497

LONGITUDINAL RELATIONS OF MATERNAL SOCIALIZATION AND
TEMPERAMENT WITH INTERNALIZING AND EXTERNALIZING
BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS DURING MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

iii
To people who have experienced the process of writing a thesis…
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ABSTRACT
Interest in identifying the precursors of internalizing and externalizing behavior
problems has been increasing. Studies have shown that both parental socialization
and children’s temperamental characteristics trigger the chronicity and permanence
of children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. However, there is less
research investigating the influences of parental socialization on children’s
internalizing and externalizing problems through children’s temperament during
middle childhood in non-Western contexts. Thus, this study aimed to examine the
longitudinal relations between parental socialization of children’s negative emotions,
children’s temperament and internalizing and externalizing problems, as well as the
mediational effect of temperament on the relations between parental socialization
and these problem behaviors with Turkish children. Total of 340 mothers and their
children were recruited from Bolu, Istanbul, and Ankara. Coping with Negative
Emotions scale at age 7, Children’s Behavior Questionnaire at age 8, and CBCL/6-18
at age 9 were used in the study. Results showed that maternal punitive and
minimization reactions were positively related to children’s internalizing and
externalizing problems. Attentional focusing and shifting were negatively associated
with internalizing problems, and impulsivity was positively correlated with
externalizing problems, but inhibitory control was negatively linked to externalizing
problems. Moreover, maternal punitive reactions were negatively correlated with
attentional focusing and shifting. Furthermore, maternal punitive reactions were
directly and indirectly related to externalizing problems, and they indirectly
influenced externalizing problems via inhibitory control. These findings suggest that
maternal reactions to children’s negative emotions and children’s temperament
contribute to better understanding of children’s internalizing and externalizing
problems.
Keywords: parental socialization, temperament, internalizing and externalizing
behavior problems, middle childhood
v
ÖZET
İçselleştirme ve dışsallaştırma problemlerinin nedenlerine yönelik ilgi artmaktadır.
Araştırmalar ebeveynlerin çocuklarının olumsuz duygularını sosyalleştirme
biçimlerinin ve çocukların mizaç özelliklerinin, çocukların içselleştirme ve
dışsallaştırma problemlerinin kronik ve kalıcı hale gelmesini tetiklediğini
göstermektedir. Fakat Batı toplumları dışındaki toplumlarda ebeveyn
sosyalleştirmesinin, okul çağındaki çocukların içselleştirme ve dışsallaştırma
problemlerini, çocukların mizacı aracılığıyla nasıl etkilediğiyle ilgili çalışmalar
azınlıktadır. Bu nedenle bu çalışma, ebeveynlerin çocuklarının olumsuz duygularını
sosyalleştirmesi, çocukların mizacı ve içselleştirme ve dışsallaştırma problemleri
arasındaki boylamsal ilişkileri araştırmanın yanı sıra, Türkiye’de okul çağındaki
çocukların mizacının, ebeveynlerin çocuklarının olumsuz duygularını
sosyalleştirmesi ve çocukların içselleştirme ve dışsallaştırma problemleri arasındaki
ilişkilerine olan etkisini araştırmayı amaçlamıştır. Araştırma Bolu, Ankara ve
İstanbul illerinden 340 anneyle ve çocuklarıyla yürütülmüştür. Araştırmada çocuklar
7 yaşındayken Olumsuz Duygularla Baş Etme Ölçeği, 8 yaşındayken Çocukların
Davranışlarını Değerlendirme Ölçeği ve 9 yaşındayken Çocuk Davranış Kontrol
Ölçeği kullanılmıştır. Araştırma sonuçları annelerin cezalandırıcı tepkilerinin ve
minimize etme tepkilerinin, çocukların içselleştirme ve dışsallaştırma problemleriyle
olumlu yönde ilişkili olduğunu göstermiştir. Çocuklarda dikkati odaklama ve dikkati
çevirebilme, içselleştirme problemleriyle olumsuz yönde ilişkiliyken, dürtüsellik,
dışsallaştırma problemleriyle olumlu yönde, fakat ketleyici kontrol, dışsallaştırma
problemleriyle olumsuz yönde ilişkilidir. Ayrıca, annelerin cezalandırıcı tepkilerinin,
çocuklarda dikkati odaklama ve çevirebilme ile olumsuz yönde ilişkili olduğu
bulunmuştur. Bunların yanısıra annelerin cezalandırıcı tepkilerinin hem doğrudan
hem de dolaylı olarak çocukların dışsallaştırma davranışlarıyla ilişkili olduğu
görülmüştür. Annelerin cezalandırıcı tepkileri çocukların dışsallaştırma problemlerini
dolaylı olarak ketleyici kontrol aracılığıyla etkilemektedir. Bu sonuçlar annelerin
çocukların olumsuz duygularına yönelik tepkilerinin ve çocukların mizacının,
çocukların içselleştirme ve dışsallaştırma problemlerinin daha iyi anlaşılmasına katkı
sağladığını göstermektedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: ebeveyn sosyalleştirmesi, mizaç, içselleştirme ve dışsallaştırma
problemleri, orta çocukluk
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my deep gratitude for:
My thesis advisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Asiye Kumru, who helped me with her
valuable contributions during thesis process. This study was supported by a research
grant from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey –TUBITAK
(SOBAG 104K068) to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Asiye Kumru. Also, Ass. Prof. Dr. Ayfer
Dost Gözkan and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Feyza Çorapçı who, as part of my thesis
committee, provided me with precious ideas through their feedbacks;
My dear colleagues Hazal Çelik and Burcu Bugan, who always encouraged
me and answered my every question without being exhausted throughout my thesis
process;
My mother Ayten Korkmaz, who always respected my decisions and
supported me;
My dear cousin Ezgi Kaya, who supported, trusted, and encouraged me every
time, and guided me with her precious experiences and thoughts in every part of my
life;
My dear brother-in-law Hüseyin Hayatsever, who always helped and
supported me with his unique and extensive knowledge.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION..........................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. iv
ÖZET.......................................................................................................................... v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................................................................................... . vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................... vii
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... ix
1. CHAPTER 1 ......................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION. .................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Theoretical Approaches ............................................................................... 3
1.1.1 Psycho-dynamic Theories ...........................................................................3
1.1.2 Attachment Theory ...................................................................................... 4
1.1.3 Behavioral Theories .................................................................................... 5
1.1.4 Social-learning Theory ................................................................................ 5
1.1.5 Cognitive Theories ...................................................................................... 6
1.1.6 Biological Models ....................................................................................... 7
1.1.7 Transactional Models .................................................................................. 8
1.2 Literature Review ......................................................................................... 10
1.2.1 Parental Socialization of Children’s Negative Emotions and Internalizing
and Externalizing Behavior Problems ................................................................ 10
1.2.2 Temperament and Children’s Internalizing and Externalizing Behavior
Problems ............................................................................................................. 15
1.2.3 Parental Socialization of Children’s Negative Emotions, Temperament and
Internalizing and Externalizing Behavior Problems .......................................... 18
1.3 The Present Study.. ...................................................................................... 21
1.4 Hypotheses ................................................................................................... 21
2. CHAPTER 2 ........................................................................................................ 23
METHODS ............................................................................................................. 23
2.1 Participants ................................................................................................... 23
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2.2 Materials ...................................................................................................... .24
2.2.1 Coping with Negative Emotions Scale (CCNES) ..................................... 24
2.2.2 Children’s Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ) ............................................... 25
2.2.3 Child Behavior Checklist/6-18 (CBCL) ................................................... 26
2.3 Procedure...................................................................................................... 27
3. CHAPTER 3 ........................................................................................................ 28
RESULTS ................................................................................................................ 28
3.1 Attrition Analyses ........................................................................................ 28
3.2 Preliminary Analyses ................................................................................... 28
3.3 Main Analysis Plan ...................................................................................... 32
3.4 Main Analysis .............................................................................................. 33
4. CHAPTER 4 ........................................................................................................ 38
DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................... 38
4.1 The Relations between Maternal Socialization of Children’s Negative
Emotions, and Children’s Internalizing and Externalizing Problems-Hypotheses 1
& 2 ...................................................................................................................... 38
4.2 The Relations between Children’s Temperament, and Internalizing and
Externalizing Problems-Hypotheses 3, 4, & 5....................................................40
4.3 The Relations between Maternal Socialization of Children’s Negative
Emotions and Children’s Temperament-Hypotheses 6 & 7 .............................. 42
4.4 The Mediating Role of Children’s Temperament on the Relation between
Maternal Socialization of Children’s Negative Emotions, and Children’s
Internalizing and Externalizing Problems-Hypothesis 8.................................... 43
4.5 Implications .................................................................................................. 46
4.6 Strenghts of the Present Study ..................................................................... 46
4.7 Limitations ................................................................................................... 47
4.8 Future Directions .......................................................................................... 48
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................... 50
Appendix A-Olumsuz Duygularla Baş Etme Ölçeği ............................................... 50
Appendix B-Çocukların Davranışlarını Değerlendirme Ölçeği-Anne Formu ......... 55
Appendix C-Çocuk Davranış Kontrol Ölçeği-CBCL/6-18-Anne Formu ................ 58
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 62
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlation Matrix................................ 31
Table 2. Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Maternal Socialization of Children’s
Negative Emotions and Temperament .....................................................................35
Table 3. Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Maternal Socialization, Temperament,
and Internalizing and Externalizing Problems..........................................................36
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
There is an increased interest in identifying the precursors of behavior
problems which broadly involve internalizing and externalizing problems. They are
important signs of maladjustment from childhood to adolescence (Bongers, Koot,
Van der Ende, & Verhulst, 2003). While internalizing problems involve anxiety,
depression, somatic complaints, and withdrawn behavior (Bongers et al., 2003),
externalizing problems mainly include aggressive and destructive behavior, conduct
problems, hyperactivity, impulsivity, and symptoms which are distressing to others
(Bongers et al., 2003; Denham et al., 2000). Internalizing and externalizing problems
are observed from early childhood to adolescence. However, they have different
developmental patterns. While, internalizing problems increase from childhood to
adolescence (Bongers et al., 2003), externalizing problems decrease with increasing
age but they also have a tendency to continue during childhood and adolescence
(Bongers et al., 2003; Denham et al., 2000). Hence, factors and conditions, which
trigger the beginning and continuation of behavior problems, should be identified to
prevent and decrease them earlier (Denham et al., 2000).
Research showed that parents play important roles in children’s adjustment.
Parental socialization of children’s negative emotions is also crucial for children’s
adjustment as one of the important aspects of parenting (Fabes, Poulin, Eisenberg, &
Madden-Derdich, 2002). However, there is little attention in parental emotion-related
reactions and its link to children’s adjustment (Eisenberg, Fabes, & Murphy, 1996).
How parents socialize, cope with and react towards children’s negative emotional
reactions and expressions were associated with regulation of children’s behavior
2
(Denham et al., 2000; Fabes, Leonard, Kupanoff, & Martin, 2001). While parental
punitive reactions were positively linked to children’s internalizing and externalizing
problems (Engle & McElwain, 2011), parental explanation, talk and discussion about
emotions were correlated with children’s regulation of externalizing behavior
(Eisenberg et al., 2001).
Furthermore, children’s temperament was associated with children’s behavior
problems. It was found that temperamental traits of children such as low frustration
tolerance, impulsivity, and high activity at the age of 3 and 4 predict externalizing
problems at the age of 5 (Zahn-Waxler, Schmitz, Fulker, Robinson, & Emde, 1996).
As research showed, both parents’ socialization practices and children’s
temperamental traits trigger chronicity and permanence of children’s behavior
problems (Denham et al., 2000). However, there is lack of research examining how
parental socialization influence children’s internalizing and externalizing behavior
problems through child temperament during middle childhood in non-Western
contexts. Thus, the present study aimed to examine the mediational effect of
temperament on the links between parental socialization of children’s negative
emotions and children’s internalizing and externalizing behavior problems in a
longitudinal study with Turkish school-age children.
There are several strengths of this study. Most of the studies which identify
the precursors of children’s internalizing and externalizing problems in middle
childhood were conducted in Western countries. However, studies on internalizing
and externalizing problems of children in middle childhood in non-Western countries
are less, but cultural differences may influence parental socialization of children’s
negative emotions and its effects on children’s behavior problems. Moreover, there
are fewer longitudinal studies which focus on the mediational effects of children’s
3
temperament on the relations between maternal socialization of children’s negative
emotions, and children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. Thus, the present
study aims to fill these gaps in the literature and have important contributions to
comprehend children’s internalizing and externalizing problems.
In the following sections of this chapter first the theoretical approaches
explaining children’s behavior problems were explained. Next, literature review
would be reported. Finally, the research questions and hypotheses would be
formulated.
1.1 Theoretical Approaches
Several theories clarify how behavior problems emerge in children. These
theories include psycho-dynamic, attachment, behavioral, social learning, cognitive,
biological and transactional models. Even though many of them arise from earlier
ones, each theory involves different perspectives about the development of behavior
problems in children (Mash & Barkley, 2014).
1.1.1 Psycho-dynamic Theories
Psycho-dynamic theories emphasise the importance of early life experiences
and unconscious processes in child psychopathology (Mash & Barkley, 2014).
Oedipus complex is related to that children see the same sex parent as a threat in
their relationship with the opposite sex parent. The identification of children with the
same sex parent contributes to the resolution of Oedipus complex. Hence, if children
identify with parent who displays hostile, angry, aggressive and authoritarian
behavior, they also have these kinds of behavior. Moreover, as a defense mechanism,
which contribute to the regulation of emotions through minimize, transform and
keeping away from emotions, and control of behavior, children are more likely to
reflect these behaviors towards their siblings or peers, who are not seen as a threat
4
for themselves (Mash & Barkley, 2014; Rubin & Burgess, 2002). On the other hand,
with the development of superego, children internalize norms of parents with whom
they identified. Thus, they are more likely to control and regulate their aggressive
behavior and impulses (Rubin & Burgess, 2002).
Freud also supports the role of unconscious libidinal desires or hostility
towards parents in the emergence of anxiety (Zahn-Waxler, Klimes-Dougan, &
Slattery, 2000). As it was stated in Zahn-Waxler’s and Kochanska’s study (1990)
feeling guilt because of unconscious reactions towards parents, such as sexual and
aggressive impulses, contribute to experience depression (Zahn-Waxler &
Kochanska, 1990). Moreover, when parents do not meet children’s needs and
disappoint them frequently, children are more likely to feel depressed (Zahn-Waxler
et al., 2000). As it was seen, parents have important roles in the development of
behavior problems in children.
1.1.2 Attachment Theory
According to Bowlby, the quality of early parent-child relationships such as
secure and insecure attachment, the development of autonomy and internal working
models are center of attention in the development of child psychopathology. There is
a link between the quality of early attachment relationships and later
psychopathology in children (Mash & Barkley, 2014; Zahn-Waxler et al., 2000).
Internal working model is about children’s internalization of the relationships in
relation to parents’ behavior. When early parent-child attachment relationships
involve sensitiveness, responsiveness, consistency or availability of parents, children
are more likely to feel secure, comfort or confident (Rubin & Burgess, 2002). A
secure basis, which is provided by attachment figure, gives children opportunities to
explore and learn (Mash & Barkley, 2014; Rubin & Burgess, 2002). It also
5
contributes to the development of problem-solving and social skills, competence and
autonomy (Rubin & Burgess, 2002; Zahn-Waxler et al., 2000).
On the contrary, if the caregiver does not respond the need of the child in an
appropriate way, it is associated with psychopathology (Mash & Barkley, 2014).
When parent-child attachment relationships include neglect, rejection, or insecurity,
children are more likely to have maladaptive behavior such as aggression, anxiety or
withdrawal. They become more hostile and irritable in their interactions and
relationships with peers. Hence, they are unable to develop communication,
negotiation and perspective-taking skills (Rubin & Burgess, 2002; Zahn-Waxler et
al., 2000). On the other hand, internal working model that develops in children
through attachment relationships involve constructs, which make a room for change,
so the link between early attachment relationships and later psychopathology may
become a probability (Mash & Barkley, 2014).
1.1.3 Behavioral Theories
Behaviorists underline that children learn behavior through conditioning and
modelling. Children evaluate behavior according to positive and negative outcomes
of it (Zahn-Waxler et al., 2000). They observe people in their surroundings such as
parents, siblings, and peers, and imitate and learn their communication and behavior
which involve aggressive, anxious and withdrawn (Rubin & Burgess, 2002; Zahn-
Waxler et al., 2000). Their environmental experiences which are especially
uncontrollable and aversive are risks for behavior problems such as depression
(Zahn-Waxler et al., 2000).
1.1.4 Social-learning Theory
According to social learning theory, behavior and emotional reactions are
obtained through experiences, observation of others’ behavior and emotional
6
reactions, and rewarding or punishing reactions. The consequences of others’
behavior has facilitative, informative and incentive role for children. Their learning is
influenced by the observation of these consequences. Moreover, there is an
interaction between behavior and control conditions of it. Behavior is not only
experienced but also is regulated and controlled in relation to the consequences of it.
Hence, cognitive skills contribute to benefit from experiences. Representations about
acts of model shape children’s future actions, contribute to solve problems (Bandura,
1977). As it was seen, other’s reactions are important sources for children’s behavior
and regulation of it.
1.1.5 Cognitive Theories
Theories which focus on cognition in the development of child
psychopathology involve information processing and cognitive-behavioral
approaches. Cognition means mental processes that involve attention, memory,
learning, problem-solving and decision-making. The links between information
processing and child psychopathology explain with deficiencies in basic information
processing which is related to cognitive functions such as attention and memory,
social information processing and maladaptive cognition. According to the social
information-processing, there is a reciprocal interaction between information
processing skills, which is necessary in social relationships, and social schemas,
memories, knowledge, cultural values and rules of individuals. Hence, the
development of cognitive skills and recognizing the effects of peers’ reactions,
thoughts and emotions contribute to social adjustment (Mash & Barkley, 2014).
Cognitive-behavioral theories support some characteristics of behavioral
approaches and include cognitive dynamics and information processing. When
cognitive vulnerabilities such as; negative attribution and processing negative
7
stimulus continuously, interact adverse and stressful life experiences, the symptoms
of psychopathology increases (Mash & Barkley, 2014). It was supported that
negative environmental experiences, which could not be controlled, are risks for
behavior disorders such as depression (Zahn-Waxler et al., 2000). Cognitive
schemas, which are related to process experiences, are guidelines, influence hopes,
beliefs, emotions and behavior, and information is filtered compatible with them.
When maladaptive schemas, which develop in early childhood, are triggered by
adverse experiences, it influences the cognitive processes such as encoding,
processing and interpretation (Mash & Barkley, 2014). While internalizing problems
are linked to inability in organizing and processing information, externalizing
problems are generally associated with inability in encoding information and solving
problems (Achenbach, 2000).
1.1.6 Biological Models
Genetic/neurobiological theories emphasize the individual differences which
are related to heritability and neurobiological basis in the emergence of child
psychopathology. They focus on the role of heredity, structure, function, and
particular areas of the brain and etiologically related genes in disorders such as
ADHD, autism spectrum disorder, social withdrawal, anxiety disorders, and
obsessive-compulsive disorder. Hence, patterns of family have an important role in
the understanding of genetic factors and influences on child psychopathology (Mash
& Barkley, 2014). Moreover, as it was stated in family and twin studies, specific
temperamental characteristics such as behavioral inhibition are risk factors for
anxiety disorder (Turner, Beidel, & Wolff, 1996). It was also found that behavioral
inhibition of two-year old girls predicted generalized social anxiety in adolescence
(Schwartz, Snidman, & Kagan, 1999).
8
1.1.7 Transactional Models
Individuals have an active role in their development process. Biological
functioning of individuals plays a central role in their relationships with
environment. However, their activities are linked to their environmental conditions
so it is difficult to understand individuals apart from these conditions. Individuals’
conceptualizations about the world, and their way of managing new situations are
influenced by environmental conditions. Hence, both their characteristics and
environment are effective in the understanding and explanation of their development
(Lerner & Damon, 2006).
Transactional models support that developmental outcomes emerges by the
integration of individuals’ characteristics and their environment that involve family
and social context. There are bidirectional relations between children and their
surroundings and experiences. Children’s behavior and reactions are changed by
parents’ behavior and reactions towards them and also parents’ behavior and
reactions are changed by children’s behavior and reactions. Hence, besides seeing
parenting practices as the reason of children’s behavior, it is necessary to consider
that behavior and reactions of parents are also determined by children’s
characteristics, behaviour, and reactions (Sameroff & Mackenzie, 2003). It was
found that deficits in maternal responsiveness which are related to maternal
depression lead to conduct problems in children, while concurrently ADHD in
children lead to deficits in maternal responsiveness (Johnston, Murray, Hinshaw,
Pelham, & Hoza, 2002).
As it was stressed in transactional models, the influence of children’s
characteristics and environmental conditions on each other determines children’s
adjustment (Sameroff, Lewis, & Miller, 2000). Not only individual characteristics
9
and social context but also the associations between them should take into
consideration to understand the emergence of children’s behavior problems
(Sameroff & Mackenzie, 2003). Research showed that maladaptive parenting and
difficult temperament in children contribute to children’s later behavior disorders
(Sameroff & Mackenzie, 2003). Moreover, maternal responsiveness was negatively
correlated with preschool children’s externalizing problems in relation to its positive
relation to children’s effortful control (Orta, Corapci, Yagmurlu, & Aksan, 2013).
Hence, it is important and effective to investigate conditions about children’s
temperament, parenting and socialization practices which both separately and
together influence children’s behavior problems (McGinley, 2008).
There is an emphasis on the relation between environmental factors and
individual characteristics in the development of children’s behavior problems. In the
present study, transactional approach was adopted in the examination of children’s
behavior problems to comprehend the risk and protective factors effectively in
middle childhood.
On the other hand, besides different perspectives of each theory in the
development of psychopathology in children, there may be interactions of multiple
etiologies in the emergence of child psychopathology. Hence, the integration of these
theories and models has important contribution to the understanding of child
psychopathology (Mash & Barkley, 2014).
In the examination of children’s behavior problems, parenting styles or
specific parenting aspects such as warmth and hostility, and children’s temperament
are center of attention with their relations and influences on behavior problems
(Rubin, Burgess, Dwyer, & Hastings, 2003). Parenting practices such as harsh
parenting and children’s temperament are strong predictors of children’s
10
internalizing and externalizing problems (Leve, Kim, & Pears, 2005). While
parenting which is authoritarian, hostile, and punitive was positively related to
children’s externalizing problems even in their early ages, positive behavior of
parents, which includes warmth, acceptance, positive control-guidance, inductive
reasoning, and involvement was associated with decreased internalizing and
externalizing problems in children (Rubin et al., 2003).
In the following section, first literature about parental socialization of
children’s negative emotions and its links with children’s behavior problems; then
temperament and its relations with children’s behavior problems; following that the
relations between parental socialization of children’s negative emotions,
temperament, and children’s behavior problems was reported.
1.2 Literature Review
1.2.1 Parental Socialization of Children’s Negative Emotions and
Internalizing and Externalizing Behavior Problems
A great number of studies have been investigating parental socialization of
children’s negative emotions. Parental reactions to children’s negative emotions
especially have an important role while studying emotion socialization, which is
about that children have ability to understand, regulate, and cope with emotions,
express their emotions and react in emotional situation with socially and culturally
appropriate and effective ways (Lundell, 2008). Parents socialize children’s emotions
through some ways such as talking about their emotions frequently, explaining
causes or consequences of emotions or reacting to the expressions of children’s
emotions (Lunkenheimer, Shields, & Cortina, 2007). Parents’ direct behavior such as
teaching, reacting, discussing, and coaching emotions, or indirect behavior such as
expressing and regulating their own emotions contribute to children’s learning how
11
to regulate, deal with, and express emotions (Eisenberg et al., 1996; Fabes et al.,
2002).
Parental reactions to children’s negative emotions are mainly categorized as
non-supportive or negative reactions and supportive or positive reactions. Nonsupportive
or negative reactions, which are also called as emotion dismissing,
reactions are about being unaware of children’s emotions, seeing negative emotions
as overpowering, criticizing children’s emotion and keeping children away from
negative emotions (Eisenberg et al., 1996; Fabes et al., 2002; Kehoe, Havighurst, &
Harley, 2014; Lunkenheimer et al., 2007). Non-supportive reactions include distress
reactions, punitive reactions and minimization reactions. Parents react with distress
to children’s negative emotions (Eisenberg et al., 1996; Fabes et al., 2002). For
example when children are embarrassed because of making a mistake, parents feel
embarrassed and uncomfortable themselves as a distress reaction (Fabes, Eisenberg,
& Bernzweig, 1990). Punitive reactions are about punishing children to control their
negative emotional reactions (Eisenberg et al., 1996; Fabes et al., 2002). As a
punitive reaction, parents do not allow children to do something they like such as
watching TV (Fabes et al., 1990). Minimization reactions are about taking no notice
and decreasing the importance of children’s emotional and distress reactions, and
problems, in other words limiting children’s expression of negative emotions
(Eisenberg et al., 1996; Fabes et al., 2002). As an example when children cannot
sleep after they watch a scary movie, parents tell their children that they are overreacting
as a minimization reaction (Fabes et al., 1990).
In contrast, supportive or positive reactions, which is also called as emotion
coaching, is about being aware of children’s emotions, accepting them, seeing
negative emotions as an opportunity and helping children to understand and control
12
their negative emotions while talking about emotions (Eisenberg et al., 1996; Fabes
et al., 2002; Kehoe et al., 2014). Supportive reactions involve encouragement of
expressing emotions, emotion-focused responses and problem-focused responses.
Encouragement of expressing emotions is about allowing children’s emotional
reactions (Eisenberg et al., 1996; Fabes et al., 2002). As an example parents
encourage children to talk about and express their anger, frustration, fear, nervous,
and disappointed feelings (Fabes et al., 1990). Emotion-focused responses are about
using strategies that are helping children feel better (Eisenberg et al., 1996; Fabes et
al., 2002). As an emotion-focused response, parents soothe their children, have fun
with them while playing game, talk about and think joyful things with them to feel
them better (Fabes et al., 1990). Problem-focused responses are about helping
children figure out problems which is reason of children’s distress (Eisenberg et al.,
1996; Fabes et al., 2002). If children cry when they lose their toy, parents help
children think and look places which toy can be found as a problem-focused response
(Fabes et al., 1990).
Several studies examined parents’ reactions to children’s negative emotions
in relation to children’s behavior problems. Parents have a tendency to react to
children’s negative emotions with negative strategies, which involve punishment or
trying to stop them suddenly, because they think that children may use negative
emotions for their own profit and expression of negative emotions may indicate
problematic character of children or negative emotions may be detrimental for
children. However, children avoid displaying their emotions and suppress them and
their anxiety increase with parents’ negative reactions (Fabes et al., 2001). Moreover,
research showed that non-supportive reactions of parents, especially punitive and
minimizing reactions, trigger less supportive and secure, more conflictual and
13
stressful parent-child interactions and are risk factor for both internalizing and
externalizing behavior in school-age children (Eisenberg et al., 1999; Kehoe et al.,
2014; Rydell, Thorell, & Bohlin, 2007; Tao, Zhou, & Wang, 2010). Children feel
insecure in an environment which involves non-supportive reactions of parents
towards their negative emotions and they are more likely to have unregulated and
inappropriate behavior and long-term behavior problems in relation to exposure to
distress reactions (Eisenberg et al., 1996). Parents’ negative strategies to children’s
negative emotions were more likely to be related to having difficulties and problems
in regulation of children’s behavior and emotions, which are especially important
throughout children’s school years in their expanding relationships, such as peer
relationships, in social context (Fabes et al., 2001; Lunkenheimer et al., 2007).
Research showed that parental minimization reactions to children at ages 4-6
predicted children’s externalizing problem behavior, which involves aggressive,
destructive and socially inappropriate behavior, 4 or 6 years later (Eisenberg et al.,
1999). Parental punitive and minimization reactions were positively linked to
internalizing problems in relation to increased sadness and anxiety (Engle &
McElwain, 2011) and externalizing problems in relation to increased anger and
frustration in school-age children (Frick & Morris, 2004).
Furthermore the findings about parents’ punitive reactions to children’s
negative emotions are more consistent than distress and minimization reactions of
parents. Minimization reactions are especially different from other non-supportive
reactions of parents (Eisenberg et al., 1999). Cultural differences may influence
parental socialization of children’s negative emotions and its effects on children’s
behavior problems. It is expected that while minimization reactions are negatively
linked to children’s adjustment in Western culture, they are unrelated to children’s
14
adjustment in non-Western culture because parents are more likely to restrict
children’s emotional expressions in collectivistic cultures such as China. Moreover,
if parents use minimization reactions to ignore and reject children’s negative
emotions, these reactions are more likely to impair children’s adjustment. However,
when parents use these reactions to feel children better, they are more likely to
contribute to children’s adjustment (Tao et al., 2010).
On the other hand, parental reactions were also associated with positive child
outcomes such as increased emotional understanding and expressiveness. If parents
accept children’s negative emotions instead of inhibiting them, children have more
benefits including increased emotional understanding and expressiveness. Parents
should cope with children’s negative emotions with supportive reactions and should
help them manage their negative emotions such as anger and hostility (Fabes et al.,
2002). Parental emotional communication which involves supportive reactions and
emotion coaching provide that children learn how to cope with negative emotions,
they express their emotions in ways which are suitable for social expectations, they
become aware of their own emotions and others’ emotions, and they show adaptive
behavior in social context (Dunsmore, Booker, & Ollendick, 2013; Eisenberg et al.,
1996). Research showed that parent’s encouragement of children’s expressions of
emotions contributes to expression of children’s negative emotions such as
nervousness and sadness. On the contrary, discouragement of the expression of
children’s negative emotions was positively related to anxiety and inappropriate
reactions in social context in middle childhood (Eisenberg et al., 1996). Moreover,
supportive reactions contribute to positive child outcomes including better
adjustment in school-age children while parents are explaining and discussing
emotions and modelling, coaching and teaching their children how to manage and
15
regulate externalizing behavior and negative emotions (Eisenberg et al., 2001; Tao et
al., 2010). It was found that emotion dismissing behaviors were risk factors for
children’s internalizing and externalizing problems in middle childhood. However,
when there was both emotion coaching and emotion dismissing towards children’s
negative emotions, coaching of negative emotions was associated with lower
internalizing problems in middle childhood (Lunkenheimer et al., 2007). Moreover,
maternal emotion coaching, explaining, talking and discussing emotions were
correlated with school-aged children’s regulation of externalizing problems
(Eisenberg et al., 2001). However, although parental emotion and problem-focused
reactions were negatively linked to internalizing problems in school-age children,
these reactions were not correlated with externalizing problems, and no research
which showed that parental emotion or problem-focused reactions were negatively
related to children’s externalizing problems was found (Tao et al., 2010).
Besides the links between parental socialization of children’s negative
emotions and children’s behavior problems, children’s temperament also plays
important roles on children’s behavior problems. Literature review about the
relations between temperament and internalizing and externalizing behavior
problems was going to be reported in the next section.
1.2.2 Temperament and Children’s Internalizing and Externalizing
Behavior Problems
Not only parents but also children have important roles in their development
and adjustment as an individual with their temperament (Rothbart, 2007).
Temperamental differences have important influences on the development of
children, and how these differences increase or decrease the risk of behavior
problems are center of attention in recent studies (Frick & Morris, 2004). Children’s
16
different reactions to the environment and the regulation of them constitute their
temperament (Rothbart, 2007). Temperament is defined as heritable, biologically
based individual differences in behavior, reactivity and self-regulation (Lengua,
West, & Sandler, 1998; Muris, Meesters, & Blijlevens, 2007; Rothbart & Bates,
1998). Reactivity, which is seen as early as the first year of the life, is the onset,
intensity, duration and arousability of emotional, motor, and attentional response
system (Rothbart, Ahadi, Hershey, & Fisher, 2001; Rothbart, Ellis, & Posner, 2004).
As a temperamental trait, impulsivity is stated as response initiation speed (Rothbart,
2007; Rothbart et al., 2001). For example impulsive children commonly hurry to start
an activity or decide to do something without thinking about it (Rothbart et al.,
2001). On the other hand, self-regulation means the processes to increase or decrease
reactivity containing effortful control of behavior which is related to attention
system. Contrary to reactivity, it appears around the end of the first year of life
(Rothbart et al., 2001; Rothbart et al., 2004). Effortful control is an important
dimension of self-regulation. Effortful control, which is stated as voluntary control of
behavior and emotion, means that the ability to inhibit a dominant response to plan
and to find out errors (Rothbart & Bates, 2006; Rothbart et al., 2004). The
components of effortful control are inhibitory control and attentional control that
involve attentional focusing and shifting (Eisenberg et al., 2005; Frick & Morris,
2004; Zentner & Bates, 2008). Inhibitory control is the ability to react to situations in
a planned way and to inhibit inappropriate responses (Zentner & Bates, 2008). As an
example, children are able to wait before starting an activity (Rothbart et al., 2001).
Attentional focusing is the ability to keep attentional focus on stimulus (Eisenberg et
al., 2005; Frick & Morris, 2004). For example when children start an activity such as
drawing or building something, they can continue this activity for long times
17
(Rothbart et al., 2001). Attentional shifting is the ability to shift attention when it is
necessary to cope with situations (Eisenberg et al., 2005; Frick & Morris, 2004). As
an example, children can easily leave their play in meal times or to do homework
(Eisenberg et al., 2005; Rothbart et al., 2001).
Temperament is an important factor in the development of internalizing and
externalizing problems (Lengua et al., 1998; Muris et al., 2007). Temperamental
differences in children, which is related to different physiological reactivity,
behavioral and emotional reactions to environmental stimulus, determine decrease or
increase in children’s internalizing and externalizing problems (Frick & Morris,
2004; Muris et al., 2007). Children change and regulate their behavioral and
emotional reactions by shifting their attention from emotional stimulus or event, and
inhibiting or increasing their reactions (Frick & Morris, 2004). Specific
temperamental traits diminish the development of children’s abilities which are
necessary to regulate emotion, plan and control behavior. Hence, they were found to
link to children’s internalizing and externalizing problems (Frick & Morris, 2004).
Research with children aged between 9 and 13 showed that children who had
internalizing and externalizing problems were found to have low effortful control
than children who did not have behavior problems (Lengua et al., 1998; Muris et al.,
2007). Moreover, low effortful control is a stronger predictor of externalizing
problems than internalizing problems (Rothbart, 2007). Low inhibitory control was
more likely to associate with externalizing problems and inhibition was also
positively related to internalizing problems in children. However, low attentional
control was more likely to link to internalizing problems in children (Lengua et al.,
1998; Muris et al., 2007). While internalizing problems are generally associated with
uncontrollable negative thoughts in children, externalizing problems are generally
18
linked to disinhibition and impulsivity (Muris et al., 2007). If children have
internalizing problems, they have difficulties in managing their emotions because of
having difficulties in shifting their attention from negative thoughts and stimulus
(Eisenberg et al., 2005). Moreover, if children are not able to inhibit undesired
behavior when it is required, they are more likely to be aggressive than children who
are able to inhibit it (Rubin et al., 2003). It was found that when all components of
effortful control are low in school-aged children but they have high impulsivity, they
have a tendency to have externalizing problems. However, if school-aged children
are high in inhibitory control but low in attentional control and impulsivity, they tend
to have internalizing problems (Eisenberg et al., 2005).
Other than taking into consideration the binary relations between parental
socialization of children’s negative emotions, children’s temperament and children’s
behavior problems, in what way the links between parental socialization of children’s
negative emotions and children’s temperament are associated with children’s
behavior problems is also important.
1.2.3 Parental Socialization of Children’s Negative Emotions,
Temperament and Internalizing and Externalizing Behavior Problems
Some of the models which involve the associations between parenting
practices and children’s temperament, and how these associations relate to children’s
behavior problems emphasize that children react differently in same environments in
relation to their different temperamental characteristics, and parenting practices have
different influences on different children (Sameroff et al., 2000). Transactional
models underline that there is a reciprocal relationship between parenting practices
and children’s characteristics during children’s development. Not only parental
socialization of children’s negative emotions and children’s temperamental
19
characteristics but also the bidirectional links between them have important
influences in the emergence of children’s externalizing and internalizing problems
(McGinley, 2008). Children have an active role in parent-child relationships so their
temperamental characteristics have important influences on parent-child
relationships, their socialization processes, and reactions of parents towards them
(Lengua et al., 1998; Muris et al., 2007). Different characteristics of children evoke
different parental reactions to children’s negative emotions such as anger, irritability,
fear and sadness. Showing negative emotions intensely is a part of temperamental
traits and if children display negative emotions frequently and intensely, their parents
were more likely to have negative reactions such as distress, punitive, and
minimization, and were unlikely to have problem-focused reactions to children’s
negative emotions in middle childhood (Eisenberg et al., 1996). It was also found
that mothers’ punitive and minimization reactions to children’s negative emotions
were related to low attentional control (focusing and shifting attention) and high
negative affect in children whose age varied from 4 to 6. In contrast, maternal
expressive encouragement of children’s emotion was linked to children’s high
attentional control (focusing and shifting attention) (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1994).
Research has also indicated that parents’ punitive reactions to children’s
negative emotions at ages 8-10 negatively predicted children’s regulation, which
involves inhibitory control, impulsivity, attention focusing, and self-control, at ages
10-12 (Eisenberg et al., 1999). Children’s regulation at ages 6-8 also negatively
predicted parental punitive reactions at 8-10. Hence, the bidirectional association
between parental punitive reactions towards children’s negative emotions and
children’s regulation is supported. In addition, the reciprocal relationship between
parental punitive reactions and children regulation is also effective in the emergence
20
of children’s externalizing problems. It was stated that the link between parental
punitive reactions and mother-reported externalizing problem behavior of children at
age 10-12, which include aggressive, destructive and socially inappropriate behavior,
was partially mediated by children’s regulation (Eisenberg et al., 1999). However, no
study which is about supportive maternal reactions to children’s negative emotions,
negative temperamental characteristics of children and children’s internalizing and
externalizing problems was found.
It seems like that there are bidirectional links between emotion-related
practices of parent and children’s temperament, and their relations are also effective
on children’s behavior problems in middle childhood. Hence, it is important to
conceptualize and investigate their influences on children’s behavior problems with a
transactional approach (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1994; Eisenberg et al., 1996; Eisenberg
et al., 1999). Consequently, besides investigating separately the links between
parental socialization of children’s negative emotions, children’s temperament and
children’s behavior problems, it should be examined how the relations between
parental socialization of children’s negative emotions and children’s temperament
are associated with children’s behavior problems.
In addition, previous research shows significant gender and SES differences
in children’s behavior problems. The literature about gender differences stated that
boys are more likely to have externalizing problems than girls (Rubin et al., 2003).
Socioeconomic status (SES) has also important influences on children’s behavior
problems. Research showed that SES negatively predicted children’s externalizing
problems (Tao et al., 2010), and it was negatively related to children’s internalizing
problems as well (Lunkenheimer et al., 2007). However, the present study did not
21
focus on gender and SES differences so we didn’t formulate any specific research
hypotheses about them but we controlled these variables in the analyses.
1.3 The Present Study
The present study aims to investigate the longitudinal relations between
parental socialization of children’s negative emotions and children’s temperament
and how these relations predict children’s behavior problems in elementary school
children. In other words, it examined the mediational effect of temperament on the
links between parental socialization of children’s negative emotions and children’s
internalizing and externalizing behavior problems in a longitudinal study with
Turkish school-age children.
The current study has following four research questions:
1) What are the relations between maternal socialization of children’s negative
emotions and children’s internalizing and externalizing behavior problems?
2) What are the links between children’s temperament and children’s
internalizing and externalizing behavior problems?
3) What are the associations between maternal socialization of children’s
negative emotions and children’s temperament?
4) Does children’s temperament mediate the relation between maternal
socialization of children’s negative emotions, and children’s internalizing and
externalizing behavior problems?
1.4 Hypotheses
In the light of the literature, the following hypotheses were formulated.
Hypothesis 1. Maternal punitive and minimization reactions at age 7 were
expected to be positively related to children’s internalizing and externalizing
problems at age 9.
22
Hypothesis 2. Maternal emotion and problem-focused reactions at age 7 were
expected to be negatively linked to children’s internalizing problems at age 9 but no
hypothesis formulated for externalizing behavior problems
Hypothesis 3. Attentional focusing and shifting at age 8 were expected to be
negatively associated with children’s internalizing problems at age 9 but no
hypothesis formulated for externalizing behavior problems.
Hypothesis 4. Impulsivity at age 8 was expected to be positively linked to
children’s externalizing problems at age 9 but no hypothesis formulated for
internalizing behavior problems.
Hypothesis 5. Inhibitory control at age 8 was expected to be negatively
related to children’s externalizing problems at age 9 but no hypothesis formulated for
internalizing behavior problems.
Hypothesis 6. Maternal punitive and minimization reactions at age 7 were
expected to be negatively associated with attentional focusing and shifting at age 8.
Hypothesis 7. Maternal expressive encouragement of children’s emotions at
age 7 would be positively linked to attentional focusing and shifting at age 8.
Hypothesis 8. It was expected that the relation between maternal socialization
of children’s negative emotions at age 7 and children’s internalizing and
externalizing problems at age 9 would be mediated by children’s temperament at age
8. In other words, non-supportive maternal reactions to children’s negative emotions
at age 7 would negatively predict positive temperamental characteristics of children
at age 8, which, in turn, would negatively predict children’s internalizing and
externalizing problems at age 9. However, no hypothesis formulated for supportive
maternal reactions to children’s negative emotions, negative temperamental
characteristics of children and children’s internalizing and externalizing problems.
23
CHAPTER 2
METHODS
The data comes from a larger longitudinal study on children’s cognitive,
emotional, and prosocial development, in which children and their mothers were seen
at four times of assessment. The Scientific and Technological Research Council of
Turkey-TUBITAK funded Longitudinal Study of Children’s Cognitive, Emotional &
Prosocial Development [to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Asiye Kumru, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Bilge
Yağmurlu and Prof. Dr. Melike Sayıl (Grant No: 104K068)]. In the present study, we
used data obtained at three time points: when children were 7, 8, and 9 years old.
Parental socialization of children’s negative emotions was assessed through mother
version of Coping with Negative Emotions (Fabes et al., 1990) when the child was at
7 (T1). When the child at 8 (T2), mother version of Children’s Behavior
Questionnaire (Rothbart et al., 2001) was used to assess children’s temperament.
Children’s internalizing and externalizing problems were assessed by mother version
CBCL/6-18 (Achenbach & Rescorla, 1991) when the child was at 9 (T3).
2.1 Participants
Three hundred forty mothers and their children (49.7% girls, 50.3% boys,
Mage=83 months, SD=3.47, range=76-90 months) residing in three cities of Turkey
were recruited. A total of 132 mothers were from Bolu, 148 mothers from Istanbul,
and 60 mothers from Ankara. Families were coming from mostly middle class (SES:
M=3.19, SD=1.27, Mod=3; 1=equal or less than 450 TL per month, 2=450-750 TL
per month, 3=750-1500 TL per month, 4=1500-3000 TL per month, 5=3000-5000
TL per month and 6=equal or more than 5000 TL per month). The mean of education
years was 9.33 (SD=4.39) for mothers and 10.41 (SD=4.34) for fathers. For the
24
marital status of mothers, 88.5% of them were married. Also, 63.8% of the mothers
were housewife, while 28.8% of the mothers had a job; 88.2% of the fathers reported
that they had a job.
2.2 Materials
2.2.1 Coping with Negative Emotions Scale (CCNES). To assess parents'
reactions to the children's negative emotions, mothers completed Coping with
Negative Emotions Scale (CCNES) which is developed by Fabes, Eisenberg, and
Bernzweig (1990). This scale includes six subscales: Distress, e.g., “feel upset and
uncomfortable because of my child’s reaction”; punitive, e.g., “tell my child that if
she starts crying then she’ll have to go to her room right away”; and minimization
reactions, e.g., “tell my child that he is over-reacting”; expressive encouragement,
e.g., “encourage my child to talk about her fears”; emotion-focused, e.g., “comfort
my child and try to make him/her feel better” and problem-focused responses, e.g,
“help my child think of places she hasn't looked yet”. These subscales are assessed
with 12 hypotetic situations in which children display negative emotions (e.g. anger,
fear, and anxiety). Mothers were asked to indicate (on 5 point scale from “1=very
unlikely” to “5=very likely”) how likely she would be to react in each of six different
ways for each situation. Fabes et al. (2002) reported acceptable internal reliability of
subscales ranging from .69 to .85, test-retest reliability, good concurrent and
construct validity. It was adapted to Turkish by Altan, Yağmurlu and Yavuz (2013),
internal reliability ranges from .54 to .88. In our study obtained from longitudinal
data of the first year, Cronbach’s alphas for each subscale were found as .69 for
distress reaction (after dropping five items, leaving seven items), .83 for punitive
reaction, .82 for minimization, .81 for expressive encouragement, .79 for emotion25
focused reactions, and .76 for problem-focused reactions (after dropping one item,
leaving eleven items).
2.2.2 Children’s Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ). It assesses 15 dimensions
of temperament including activity level, anger/frustration, attentional focusing,
positive anticipation/approach, discomfort, falling reactivity/soothability, fear, high
intensity pleasure, impulsivity, inhibitory control, low intensity pleasure, perceptual
sensitivity, sadness, shyness, and smiling/laughter, with 195 statements on 7-point
scale from “1=extremely untrue” to “7=extremely true”. It is developed by Rothbart,
Ahadi, Hershey, and Fisher (2001). Four subscales of CBQ, which have 51 item, was
used in this study (attentional focusing, e.g., “when picking up toys or other jobs,
usually keeps at the task until it's done”; attentional shifting, e.g., “can easily shift
from one activity to another”; impulsivity, e.g., “usually rushes into an activity
without thinking about it”, and inhibitory control, e.g., “can lower his/her voice when
asked to do so”). When the child was 8 years old (T2), mother version of Children’s
Behavior Questionnaire (Rothbart, et al., 2001) was utilized to assess children’s
temperament. Mothers were presented with 51 statements which describe children’s
reactions to different situations and were asked to rate (on 5-point scale from
“1=always untrue” to “5=always true”) how “true” the statement was of their child’s
reaction within the past six months. Strong convergent and discriminate validity,
internal reliability and consistency of the temperament scales have been reported
(Rothbart et al., 2001). It was adapted to Turkish by Batum and Yagmurlu (2007)
and Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was found as .83. In our study, Cronbach’s alphas
for each subscale were found as .75 for attentional focusing (after dropping three
items, leaving eleven items), .75 for attentional shifting (after dropping two items,
26
leaving ten items), .68 for impulsivity (after dropping six items, leaving seven items),
and .75 for inhibitory control.
2.2.3 Child Behavior Checklist/6-18 (CBCL). To measure children’s
behavioral and emotional problems, Child Behavior Checklist/6-18 (CBCL), which
is a 113-item measure of parent's report of the children's behavioral and emotional
problems, and was developed by Achenbach (1991), was used. It yields scores for
social competency, eight syndrome scale scores (Withdrawn, e.g. “withdrawn,
doesn’t get involved with others”; Somatic Complaints, e.g. “feels dizzy or
lightheaded”; Anxious/Depressed, e.g. “too fearful or anxious”; Social Problems, e.g.
“doesn’t get along with other kids”; Thought Problems, e.g. “can’t get his/her minds
off certain thoughts”, Attention Problems, e.g. “can’t concentrate, can’t pay attention
for long”; Rule-Breaking Behavior, e.g. “breaks rules at home, school, or
elsewhere”; Aggressive Behavior, e.g. “destroys things belonging to his/her family or
others”), two broad scores (Internalizing and Externalizing Behavior Problems), and
a Total Behavior Problems score. Items were rated on a 3 point scale (“0=not at all
true” to “2=very true”). Scores for Internalizing Behavior Problems were computed
with the items of three syndrome scales (Somatic Problems, Anxious/Depressed, and
Withdrawn). Externalizing Behavior Problems were computed with items of two
syndrome scores (Rule-Breaking Behavior and Aggressive Behavior). Achenbach
and Rescorla (2001) reported that Internalizing and Externalizing broad scales have
high test–retest reliability (.91 and .92) and internal consistency (.90 and .94).
Moreover, Total Problems composite has good reliability and internal consistency
(.94 and .97) as well (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001). It was adapted to Turkish by
and Erol, Arslan, and Akçakın (1995), test-retest reliability was found as .84 and
internal consistency was found as .88 for total problems. In our study, Cronbach’s
27
alphas for each subscale were found as .86 for internalizing problems (.75 for
anxious/depressed, .73 for withdrawn and .76 for somatic complaints), .87 for
externalizing problems (.86 for aggressive behavior and .70 for rule-breaking
behavior (after dropping one items, leaving sixteen items), .70 for social problems,
.69 for thought problems (after dropping one item, leaving fourteen items), .78 for
attention problems (after dropping one items, leaving nine items), and .61 for other
problems (after dropping three items, leaving fourteen items).
2.3 Procedure
First the legal permission from the Turkish Ministry of Education was taken
to collect the date from public and private primary and secondary schools in Bolu,
Ankara, and Istanbul. With the principles knowledge and permission, an invitation
letter was sent to the parents through their children. In this letter, parents were
informed about the confidentiality and asked to sign informed consent form for the
child if they were willing to participate and allowed their kids to participate to the
current study. They were requested to provide their names and contact information as
well at least three contact persons’ addresses and phone numbers because of the
follow-up nature of our 4-year longitudinal project. When they signed and returned
the informed consent forms, the questionnaires were sent to parents. Finally, mothers
filled out the questionnaires wherever they liked and returned them to the respected
schools through their child.
28
CHAPTER 3
RESULTS
3.1 Attrition Analyses
The difference between Time 1 scores of participants who remained at Time
3 and those were absent were investigated to see the possible effects of attrition.
Attrition rate was 10.9% from Time 1 to Time 3. The differences on demographic
variables including residence of participants, gender, age, the number of sibling, the
age of mother and father, and the education years of mother and father were
examined with one-way ANOVA tests. There were not significant differences on
residence of the participants, gender, age, the number of sibling, the age of father and
the education years of mother. However, mothers’ age and the education years of
father were found to be significant. That is, the mean of mothers’ age who remained
at the study was 33.73 (SD=4.79), and who withdrew from the study was 31.88
(SD=4.83). The mean of education years of father who remained at the study was
10.18 (SD=4.24), and who withdrew from the study was 12.22 (SD=4.75). One-way
MANOVA tests were carried out to test the differences on main variables (maternal
socialization of children’s negative emotions and children’s temperament). No
significant differences were found on main variables either. Results showed that
participants who withdrew from the study did not differ significantly on main
variables from participants who remained at the study.
3.2 Preliminary Analyses
Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) and correlations among
demographic variables including age, gender, and SES, maternal socialization of
children's negative emotions, temperament, and internalizing behavior problems (i.e.,
29
anxious/depressive, withdrawn/depressive and somatic complaints), externalizing
behavior problems (i.e., rule-breaking and aggressive behaviors) were conducted (see
Table 1). SES was composed by three variables which are education levels of mother
and father, and monthly income. The scores of these three variables were converted
Z scores.
As can be seen in Table 1, correlational analyses showed that gender was
positively associated with attentional shifting and inhibitory control with girls
scoring higher than boys, but negatively correlated with children’s externalizing
problems with boys scoring higher than girls. Moreover, SES was negatively
correlated with maternal distress, punitive, minimization reactions, impulsivity, and
also with both children’s internalizing and externalizing problems; but positively
linked to attentional focusing and inhibitory control. It was indicated that maternal
distress, punitive behavior, and minimization reactions were positively associated
with each other.Also, maternal minimization reactions, expressive encouragement
and emotion and problem-focused responses were positively associated with each
other. However, maternal distress and punitive reactions were negatively correlated
with emotion and problem-focused reactions. Maternal distress, punitive, and
minimization reactions were positively linked with children’s internalizing and
externalizing problems. Furthermore attentional focusing, attentional shifting and
inhibitory control were positively correlated with each other. Attentional focusing,
attentional shifting, and inhibitory control were negatively associated with
impulsivity. While attentional focusing, attentional shifting, and inhibitory control
were negatively correlated with children’s internalizing and externalizing problems,
impulsivity was positively associated with both behavior problems. In addition,
maternal distress and punitive reactions were negatively linked to attentional
30
focusing, attentional shifting, and inhibitory control, but positively correlated with
impulsivity. Maternal emotion-focused and problem-focused responses were
positively associated with attentional shifting and inhibitory control, but negatively
linked with impulsivity. Maternal problem-focused problems were positively
correlated with attentional focusing, and maternal expressive encouragement was
positively associated with inhibitory control. Furthermore, children’s internalizing
problems were positively correlated with children’s externalizing problems. No other
significant relations were found.
31
Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlation Matrix
Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1-Age 82.94 3.47 -
2-Gender .03 -
3-SES -.003 .89 .03 -.04 -
4-Distress Reactions (T1) 2.14 .71 -.00 .04 -.33** -
5-Punitive Reactions (T1) 2.07 .77 .00 .04 -.47** .71** -
6-Minimization Reactions
(T1) 3.12 .76 .03 .04 -.37** .48** .54** -
7-Expressive Encouragement
(T1) 3.75 .68 .02 .11 -.04 -.02 -.04 .24** -
8-Emotion-Focused
Responses (T1) 4.34 .50 .11 -.01 -.03 -.18** -.19** .21** .54** -
9-Problem-Focused
Responses (T1) 4.26 .52 .06 .04 .09 -.16** -.19** .22** .55** .73** -
10-Attentional Focusing (T2) 3.47 .56 .12 .11 .20* -.25** -.26** -.09 .09 .12 .15* -
11-Attentional Shifting (T2) 3.48 .55 .01 .13* .05 -.24** -.24** -.06 .11 .17** .14* .49** -
12-Impulsivity (T2) 2.75 .65 -.09 -.06 -.14* .17** .24** .04 -.12 -.24** -.17** -.58** -.43** -
13-Inhibitory Control (T2) 3.71 .58 .10 .12* .16** -.21** -.26** -.05 .13* .27** .23** .57** .64** -.63** -
14-Internalizing Problems
(T3) .36 .25 -.04 .03 -.28** .30** .36** .23** .01 -.12 -.10 -.36** -.25** .20** -.25** -
15-Externalizing Problems
(T3) .20 .19 -.03 -.15* -.29** .28** .42** .20** .02 -.09 -.09 -.35** -.34** .39** -.44** .61**
*p <.05, **p <.01
32
3.3 Main Analysis Plan
The aim of the study is to test whether children’s temperament (attentional
focusing, attentional shifting, impulsivity and inhibitory control) mediated the
relations between maternal socialization of children's negative emotions (distress,
punitive and minimization reactions, expressive encouragement, emotion-focused
and problem-focused responses) and children’s internalizing and externalizing
behavior problems. Mediational analyses were conducted to fulfill the aim of the
study using hierarchical regression and the conditions that are outlined by Baron and
Kenny (1986). The analyses were carried out with maternal distress and punitive
reactions because correlational analyses indicated that minimization reactions were
not correlated with attentional focusing, attentional shifting, impulsivity and
inhibitory control. Moreover, expressive encouragement, emotion-focused and
problem-focused responses were not related to internalizing and externalizing
problems. Hence, these variables did not meet the mediation condition. Firstly, for
each component of temperament, two-step hierarchical regression analyses were
used to examine the relations between maternal socialization of children’s negative
emotions (maternal distress and punitive reactions) and children’s temperament
(attentional focusing, attentional shifting, impulsivity, and inhibitory control). In the
first step, demographic variables which were; gender (dummy coded) and SES, and
in the second step, maternal socialization of children's negative emotions (maternal
distress and punitive reactions) were entered. Secondly, for each type of behavior
problems, three-step hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to see whether
maternal socialization of children’s negative emotions and children’s temperament
predicted children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. In the first step,
demographic variables including gender (dummy coded) and SES were entered.
33
Maternal socialization of children's negative emotions (maternal distress and punitive
reactions) was entered in the second step. Lastly, in the third step, the components of
temperament including attentional-focusing, attentional shifting, impulsivity, and
inhibitory control were entered. Baron and Kenny (1986) stated that for mediation to
occur, (a) variations in maternal socialization of children’s negative emotions
significantly explain variations in children’s temperament (Path a) (b) variations in
children’s temperament significantly explain variations in children’s behavior
problems (Path b), and (c) when Paths a and b are controlled, the previous significant
relation between maternal socialization of children’s negative emotions and
children’s behavior problems (Path c) will be no longer be significant. To get the
strongest mediation effect, Path c should be close to zero (Baron & Kenny, 1986).
3.4 Main Analysis
Hierarchical regression analyses, which show the relations between maternal
socialization of children’s negative emotions and children’s temperament, are
presented in Table 2. Results showed that while SES positively predicted attentional
focusing at age 8 in the first step, gender negatively predicted attentional focusing
with girls scoring higher than boys at age 8 in the second step. Also, there was a
significant change in R2. In the first step, gender negatively predicted attentional
shifting with girls scoring higher than boys at age 8. In the second step, gender with
girls scoring higher than boys still negatively, and also maternal punitive reactions to
children’s negative emotions at age 7 negatively predicted attentional shifting at age
8, and also a significant change in R2 was found. For impulsivity, in the first step,
SES negatively predicted impulsivity at age 8. In the second step, maternal punitive
reactions to children’s negative emotions at age 7 positively predicted impulsivity at
age 8, and there was a significant change in R2. For inhibitory control, in the first
34
step, SES positively predicted inhibitory control at age 8. In the second step,
maternal punitive reactions to children’s negative emotions at age 7 negatively
predicted inhibitory control at age 8, and also a significant change in R2 was found.
Hierarchical regression analyses, which indicate whether maternal
socialization of children’s negative emotions and children’s temperament predict
children’s internalizing and externalizing problems, are presented in Table 3. Results
showed that in the first step only SES negatively predicted internalizing problems at
age 9. In the second step, SES still negatively, but maternal punitive reactions to
children’s negative emotions at age 7 positively predicted internalizing problems at
age 9, and also there was a significant change in R2. In the third step, maternal
punitive reactions to children’s negative emotions at age 7 still positively, but
attentional focusing at age 8 negatively predicted internalizing problems at age 9, and
a significant change in R2 was found.
On the other hand, in the first step, SES negatively and gender (boys scoring
higher than girls) predicted externalizing behavior problems at age 9. In the second
step, gender with boys scoring higher than girls and maternal punitive reactions to
children’s negative emotions at age 7 positively predicted externalizing problems at
age 9, and also there was a significant change in R2. In the third step, maternal
punitive reactions to children’s negative emotions at age 7 positively, but inhibitory
control at age 8 negatively predicted externalizing problems at age 9, and also a
significant change in R2 was found.
35
Table 2
Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Maternal Socialization of Children’s Negative Emotions and Temperament
Attentional Focusing
β p
Attentional Shifting
β p
Impulsivity
β p
Inhibitory Control
β p
1. Step F=6.88 R²=.05 F=3.41 R²=.02 F=3.28 R²=.02 F=4.20 R²=.03
Gender -.12 .062 -.15* .016 .07 .242 -.11 .093
SES .20** .001 .07 .289 -.15* .021 .15* .016
2. Step Fchange=8.18 R²=.10 Fchange=12.04 R²=.10 Fchange=6.32 R²=.06 Fchange=6.96 R²=.07
Gender -.12* .046 -.16** .008 .08 .193 -.11 .076
SES .08 .236 -.08 .225 -.03 .658 .03 .656
Distress Reactions -.12 .180 -.15 .080 -.04 .688 .01 .877
Punitive Reactions -.18 .061 -.21* .023 .27** .005 -.27** .005
*p <.05, **p <.01, ***p<.001
36
Table 3
Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Maternal Socialization, Temperament, and
Internalizing and Externalizing Problems
Internalizing
β p
Externalizing
β p
1. Step F=10.13 R²=.07 F=15.04 R²=.10
Gender -.02 .723 .15* .013
SES -.28*** .000 -.30*** .000
2. Step Fchange=10.47 R²=.14 Fchange=18.32 R²=.21
Gender -.02 .796 .16** .006
SES -.14* .041 -.12 .062
Distress Reactions .09 .268 -.02 .762
Punitive Reactions .23* .011 .40*** .000
3. Step Fchange=5.70 R²=.20 Fchange=11.29 R²=.33
Gender -.06 .334 .10 .052
SES -.12 .075 -.10 .089
Distress Reactions .04 .591 -.06 .453
Punitive Reactions .20* .024 .32*** .000
Attentional Focusing -.27** .001 -.07 .316
Attentional Shifting -.07 .336 -.06 .374
Impulsivity -.06 .440 .07 .351
Inhibitory Control -.01 .882 -.23** .004
*p <.05, **p <.01, ***p<.001
While maternal punitive reactions at age 7 positively predicted internalizing
problems at age 9, with the addition of the components of children’s temperament
(attentional focusing, attentional shifting, inhibitory control, and impulsivity) into the
model, it still positively, but attentional focusing at age 8 negatively predicted
internalizing problems at age 9. However, maternal punitive reactions to children’s
negative emotions at age 7 did not significantly predict attentional focusing at age 8.
Hence, regression analysis did not meet the mediation condition. The standardized
regression coefficient between maternal punitive reactions to children’s negative
emotions at age 7 and internalizing problems at age 9 dropped from .23 to .20, R2=
.20, Fchange =5.70, p<.001.
37
As it was stated before, maternal punitive reactions at age 7 negatively
predicted inhibitory control at age 8. While maternal punitive reactions at age 7
positively predicted externalizing problems at age 9, when the components of
children’s temperament added into the model, it still positively, but inhibitory control
at age 8 negatively predicted children’s externalizing problems at age 9. The
standardized regression coefficient between maternal punitive reactions to children’s
negative emotions at age 7 and externalizing problems at age 9 also dropped from .40
to .32, R2= .33, Fchange=11.29, p<.001. Sobel’s test, which is a method to determine
whether the decrease in the effect of the maternal punitive reactions, with the
addition of the components of children’s temperament into the model is a significant
decrease, namely, whether the mediation effect is statistically significant, showed
that the drop was significant, z=2.01, p<.05. Both the relation between maternal
punitive reactions to children’s negative emotions and children’s externalizing
problems, and the relation between inhibitory control and children’s externalizing
problems were remained significant so it indicated partial indirect relations. In
addition, as Baron and Kenny (1986) stated, after mediation conditions are held, the
effect of maternal punitive reactions to children’s negative emotions on
externalizing problems became less with the addition of children’s temperament into
the model. These analyses revealed that there was both direct and indirect relation
between maternal punitive reactions to children’s negative emotions at age 7 and
externalizing problems at age 9 through inhibitory control at age 8.
38
CHAPTER 4
DISCUSSION
The aim of the current study was to investigate the longitudinal relations
between parental socialization of children’s negative emotions and children’s
temperament and how these relations predicted children’s externalizing and
internalizing problems during middle childhood in Turkey. Overall, the findings of
the study indicated that maternal punitive and minimization reactions were positively
linked to children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. While attentional
focusing and shifting in children were negatively correlated with children’s
internalizing problems, impulsivity in children was positively related to children’s
externalizing problems, but inhibitory control in children was negatively associated
with children’s externalizing problems. Maternal punitive reactions were negatively
related to attentional focusing and shifting in children. Furthermore, present results
showed that there was both direct and indirect relation between maternal punitive
reactions to children’s negative emotions and children’s externalizing problems via
inhibitory control in children.
4.1 The Relations between Maternal Socialization of Children’s Negative
Emotions, and Children’s Internalizing and Externalizing Problems-Hypotheses
1 & 2
As expected, maternal punitive and minimization reactions to children’s
negative emotions at age 7 were found to be positively related to both internalizing
and externalizing problems at age 9. In accord with the previous research, results
support that both parental punitive and minimization reactions are positively
associated with school-age children’s internalizing and externalizing problems
39
(Eisenberg et al., 1999; Engle & McElwain, 2011; Kehoe et al., 2014; Tao et al.,
2010). Less supportive and secure, more conflictual and stressful parent-child
interactions are triggered by parents’ punishment or minimization of children’s
negative emotional reactions (Kehoe et al., 2014; Rubin et al., 2003; Tao et al.,
2010). Parental punitive and minimization reactions invalidate and ignore children’s
emotions so they are more likely to suppress them and they express them in
dysregulated ways (Engle & McElwain, 2011; Fabes et al., 2002; Kehoe et al., 2014;
Tao et al., 2010). Moreover, when parents show punitive reactions towards children’s
negative emotions, children are more likely to hide their emotions, and connect
showing negative emotions and facing with negative outcomes such as punishment,
so they are more likely to be anxious, especially when negative emotions are
displayed (Eisenberg et al., 1999; Engle & McElwain, 2011). Thus, in school-age
children, increases in anger and frustration with regard to parental punitive and
minimization reactions lead to externalizing problems (Frick & Morris, 2004), and
increases in children’s sadness and anxiety in relation to parental punitive and
minimization reactions lead to internalizing problems (Engle & McElwain, 2011).
In contrast to expectation of the current study, maternal emotion-focused and
problem-focused reactions at age 7 were not negatively linked to children’s
internalizing problems at age 9. Previous research supported the negative link
between parental emotion-focused and problem-focused reactions, and school-age
children’s internalizing problems 4 years later (Tao et al., 2010). However, one
possible explanation for the difference in findings might be that while informations
about parental reactions to children’s negative emotions and children’s internalizing
and externalizing problems were collected by only mothers in the present study,
parental reactions to children’s negative emotions were reported by both fathers and
40
mothers (mostly mothers), and children’s internalizing and externalizing problems
were reported by parents, teachers, and children or peers in prior study. Moreover, it
was stated that there was a negative correlation between emotion-focused reactions
and parent and child-reported internalizing problems; and also between problemfocused
reactions and teacher-reported internalizing problems.
As it was supported in the present study parent’s non-supportive reactions are
more likely to link to children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. On the
other hand, although explaining, discussing and talking about emotions and allowing
children’s emotional reactions contribute to children’s adaptive behavior and
regulation of their behavior, there is less research which show the relationship
between parent’s supportive reactions to children’s negative emotions, and children’s
internalizing and externalizing problems (Eisenberg et al., 1996; Eisenberg et al.,
2001; Fabes et al., 2002; Kehoe et al., 2014; Tao et al., 2010). It was stated that
supportive reactions were more likely to associate with emotional understanding and
expressiveness, coping and regulating negative emotions and emotional reactions
(Eisenberg & Fabes, 1994; Fabes et al., 2002). In the present study, there were not
any significant relations between maternal supportive reactions and children’s
internalizing and externalizing problems as well. Moreover, it was found that
supportive reactions were more likely to relate to children’s temperamental
characteristics.
4.2 The Relations between Children’s Temperament, and Internalizing and
Externalizing Problems-Hypotheses 3, 4, & 5
The findings of the current study support that while attentional focusing and
shifting at age 8 were negatively associated with children’s internalizing problems at
age 9, impulsivity at age 8 were positively linked to children’s externalizing
41
problems at age 9, and inhibitory control at age 8 were negatively related to
children’s externalizing problems at age 9. As it was supported in previous studies,
impulsivity which is about response initiation speed, low frustration tolerance and
high activity were predictors of children’s externalizing problems (Rothbart, 2007;
Rothbart et al., 2001; Zahn-Waxler et al., 1996). On the contrary, as a regulatory
factor of temperament, effortful control, which include inhibitory and attentional
control (focusing and shifting), is protective for the detrimental effects of reactive
temperament, and provides children to regulate negative arousal and maladaptive
reactions with effective coping strategies. Thus, they became less vulnerable for
internalizing and externalizing problems and protect themselves from the
development of behavior problems (Eisenberg et al., 2005; Lengua et al., 1998;
Muris et al., 2007). However, consistent with the findings of the study, in previous
research it was stated that lack of inhibitory control is more likely to associate with
externalizing symptoms, but lack of attentional control is more likely to link to
internalizing symptoms (Muris et al., 2007). Children, who are not able to inhibit
undesired behavior when it is required, were found to be more aggressive than
children who are able to inhibit it (Rubin et al., 2003). Moreover, children who have
internalizing problems have difficulties in managing their emotions because of
having difficulties in shifting their attention from negative thoughts and stimulus
(Eisenberg et al., 2005). One possible explanation for this difference is that while
externalizing problems are indicated by disinhibition of behavior, impulsivity, and
lack of behavioral control, internalizing problems are generally related to
uncontrollable negative thoughts and having difficulties to manage their emotions
(Eisenberg et al., 2005; Muris et al., 2007).
42
4.3 The Relations between Maternal Socialization of Children’s Negative
Emotions and Children’s Temperament-Hypotheses 6 & 7
As was shown in the present study, maternal punitive reactions at age 7 were
negatively associated with attentional focusing and shifting at age 8. Consistent with
the prior research, maternal punitive reactions to children’s negative emotions were
related to low attentional control (focusing and shifting) in children (Eisenberg &
Fabes, 1994). Reactions of parents have important influences on children’s behavior
which are related to children’s temperament. While mothers’ reactions to children’s
negative emotions help children regulating emotional reactions (Eisenberg & Fabes,
1994), punitive reactions of parents were related to inappropriate coping of
children’s emotions (Eisenberg et al., 1996). Hence, parents’ punitive reactions to
children’s negative emotions negatively predicted children’s regulation which
involves inhibitory control, impulsivity, self-control and attention focusing
(Eisenberg et al., 1999).
Moreover, children’s temperamental characteristics determine parents’
reactions towards their negative emotions. When children show negative emotions
frequently and high in negative affect, parents are more likely to show punitive
reactions towards them (Eisenberg et al., 1996). Punitive reactions of mothers were
more likely to increase, if their children had low attentional focusing and shifting
(Eisenberg & Fabes, 1994). Hence, it is also probable that there is a reciprocal
relationship between parents’ reactions towards their negative emotions and
children’s temperamental characteristics in middle childhood (Eisenberg & Fabes,
1994; Eisenberg et al., 1996).
Contrary to the expectation of the study, maternal minimization reactions at
age 7 were not negatively associated with attentional focusing and shifting at age 8.
43
Moreover, maternal expressive encouragement of children’s emotions at age 7 was
not positively linked to attentional focusing and shifting at age 8. Prior research
supported that maternal minimization reactions were negatively related to attentional
control (focusing and shifting) in children, and also maternal expressive
encouragement of children’s emotions was positively correlated with attentional
control (focusing and shifting) (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1994). As it was same in the
current study, parental reactions to children’s negative emotions were reported by
mothers in previous study. However, as distinct from the present study, not only
mothers, but also teachers collected informations about children’s temperament in
previous research. Hence, while mother’s assessment of children’s temperament
provides information about children’s temperament in home context, teachers assess
children’s temperament in school context.
4.4 The Mediating Role of Children’s Temperament on the Relation between
Maternal Socialization of Children’s Negative Emotions, and Children’s
Internalizing and Externalizing Problems-Hypothesis 8
There was partial support for the expected indirect effect of non-supportive
maternal reactions to children’s negative emotions at age 7 on children’s
internalizing and externalizing problems at age 9 via positive temperamental
characteristics of children at age 8. The finding suggest that maternal punitive
reactions were directly and indirectly linked to children’s externalizing problems,
and they indirectly influenced children’s externalizing problems through inhibitory
control in children. When parents use punitive reactions to children’s negative
emotions, children are more likely to have low inhibitory control, and they are more
likely to have externalizing problems. In accord with the current study, previous
studies suggested that parents’ punitive reactions to children’s negative emotions
44
negatively predicted children’s regulation, which involves inhibitory control,
impulsivity, attention focusing, and self-control, and also the link between parental
punitive reactions and mother-reported externalizing problem behavior of children,
which include aggressive, destructive and socially inappropriate behavior, was
partially mediated by children’s regulation (Eisenberg et al., 1999).
Children have low ability to manage their emotions in relation to parental
punitive reactions (Eisenberg et al., 1999), and they are more likely to have
difficulties to regulate negative arousal and maladaptive reactions (Eisenberg et al.,
2005; Lengua et al., 1998; Muris et al., 2007), and inhibit undesired behavior (Rubin
et al., 2003). They are more likely to develop externalizing problems in relation to
disinhibition of behavior and lack of behavioral control (Eisenberg et al., 2005;
Muris et al., 2007).
The findings of the present study showed the influences of parental reactions
to children’s negative emotions on children’s temperamental traits and their
internalizing and externalizing problems. Besides the heritability of temperament,
temperamental characteristics are also influenced by environmental experiences in
time. Moreover, it is also important how to conceptualize temperament. The
conceptualization of temperament varies from focusing on genetic factors of
individuals to dyadic relationships in social context (Sameroff et al., 2000). If
temperament is considered as individual differences in children’s regulation and
individuals’ reactions in multiple settings, instead of conceptualizing it as children’s
characteristics which are heritable and unchangeable, it is more likely that parental
practices have influences on children’s temperamental characteristics (Sameroff &
Mackenzie, 2003). Hence, although parental reactions to children’s negative
emotions and specific temperamental characteristics of children have important
45
influences in the emergence of children’s internalizing and externalizing problems,
taking into account the associations between parental reactions and children’s
temperament contributes to the understanding and explanation of children’s
internalizing and externalizing problems effectively (Sameroff et al., 2000).
As it was stated before, the findings about parental distress and minimization
reactions are less consistent than punitive reactions of parents, and also minimization
reactions are different from other non-supportive reactions of parents (Eisenberg et
al., 1999). It is expected that the links between minimization reactions and children’s
behavior problems are more likely to be influenced by cultural differences about
parental socialization. These reactions are more likely to be unrelated to children’s
behavior problems in non-Western and collectivistic cultures in relation to common
restriction of children’s emotional expressions in these cultures. Moreover, when
parents ignore and reject children’s negative emotions with minimization reactions,
children are more likely to have behavior problems. However, if parental
minimization reactions contribute to feel children better, children are less likely to
have behavior problems (Tao et al., 2010).
Additionally, the findings of the current study about gender and SES were
consistent with the previous research (Lunkenheimer et al., 2007; Rubin et al., 2003;
Tao et al., 2010). Results showed that gender positively predicted children’s
externalizing problems. It means that boys are more likely to have externalizing
problems than girls. Furthermore, SES negatively predicted both internalizing and
externalizing problems in children. When SES increases, children are less likely to
have internalizing and externalizing problems.
In conclusion, as it was shown in the present study, both maternal reactions to
children's negative emotions and children’s temperamental traits make important
46
contributions to the understanding and emergence of children’s internalizing and
externalizing problems. Moreover, children are more likely to have low inhibitory
control in relation to maternal punitive reactions, so they are more likely to have
externalizing problems.
4.5 Implications
The current study has several implications. In the examination of children’s
behavior problems, it is beneficial to focus on socialization practices of parents,
children’s temperamental characteristics and their reciprocal relationships. Parents’
emotion-related practices and children’s temperament have important influences on
children’s behavior problems, thus investigating them together might contribute to
understand the emergence and development of children’s behavior problems in an
effective way. Thus, interventions are more likely to be effective, if both parental
socialization practices and children’s temperament characteristics are taken into
account together, instead of focusing on one factor. It is probable to prevent and
decrease children’s behavior problems with effective prevention and intervention
programs. Parents may learn how to react towards children’s negative emotions in
supportive ways and improve children’s adjustment; and children may also learn how
to manage and regulate their emotions and behavior with effective intervention
programs.
4.6 Strenghts of the Present Study
The current longitudinal study examined whether maternal socialization of
children’s negative emotions predicted children’s internalizing and externalizing
problems in middle childhood through its relations with children’s temperament in
Turkey. Focusing on both parental socialization practices and children’s
temperamental characteristics in the development of children’s behavior problems
47
longitudinally is among strength parts of the study. There are fewer longitudinal
studies which focus on the mediational effects of children’s temperament on the
relations between maternal socialization of children’s negative emotions, and
children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. Moreover, cultural differences
may influence parental socialization of children’s negative emotions and its effects
on children’s behavior problems. However, there is lack of studies on parental
socialization practices and on school-age children’s internalizing and externalizing
problems and in non-Western countries. Hence, this study examined parental
socialization practices and children’s behavior problems in Turkish culture as well.
Thus, the results of the present study have important contributions to comprehend
children’s behavior problems.
4.7 Limitations
The present study had a number of important limitations as well. First, only
mother-report measures were used, but multiple measures including observations
were not used in the study. Mothers’ perceptions of socialization of children’s
negative emotions, children’s temperament and their behavior problems were
focused on in the present study. Second, the current sample was relatively small,
middle-class sample, and there is no diversity in terms of demographics (e.g., SES,
ethinicity). The current study was conducted with urban children in Turkey, but
environmental and cultural varieties in societies may influence both mothers’
reactions to children’s negative emotions and children’s behavior problems. It is not
possible to generalize the findings of the study to other cultures and multiple settings
because of these limitations. Third, mothers’ cultural values which are related to
socialization of children’s negative emotions were not assessed in the present study.
Fourth, it is not possible to state a causal link between maternal socialization of
48
children’s negative emotions and children’s temperament in the present study
because maternal socialization was assessed at the age of 7 (T1) but it was not
assessed at the age of 8 (T2), and temperament was assessed at the age of 8 (T2) but
it was not assessed at the age of 7 (T1) in the data which were used in the study.
Fifth, there are concerns about cross-cultural measurement equivalence issues of
measurements used in the study. The measures were originally developed for
Western cultures thus, despite the fact that previous researchers indicated acceptable
psychometric properties for the measures; there could still be systematic assessment
problems due to cultural differences. Indeed, there were relatively low reliabilities
for some measures and subscales.
4.8 Future Directions
There are several important possibilities for future research on children’s
behavior problems. First, cross-cultural measurement equivalence issues should be
taken into consideration in future studies. Second, the results of the present study
were limited to mothers’ report and home contexts so fathers and teachers should
also be included in future studies. Moreover, to decrease social desirability multiple
measures including observations will be necessary for further research. Third, it is
necessary to conduct research with larger, more representative and diverse samples
(e.g. SES, ethnicity and, individuals from urban and rural areas) in the future. All of
these contribute to the generalizability of the results to multiple settings and other
cultures and cross-cultural validity. Fourth, more research is necessary for the
replication of the findings and also, to identify the relations between different aspects
of parenting (e.g. warmth, hostility, inductive reasoning) and children’s behavior
problems. Moreover, multivariate techniques would contribute to comprehend
children’s behavior problems, which have associations with multiple factors,
49
effectively. Finally future studies should also investigate gender and SES differences
and interactions in children’s internalizing and externalizing problems.
50
APPENDIX A
Olumsuz Duygularla Baş Etme Ölçeği
Aşağıda günlük yaşamınızda, çocuğunuzla ilişkilerinizde karşılaşabileceğiniz
bazı durumlar maddeler halinde verilmiştir. Her durumun altına da anne-baba
olarak gösterebileceğiniz bazı davranışlar sıralanmıştır. Lütfen bu
davranışların her birini ne kadar sıklıkla yaptığınızı belirtiniz. Eğer
çocuğunuzun daha önce böyle bir durumla karşılaşmadığını düşünüyorsanız,
“böyle olsaydı ne yapardım” diye düşünerek yanıtlayınız.
Örneğin, birinci maddede belirtilen durumla ilgili olarak 6 davranış seçeneğinin
her birini ne sıklıkla yaptığınızı 1’den 5’e kadar sayılardan uygun olanı daire
içine alarak belirtiniz. Böylece her bir durumla ilgili 6 davranış için de cevap
vermiş olacaksınız.
Hiç Böyle Nadiren Belki Büyük Olasılıkla Kesinlikle
Yapmam Böyle Yaparım Böyle Yaparım Böyle Yaparım Böyle Yaparım
1 2 3 4 5
Durum 1: Eğer çocuğum hastalandığı ya da bir yerini incittiği için arkadaşının
doğum günü kutlamasına veya oyun davetine gidemiyorsa ve bundan dolayı
öfkeli olursa, ben;
Her birini ne sıklıkta yapıyorsunuz?
Çocuğumu sakinleşmesi için odasına gönderirim. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma kızarım. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma arkadaşları ile birlikte olabileceği başka yollar
düşünmesi için yardımcı olurum (Örn: bazı arkadaşlarını partiden
sonra davet edebilir).
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma partiyi kaçırmayı büyütmemesini söylerim. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğumu, öfkesini ve hayal kırıklığını ifade etmesi için
cesaretlendiririm.
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğumu yatıştırırım ve kendini daha iyi hissetmesi için eğlenceli
bir şeyler yaparım.
1 2 3 4 5
Durum 2: Eğer çocuğum bisikletinden düşer, onu kırar ve sonra da üzülüp
ağlarsa, ben;
Her birini ne sıklıkta yapıyorsunuz?
Sakin kalırım ve endişelenmem. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğumu rahatlatır ve kazasını unutmasını sağlamaya çalışırım. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma aşırı tepki gösterdiğini söylerim. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma bisikletin nasıl tamir edileceğini anlaması için
yardımcı olurum.
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma böyle bir durumda ağlamanın doğal olduğunu
söylerim.
1 2 3 4 5
51
Çocuğuma ağlamayı bırakmasını yoksa bisiklete binmesine izin
vermeyeceğimi söylerim.
1 2 3 4 5
Durum 3: Eğer çocuğum çok değerli bir eşyasını kaybeder ve ağlarsa,
Her birini ne sıklıkta yapıyorsunuz?
Durum 4: Eğer çocuğum iğneden korkuyor ve iğne olma sırasını beklerken
titreyip ağlıyorsa, ben;
Her birini ne sıklıkta yapıyorsunuz?
Ona, kendini toparlamasını yoksa yapmaktan hoşlandığı bir şeye
izin vermeyeceğimi söylerim (örneğin televizyon seyretmek gibi).
1 2 3 4 5
Hissettiği korku hakkında konuşması için çocuğumu
cesaretlendiririm.
1 2 3 4 5
Ona, iğne olmayı büyük bir mesele haline getirmemesini söylerim. 1 2 3 4 5
Ona ağlayarak bizi utandırmamasını söylerim. 1 2 3 4 5
İğneden önce ve sonra onu rahatlatırım. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma ne yaparsa iğnenin daha az acıtacağını anlatırım
(Örneğin, kendini kasmaz veya derin nefes alırsa daha az acıyacağı
gibi).
1 2 3 4 5
Durum 5: Eğer çocuğum öğleden sonrayı bir arkadaşının evinde geçirecekse ve
benim onunla kalamamam onu tedirgin edip üzerse, ben;
Her birini ne sıklıkta yapıyorsunuz?
Arkadaşıyla ne kadar eğleneceğinden bahsederek onun ilgisini
başka yöne çekmeye çalışırım.
1 2 3 4 5
Arkadaşının evinde ben yokken tedirgin olmaması için çocuğuma
neler yapabileceğini düşünmesinde yardımcı olurum (Örneğin, en
sevdiği kitabını ya da oyuncağını yanında götürmesi gibi).
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma aşırı tepki göstermeyi ve bebek gibi davranmayı
bırakmasını söylerim.
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma, eğer yatışmazsa bundan sonra dışarı çıkmasına izin
vermeyeceğimi söylerim.
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğumun tepkileri yüzünden keyifsiz ve sıkıntılı olurum. 1 2 3 4 5
Tedirginliği ve keyifsizliği hakkında konuşması için çocuğumu
cesaretlendiririm.
1 2 3 4 5
Bu kadar dikkatsiz olduğu ve sonra da ağladığı için keyfim
kaçar.
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma aşırı tepki gösterdiğini söylerim. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma, henüz bakmadığı yerleri düşünmesinde yardımcı
olurum.
1 2 3 4 5
Mutlu şeylerden bahsederek çocuğumun dikkatini başka yöne
çekerim.
1 2 3 4 5
Ona mutsuz olduğunda ağlamasının doğal olduğunu söylerim. 1 2 3 4 5
Dikkatli olmazsan işte böyle olur derim. 1 2 3 4 5
52
Durum 6: Eğer çocuğum arkadaşları ile birlikte yer aldığı bir grup faaliyetinde
hata yaptığı için utanır ve ağlamaklı olursa, ben;
Her birini ne sıklıkta yapıyorsunuz?
Çocuğumu rahatlatır ve daha iyi hissetmesini sağlamaya çalışırım. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma aşırı tepki gösterdiğini söylerim. 1 2 3 4 5
Kendimi rahatsız ve utanmış hissederim. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma kendini toparlamasını yoksa doğruca eve gideceğimizi
söylerim.
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğumu, yaşadığı utanma hissi hakkında konuşması için
cesaretlendiririm.
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma alıştırma yapmasında yardımcı olacağımı ve böylece
bir dahaki sefere daha iyisini yapacağını söylerim.
1 2 3 4 5
Durum 7: Eğer çocuğum bir müsamere ya da spor faaliyeti nedeniyle seyirci
karşısına çıkacağı için çok heyecanlanır ve kaygılanırsa, ben;
Her birini ne sıklıkta yapıyorsunuz?
Çocuğuma, sırası geldiğinde kendini hazır hissetmesi için neler
yapabileceğini düşünmesinde yardımcı olurum. (Örneğin, biraz
ısınma yapmak ve seyirciye bakmamak gibi).
1 2 3 4 5
Heyecan ve kaygısının geçmesi için çocuğuma rahatlatıcı bir
şeyler düşünmesini öneririm.
1 2 3 4 5
Sakin kalırım ve kaygılanmam. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma bebek gibi davrandığını söylerim. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma sakinleşmezse oradan hemen ayrılıp doğruca eve
gideceğimizi söylerim.
1 2 3 4 5
Hissettiği heyecan ve kaygı hakkında konuşması için çocuğumu
cesaretlendiririm.
1 2 3 4 5
Durum 8: Eğer çocuğum bir arkadaşından beğenmediği bir doğum günü
hediyesi aldığı için hayal kırıklığına uğramış, hatta kızgın görünüyorsa, ben;
Her birini ne sıklıkta yapıyorsunuz?
Çocuğumu hissettiği hayal kırıklığını ifade etmesi için
cesaretlendiririm.
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma bu hediyenin onun istediği başka bir şeyle
değiştirilebileceğini söylerim.
1 2 3 4 5
Kaba davranışı yüzünden çocuğuma kızmam. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma aşırı tepki gösterdiğini söylerim. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğumu, arkadaşının hislerine karşı duyarsız olduğu için
azarlarım.
1 2 3 4 5
Eğlenceli şeyler yaparak, çocuğumun kendisini daha iyi
hissetmesini sağlamaya çalışırım.
1 2 3 4 5
53
Durum 9: Eğer çocuğum televizyonda ürkütücü bir program seyrettikten sonra
korkuya kapılıp uyuyamıyorsa, ben;
Her birini ne sıklıkta yapıyorsunuz?
Çocuğumu, onu korkutan şey konusunda konuşması için
cesaretlendiririm.
1 2 3 4 5
Aptalca anlamsız hareketinden dolayı çocuğuma öfkelenirim. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma aşırı tepki gösterdiğini söylerim. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma uyuyabilmesi için neler yapabileceğini düşünmesinde
yardımcı olurum.(Örneğin, yatağa bir oyuncak alması, ışığı açık
bırakması gibi).
1 2 3 4 5
Ona yatağa gitmesini yoksa bundan sonra televizyon seyretmesine
hiç izin vermeyeceğimi söylerim.
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğumla eğlenceli bir şeyler yaparak korktuğu şeyi unutması
için ona yardımcı olurum.
1 2 3 4 5
Durum 10: Eğer parkta çocuklar oyunlarına katılmasına izin vermedikleri için
çocuğum ağlamaklı olursa, ben;
Her birini ne sıklıkta yapıyorsunuz?
Sakin kalırım, keyfim kaçmaz. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma, ağlamaya başlarsa doğruca eve gideceğimizi söylerim. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma, kendini kötü hissettiğinde ağlamasının doğal olduğunu
söylerim.
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğumu rahatlatırım ve mutluluk veren şeyler düşünmesini
sağlamaya çalışırım.
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma başka şeyler yapmayı düşünmesi için yardımcı olurum. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma kendini birazdan daha iyi hissedeceğini söylerim. 1 2 3 4 5
Durum 11: Eğer çocuğum diğer çocuklarla oynarken, onlardan biri çocuğumla
alay ettiği için bir anda titremeye ve gözleri yaşarmaya başlarsa, ben;
Her birini ne sıklıkta yapıyorsunuz?
Çocuğuma bunu büyütmemesi gerektiğini söylerim. 1 2 3 4 5
Canım sıkılır, keyfim kaçar. 1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma toparlanmasını, yoksa doğruca eve gideceğimizi
söylerim.
1 2 3 4 5
Diğer çocukların alaylı sözleriyle başa çıkabilmesi için neler
yapabileceğini düşünmesinde çocuğuma yardımcı olurum.
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğumu rahatlatırım ve bu keyifsiz olayı unutması için onunla
bir oyun oynarım.
1 2 3 4 5
Alay edilmenin onu nasıl incittiği hakkında konuşması için
çocuğumu cesaretlendiririm.
1 2 3 4 5
54
Durum 12: Eğer çocuğum çevresinde tanımadığı kişiler olduğunda hep utanıyor
ve ürküyorsa ya da aile dostları misafirliğe geldiği zaman ağlamaklı olup
odasından çıkmak istemiyorsa, ben;
Her birini ne sıklıkta yapıyorsunuz?
Çocuğuma, aile dostlarımızla karşılaştığı zaman korkmaması için
neler yapabileceğini (sevdiği oyuncağı yanına alması gibi)
düşünmesinde yardımcı olurum.
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma, tedirgin hissetmenin doğal olduğunu söylerim. 1 2 3 4 5
Aile dostlarımızla yapabileceğimiz eğlenceli şeylerden bahsederek
çocuğumu mutlu etmeye çalışırım.
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğumun tepkileri yüzünden kendimi sıkıntılı hisseder ve
rahatsızlık duyarım.
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma oturma odasına gelip aile dostlarımızla beraber
oturmak zorunda olduğunu söylerim.
1 2 3 4 5
Çocuğuma bebek gibi davrandığını söylerim. 1 2 3 4 5
55
APPENDIX B
Çocukların Davranışlarını Değerlendirme Ölçeği-Anne Formu
Bu ankette çocuğunuzun bazı durumlar karşısındaki davranışlarını anlatan
cümleler göreceksiniz. Sizden istediğimiz, bize çocuğunuzun, bu durumlar
karşısında nasıl davranabileceğini söylemenizdir. Bu ankette doğru cevap diye
bir şey yoktur çünkü çocukların davranışları birbirinden farklıdır. Bizim
öğrenmeye çalıştığımız ise bu farklardır. Lütfen her cümleyi okuyun ve
çocuğunuzun davranışına uyan sayıyı yuvarlak içine alınız. Cevaplarınızı
çocuğunuzun son 6 ay içindeki davranışlarını göz önüne alarak veriniz.
Hiçbir
zaman
Nadiren Bazen Çoğunlukla
Her
Zaman
1. Oyuncakları toplarken ya da
başka bir işle uğraşırken bitene
kadar onunla uğraşmaya devam
eder.
1 2 3 4 5
2. Bir faaliyetteyken aklını ona
vermekte zorlanır.
1 2 3 4 5
3. Bir şeye konsantre olmuşken
dikkatini çekmek zordur.
1 2 3 4 5
4. Yeni durumlara aceleyle girişir. 1 2 3 4 5
5. Söylendiğinde sesini alçaltabilir. 1 2 3 4 5
6. Bir işle uğraşırken yakınına
gelindiğinde dikkati dağılır.
1 2 3 4 5
7. Onunla konuştuğumda bazen beni
duymuyor gibi görünür.
1 2 3 4 5
8. Tatile ya da geziye çıkarken
ihtiyacı olacak şeyleri önceden
hazırlar.
1 2 3 4 5
9. Etrafta ilgisini dağıtan sesler
olduğunda bir faaliyete konsantre
olmakta zorlanır.
1 2 3 4 5
10. Genellikle bir faaliyete aceleyle,
düşünmeden girişir.
1 2 3 4 5
11. Yeni bir faaliyete başlamadan
önce beklemesi söylendiğinde
bekleyebilir.
1 2 3 4 5
12. Durup düşünmeden aklına ilk
geleni söyleme eğilimi vardır.
1 2 3 4 5
13. Hiç bir işi tamamlamadan
birinden diğerine geçer.
1 2 3 4 5
14. Yemeğe gelirken oyununu
kolayca bırakır.
1 2 3 4 5
15. Bir faaliyetten diğerine
kolaylıkla geçer.
1 2 3 4 5
56
16. Tehlikeli olduğu söylenen
yerlere yavaş ve temkinli yaklaşır.
1 2 3 4 5
17. Talimatları takip etmekte iyidir. 1 2 3 4 5
18. İlginç bir oyuncakla oynarken
çevresiyle ilgilenmez.
1 2 3 4 5
19. Bir şey için sırada beklemekte
zorlanır.
1 2 3 4 5
20. Kurallı oyunlarda (ör.,
monopoli, kart oyunu, dama) dikkati
iyidir.
1 2 3 4 5
21. Bir faaliyetten diğerine
geçmekte zorlanır.
1 2 3 4 5
22. Yerinde kıpırdamadan oturması
söylendiğinde, bunu yapmakta
güçlük çeker (ör: sinemada, sınıfta).
1 2 3 4 5
23. Dışarı çıkmaya çok hevesliyken
heyecan ve telaşla üstünü giymeden
(ör: palto) aceleyle çıkar.
1 2 3 4
5
24. Yeni bir duruma geçmesi çok
zaman alır.
1 2 3 4 5
25. “Hayır” dendiğinde yapmakta
olduğu şeyi kolayca bırakabilir.
1 2 3 4 5
26. Resim ya da boyama yaparken
konsantrasyonu çok yüksektir.
1 2 3 4 5
27. Başkaları konuşurken bazen
sözlerini keser.
1 2 3 4 5
28. Başka bir şey yapması
söylendiğinde yapmakta olduğu işi
bırakmakta zorlanır.
1 2 3 4 5
29. Odasına girildiğinde yapmakta
olduğu işten dikkati dağılır.
1 2 3 4 5
30. Ne istediğine çabucak karar verir
ve yapar.
1 2 3 4 5
31. Talimatları takip etmekte
zorlanır.
1 2 3 4 5
32. İstendiğinde yapmakta olduğu
işi kolaylıkla bırakabilir.
1 2 3 4 5
33. Hikaye dinlerken ilgisi kolayca
dağılır.
1 2 3 4 5
34. Bir sonra ne yapacağına karar
verirken yavaştır, acele etmez.
1 2 3 4 5
35. Başladığı bir işi bırakmakta
zorlanır.
1 2 3 4 5
36. Yeni bir faaliyeti deneyen en son
çocuklardan biridir.
1 2 3 4 5
37. İstediği şeyi hemen elde etmek
ya da bir aktiviteyi hemen yapmak
ister.
1 2 3 4 5
38. Farklı bir şey yapılması 1 2 3 4 5
57
istendiğinde bu değişime uymakta
zorlanır.
39. Başkalarına ısınması zaman alır.
40. Parçaların üst üste konmasını
veya eklenmesini gerektiren
oyuncaklarla oynarken yaptığı şeye
kendini verir ve uzun süre çalışır.
1 2 3 4 5
41. Deve-cüce gibi hareketlerini
kontrol etmesi gereken oyunlarda
iyidir.
1 2 3 4 5
42. Bir şey yapmaya karar vermeden
önce genellikle durup düşünür.
1 2 3 4 5
43. Bazen resimli bir kitaba gömülür
ve uzun süre bakar/okur.
1 2 3 4 5
44. Bir faaliyetten diğerine çabucak
geçer.
1 2 3 4 5
45. Başkaları onunla konuşurken
bazen sanki rüyadaymış ya da başka
bir yerlerdeymiş gibidir.
1 2 3 4 5
46. Hikaye dinlerken konsantre
olmakta sıkıntı çeker.
1 2 3 4 5
47. Bir şey üzerinde çalışırken
çoğunlukla beni duymuyor gibidir.
1 2 3 4 5
48. Canını acıtabileceği yerlerde
temkinli davranır.
1 2 3 4 5
49. Karşıdan karşıya geçerken
dikkatli ve temkinli değildir.
1 2 3 4 5
50. Başka bir şey yapılması
istendiğinde bile kendi bildiğini
yapar.
1 2 3 4 5
51. Bir şeyi yapmaması gerektiği
söylendiğinde, genellikle içinden
gelen dürtüye karşı koyabilir.
1 2 3 4 5
58
APPENDIX C
Çocuk Davranış Kontrol Ölçeği-CBCL/6-18-Anne Formu
Aşağıda çocukların özelliklerini tanımlayan bir dizi madde bulunmaktadır. Her bir
madde çocuğun şu andaki ya da son 6 ay içindeki durumunu belirtmektedir. Bir
madde çocuk için çok ya da sıklıkla doğru ise 2, bazen ya da biraz doğru ise 1,
hiç doğru değilse 0 sayılarını yuvarlak içine alınız. Lütfen tüm maddeleri
işaretlemeye çalışınız.
0: Doğru Değil 1: Bazen ya da Biraz Doğru 2: Çok ya da Sıklıkla Doğru
(Bildiğiniz kadarıyla)
0 1 2 1. Yaşına göre çocuksu
davranır.
0 1 2 2. Büyüklerin izni olmadan
içki içer.
0 1 2 3. Çok tartışır.
0 1 2 4. Başladığı işleri bitiremez.
0 1 2 5. Çok az şeyden hoşlanır.
0 1 2 6. Kakasını tuvaletten başka
yerlere yapar.
0 1 2 7. Övünür, yüksekten atar,
hava yapar.
0 1 2 8. Dikkatini uzun süre bir konu
üzerinde toplayamaz ve sürdüremez.
0 1 2 9. Bazı düşünceleri zihninden
bir türlü atamaz
(açıklayınız)……………………………
0 1 2 10. Yerinde rahat oturamaz,
huzursuz ve çok hareketlidir.
0 1 2 11. Yetişkinlerin dizinin
dibinden ayrılmaz, onlara çok
bağımlıdır.
0 1 2 12. Yalnızlıktan yakınır.
0 1 2 13. Kafası karmakarışıktır.
0 1 2 14. Çok ağlar.
0 1 2 15. Hayvanlara eziyet eder.
0 1 2 16. Başkalarına eziyet eder,
zalimce ve kötü davranır.
0 1 2 17. Hayal kurar,
düşüncelerinde kaybolur.
0 1 2 18. İsteyerek kendine zarar
verir ya da intihar girişiminde bulunur.
0 1 2 19. Hep dikkat çekmek ister.
0 1 2 20. Eşyalarına zarar verir.
0 1 2 21. Ailesine ya da başkalarına
ait eşyalara zarar verir.
0 1 2 22. Evde söz dinlemez, evin
kurallarına uymaz.
0 1 2 23. Okulda söz dinlemez, okul
kurallarına uymaz.
0 1 2 24. İştahsızdır, az yemek yer.
0 1 2 25. Diğer çocuklarla
geçinemez.
0 1 2 26. Hatalı davranışından dolayı
suçluluk duymaz.
0 1 2 27. Kolay kıskanır.
0 1 2 28. Ev, okul ya da diğer
yerlerde kuralları çiğner.
59
0 1 2 29. Bazı hayvanlardan ve okul
dışı ortamlardan ya da yerlerden korkar
(açıklayınız).............................
0 1 2 30. Okula gitmekten korkar.
0 1 2 31. Kötü bir şey düşünmek ya
da yapmaktan korkar.
0 1 2 32. Mükemmel olması
gerektiğine inanır.
0 1 2 33. Kimsenin onu sevmediğini
düşünür ve bundan yakınır.
0 1 2 34. Başkalarının ona zarar
vermeye, kötülük yapmaya çalıştığını
düşünür.
0 1 2 35. Kendini değersiz, yetersiz
hisseder.
0 1 2 36. Çok sık bir yerlerini incitir,
başı kazadan kurtulmaz.
0 1 2 37. Çok kavga, dövüş eder.
0 1 2 38. Sıklıkla onunla alay edilir,
dalga geçilir.
0 1 2 39. Başı belada olan kişilerle
dolaşır.
0 1 2 40. Olmayan sesler ve
konuşmalar işitir(açıklayınız)
…………………………………………
0 1 2 41. Düşünmeden ya da aniden
hareket eder (Aklına eseni yapar).
0 1 2 42. Başkaları ile birlikte
olmaktansa yalnız kalmayı tercih eder.
0 1 2 43. Yalan söyler ve hile yapar.
0 1 2 44. Tırnaklarını yer.
0 1 2 45. Sinirli ve gergindir.
0 1 2 46. Vücudunda seğirmeleri ve
tikleri vardır:
………………………………………
0 1 2 47. Gece kabusları vardır.
Korkulu rüyalar görür.
0 1 2 48. Diğer çocuklar tarafından
sevilmez.
0 1 2 49. Kabızlık çeker.
0 1 2 50. Çok korkak ve kaygılıdır.
0 1 2 51. Baş dönmesi vardır.
0 1 2 52. Kendini çok suçlar.
0 1 2 53. Aşırı yemek yer.
0 1 2 54. Sebepsiz yere aşırı
yorgundur.
0 1 2 55. Çok kiloludur.
56. Tıbbi nedeni bilinmeyen
bedensel şikayetleri vardır:
0 1 2 a. Ağrılar, sızılar (baş ve karın
ağrısı dışında)
0 1 2 b. Baş ağrıları
0 1 2 c. Bulantı, kusma hissi
0 1 2 d. Gözle ilgili yakınmalar
(Görme bozukluğu dışında
açıklayınız)……………………………
0 1 2 e. Döküntüler ya da başka cilt
sorunları
0 1 2 f. Mide-karın ağrısı
0 1 2 g. Kusma
0 1 2 h. Diğer
(açıklayınız)……………………
0 1 2 57. Fiziksel olarak insanlara
saldırır, onlara vurur.
0 1 2 58. Burnuyla, cildiyle,
bedeninin başka kısımlarıyla oynar ya
dayolar(açıklayınız)……………………
60
0 1 2 59. Herkesin ortasında cinsel
organlarıyla oynar.
0 1 2 60. Cinsel organlarıyla çok
fazla oynar.
0 1 2 61. Okul başarısı düşüktür.
0 1 2 62. Hareketlerinde tam
kontrollü değildir, sakardır.
0 1 2 63. Kendinden büyük
çocuklarla olmayı tercih eder.
0 1 2 64. Kendinden küçüklerle
olmayı tercih eder.
0 1 2 65. Konuşmayı reddeder.
0 1 2 66. Bazı hareketleri tekrar
tekrar yapar (açıklayınız)
…………………………………
0 1 2 67. Evden kaçar.
0 1 2 68. Çok bağırır, çağırır.
0 1 2 69. Sır tutar, düşüncelerini
kendine saklar.
0 1 2 70. Olmayan şeyleri görür
(açıklayınız)……………………………
0 1 2 71. Sıkılgan ve utangaçtır.
0 1 2 72. Yangın çıkartır.
0 1 2 73. Cinsel sorunları vardır
(açıklayınız)……………………
0 1 2 74. Gösterişten hoşlanır,
soytarılık yapar.
0 1 2 75. Çok çekingen ve ürkektir.
0 1 2 76. Çocukların çoğundan az
uyur.
0 1 2 77. Çocukların çoğundan gece
ve gündüz daha çok uyur
(açıklayınız)……………………………
0 1 2 78. Dikkatsizdir, dikkati çabuk
dağılır.
0 1 2 79. Dil sorunu, konuşma
güçlüğü vardır
(açıklayınız)……………………………
0 1 2 80. Bir yere boş gözlerle uzun
süre bakar ve dalgın görünür.
0 1 2 81. Evden bir şeyler çalar.
0 1 2 82. Evin dışında bir şeyler
çalar.
0 1 2 83. İşine yaramayacak pek çok
şeyi saklar, biriktirir
(açıklayınız)……………………………
0 1 2 84. Yadırganan, tuhaf
davranışları vardır
(açıklayınız)……………………………
0 1 2 85. Yadırganan, tuhaf
düşünceleri vardır
(açıklayınız)……………………………
0 1 2 86. İnatçı, somurtkan ve
rahatsız edicidir.
0 1 2 87. Duyguları değişkendir, bir
anı bir anını tutmaz.
0 1 2 88. Çok sık küser.
0 1 2 89. Şüphecidir.
0 1 2 90. Küfürlü ve açık saçık
konuşur.
0 1 2 91. Kendini öldürmekten söz
eder
0 1 2 92. Uykuda yürür ve konuşur
(açıklayınız):…………………………
0 1 2 93. Çok fazla konuşur.
0 1 2 94. Başkalarıyla çok dalga
geçer, onları kızdırır.
61
0 1 2 95. Öfke nöbetleri vardır, çok
çabuk öfkelenir.
0 1 2 96. Cinsel konuları fazlaca
düşünür.
0 1 2 97. İnsanları tehdit eder.
0 1 2 98. Parmak emer.
0 1 2 99. Sigara içer, tütün koklar ya
da çiğner.
0 1 2 100. Uyku sorunu vardır
(açıklayınız).…………………………
0 1 2 101. Okuldan kaçar, dersini
asar.
0 1 2 102. Hareketsiz ve yavaştır,
enerjik değildir.
0 1 2 103. Mutsuz, üzgün, çökkün ve
keyifsizdir.
0 1 2 104. Çok gürültücüdür.
0 1 2 105. Sağlık sorunu olmadan
ilaç kullanır
(açıklayınız)……………………………
0 1 2 106. Çevresindeki eşyalara
amaçsız olarak zarar vermekten zevk
alır.
0 1 2 107. Gündüz altını ıslatır.
0 1 2 108. Gece yatağını ıslatır.
0 1 2 109. Sızlanır, mızırdanır.
0 1 2 110. Karşı cins gibi olmayı
ister.
0 1 2 111. İçe kapanıktır, başkalarıyla
birlikte olmak istemez.
0 1 2 112. Evhamlı ve endişelidir.
113. Çocuğun yukarıdaki
listede belirtilmeyen başka sorunları
varsa lütfen
yazınız:…………………………….
…………………………………………
…………………………………………
…………………………………………
…………………………………………
…
62
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