as a cosmetic product.73
In the Crimean Khanate, such crafts as the production of felt, the manufacture of
hats, various embroidery, and also weaving were developed.74 During the times of the
Crimean Khanate, saltpeter was brewed mainly in Qarasuvbazar, and was provided for
numerous factories throughout Crimea.75 The crafts associated with metalwork were
also highly developed. The products of the gunsmiths of Bahçesaray and Qarasuvbazar
were used by Crimean army, but also, it was exported in large quantities to the foreign
market. In the second half of the 18th century the Crimea annually produced up to
400,000 knives with fixed handles, and Qarasuv was considered the first in this
production.76 Local bowmakers were very popular as well. There was also some
evidence that the same masters produced bowed musical instruments.77
Some features of the region where Qarasuvbazar was located, its climate, and
soil properties had a great influence on the development of local crafts. So, weaving
of various types was widespread here. Qarasuv kaza, along with the capital,
Bahçesaray, produced the most felt. Felt goods were supplied for both foreign and
71 Путеводитель по Крыму, ред. А. Маркевич, А. Полканов (Симферополь:
Крымгосиздат, 1925), с. 39.
72 Радде, Крымские татары, с. 44; Kavak, “Kırım’ın Karasu Kazası,” s. 21.
73 Паллас, Наблюдения, c. 55.
74 Е. Фелицын, “Западно-Кавказские горцы и ногайцы в XVIII столетии, по
Пейсонелю,” Кубанский сборник, т. 2 (1891): c. 10.
75 Возгрин, История крымских татар, I, c. 409.
76 Монпере, Путешествие, c. 117.
77 Özdem, Kırım Karasubazar’da, s. 127; Возгрин, История крымских татар, I, c. 369.
72
domestic trade.78 In the siсil records of the city of Bahçesaray, we could find lists of
products made by artisans from all over Crimea. Among the Bahçesaray saddlers and
cloth sellers, you can see products whose names directly indicate that they were
produced in Qarasuv (for example, Qarasu dulbenti79, Qarasu bezi).80 The
Qarasuvbazar hats were very famous in the region as well. The production was so
widespread that there were shops in the city selling only these hats.81 In various notes
of travelers of the 19th-20th centuries mentions remained that the Tatar hats (qalpaq)
were mainly made by the Krymchaks.82 In general, the production of fabrics, carpets,
and garments was widespread. All these products were dyed with local natural dyes
(they were plant-, mineral-, and animal product based). In the records of inheritances,
we could find descriptions of velvet, satin, linen, cotton fabrics, decorated with gold,
silver, silk, and cotton embroidery.83
Leatherworking was considered one of the most famous crafts of the city. For a
long time, leather remained the main material for the manufacture of clothing,
accessories, harnesses for animals, and other things.84 Taking into account the fact that
the production of leather goods took some time, and the raw materials directly went
through all kinds of this processes, a large number of city residents were involved in
this industry.85 Another important craft with a similar resource was the fur trade. In
the sicil records, we could find many descriptions of clothing, among which garments
with fur occupied a large place. Therefore, representatives of this industry also
occupied an important place among the Qarasuvbazar craftsmen.86
78 H. Akpınarlı, Kırım El Sanatlarının Dünü ve Bugünü (Ankara: Atatürk Yüksek Kurumu
Atatürk Kültür Merkezi Yayınları, 2004), s. 35.
79 Light gauze fabric.
80 F. Yılmaz, “XVIII. Asırda Hanlık Başkenti Bahçesaray,” Doğu Avrupa Türk Mirasının
Son Kalesi Kırım (İstanbul: Çamlıca, 2015), s. 207-209.
81 Путеводитель по Крыму, c. 241.
82 Воспоминания о Крыме, с. 113; Москвич, Иллюстрированный практический
путеводитель, с. 632.
83 Q.Ş.S., c. 47, fol. 58b, h. 1; Q.Ş.S., c. 47, fol. 68a, h. 2; Q.Ş.S., c. 47, fol. 77b.
84 Возгрин, История крымских татар, I, c. 369, 409.
85 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 256, лл. 1-2; Ханацкий, Памятная книга, c. 300.
86 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 217, лл. 1-2, 7.
73
Also, for private needs, the manufacture of horseshoes for horses, as well as
household utensils from metal, was widespread. Most often, the dishes were made of
copper.87 A large number of copperware production facilities were concentrated in
Bahçesaray and Qarasuvbazar. It is worth noting, however, that there were no copper
deposits on the peninsula, and therefore virtually all raw materials were supplied from
the Ottoman Empire.88 Qumans89 and cezve made in Bahçesaray and Qarasuv, Kefe
and Kezlev had a distinctive feature in the soldering, which gave them special strength
and durability.90
Gardening was also of great importance in the Qarasuv kaza. This branch was
spread over all the main Crimean valleys. The best gardens were on the banks of rivers
Qarasuv, Alma, and Kaça.91 The active processing of tobacco on banks of Qarasuv
River also contributed to the improvement of the local art of making smoking pipes.
The main manufacturers of smoking pipes were the craftsmen of those places where
tobacco was grown and processed in large quantities. The most skilled craftsmen were
considered the masters of Qarasuvbazar and Bahçesaray.92
Animal husbandry has always been widely represented not only in the Qarasuv
kaza but throughout the Crimean Khanate. Given the traditional attachment of the local
population to animal products, this industry has always flourished. In the sicil notes,
there are many records of the purchase, sale, donation of cattle and small ruminants.
Poultry, presented in all possible variations, was also widespread. For example, Baron
de Tott, being in Crimea in the middle of the 18th century, in his notes mentioned that
he was amazed with the variety of species of geese.93 In the same sicil records, detailed
descriptions of animal products could be found.
87 Путеводитель по Крыму, c. 241.
88 Kavak, Karasu Kazası, s. 216.
89 A tall water pitcher.
90 Возгрин, История крымских татар, I, c. 410.
91 Новейший иллюстрированный путеводитель, c. 10.
92 Радде, Крымские татары, c. 75.
93 Baron de Tott, Türkler ve Tatarlar Arasında (İstanbul: Tercüman 1001 Eser, 1968), s. 172.
74
Considering the number of trade shops left by Evliya Çelebi in his records, in
the middle of the 17th century there were about 3,420 Qarasuvbazar artisans. Judging
by the frequency of mention in the sicils, shoemakers, and bezzaz (cloth sellers) were
the most numerous. The head of the craft unions in Qarasuv was considered to be
“reis”, “şeyh”, or “kethüda”, and his assistant was “yigit-başı”. 94 The workshops in
the Crimean Khanate were formed not only based on production and commodity, but
also on an ethnonational basis. In workshops consisting of Christians and Jews, the
foreman and one of his comrades had to be Christians. The foremen of each of the
workshops had their cane. Craftsmen who were engaged in the same business were
united in workshops. Usually workshop consisted of craftsmen (master), journeyman,
and apprentices. For the formation of a workshop, there was a requirement of at least
five craftsmen, otherwise, they were ranked to the similar production workshop. To
move from apprentice to journeyman, an artisan must have worked for at least three
years. When moving to the rank of apprentice, the artisan received a corresponding
certificate, a new contract for work with a master, the status of a tradesman, the right
to improve his skills at work with another master and in another city (after receiving a
passport). It was also noted that it was forbidden for a journeyman to have his
journeymen and apprentices. A student could study a certain craft for at least three, but
not more than five years.95
3.4. CRAFTSMEN OF QARASUV DURING THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE
If during the khanate the main centers of handicraft production were the largest
cities of the peninsula - Bahçesaray, Qarasuv, Kezlev, Kefe, then after the formation
of the Tauride province, Simferopol (formerly Aqmescit) became the center of
handicraft. Although craftsmen continued to produce and sell their products during the
time of the Russian Empire, many factories and workshops also began to appear
gradually.96 In the 19th century the increasing growth of new individual factories (for
94 Özdem, “Karasu Kazası,” s. 123, 125.
95 Пащеня, Государственное управление, c. 129, 130.
96 Scott, The Baltic, the Black Sea, p. 215.
75
example, for the production of candles, soap, morocco) both within the city and in its
suburbs were very clear. In the second half of this century, there were four brick-tile
factories in the city, nine candle and soap factories, one fat-melting factory, three
morocco, and three rawhide factories.97 As the analysis of the statistical description
for 1818 showed, there were forty-seven tanners, eleven tile-potters, ten pipe-makers,
and a paper goods factory in Qarasuvbazar.98
It is known from archival records that three morocco factories existed in the Yeni
mosque quarter over the past 100 years (i.e. from about the end of the 18th century). It
also indicates that one of these factories belonged to a waqf (it is not specified which
one it was, perhaps it was the waqf of the quarter of the same name), the second
belonged to Hacı Abduraim Mamut oğlu, and the third was the property of hereditary
honorary citizen Baranov.99
Lady Craven, who visited Crimea at the end of the 18th century, mentioned in
her notes, that from numerous flocks of sheep, which are the main material for
morocco, they also produce very high-quality sheepskin.100 The local production of
morocco still was very diverse and popular.101 Craven, being in Qarasuvbazar, noted
the wide selection of this material of various colors, its cheapness, as well as the skill
of its execution.102
One of the candles and soap factories was located in the Büyük mosque quarter.
It belonged to Isaac Karagöz and functioned from the 1840s.103 We already know that
by the end of the 19th century there were four brick and tile factories in Qarasuv. Their
owners were Asan Ömer oğlu, Abdul Kadir Kemal oğlu, the merchant Mosha Peisakh,
and Yakov Küyüncü. In general, each of them had a similar structure and consisted of
97 Ханацкий, Памятная книга, c. 301; Кондараки, Универсальное описание, c. 99.
98 Пащеня, Государственное управление, c. 130-131.
99 ГАРК, Ф. 27, оп. 13, д. 2506, л. 4; 5.
100 В. Калашников, «Путешествие в Крым и Константинополь миледи Элизабет Кравен
в 1786 г.,» Британский взгляд на Крым (хроники, мемуары, дневники XVII-первой
половины XIX ст.) (Днепропетровск, 2013), c. 89.
101 Новейший иллюстрированный путеводитель, c. 103.
102 Кравен, Путешествие в Крым и Константинополь, c. 281.
103 ГАРК, Ф. 27, оп. 13, д. 2811, л. 2.
76
five ordinary stoves, three sheds, and one house for workers.104 According to the
testimony of Pallas, at the end of the 18th century in the city, there were quite a few
artisans, morocco and leather factories, candle, soap, pot, brick, tile factories, and
smithies. Greeks and Armenians worked in the soap and candle factories. It is known
that, four factories produced only red morocco.105
In the vicinity of Qarasuv, a small amount of light red clay was mined. It was
used for making pipes and also for cleaning fur coats. In addition, not far from the city,
at the foot of the Aq-Qaya, a keel was mined - a type of clay that residents used for
cosmetic purposes. During the times of the Crimean Khanate, this clay was popular
both in the domestic and foreign markets. Under the Russian Empire, however, its
production was carried out in an insignificant amount.106
Copper-making continued its development. Qarasuvbazar craftsmen made
copper and tinware for general consumption, at the same time repairing all kinds of
metal products. By the end of the 19th century practically all (95%) of the national
industry produced in Crimea originated from Bahçesaray and Qarasuvbazar. 107 In the
19th century shoemaking - the production of Tatar footwear, nodding (where most of
the Krymchaks were involved), copper tinning, felt, leather, saddlery, blacksmithing,
metalworking, wool (by Tatars and Greeks), cooper (by Russians), were considered
especially developed crafts of Qarasuvbazar.108
The list of persons running for the position of craft foreman in 1858 included
representatives of virtually all types of crafts in the city. Among them were fur coppers,
morocco men, shoemakers, blacksmiths, hammermen, turners, wheel workers,
locksmiths, pipe workers, tile cutters, barbers, bakers, tailors, haters, coppersmiths,
silversmiths, coopers, carpenters, saddlers, chubuchniks (craftsman who made
chibouk), cheese coopers, candle makers, cotton dispensers.109
104 ГАРК, Ф. 27, оп. 13, д. 2013, л. 2; 6; 9.
105 Паллас, Наблюдения, c. 111, 204, 205.
106 Кондараки, Универсальное описание Крыма, V, c. 30-31.
107 Н. Гумовский, «Крымская кустарно-ремесленная промышленность и перспективы
ее развития,» Местная промышленность и торговля, (Промиздат, 1926), c. 124, 126.
108 Москвич, Иллюстрированный практический путеводитель, c. 633.
109 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 217, л. 1-2.
77
In the previous chapter, there was a mention of the oppression of the Jews of
Russia. One of the types of such oppression was increased control over the
representatives of these people, their type of activity, which government always tried
to keep under control. Proof of this is the decree of the Tauride provincial government
on the provision of information about the number of Jews living in Qarasuvbazar, their
occupation, the names of the crafts they were engaged in etc. This list included such
handicraft professions as carver, saddle maker, tailor, saddle maker, hat maker,
carpenter, cotton paper cutter, chubuchnik, as well as representatives of various trade
trends.110
In 1838, there were 756 foremen in the workshops of Qarasuvbazar - foremen
and their assistants.111 The account of artisans and workers of the city of Qarasuv was
made in the second half of the 19th century. Based on the data obtained, we can say
that glaziers, locksmiths, coppersmiths, blacksmiths, carpenters, joiners, coopers,
turners, bricklayers, brick makers, tile-makers, plasterers, chariots, carvers, braziers,
millers, painters, goldsmiths, silversmiths worked here. Also, there were watchmakers,
saddlers, saddlers, tailors, shoemakers, shoemakers, fur coppers.112
With the construction of the railway from Simferopol to Feodosia at the end of
the 19th century (1896) the importance of Qarasuvbazar as a trading city, where all the
roads were assembled, dropped significantly.113 After that, local production suffered
great losses. The French traveler Louis de Sudak, who visited Crimea at the end of the
19th century wrote that if it were not for the excellent gardens that surrounded Qarasuv
and increased the population of the city threefold during the harvest, the city would
have died long ago.114
From the archival records of the late 19th-early 20th century it is known that fruits,
vegetables, melons (watermelons and melons), tobacco, hay, grain, flour, livestock,
110 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 215, л. 7-11.
111 Аирчинская, «Карасубазар,» c. 7.
112 Ханацкий, Памятная книга, c. 300-301.
113 Москвич, Иллюстрированный путеводитель, c. 634.
114 Крымские путешествия Луи де Судак, c. 155.
78
rawhides, wool, bricks and tiles, white stone, footwear, and charcoal were exported
from Qarasuvbazar for sale.115
3.5. CRAFTING GUILDS
The law of 1799 determined that each workshop was controlled by the Guild
Council and had its Gathering (meeting). In this meeting foremen from all the
workshops elected two Vowels and then there was election of the Craftsman. To be
elected to the post of a craftsman during the rule of the Russian Empire, a candidate
had to meet the following parameters: to be one of the workshop craftsmen, be able to
read and write in Russian, have the appropriate moral principles, and be Russian
Empire citizen. The one elected by the artisan's head had the right to wear a cane with
the emblem of the city; in the assembly of artisans, he had the first position and two
votes. In his absence, the duties were performed by the first foreman after him. In
addition, the artisan's head had the right to inspect any handicraft production and
charge fines for non-compliance with norms, control the artisan and guild treasury,
and also reassign apprentices to other masters in case of poor training.116
The artisan's head was elected every three years by voting.117 In the elections of
1838, ten merchants (two of whom were Russians, one Greek, two Tatars, three Jews,
and two Armenians), twenty-nine bourgeois (four Russians, five Greeks, two
Armenians, and eighteen Jews) were accepted. In addition to these figures, the
Crimean Tatars were indicated in this list separately, but not by social class, but by
quarters. In total, there were ninety-two of them.118 Further, in the archival records, we
find information about persons who ran for the post of foreman in craft in 1858. In this
list, the difference was that the candidates were divided according to crafts, and not
ethnic or social affiliation. According to the results of this year's voting, it is known
that Adoni Ramazan Asan oğlu (blacksmith) was elected as the artisan's head, Bekir
115 ГАРК, Ф. 42, оп. 1, д. 534, л. 38 об.
116 Пащеня, Государственное управление, c. 128-129.
117 Аирчинская, «Карасубазар,» c. 7.
118 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 150, л. 16-17 об.
79
usta Halil oğlu (furrier) was elected as his deputy. Also, during these elections, the
assistants of the foreman were determined. They turned out to be: Seit Osman Umer
oğlu (shoemaker), Mulla Ibraim Suin oğlu (carpenter), Mardiros Matosov (tailor), and
Yako Kogen (hatter).119
All in the same archival records, copies of the oaths that the artisans took when
entering a particular workshop have been preserved. In this oath, they promise to
honestly and efficiently carry out their work, thereby benefiting their city -
Qarasuvbazar. The oath was rewritten in triplicate - each copy for a representative of
a different religion. Christians swear by the Bible, Muslims by the Koran, and Jews by
the Ten Commandments.120
119 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 217, л. 1-2, 7.
120 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 150, лл. 20-24 об.
80
CHAPTER 4. ARCHITECTURE OF QARASUVBAZAR
4.1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE ARCHITECTURE OF
MEDIEVAL QARASUV DURING THE CRIMEAN KHANATE AND IN
THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE
Qarasuvbazar, as mentioned repeatedly, was a classic example of a medieval
eastern city. This was primarily reflected in the architecture and structure of the streets.
Such characteristic features as low houses with blank walls which were facing the
streets, the narrowness of these streets, the confusion and chaos of their construction -
these and other signs of the city are described by travelers both in the 16th century and
in the end of 19th- beginning of the 20th centuries. Despite the time, the changing
management of the city and state in general, decline, and attempts to modernize the
economy, Qarasuv remained and continues to remain true to its original architectural
features.
If we draw parallels with other cities of the peninsula that underwent innovations
and restructuring during the period of the Russian Empire, we can compere Qarasuv
with Aqmescit. The French traveler Frederic Dubois de Montperreux, wrote that
Empress Catherine left Qarasuv and Bahçesaray exclusively for the Tatars and
therefore they retained their original form. He also noted that Qarasuv, down to the
smallest detail, reproduced the East he had just left.1 Aqmescit, renamed by Catherine
II in 1784, to Simferopol, being originally the same classic example of an eastern town,
turned out to be more susceptible to change. The old streets of Aqmescit did not begin
to be completely rebuilt and destroyed, we can observe them in one state or another to
these days. Instead, the new city administration began to build a “European city” close
to the old one. “New” Simferopol was distinguished by long, flat, wide streets and
avenues. The architecture of houses and shops tried to repeat the fashion trends of the
architectural styles of Europe at that time period.2
1 Монпере, Путешествие, c. 116.
2 The division into "new" and "old" city remains relevant in Simferopol to this day.
81
The fact that Qarasuv lost its former greatness and relevance in production and
trade was directly related to the fact that no one really wanted to “rebuild” it. On the
one hand, thanks to this, we can still trace the features of the structure of the city during
the times of the Crimean Khanate. On the other hand, such a connivance on the part of
the authorities led to the fact that many classical examples of architecture simply fell
into disrepair due to the lack of proper repair and maintenance. Thus, 90% of the public
architectural structures of Qarasuvbazar were destroyed by time and the negligence of
the local leadership, which remained indifferent to this situation, back in the first half
of the 20th century.
It is known that many places of worship which were significant for the city were
built in the 16th century. Those were Tekiye Khan mosque, Büyük mosque, Şor
mosque, Sefer Gazi Ağa Khan, Şirin Bey Khan, Büyük Hamam etc.3 From the sicil
records, we learn that house prices in Qarasuvbazar ranged from 5 to 600 kuruş, and
the cost of one shop started from 10 to 150 kuruş. If in the 17th century prices, in
general, were less than 150 kuruş for real estate, then already in the 18th century the
minimum prices of 100 and 150 kuruş were much more common.4
According to the testimony of the Çelebi, it is known that there were twentyseven
sources of drinking water in the city. They were usually located near mosques.
In addition, there were eight bridges in Qarasuv in different places, as well as more
than a hundred water mills. Evliya Çelebi's notes confirm that all buildings in the city
were covered with local tiles, including the mosques.5 Residential buildings did not
exceed two floors. Often these were low, one-story buildings, with blank stone fences,
behind which it was impossible to see the courtyard. Each house had its small garden
3 Kavak, “Kırım’ın Karasu Kazası,” s. 21.
4 Özdem, “Kırım Karasubazar’da,” s. 98.
5 Günümüz Türkçesiyle Evliya Çelebi, s. 549.
82
and vegetable garden, as well as its small fountain.6 Swedish pastor Lars Tarsenius
wrote about the prevalence of gardens and parks in Qarasuvbazar in early 18th century.7
According to local government estimates, by the end of the 18th century, after
the annexation of the Crimean Khanate (1783) in the city of Qarasuvbazar, there were
seventeen mosques, one madrasah, and two schools (mektebs).8 Also, according to
these estimates, there were 759 houses in the city.9 The information provided by
travelers who visited Qarasuv at the end of the 19th-beginning of the 20th centuries, as
well as the guidebooks of this period, largely converge, and sometimes even repeat
each other. So, in one of the many Crimea guidebooks of the late 19th century we can
see the following description of the city:
“Qarasuvbazar is a small Tatar city, which was once the temporary
capital of the Crimean Khanate. Qarasuvbazar is located by the Büyük
Qarasuv river and is surrounded by gardens. The city has retained its
oriental character, back streets, and lanes with small gates leading to
courtyards where dwellings are hidden; an extensive dark khan, mosques
with minarets at every step, an abundance of “khans” i.e. hostelries with
coffee shops”.10
Pallas, who visited Crimea a few years later, in his notes, already indicated that
there were twenty-three mosques in the city and also there were three churches (one
of which was Armenian Catholic), and one synagogue. According to his calculations,
there were twenty-three caravanserais - large and small, 310 shops, twenty-three coffee
shops, and 915 residential buildings. From the former number of water mills described
by Evliya Çelebi, there were only seven that were functioning. In 1796 the main
pharmacy of the entire peninsula was transferred to the Qarasuv from Yeni-Kale.11 In
6 Özdem, “Kırım Karasubazar’da,” s. 43-44; Günümüz Türkçesiyle Evliya Çelebi, s. 548.
7 Возгрин, История крымских татар, II, c. 61.
8 Лашков, «Камеральное описание,» c. 25, 38.
9 It was number of intact and ruined houses of the Crimean Tatars and Jews.
10 Новейший иллюстрированный путеводитель, сост. Раисов, c. 102.
11 Паллас, Наблюдения, c. 111.
83
1805, by order of the governor, a field pharmacy was built in Qarasuvbazar.12 In
traveler Sumarokov’s notes that were written in 1799, we see change in quantity of
mosques (from twenty-three to eighteen). Also, total town shops were counted as 1,300
(with bakeries and khan’s shops).13
In the guidebook of the early 20th century it was noted that four churches, fifteen
mosques, six synagogues function in the city.14 Archival documents confirm these
numbers, supplementing them with a listing of two printing houses operating at the
same time.15 This can be explained by the increased number of non-Muslims who lived
and worked in the city during the 19th century.
In 1926, a specially selected commission compiled a list of archaeological,
architectural, and revolutionary monuments and museum buildings of Crimea under
the jurisdiction of Crimea OHRIS [Crimean Regional Committee for Museums and
Protection of Monuments of Art, History, Antiquity and Folk Life], and Glavnauki
[Main Directorate of Scientific, Artistic and Museum Institutions] and that were
nationalized. In the Qarasuvbazar region, thirteen such objects were recorded in the
register. Eight of them were located directly in Qarasuvbazar: the ruins of the baths -
Büyük Hamam and Ermeni Hamam, Büyük Taş khan, Küçük Taş khan, Khan mosque,
Şor mosque, Büyük mosque, Bakşı's house with a “kadı room” along Rechnaya
Street.16
In their report, dated August 12, 1926, B. Zasypkin, U. Bodaninsky, and A.
Şeyh-zade noted that in Qarasuvbazar it is necessary to take into account:
Table 7. List of architectural structures registered in 1926
12 ГАРК, Ф. 377, оп. 1, д. 531, л. 1.
13 Сумароков, Путешествие, c. 51.
14 Москвич, Иллюстрированный практический путеводитель, c. 633.
15 ГАРК, Ф. 42, оп. 1, д. 534, л. 7.
16 Охрана и изучение памятников, c. 61-62.
84
1. The ruins of the old Krymchak synagogue (the ruins of the altar wall)
along Rechnaya Street;
2. In the Armenian-Gregorian church a gravestone with an inscription
in Armenian and a bas-relief;
3. The building of two coffee shops with arcades on Karaullar Meydanı;
4. In the same place - coffee shop Sarı-Qave17;
5. Famsi Khan (Hamsi Khan) - trading rows with a stone arcature on
pillars;
6. Celal Khan - shopping arcade with a colonnade on Lunacharsky
street;
7. The building of the former coffee house Çerkez on Lunacharsky
street;
8. Sekekçi hostelry and Coffee House on Arabacilar-içi Street;
9. A hostelry, a coffee house, and shops of the former Qarasu-başı Janibek
on Fontannaya Street;
10. In the Greek church there were four icons painted in 1794;
11. A tombstone - a rotunda over the grave of Seyyid-Muhammad Enis
efendi (1703 - 1115 H.) in the Çilterli mosque fence;
12. Dugudciev's house (the old wing of the house in the courtyard);
13. Ahmed efendi hostelry and Coffee House in Arabacilar-içi;
14. A coffee house and a hostelry at the corner of Feodosiyskaya,
Fontannaya, and Lunacharskaya streets;
15. A coffee house and a hostelry in Sırlı-qave on Rechnaya Street;
16. Minaret of Tokal mosque in Tokal Uçurum (Çurum) Maallesi;
17. Minaret of Hanlık mosque (at the same street);
18. Minaret of Büyük mosque (at the same street)18.
17 Built in 1776, belonged to the waqf of the Krymchaks.
18 ЦМАМ [Central Municipal Archive of Moscow], Ф. Р-1, оп. 1, д. 514, л. 5.
85
In addition, in their report, they pointed to the dilapidated state of Büyük Taş
Khan, which was used at that time as a barn.19
In 1927, the most destructive earthquake of the early 20th century caused
enormous damage to the economy and development of Crimea. Residential buildings,
educational institutions, religious buildings were destroyed, and human losses also
incurred. On the eve of this earthquake, the Qarasuvbazar regional executive
committee made several decisions on the liquidation of some mosques in the city, after
their technical inspection.20
4.2. TRADE BUILDINGS OF QARASUVBAZAR (caravanserais)
Many foreign travelers who visited Crimea in the 18th-19th centuries noted the
number and size of the Qarasuvbazar caravanserais.21 The most ancient of the known
buildings of the city is Büyük Taş khan. The beginning of the construction of this
caravanserai dates back to the 15th century. The grand vizier of the Crimean khans
Sefer Gazi ağa (d. 1664) made a significant contribution to the expansion and
strengthening of this khan, for which it began to bear his name. It is known that this
khan was completed in 1655.22 According to the information left by Evliya Çelebi,
who visited this city in the 1660s, Büyük Taş Khan was like a fortress. In addition, it
was the largest caravanserai not only in the city but, apparently, in the entire Crimean
Khanate. Büyük Taş khan suffered greatly from the destructive raids and wars of the
18th century, and later, due to the lack of proper maintenance and regular repairs, fell
into complete decay. By the beginning of the 20th century only western wall remained
still.23
In addition to the Big Taş Khan, the city could boast of the Small (Küçük) Taş
Khan, which was also known as Şirin bey khan. Although the exact date of
19 Охрана и изучение памятников истории, 126. The same list is found in archival records
of 1944-1945: ГАРК, Ф. Р-20, оп. 11, д. 7, л. 2.
20 И. Абдуллаев, «Мечети Карасубазара,» c. 110-112.
21 Scott, The Baltics, the Black Sea, p. 218; Mrs. Andrew Neilson, The Crimea, p. 86.
22 Р. Абдуджемилев, «Таш хан,» c. 63.
23 H. Kırımlı, vd., Mimari Yadigarları, s. 648.
86
construction is unknown, the building dates back to the 17th century. It looked like a
vizier market. Inside the caravanserai, there was a vast courtyard and a two-story room.
Like all other buildings of Qarasuvbazar, Taş Khan was covered with tiles.24 At the
beginning of the 20th century Lower Taş Khan has preserved three outer walls.25 It is
known that during the time of the Crimean Khanate, a total of eleven caravanserais
functioned in the city. Even though we do not have sources describing their appearance
in detail, their names are known, and we have listed them in the previous chapter.
French traveler Frederic Dubois de Montperreux, who visited this city in the first
half of the 19th century left a description of one of the caravanserais, calling it
Armenian.
“One of the most recent khans, the Armenian, contrasts in its luxury
with the other ones. It is built like a Parisian passage, only on a larger scale;
it is wider, its high vault is illuminated by windows, and the benches
stretching on both sides leave enough space for passage and even for
walking, as in the galleries of Orleans".26
4.3. RELIGIOUS BUILDINGS IN THE CITY
According to Çelebi, there were twenty-eight mosques in the city, five of which
were cathedrals.27 Based on travelers’ descriptions, Qarasuvbazar had the tallest
minarets in Crimea.28 Zasypkin noted that in the early Crimean mosques, minarets
were located at the corners of the building, and the spiral staircase leading to it was
built in the thickness of the wall of the building itself. It is also noteworthy that most
24 Засыпкин, «Памятники архитектуры,» c. 155.
25 Абдуджемилев, «Таш хан,» c. 64.
26 Монпере, Путешествие, c. 117.
27 Günümüz Türkçesiyle Evliya Çelebi, s. 549.
28 Возгрин, История крымских татар, II, c. 84.
87
often the minarets themselves were low.29 Büyük mosque, Şor mosuqe, and Tekiye
Khan mosque were considered the largest among the others.30
The minaret of Tekiye Khan mosque stood out from others because it had two
şerfe. According to the descriptions of U. Bodaninsky, Tekiye Khan mosque was built
in 1727 (1140 H.) by order of Mengli II Geray Khan for a Sufi sheikh. Tekiye of
dervishes were right next to the mosque.31 They were located in the southeastern part
of the city, on a hill, in the quarter of the same name.32 The exact date of construction
still not indicated, in the archival records it is noted that it was a "monument of
antiquity." There is extensive correspondence about the failure of the religious
community to carry out repairs at their own expense. In 1928 this mosque was
registered by Crimea OHRIS as a monument of antiquity. It was noted that its repair
should be carried out at the expense of this organization. However, already in 1930,
the mosque was liquidated due to a written refusal of believers to maintain it, the
building was transferred to the PCE [People's Commissariat of Education] of the
Crimean ASSR as a monument of antiquity.33 The interior decoration and painting of
Tekiye Khan mosque stood out for its exclusivity and, according to scientists, it was
put into the "highest category". They considered it necessary to include Şor mosque in
the same category: in terms of its internal architecture and external decoration of
openings, stone minbar, and wooden ceiling, this religious building differed from other
similar mosques in the city.34 Şor mosque was located in the center of the city. At the
beginning of the 20th century the structure almost completely (except for the minaret)
retained its original shape.35 There is no exact date of construction in the archival
records; the mosque is simply described as “ancient”. In 1928 the mosque was
registered in Crimea OHRIS as a monument of antiquity, it was noted that the repair
should be carried out at the expense of this organization as well. However, in 1930
29 As an example, Zasypkin cites the minaret of Kebir mosque (Aqmescit), he notes a
primitive transition from a trunk to a “sherfe”; minaret of the Büyük mosque in Qarasuv
looked the same.
30 Гайворонский, Страна Крым, c. 48.
31 Özdem, “İnsanları,” s. 74-75; Засыпкин, «Памятники архитектуры,» c. 148, 155.
32 У. Боданинский, Собрание сочинений, т. 1 (Казань-Симферополь: Институт истории
им. Ш. Марджани, 2019), c. 115.
33 ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1576, л. 1-2.
34 Охрана и изучение памятников истории, c. 127-129.
35 Засыпкин, «Памятники архитектуры,» Крым №2 (4): c. 147.
88
Crimean CEC [Crimean Central Executive Committee] already decided to liquidate
this mosque due to a written refusal of residents to maintain it. Based on this refusal,
the building also was transferred to the PCE.36
Unfortunately, there is only fragmentary information on the subsequent mosques
of Qarasuvbazar. Based on the conclusions made by Bodaninsky and Zasypkin, the
Büyük mosque’s minaret was considered one of the oldest in the city due to its form.
Büyük mosque was liquidated in 1927 because of the danger to visit it. In the reports
preserved in the archives it was indicated that the building must be dismantled.37
Even though we do not have much information about further mosques it would
not be right to not mentioned these facts. It was recorded in 1802 from Mustafa efendi,
a resident of Qarasuv, that Şahin Geray Khan, while being the Crimean ruler, donated
four houses and two trade shops to Yeni mosque.38 Also in quarter Kara Çora there
was mosque with the same name, and in the beginning of 1920s it was quite desolated,
but in 1927 it was leased to the group of believers.39 According to the state archive,
the Ulu Haniy mosque was commissioned by believers under an agreement dated May
13, 1927.40
From the sicil notebooks we know that, one of the Armenian churches was
located in the Kenise quarter and a Greek church in the Çesme or Rum quarter. One of
the tekke was located in the Şor quarter, next to the Nakib Emir Ali efendi
caravanserai. And the other was at the beginning of the shoe market (Pabuççular
pazarı). 41
36 ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1576, л. 1-2.
37 ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1493, л. 2.
38 ГАРК, Ф. 24, оп. 1, д. 73, л. 1-2.
39 ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1494, л. 2-3.
40 ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1495, л. 1.
41 Абдуджемилев, «Карасубазарский караван-сарай,» c. 107.
89
Table 8. List of mosques built during the Crimean Khanate42
1. Friday Mosque of Mengli II Geray Khan (Tekiye
Khan mosque)
2. Friday Mosque of Hacı Muzaffer efendi
3. Mosque of the Hacı Murat quarter
4. Friday Mosque of Qırım Geray Khan
5. Mosque of Şah Murad quarter
6. Mosque of the Çorum quarter
7. Friday Mosque of Şahin Geray Khan
8. Mosque of Hacı Arslan quarter
9. Friday mosque of Sadık efendi quarter
10. Friday Mosque and Tekiye Receb Şeyih efendi
11. Mosque of the Tahta mosque quarter
12. Mosque of Kara Halil quarter
13. Mosque of Bağçe Içi quarter
14. Mosque of Hacı Kara Çora quarter
15. Friday mosque of Kurman Ali efendi quarter
16. Friday mosque of Hacı Ismail quarter
17. Friday mosque of the Hacı Bey quarter
18. Mosque of Hacı Osman quarter
19 Friday mosque of Şor mosque quarter
20. Mosque of Ulu Hani Sultan quarter
21. Friday Mosque of Ajem Quarter43
After the military campaigns of the Russian Empire in the 18th century many
buildings of Qarasuvbazar, in particular mosques and residential buildings, were
destroyed. It should be noted that the religious buildings of the city were partially
42 The list was compiled in 1785.
43 ГАРК, Ф. 315, оп. 1, д. 1525, л. 178-180.
90
restored, and new mosques and churches were built to replace the destroyed ones. By
the beginning of the 19th century according to the information provided by Mufti Seit-
Memet efendi, there were eight cathedral mosques and fourteen quarter mosques in
the city.44 By the middle of the same century, another one was added to the list of
Qarasuvbazar mosques, equating the total number of religious Muslim buildings to
twenty-three.45 According to testimonies dating back to the same period, it is known
that there were five churches, one monastery, and four synagogues in the city.46
The dramatic events of the early 20th century harmed the life of Qarasuv. Along
with the adoption of the Decree on the separation of the church from the state, Muslim
religious buildings were transferred to the use of religious communities. Control over
the activities of these communities was carried out by one of the departments of the
Crimean Central Executive Committee and the NKVD [The People's Commissariat
for Internal Affairs].47
Çilterli mosque was built in 1874 from a mudbrick on a stone foundation,
covered with “Tatar tiles”. The measurements of the building remained in the archival
records - the length was 12.5 arshins (8.89 m), the width was 7 arshins (4.9 m), and
the height was 5.5 arshins (3.9 m). The mosque was fenced with a mudbrick, an ancient
cemetery was located nearby.48 The mausoleum located on the territory of the
cemetery was built in 1769 over the grave of Said-Muhammad Enis efendi.49 In 1925,
the presidium of the Qarasuvbazar regional executive committee petitioned the
Crimean Central Executive Committee to liquidate the Çilterli mosque, due to its
dilapidated state. It was reported that the windows, doors, floor, and ceiling were
broken down and carried away, half of the roof fell off and the tiles were broken. The
mudbrick that encloses this mosque and the cemetery adjacent to it collapsed in two
places, and through these holes, there was free access to the garbage dump.50 It was
noted that five Crimean Tatar families lived in the quarter of this mosque, and they did
44 Александров, «К истории учреждения,» ИТУАК 54: c. 355.
45 ГАРК, Ф. 26, оп. 1, д. 15652, л. 3, 33, 50.
46 Ханацкий, Памятная книга, c. 301.
47 И. Абдуллаев, «Мечети Карасубазара,» c. 110-111.
48 ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1256, л. 1-2.
49 Засыпкин, «Памятники архитектуры,» c. 128.
50 ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1256, л. 2, 3.
91
not want to rent the building to use it. In the fall of 1925, mosque was removed from
the register of the religious buildings of Qarasuvbazar.51 In the same year and for the
same reason, the Uzun Çarşı mosque, located on Torgovaya street, was liquidated, it
was built in 1875.52
The Kurman-Ali mosque was built from a mudbrick, the total area of the
building was 5x8 arshins. The exact date of construction is unknown. In 1927, by the
decision of the Central Executive Committee of the Crimean Autonomous Soviet
Socialist Republic, the building of the mosque was recommended for demolition due
to the inexpediency of repairs.53 Next the archival records indicate that the Kara Halil
mosque was built of stone and mudbrick in 1843, the roof was covered with tiles. The
construction area was only 4x3 arshins. By 1927, the mosque was in a dilapidated state
and by the decision of the Crimean Central Executive Committee, the building of the
mosque was liquidated in the same year, for the very same reasons as the rest of such
buildings.54
The mosque in the Şah-Murad quarter bore the same name, but in Russianlanguage
sources and archives, it was recorded as Şamrat. This mosque was built in
1854 of stone and mudbrick, like other structures from this period. The total area was
5x3 1/3 arshins. By 1927, the building fell into disrepair and began to collapse, by the
decision of the Crimean Central Executive Committee in the same year, the Şamrat
mosque was liquidated, due to the inexpediency of repairs and the lack of believers.55
After a technical inspection of the Acı Osman mosque by employees of the local
regional executive committee, showed that building was in a dilapidated state. The
minaret was made of piece and slab stone; and it was also half destroyed. The height
and width of the minaret were seven and two meters, respectively. A month after this
inspection, it was decided to liquidate this mosque for the same reasons that were
attributed to all other religious Muslim buildings.56
51 ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1256, л. 5, 7, 9.
52 ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1253, л. 5, 6, 10.
53 ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1484, л. 2.
54 ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1486, л. 2-3.
55 ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1487, л. 2.
56 ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1729, л. 118-123.
92
After two earthquakes in 1927, the Crimean Central Executive Committee
received a report from Qarasuvbazar that
“in total, three prayer buildings in the city suffered from the
earthquake ... was recognized as dangerous to visit, and as a result, Büyük
mosque and Tekiye Khan mosque were temporarily closed until repairs
were carried out ... there are no prayer buildings to be dismantled."57
To eliminate the consequences of these earthquakes, several Qarasuvbazar
buildings were classified as protected architectural monuments, including Tekiye
Khan mosque, Şor mosque, and Büyük mosque.58 In the same year, the Crimean
Commissariat of Education allocated 1,500 rubles for the repair of Tekiye Khan and
Şor mosques. Already in 1929, the Crimean Central Executive Committee decided that
“Khan mosque and Şor mosque in Qarasuvbazar must be liquidated, as a
result of a written refusal of the believers. ... The buildings of the named
mosques shall be transferred to the People's Commissariat for Education
of the Crimean ASSR as monuments of antiquity”.59
In the 30s of the 20th century, a harsh purge was carried out among the educated
population on the territory of the former Russian Empire. The government at the state
level began to support atheism, and anti-religious propaganda was actively developing.
The clergymen were subjected to massive repression. Under the pretext of
unsatisfactory technical and sanitary conditions, the refusal of spiritual groups to use
religious buildings, mosques, churches, synagogues were massively closed and
liquidated.60
57 ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1486, л. 2, 5.
58 ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1487, л. 2, 5.
59 ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 10, д. 1493, л. 1, 3.
60 Абдуллаев, «Мечети Карасубазара,» c. 114.
93
By 1935, only one mosque functioned in Qarasuvbazar and it was Yıldırım
mosque which was located on the Voroshilov street.61 The building of this mosque has
survived to this day, but it is used as a house for several families. Even though Şor
mosque was remained untouched after 1930s it was destroyed after the deportation of
the Crimean Tatars in 1944.62
As for the places of worship of other religions, it is known that by the beginning
of the 20th century in the city, there were two Orthodox churches - St. Nicholas and St.
Elias, as well as one Armenian Gregorian and one Armenian Catholic church.63 There
are also references to six synagogues that functioned during the same period.64
It is known from archival records that one of the Orthodox churches was located
in the Çilterli quarter. When in 1894 the Karaite society rented a house from the
Qarasuvbazar resident Taras Mardirosov in the Yıldırım quarter to establish a prayer
house there, a conflict arose among the Christians and Karaites of the city. The room,
which the Karaites were going to use as a prayer house, was located at a distance of
75 arshins from the Greek Orthodox Church (approximately 150-200 m), which was
unacceptable by religious law. Unfortunately, the archival records do not clarify
exactly how the conflict was resolved.65
A traveler who visited Crimea in the middle of the 19th century, Mrs. Andrew
Nielson, in her notes pointed out that one of the Greek (Orthodox) churches had green
domes, and if it had not been for it at all, the structure would have had a completely
"oriental" appearance.66 Another traveler, Seymour, who visited Qarasuv at about the
same time indicated the number of mosques as twenty-two, and noticed that in his taste
none of them were actually beautiful. He also described one of the Orthodox churches
(but did not indicate its name), it was built in the form of a cross with a dome located
in the middle of the building.67
61 ГАРК, Ф. Р-663, оп. 18, д. 46, л. 65.
62 Абдуллаев, «Мечети Карасубазара,» c. 115.
63 ГАРК, Ф. 42, оп. 1, д. 492, л. 32-33 об.
64 ГАРК, Ф. 42, оп. 1, д. 534, л. 7.
65 ГАРК, Ф. 241, оп. 1, д. 597, л. 1.
66 Mrs. Andrew Neilson, The Crimea, p. 86.
67 Seymour, Russia on the Black Sea, p. 241-242.
94
4.4. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OF QARASUVBAZAR
Education was always important in the Crimean Khanate period. According to
Evliya Çelebi, there were five madrassas in Qarasuv, where special attention was paid
to hadiths. Also, there were eight schools for children.68 In kadıasker's notebooks, there
were only three madrassas (Hacı Subhankulu Gazi Ağa madrassa, Mehmed efendi
madrassa, Hacı Yahya madrassa) and one school, which was located in the Çorum
quarter. Madrasah named after Mehmed efendi was located in the Receb efendi
quarter. 69 In the end of 18th century in Cameral description, was note about only three
schools for children.70
As for the period of the Russian Empire, in the archival records of the late 19th
century you can find information about the number of Crimean Tatar schools, and even
some information about their students and teachers. In 1837, by the administration
order was opened local Tatar specialized school, and the local representative of the
clergy, Molla Umer, was elected as the overseer.71 By the end of the 19th century, there
were two male madrassas in Qarasuvbazar (in the quarters of Büyük mosque and Acı
(Hacı) Yahya), three waqf male mektebs (quarters of Ulu Hani, Yıldırım, Şamrat/Şah
Murat), and also two non-waqf mektebs (quarters of Acı (Hacı) bey and Tokal
mosque). Besides, it should be noted that there were also ten girls' schools in the city
(two in the Acı Arslan quarter, one in the Ulu Hani, two in the Yıldırım, three in the
Kara Çora quarter, and one each in the Yeni mosque and Bahçi İçi quarters).72 As
usual, schools were opened in private houses, and the money for teachers' salaries and
school supplies was collected by residents of a particular quarter.73
68 Günümüz Türkçesiyle Evliya Çelebi, s. 549.
69 Q.Ş.S., c. 47, fol. 28a, h. 2; Q.Ş.S., c. 47, fol. 29a.
70 Лашков, Камеральное описание, ИТУАК 7: c. 38.
71 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 152, л. 1, 14.
72 ГАРК, Ф. 100, оп. 1, д. 2124, лл. 133-137.
73 ГАРК, Ф. 27, оп. 13, д. 5023, л. 20, 21, 26.
95
Numerous Armenian schools that were operating throughout the Crimean
Peninsula has its examples in Qarasuvbazar as well. All of them were parish, and their
position, both materially and legally, directly depended on the church. Initially, they
belonged to the clerical zemstvo. But in 1897 the Armenian schools were transferred
to the Ministry of Public Education.74 In the first half of the 19th century Abbot of the
Qarasuvbazar Catholic Church, Minas Medicine, with the help of the local community,
established a Catholic school for Armenians.75 In 1825, a parish school was opened at
the expense of the Qarasuvbazar Greek society.76 Unfortunately, we do not have any
information describing these institutions in terms of architecture.
4.5. SOCIALLY SIGNIFICANT ARCHITECTURE OF THE CITY
Evliya Çelebi wrote that there are four large baths (hammam) in the city, but he
named only two of them - Şirin bey hamam (located next to the caravanserai of the
same name) and Taymaz Mirza hamam. From other sources, such baths as Büyük
Hamam and Ermeni Hamam were known.77 From the sicil records, we can conclude
that there were also public baths such as Çay Hamam, Büyük Hamam, Tayma Mirza,
Şirin Bey, Hacı Murad Hamam, and Sadık efendi maallesi Hamam.78
Sicil records confirm Evliya Çelebi's testimony of a large number of coffee
houses and establishments selling alcohol (meykhane).79 According to Demidov, who
visited Qarasuv in the middle of the 19th century there was a special quarter in the city,
located on a spacious street, paved better than others, in this quarter the central coffee
shops of the city were concentrated.80
74 В. Васильев, Н. Чемодуров, «Роль земств Таврической губернии в развитии
народного образования в начале ХХ в.,» Крымский архив № 4 (23) (2016): c. 40.
75 ГАРК, Ф. 100, оп. 1, д. 217, л. 58.
76 ГАРК, Ф. 100, оп. 1, д. 269, л. 1-2.
77 Возгрин, История крымских татар, II, c. 82.
78 Q.Ş.S., c. 33, fol. 1b, h. 1; Q.Ş.S., c. 47, fol. 19a, h. 2.
79 Q.Ş.S., c. 33, fol. 83b, h. 755; Q.Ş.S., c. 33, fol. 76a, h. 682; Q.Ş.S., c. 47, fol. 56b, h. 380.
80 Демидов, Путешествие в Южную Россию, c. 446.
96
CONCLUSION
Located at the crossroads of trade routes between west and east, north and south,
Qarasuv has had significant potential since its beginning. Even though the exact date
of the city's foundation is unknown, most researchers agree that this area was inhabited
already in the 13th century. In the time of the Crimean Khanate it was known as socalled
trade capital of the state. During the time of the Russian Empire, significant
changes in the functions and general significance of the city should be noted.
Although Qarasuv was attacked several times in the 17th century, the biggest
blow for it was the Lacy campaign in 1737, as well as the Russian campaign of 1771.
Qarasuv's shaken stability after those campaigns was never fully restored. It should
also be noted a sharp change in the population after the annexation of Crimea in 1783,
which was also followed by a decrease in the quality and quantity of local production.
The new government deliberately shifted the focus of attention and influence from the
main cities of the Crimean Khanate (like Bahçesaray and Qarasuv), which also
prevented the city from returning to its former positions.
It is also worth noting that during the period of the Crimean Khanate, the city
was under the direct control of the kalga-sultan, the first heir to the khan. Also,
Qarasuv and its surroundings were considered the home of the most influential
Crimean family - the Şirins. Representatives of this family had great power at the
khan's court and held the highest positions there. Considering Qarasuv an important
city for themselves, representatives of the Şirin clan built palaces, houses, mosques,
schools, bridges etc. here.
City really changed in commercial and handicraft aspects after the establishment
of Russian power on the territory of the former Crimean Khanate. If during the period
of khanate Qarasuv was considered not only the trading capital of this state but also
the center of international trade and production in the Black Sea region, then in the
subsequent imperial period the city could only claim the status of a local market.
In addition to the areas already mentioned, the ratio of the ethnic diversity of
people in high positions has also changed. After 1783, both on the territory of the entire
peninsula and in Qarasuv, in particular, the Muslim population ceased to be a leading
and driving force in government and decision-making. This can be considered an
97
additional reason (to the already existing political, religious, cultural, and ideological
reasons), according to which the indigenous Muslim population continued to migrate
from the territory of the peninsula throughout the 19th century. Qarasuv has come a
long way from one of the largest and most populous cities on the peninsula to an almost
no-name imperial town.
Summing up the overall result, we can say that, in general, the accession of
Crimea to the territory of the Russian Empire changed position of Qarasuvbazar in the
international trade arena, as well as its significance as a city of the peninsula as a
whole. It should understand that changes in the management system directly affected
all spheres of life of the population. As for Russia, this empire achieved its long-term
goal and secured a passage to the “southern seas”, as well as extend its lands by adding
new territories. Also, we must not forget about the elimination of their old enemy - the
Crimean khan.
For Crimea, this turned out to be the acquisition of a new government,
completely different from the one that has been here for the past four centuries.
Demographic changes caused by the migration of the Muslim population, as well as
the forced eviction of the local Christian population (mainly Greeks and Armenians),
affected the economic and agricultural development of the region. Against the
background of such cities as Aqmescit-Simferopol and Akyar-Sevastopol, the former
capitals of the Khanate - Bahçesaray and Qarasuv turned out to be less adaptive to the
changes that befell these territories.
The comparative structure of the narrative of this work, as well as the analysis
of the main aspects of the city of Qarasuvbazar, demonstrated the changes that one city
of the former Crimean Khanate underwent with the influence of imperial Russia.
Undoubtedly, there is still a lot of work to be done to fully disclose this topic. Such a
complex issue requires more attention and detailed elaboration on the part of a group
of specialists. However, I dare to hope that this small study made it possible to visually
trace the changes and understand the possibilities of direction for subsequent work.
98
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Таврическим губернским статистическим комитетом. (Вып. 1).
Симферополь. // Hanatskiy, K. (1867). Pamyatnaya kniga Tavricheskoy
gubernii, izdannaya Tavricheskim gubernskim statisticheskim komitetom.
[Commemorative book of the Tauride province, published by the Tauride
provincial statistical committee.] (Vyp. 1). Simferopol.
113
Энциклопедический словарь. Т. XIV, A, 457-458. // Entsiklopedicheskiy slovar’.
[Encyclopedic Dictionary.] T. XIV, A, 457-458.
Яновский, А. «Гражданство почетное.» Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза
и Ефрона. Т. IXа, 523-524. // Yanovskiy, A. “Grajdanstvo pochetnoye.”
[“Honorary citizenship.”] Entsiklopedicheskiy slovar’ Brokgauza i Efrona. T.
IXa, 523-524.
114
APPENDIX – 1
1. Carlo Bossoli. Karasou-bazar. 24 views of the Crimea, taken from nature and lithographed by C. Bossoli in
1842: [album] / [lithograph. K. Bassoli]. - Odessa: Lithograph. D. Klenova, 1842.
115
APPENDIX – 2
Population of the Qarasuv city from the late 18th century to first half of the
20th century
Source Author Year Population
Traveler notes Romme1 1786 approx. 3,500
Traveler notes Miranda2 1786-
1787
2,000
Observations Pallas3 1793-
1794
1,500 (only
males)
Archive Local census4 1794-
1795
1,169 (only
townspeople)
General-purpose
description
Kondaraki5 1802 3,000
Traveler notes Montperreux6 1843 15,000
1 Ромм, Путешествие, с. 40.
2 Миранда, Путешествие, с. 73.
3 Паллас, Наблюдения, с. 111.
4 Аирчинская, «Карасубазар,» с. 7.
5 Кондараки, Универсальное описание, с. 53-54.
6 Ф. Дюбуа де Монпере, Путешествие по Кавказу, к черкесам и абхазам, в Грузию,
Армению и в Крым (Симферополь: Бизнес-Информ, 2009), с. 116.
116
Traveler notes Mrs. Andrew
Neilson7
1855 15,000
New Russian
calendar8
1863 10,317
Commemorative
book
Khanatsky9 1867 10,317
General-purpose
description
Kondaraki10 1870 16,000
Guidebook Sosnogorova11 1871 10,317
Guidebook Livanov12 1875 10,000
Reminiscence Gorchakova13 1884 Over 11,000
Guidebook Feigin14 1888 Up to 12,000
7 Mrs. Andrew Neilson, The Crimea, р. 86.
8 «Состояние народонаселения в колониях иностранных поселенцев южного края
России в 1865 году: По вероисповеданиям,» Новороссийский календарь на 1867 год
(Одесса, 1867), с. 76.
9 К. Ханацкий, Памятная книга Таврической губернии, изданная Таврическим
губернским статистическим комитетом, вып. 1, (Симферополь, 1867), с. 298.
10 Кондараки, Универсальное описание, с. 53-54.
11 М. Сосногорова, Путеводитель по Крыму для путешественников (Одесса:
Типография Нитче, 1871), с. 283.
12 Путеводитель по Крыму с историческим описание достопримечательностей
Крыма, ред. Ф. Ливанов (Москва: Типография Т. Рис, 1875), с. 4.
13 Воспоминания о Крыме, с. 112.
14 Фейгин, Путеводитель по Крыму, с. 59.
117
Population
census
Paschenya15 1889 13,414
Archive Taurica
Treasury Chamber16
Sec.
half of 19th
century
1,699 (only
male townspeople)
Guidebook Golovkinsky17 1894 14,923
Encyclopedic
dictionary18
1895 14,812
Guidebook Bezchinsky19 1904 17,000
Archive20 1913 18,860
9,000
(Muslims)
Guidebook Moskvich21 1914 18,860
Guidebook Vagin22 1923 5,851
15 Пащеня, Государственное управление, с. 77.
16 ГАРК, Ф. 169, оп. 1, д. 268, л. 2.
17 Путеводитель по Крыму, сост. Н. Головкинский (Симферополь: Типография
Спифо, 1894), с. 98.
18 Энциклопедический словарь, т. XIV A (Санкт-Петербург, 1895), с. 457-458.
19 А. Безчинский, Путеводитель по Крыму (Москва: Типография Кумнерев, 1904), с.
415.
20 ГАРК, Ф. 42, оп. 1, д. 534, л. 7.
21 Г. Москвич, Иллюстрированный практический путеводитель по Крыму с
приложением (Санкт-Петербург: Редакция «Путеводителей», 1914), с. 633.
22 Л. С. Вагин, Е. В. Вульф, П. А. Двойченко, и В. В. Соколов, Крым. Путеводитель
(Симферополь: Крымиздат, 1923), с. 229.
118
Guidebook Markevich
and others23
1925 In the last days
of the khanate –
40,000
In 1914 –
17,000
In 1923 – 5,749
Essays on
Crimea
Voloshinov24 1929 7,625
23 Путеводитель по Крыму, ред. А. Маркевич, А. Полканов, Н. Эрнст (Симферополь:
Крымгосиздат, 1925), с. 39.
24 Крым. Путеводитель, ред. И. Волошинова (Симферополь: Крымское
государственное издательство, 1928), с. 266.
119
APPENDIX – 3
3. The plan of the Aсı Yahya waqf madrasah in Qarasuvbazar. ГАРК, Ф. 27, оп. 13, д. 4712, л. 107.
120
APPENDIX – 4
2. Plan of the prayer house of the Karaite community in the city of Qarasuvbazar. ГАРК, Ф. 241, оп. 1, д. 1602,
л. 1.