326

 A Social History of Rice in Turkey

This dissertation examines the transformation of rice farming before the state,

the society, and the economy in Turkey between 1948 and 2018. Rice is one of

the most important fields of application of the Green Revolution after the

Marshall Plan is examined from a spatial point of view in three basins such

as the Meriç Basin, the Lower Kızılırmak-Lower Yeşilırmak Basins and Karacadağ

Agricultural Basin. Both the geographical locations of these basins in

Turkey and the differences in their agricultural structures and human capital

are determinative in their preference as a field study. However, apart from

these basins, there has been rice farming culture in South Marmara, Adana,

West and Central Black Sea sub regions. In other words, this dissertation both

explains the story of agricultural transformation in a historical process and

presents a comparative perspective among these basins on a spatial scale.

Therefore, this study can be evaluated in the fields of economic history, social

history and environmental history.

The main claim of this dissertation is to prove that thanks to the biological

and agricultural properties of rice, it is a historical actor that directs the state,

society, and the economy. On this basis, this study is far from putting sharp

boundaries between nature and society and the anthropocentric historiography.

In this context, this study examines the subject by putting the reciprocal

relations and interests between the desires of human beings and the biological

and agricultural requirement of rice into the center. The main purpose of this

study is to explain the bureaucratic, economic and social networks of rice

from its cultivation and harvest to its processing in to paddy and consumption.

The main findings of this dissertation are that rice is a social, cultural,

economic, artistic and bureaucratic commodity. In this context, rice requires

vii

specialized and intensive labor to collaborate with society, the state and market

actors to be able to spread and carry its genes into the future. Besides,

acquisition, nutrition and profit underlie in the desire of a human being toward

rice. To sum up rice with one word, it can be conceptualized as the crop of

controversies. As a matter of fact, it is too difficult to find any other crop that

accommodates collaboration and conflict of interest and also the bureaucratic

control in the cultivation of rice and free market economy in the sale of rice

at the same time.

133441 words

viii

Özet

Türkiye’de Çeltiğin Toplumsal Tarihi

Bu çalışma, 1948-2018 arası dönemde Türkiye’deki çeltik tarımının

dönüşümünü devletin, toplumun ve ekonominin nezdinde incelemektedir.

Marshall Yardımı sonrasında Yeşil Devrimin en önemli uygulama

alanlarından biri olan çeltik mekânsal açıdan Meriç Havzası, Aşağı Kızılmak

–Aşağı Yeşilırmak Havzaları ve Karacadağ Tarım Havzası olmak üzere üç

havza üzerinden ele alınmaktadır. Gerek bu havzaların Türkiye’deki coğrafi

yerleri gerekse tarımsal yapılarında ve beşeri sermayelerindeki farklılıklar, bu

bölgelerin alan çalışması olarak seçiminde belirleyici olmuştur. Ancak bu

havzaların yanı sıra Güney Marmara, Adana, Batı ve Orta Karadeniz

Bölümlerinde de çeltik ekim kültürü vardır. Bir diğer ifade ile bu tez çeltik

tarımı üzerinden hem tarihsel süreçte bir tarımsal dönüşüm hikâyesini

anlatmakta hem de mekânsal ölçekte havzalar arasında karşılaştırmalı bir

bakış açısı sunmaktadır. Dolayısıyla bu çalışma iktisat tarihi, toplumsal tarih

ya da çevre tarihi alanlarında değerlendirilebilecek bir çalışmadır.

Bu tezin temel iddiası ise biyolojik ve zirai özellikleri sayesinde çeltiğin,

bu havzalarda devleti, toplumu ve ekonomiyi yönlendiren tarihsel bir aktör

olduğunu kanıtlamaktır. Buna dayanarak, bu çalışma doğa ve toplum arasına

keskin sınırlar koymaktan ve insan merkezli bir tarih yazımından uzaktır. Bu

bağlamda, bu çalışma insanın arzuları ve çeltiğin biyolojik ve zirai

gereksinimleri arasındaki karşılıklı ilişkileri ve çıkarları merkeze alarak

konuyu incelemektedir. Bu çalışmanın amacı ise çeltiğin ekiminden ve

hasadından, pirince işlenmesine ve tüketilmesine kadar çeltiğin bürokratik,

iktisadi ve toplumsal ağlarını açıklamaktır.

Bu tezdeki temel bulgular ise çeltiğin toplumsal, kültürel, ekonomik,

sanatsal ve bürokratik bir meta olduğudur. Bu bağlamda, uzmanlaşmış ve

ix

yoğun emek isteyen çeltik, genlerini geleceğe taşıyabilmek ve yayabilmek

için toplumla, devletle ve piyasa aktörleri ile işbirliği yapmaktadır. Ayrıca,

insanoğlunun pirince duyduğu arzunun temelinde ise kazanç, besin ihtiyacı

ve karlılık bulunmaktadır. Çeltiği tek kelime ile özetlemek gerekirse, çeltik

zıtlıkların ürünü olarak kavramsallaştırılabilir. Nitekim iş birliğiyle çıkar

çatışmasını ve çeltiğin ekimindeki bürokratik kontrol ile satış fiyatındaki

serbest piyasa ekonomisini aynı anda barındıran başka bir ürün bulmak çok

zordur.

133441 kelime

x

Curriculum Vitæ

O K AN C E Y L A N

01.08.1990

in Edirne, Meriç

E D U C AT IO N

Ph.D. Ataturk Institute for Modern Turkish History

Boğaziçi University

2020

M.A. Ataturk Institute for Modern Turkish History

Boğaziçi University

2015

B.A. History

Boğaziçi University

2013

B.A. International Relations

Anadolu University

2017

P R O F E S S IO N A L AP P O IN T ME N T S / EMP LO YME N T

◆ Secretary General at Bornova Balkan Türkleri Kültür Derneği (2017-2018)

P U B L IC AT IO N S

◆ Ceylan, Okan. “Ödemiş ve Beydağ Yöresindeki Milli Mücadele Özelinde

Zeybekler: Gökçen Hüseyin Efe,” İzmir Araştırmaları Dergisi, no. 5, 2017:

93-114.

◆ Ceylan, Okan. “Türkiye’de Haşhaş Ekim Yasağının Afyon İlindeki Sosyo-

Ekonomik Yansımaları (1971-1974)” VIII. Uluslararası Afyonkarahisar

xi

Araştırmaları Sempozyumu Bildiri Kitabı, edited by İhsan Akar, Afyonkarahisar,

2019: 1087-1097.

◆ Ceylan, Okan. “Neoliberal Ekonomi ve Türkiye Tarım Politikaları Arasında

Küçük Köylülüğün Dönüşümü: Edirne İli Örneği (1980-2015)” Anadolu İktisat

ve İşletme Dergisi 3, no. 2, 2019: 134-152.

◆ Ceylan, Okan and Ceylan, Uğur. “Marshall Planı ve Türkiye Tarımı

Bağlamında Küçük Menderes Havzasında Bir Kasaba: Tire (1948-1960),” edited

by Murat Sanus & Ali Özçelik, Uluslararası Küçük Menderes

Araştırmaları ve Tire Tarihi Sempozyumu Bildirileri 1, İzmir, 2018: 413-425.

◆ Ceylan, Okan. “İkinci Dünya Savaşı ve Tarım Ekonomisi: Edirne Vilayeti

Örneği (1939-1945)” Türkiye’de Tarım Politikaları ve Ülke Ekonomisine Katkıları

Uluslararası Sempozyumu Bildirileri, ATAM, Şanlıurfa 2019: 645-639

◆ Ceylan, Okan. “Güney Sınırlarımızda Savaş ve Tarım: Suriye İç Savaşı

Etkisindeki Hatay İli Kırsalında Tarım Ekonomisi (2011-2018)” Anavatana

Katılışının 80. Yılında Uluslararası Hatay Sempozyumu Bildirileri, ATAM,

Hatay, 2020: 1521-1557

◆ Ceylan, Okan. “20. Yüzyılda İpsala’nın Toplumsal Tarihinde ve Zirai Ekonomisinde

Mucizevi Bir Ürün: Çeltik” Her Yönüyle İpsala 1, (Ed. Haluk Kayıcı

& Emin Ünsal) Edirne: Trakya Üniversitesi, 2020: 253-274

CONFERENCE AND SYMPOSIUM PARTICIPATION

◆ Geçmişten Günümüze Beydağ Araştırmaları Sempozyumu, Ege Üniversitesi,

Atılım Üniversitesi and Beydağ Belediyesi, İzmir (April 28-29, 2016)

◆ VIII Uluslararası Afyonkarahisar Araştırmaları Sempozyumu, Afyonkarahisar

Belediyesi (April 5-7, 2018)

◆ Türkiye’de Tarım Politikaları ve Ülke Ekonomisine Katkıları, Atatürk

Araştırma Merkezi and Harran Üniversitesi, Şanlıurfa (April 12-14, 2018)

◆ Osmanlı’dan Cumhuriyet’e Hatırat Uluslararası Sempozyumu, Türk Tarih

Kurumu and Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi, Aydın (April 25-27, 2018)

xii

◆ Uluslararası Küçük Menderes Araştırmaları ve Tire Tarihi Sempozyumu,

Türk Tarih Kurumu, Tire Belediyesi and Küçük Asya Araştırmaları Merkezi,

İzmir (May 7-8, 2018)

◆ XIII Ulusal Tarım Ekonomisi Kongresi, Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi,

Kahramanmaraş (September 12-14, 2018)

◆ Anavatana Katılışının 80. Yılında Hatay Uluslararası Sempozyumu, Atatürk

Araştırma Merkezi and Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi, Hatay (April 4-6, 2019)

◆ Cumhuriyet Devrinin Bir Serhat Vilayeti Hakkari Uluslararası Sempozyumu,

Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi and Hakkari Üniversitesi, Hakkari

(May 2-4, 2019)

◆ Atatürk’ün Samsun’a Çıkışının 100. Yılı Anısına, 100. Yılında Çeltik Tarımı

Pameli, Samsun İl Tarım Müdürlüğü, Samsun (April 30, 2019)

◆ Her Yönüyle İpsala Sempozyumu, Trakya Üniversitesi, Edirne (November

20-22, 2019)

◆ Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi’nin Açılışının 100. Yılı: Osmanlı’dan Cumhuriyete

Demokrasi Uluslararası Sempozyumu, Edirne (March 11-14, 2020)

Awards and Honors

◆ Second Place at Uzunköprü High School (2007)

◆ TUBİTAK Scholarship 2007

T E A C H IN G E X P E R I E N C E

◆ ATA 101- 102 Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılap Tarihi, Ege University (2015- present)

U N IV E R S IT Y / D E PARTME N TA L S E RV I C E

◆ Lecturer at Ataturk Principles and History of Turkish Revolution

Department at Ege University (2015-present)

L A N G U A G E S

◆ Turkish –Native Speaker

◆ Enlish – Proficiency

◆ French – Intermediate

xiii

My Familly

xiv

Table of Contents

List of Tables xvii

List of Figures xviii

Glossary of Non-English Terms xix

Abbreviations and Acronyms xxi

Note on Transliteration xxii

Acknowledgements xxiii

1 IN T R O D U C T IO N 1

1.1 Theoretical Discussions about the Relations between Plants and Humanbeings

8

1.2 Rice from the Eyes of Different Discipline 13

1.3 A Critiqual Survey of Existing Literature 20

2 IN T R O D U C T IO N TO R IC E : A G R I C U LT U R A L AN D B IO LO G IC A L

P R O P E RT IE S 2 2

2.1 The Biological and The Morphological Properties of Rice 24

2.2 Rice Cultivation Methods 26

2.3 The Development and the Growth of Rice 27

2.4 The Geographical Distribution of Rice 30

2.5 The Preparation of Rice Fields 35

2.6 The Irrigation of Rice Field 43

2.7 The Fertilization of Rice 46

2.8 Pest Control in Rice Growing 49

2.9 Rice Diseases 52

2.10 Rice Varieties 54

2.11 The Harvest and Storing of Rice 64

T H E H IS TO RY O F R IC E 7 3

3.1 The Origin and the Evolutionary History of Rice 75

3.2 The First Archeological Findings about Rice 76

3.3 The International History of Rice 77

3.4 The Role of the Ottoman State in Rice Cultivation 86

3

xv

3.5 The Consumption and Marketing of Rice in the Ottoman Period

91

3.6 Rice Cultivation in Early Republican Period in A Contradictory Discussion:

Rice Cultivation and Malaria Threat 92

3.7 A Short Story of Rice Cultivation in Three Basins in

the first half of the Twentieth century 96

4 R IC E AN D T H E S TAT E IN T U R K E Y 1 0 4

4.1 Legal Regulations: The Role Rice Cultivation Law of 1936 in the Rice

Farming of Turkey 106

4.2 The Role of the Government in the Settlement of Rice Farming 116

4.3 The Contribution of the Government to the Agricultural, Economic

and Institutional Development of Rice Farming 153

4.4 Fertilizer Importation 193

5 R IC E AN D T H E E C O N OMY 1 9 9

5.1 A Short Historical Past of Rice Farming in Turkey 200

5.2 The Development of Rice Farming Culture in Turkey in the

Twentieth Century 202

5.3 The Commodification of Rice Cultivable Lands and Irrigation Water

209

5.4 The Modes of Rice Production in Three Basins 212

5.5 The Transformation of Rice Production Technics from

Rice Cultivation 214

5.6 From A Comparative Perspectives Rice Production, to Harvest

Cultivation Areas and Rice Yield in Three Basins 231

5.7 The Role of Agricultural Inputs in the Market Oriented Rice

Production, Rice Farming and the Oil Crisis in the 1970s 234

5.8 The Price Formation of Rice: TGB and Commodity Exchange Market

246

5.9 Marketing of Rice: The Rules of TGB in Rice Purchasing 250

5.10 The Importance of Industrialization in Paddy Production 260

5.11 Cost Profit Analysis of Rice Farming: Daily Socio-economic

Lives of Farmers 267

xvi

5.12 The Marketing of Paddy 277

5.13 The Influence of Rice Import on Domestic Markets 280

RICE AND THE SOCIETY 289

6.1 Geography and People 291

6.2 The Geography and the Sociology of Three Basins 293

6.3 The Influence of Rice on Public Health 306

6.4 The Flood Threat of the Rivers and Social Anxieties 329

6.5 Rice in Folk Culture, Literature and Cinema 336

6.6 Cuisine Culture: Its Historical, Social and Cultural Perspectives

349

6.7 The Relations of Rice with Other Crops and the Rise of Rice 353

CONCLUSION 365

AP P E N D I C E S

A1. Rice Farming in the Meriç Basin 371

A2. Paddy Prices in Diyarbakır 372

B1. Agricultural Structures of Samsun 373

B2. The Village Inventory of Şanlıurfa in the 1990s 374

C1. The Reclaimation of the Meriç River 375

B IB L IO G R A P H Y 3 7 6

6

7

xvii

List of Tables

Table 4.1 Dams in the Meriç Basin 138

Table 4.2 Dams in the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins

147

Table 4.3 Dams in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin 151

Table 4.4 Local Rice Varieties in Turkey 168

Table 4.5 Agricultural Supports in Rice Farming (2001-2017) (Per

Ton/TL) 178

Table 4.6 The Number of Agricultural Credit Cooperatives and

Members in Turkey (1930-2016) 183

Table 4.7 The Number of Farmer Households in Three Basins by

Years 184

Table 4.8 The Number of Irrigation Cooperatives in 5 Provinces

(1970-2016) 186

Table 4.9 Fertilizer Industry in Turkey 192

Table 5.1 The First Five Provinces that have had the Largest Rice

Cultivation Areas (Decar) in Turkey (1930-2017) 201

Table 5.2 The Number of Rice Cultivated Villages in 5 Provinces

(1996 and 2016) 208

Table 5.3 The Number of Rice Growers in 5 Provinces (1996-2016)

209

Table 5.4 The Numbers of Agricultural Equipment in

the Meriç Basin in Years (Edirne) 228

Table 5.5 The Number of Agricultural Equipment in Lower

Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins

(Samsun) 229

Table 5.6 The Number of Agricultural Equipment in

Karacadağ Basin, Diyarbakır, Mardin and Şanlıurfa 230

Table 5.7 Rice Cultivated Land (Ha) in Five Provinces in

Three Basin 232

Table 5.8 Rice Production (Ton) in Five Provinces in Three

Basins 232

xviii

Table 5.9 Rice Yield in Three Basins and Turkey 233

Table 5.10 The use of fertilizer in Rice Cultivation Areas 238

Table 5.11 The Changes in the Reel Prices of Fertilizer in Rice

Cultivation 1975-2018 240

Table 5.12 The Changes in the Reel Rice Purchasing Prices of

TGB (1975-2018) 247

Table 5.13 The Changes in the Reel Rice Prices of Stock Market

in İstanbul 249

Table 5.14 The Changes in the Reel Rice Prices of Stock Market

in İzmir 250

Table 5.15 Rice Cultivation, Production and TGB Purchasing

in Turkey 260

Table 5.16 Cost and Profit Analyses of Rice by Years

in Turkey 270

Table 5.17 The Production Cost of Rice in 2017 and 2018 272

Table 5.18 The Average Production Cost of Rice Industry

and Marketing in 2018 274

Table 5.19 The Reel Retail Prices of Paddy in Turkey

(1994-2016) 280

Table 6.1 The Population Change of Rice Cultivation

Areas 297

List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Rice Cultivation in İpsala in the 1950s 36

Figure 2.2 The Transportation of rice seed in İpsala in 1951 37

Figure 2.3 Land Leveling in rice fields (the Meriç Basin) 37

Figure 2.4 Rice Fields in the Meriç Basin (Edirne) 44

Figure 2.5 Rice Harvest in İpsala 68

Figure 2.6 İpsala Rice Treshing 69

Figure 2.7 Mobil Drying Machine 69

Figure 4.1 The Building of Kurtbey Pond 141

xix

Figure 4.2 Altınkaya Dam in Samsun 147

Figure 4.3 Rice Irrigation Pond in Karacadağ 151

Figure 4.4 Rice Breeding Works of Halil Sürek in Thrace Agricultural

Research Institute 167

Figure 4.5 Osmancık 97 Rice Variety 170

Figure 5.1 The Building of Telmata Channel in İpsala in 1951 220

Figure 5.2 Caterpillar Technology in Combine Harvesters 221

Figure 5.3 Rice Harvest in Derik (Karacadağ) 225

Figure 5.4 Rice Drying in Edirne 227

Figure 5.5 The Volcanic Stones of Karacadağ in Rice Fields 228

Figure 5.6 The Economic Situation of Rice Farmer 271

Figure 6.1 The Parade of Rice Grower Associations in İpsala Independence

Day 300

Figure 6.2 The Pollution of the Ergene River 319

Figure 6.3 Rice Cultivation Celebration in İpsala in the 1950s 331

Figure 6.4 Rice Comb, Wheat Comb and Sunflower 336

Figure 6.5 The Building of Levee Along the Meriç River in in 1960

344

Figure 6.6 Rice Cultvation Festivals in Bafra 344

Figure 6.7 İpsala Rice Festival and Agriculture Fair 345

List of Maps

Map 1.1 The Meriç River Basin (the Meriç Basin) 5

Map 1.2 The Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins 5

Map 1.3 The Karacadağ Agriculture Basin 6

Map 3.1 The Spread of Rice Cultivation in the World 81

Glossary of Non-English Terms

Devlet Su İşleri State Hydraulic Works

Toprak Mahsulleri Ofisi Turkish Grain Board

Toprak Üstü İşlemesi Ground Surface Tillage

Kesik Sulama Intermittent Flow Irrigation

xx

Daimi Sulama Perennial Irrigation

Çeltik Rice

Pirinç Paddy

Trakya Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü Thrace Agricultural Research

Institute

Karadeniz Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü Black Sea Agricultural Research

Institute

xxi

Abbreviations and Acronyms

IRRI International Rice Research Institute

USDA United States Department of Agriculture

SHW Devlet Su İşleri (State Hydraulic Works)

TGB Toprak Mahsulleri Ofisi (Turkish Grain Board)

SAP Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi (Southeastern Anatolian Project)

DIS Doğrudan Gelir Desteği (Direct Income Support)

RPP Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi (Republican People’s Party)

DP Demokrat Parti (Democrat Party)

SPO Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı (State Planning Office)

xxii

A Note on Translation

In the translation of çeltik and pirinç, I used rice and paddy respectively.

Since this dissertation focuses on the social history of rice, I consider to use

the colloquial speech of some terms as to rice in three basins such as tir, kaş

(the borderline of rice fields), peçe (water gate) and so on. Some older words

were used in their original forms such as has, reaya, tımar, mülk and çeltikçi.

In the six chapter, some folklores were written in footnotes in Turkish and

their explanations were given in the texts in English. Besides, in general, hectare

was 10 times larger than decar as a measure.

xxiii

Acknowledgments

This dissertation is the result of a long process in which many dear people

contributed indirectly. First, I would like to express my thanks to the supervisor

of this dissertation Mehmet Asım Karaömerlioğlu who expertly guided

me and provided quite creative and intellectual perspectives. He both encouraged

me to study the social history of plants and always read all the text patiently

and detailedly. Similarly, I owe a thank you to Alpay Balkan for his

suggestions in the preference of rice. Furthermore, I would like to thanks to

my professor Tracy Lord Şen, who has encouraged me to study agrarian history

since 2014. Especially I would like to express my sincere thanks to Şevket

Pamuk, Çağlar Keyder and Zafer Toprak due to their valuable academic

views about agrarian history, their encouragement and providing a broader

perspective.

Second, due to their academic contributions during the writing of this dissertation,

I would like to express my sincere thanks to the dear members of

the thesis monitoring committee M. Asım Karaömerlioğlu, Murat Öztürk,

Berna Yazıcı and Sinem Kavak. Especially, thanks to the guide of Murat

Öztürk I can learn more about statistics and economics. Also I would like to

thank Canan Füsun Abay for her valuable and unselfish labor in the evaluation

of this dissertation. Similarly, I would like to thank Emine Bayram,

Mehmet Akif Erdoğru, Bünyamin Saraç and Oktay Çanaklı for their suggestions

and provide of academic sources. Moreover, I owe thanks to the dear

staff of Ataturk Institute Dilek Tecirli, Kadriye Tamtekin and Leyla Kılıç

made my work easier during my study.

Third, I would like to thanks dear agriculture engineers who enrich this

dissertation with their ideas and provide me interviews with peasants in my

field studies such as Halil Sürek, Necmi Beşer, Adil Kayapınar, Şerif

Kahraman, Rasim Ünan, Melih Enginsu, Ferhat Önal, Mübarek Kavan, Ozan

Angun and Lale Taş. Institutionally, I would like to thanks to Thrace Agriculxxiv

tural Research Institute, Black Sea Agricultural Research Institute, GAP International

Agricultural Research and Education Center, the General Directorate

of State Products Office, Turkish Statistical İnstitute, the Provincial Directorates

of Agriculture in Edirne, Samsun, Diyarbakır, Şanlıurfa and

Mardin. Similarly, I would like to thank the General Directorate of State Archives,

Beyazıt State Library, Boğaziçi University Aptullah Kuran Library,

Ege University Library, National Library, the Library of the Ministry of Agriculture,

Edirne Public Library and İpsala Public Library.

Fourth there are two special people: my father and my mother, who encouraged

and supported me to read and write all the time. I owe them much

more than I can express here. Especially, due to their occupation, they shared

invaluable pieces of information about rice cultivation that provided me with

distinct perspectives in my thesis. Finally, I owe thanks to my dear relatives

Özlem Söğüt Güzel and Seyit Güzel who had me as a guest in Samsun, my

dear relative Meltem Kızıldere who helped me in Edirne Public Library, and

my dear students from Ege University such as Rohat Ağaya, Şeyhmus Kaya,

Esra Kardaş and Mehmet Cemil who met me hospitably and provide a good

time in Diyarbakır and also sincere thanks to my dear students Mustafa

Sonkur, Soner Gül, Yusuf Dökmen and Evren Bekez from Ege University

who provided technical support at the computer.

N O T E : The in-house editor of the Atatürk Institute has made detailed recommendations

with regard to the format, grammar, spelling, usage, syntax, and

style of this dissertation.

1

1

Introduction

he strategy of plants to spread and carry their gens into the future is

really amazing. This tactic that includes mutual dependency and symbiotic

relationship is also the result of the co-evolutionary process with other

living creatures for survival. Based on the biological characteristics of rice,

this dissertation mainly aims to explain why and how state policies, social

relations and economic processes in Turkey are formed around rice in a historical

context. In this context, this dissertation claims that there are no clearcut

borders between nature and society. Thus it focuses on both the reciprocal

and mutual interests or relations between people and rice from its cultivation

to consumption. For example, from the perspective of rice, as an economic,

social and bureaucratic commodity, this dissertation claims that rice is an actor

in the direction of the state, society and economy. Thus, rice makes use of

people and state to spread its genes. However, from the perspective of human

beings, the nutritional and the economic desires of people lead to a desire for

rice cultivation in the agrarian sector in Turkey in the twentieth and twentyfirst

centuries.

Methodologically, there is also horizontal spatiality and vertical temporality

in this dissertation. In terms of temporality, the reason why the period

(1948-2018) is preferred results from the appearance of the Green Revolution

with the Marshall Plan and the socio-economic history of rice until today.

Furthermore, the Second World War is an important breaking point in rice

T

O K A N C E Y L A N

2

agriculture. Due to the destruction of the war in the rice fields in Asia during

the war, the partial transformation of chemical war industry into chemical agricultural

industry for the production of fertilizer and pesticides1 as a sign of

the Green Revolution and the influence of Marshall Plan, both rice cultivation

areas and rice yield have increased. Furthermore, this dissertation claims that

rice is one of the most avant-garde crops of the Green Revolution and the

Marshall Plan in Turkey.

In general, there are three periods in rice farming culture in Turkey in the

20th and 21st centuries. First, rice had been limited to big farmers who had

capital and until the beginning of the 1970s. Second, 1974-1980 is the period

when rice cultivation began to spread among small peasants through increasing

credit facilities, agricultural equipment and irrigation cooperatives. Third,

rice yield, the size of rice cultivation areas and paddy consumption have increased

since 1980. Thus, I have a chance to determine transformations, ruptures

and continuity in a historical process.

Second, in terms of spatiality, three basins are preferred. The preference

of these basins results from their geographical locations in the Turkish map,

different modes of productions and agricultural structures in these basins.

Thus, I try to understand the development process of rice farming in Turkey

in the 20th and the 21st centuries. Geographically, while the Meriç Basin is situated

in the northwestern part of Turkey, the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower

Yeşilırmak Basins are situated in the middle Black Sea Region and also the

Karacadağ Agriculture Basin is situated in southeastern Anatolia. In this context,

while Karacadağ is an agriculture basin, the others are river basins. Thus,

the different developments of rice cultivation from the economic, social, and

political perspectives in a historical process can be seen more clearly. In other

words, this offers an inclusive insight on the history of rice in general in Turkey.

On the one hand this dissertation deals with the historical transformation

and developments in rice farming between 1948 and 2018, it makes some comparisons

among these basins in terms of rice farming culture, paddy consumption

culture, public investments and socio-economic life on the other.

1 Jon Betz and Taggart Siegel, Seed: The Untold Story, Eye Film Production, 2016.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

3

To determine the borders of river basins, the water flow directions of rivers

and the plains around them are taken as references. Since the Ergene river

is a branch of the Meriç river, it is not explained separately. Based on the

water flow direction of the Ergene river, Ergene Basin encompasses extra

lands in Kırklareli and Tekirdağ. Furthermore, this thesis focuses on the eastern

part of the Meriç Basin situated in the east of the Meriç River. The western

part of this basin is situated in Greece. When it comes to the Lower Kızılırmak

and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins, it seems that these basins are situated in Samsun,

have had similar rice farming culture and have similar socio-economic

situations. Thus, they are regarded as a whole. Furthermore, although the geographical

borders of the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin extend from Adıyaman

to Siirt, this dissertation mainly focuses on the region around Karacadağ

volcanic mountain where there has been intensive rice farming culture such

as the western part of Diyarbakır, the northeastern part of Şanlıurfa and northwestern

part of Mardin in Karacadağ Basin. In this context, although Viranşehir

district of Şanlıurfa and Derik district of Mardin are situated in GAP

Basin, they are incorporated into dissertation due to the fact that they have

had the same rice farming culture with Karacadağ.2

Since this dissertation tries to make history from below, I had done some

oral history studies in Edirne, Samsun and Diyarbakır. Especially the professional

agriculture engineers of agricultural research institutes in these provinces

helped me reach these rice farmers and factory owners. However, due

to my hometown, I can reach farmers and factory owners quite easily in

Edirne. I did not prepare a questionnaire, they explained their views and experiences

about rice cultivation in response to my questions.

I spent three days in each province. I made several interviews with one or

two farmers, one rice factor owners and one or two agricultural engineers in

my field study. Since I am a son of a rice grower in the Meriç Basin, I am an

insider in Edirne. This provides me with understanding of the rice cultivation

easily. Most of the time, I apply to the views of my father and mother. How-

2 T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, “Tarım Havzaları Haritaları,” accessed November 12, 2019,

https://www.tarimorman.gov.tr/Sayfalar/Icerikler.aspx?IcerikId=296c5dc2-2d3f-427d-af9a-

70c4a2f131a6

O K A N C E Y L A N

4

ever, I am an outsider in the other two basins. Especially, the production relations

and the modes of production in Karacadağ is quite different. More interestingly,

similar to agricultural engineers, prominent rice farmers in all

these basins know each other.

Furthermore, in the writing of this dissertation, primary and secondary

sources have been used to evaluate the social history of rice in Turkey. First

of all, state archives and the parliamentary minutes provide this dissertation

by evaluating rice from the eyes of the governments. Second, TUİK reports

indicate the numerical and statistical data, means of production and labor

force in rice cultivation. Thus, the economic developments of rice cultivation

and the socio-economic transformation of rice growers can be indicated more

concretely. Third, local newspapers make possible to evaluate rice from the

eyes of local intellectuals and ordinary people. Furthermore, the dissertation

can reveal both the socio-economic experience of rice growers and the reflections

of government policies related to rice in daily social life. Fourth, oral

history study method with rice growers, agriculturalists and fabricator provide

us with an evaluation of the different parts of the rice sector, their separate

economic interests and expectations in a historical process. In addition to

these primary sources, many secondary sources also enrich this dissertation

from biological, geographical, agricultural, economic, and historical perspectives.

In terms of the availability of these academic sources, the periodical publications,

local and national press can be found in the National Library, the

Ministry of Agriculture, Edirne Public Library and Beyazıt State Library. Besides,

government correspondence can be found in State Archives and on the

web site of the Turkish Grand National Assembly. Third, TUİK reports can

be found on its web site. I could reach other secondary sources in Boğaziçi

University Aptullah Kuran Library and Ege University Library.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

5

MAP 1.1 The Meriç River Basin (the Meriç Basin)

SOURCE: Tokatlı (2018)

MAP 1.2 The Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins

SOURCE: https://www.cografyaci.gen.tr/turkiyede-akarsularin-olusturdugu-yersekilleri/

O K A N C E Y L A N

6

MAP 1.3 The Karacadağ Agriculture Basin

SOURCE: https://www.efe.name.tr/guneydogu-anadolu-bolgesi/

More specifically, in the second chapter, this dissertation focuses on both the

economic desires of farmers and the biological properties of rice in directing

farmers mutually and reciprocally. In this context, the rice growers who try to

get higher yield and profit serve the growing of rice in accordance with its

biological and agricultural requirements. Therefore, this chapter also explains

biological properties, geographical distribution and human labor force in rice

cultivation from micro to macro level.

In the third chapter, the dissertation mainly deals with the historical and

evolutionary past of rice from international to national dimensions. In this

context, it tries to explain how rice has been spread into different parts of the

world through trade, migrations, wars, and socio-cultural interactions. Furthermore,

it explains how the Ottoman State or other Anatolian principalities

had cultivated, taxed and consumed rice in their socio-economic lives. Rice

cultivation areas and paddy consumption have been increasing steadily since

the 1930s. Therefore, this chapter tries to enlighten how modern agricultural

methods, urbanization and liberal economic policies contribute to rice farming

during the twentieth century. Actually, the first two main chapters might

be regarded as an infrastructure for the dissertation as they give general views.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

7

The fourth chapter of the dissertation is about the reciprocal and mutual

relations between rice and state. In this context, the state needs rice cultivation

to prevent currency loss through foreign trade and to cultivate stony, salty and

acidic soils. In return, the state helps the spread of the rice genes and settlement

of rice farming culture with some legal regulations, public investments,

scientific projects, fiscal policies and industrialization. This chapter also analyses

the implementations of these regulations and their reflections on the socio-

economic lives of people in the twentieth and twenty- first centuries.

The fifth chapter of the dissertation mainly observes the reciprocal relations

between intensive and specialized human labor and the agricultural

characteristics of rice from a socio-economic point of view. Thus, rather than

only an anthropocentric perspective, it regards rice as an actor that directs the

economic history of society. Although it seems that rice growers consider

their own economic gains, actually they help to increase the spread of rice

genes. It indicates the settlement of rice culture, the transformation of different

modes of rice production, production relations and also rice marketing

system in these basins comparatively. This chapter also indicates the strong

adaptability of rice to developing technology, new pesticides, different climates,

and soil structures. Thanks to the high nutritional value of paddy, the

population growth and the urbanization of Turkey have contributed to rice

production in Turkey during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries

In the sixth chapter, the dissertation tries to prove that rice is a quite social,

cultural and aesthetic commodity that is a subject of novels, cinema, theatre,

folklore, public health and cuisine culture in Turkey. It is a prominent cook of

social and traditional ceremonies such as weeding, meetings and funeral rites.

Thus, it can be said that people consume paddy both in their happy and

mournful days. From a sociological point of view, the extent of rice fields or

the consumption of more qualified paddy variety indicates the socio-economic

status of rice growers and consumers. Since rice cultivation requires

intensive, experienced and qualified labor force and as much as capital, it

forms a social class among rice growers who have common economic interests.

Thus, this chapter says that both the cultivation and consumption of rice

are social. This chapter also analyses the changes in the profiles of farmers

and prominent people who contribute to the settlement and the spread of rice

O K A N C E Y L A N

8

farming culture in these basins in the twentieth century. Finally, this dissertation

points out that although rice is associated with malaria, the main health

problems in these basins are cancer, respiratory tract diseases, and rheumatic

diseases. There are some environmental problems such as water pollution,

soil pollution, and desertification stemming from unplanned industrialization

and the overutilization of pesticides in rice fields.

1.1 Theoretical Discussions about the Relations between Plants

and Humanbeings

To understand the mutual relations between human beings and rice and the

role of rice in the determination of the course of events in history, a general

knowledge about the role of plants for our planet in general, for humans in

particular, is essential. Basically, from Democritus to Platon, from Linneaue

to Darwin and also from Fenchner to Bose, many intellectuals think that

plants have had much more complicated talents than they seem to have. For

example, plants can communicate, have social relations, and solve their problems

through specific strategies. Furthermore, they award people who help

them and punish those who damage them. Based on these properties of plants,

Switzerland is the first country to recognize the rights of plants with a special

declaration in recent years.3

In spite of these characteristics of plants, we do not have adequate scientific

knowledge about them. Furthermore, scientific research about botany

goes back to only 300 years ago.4 In this context, under the light of scientific

data, Darwin is the first intellectual who specifies that plants are developed,

talented, and smarter living creatures. Furthermore, since plants are the basis

of the food chain, human beings desperately need the existence of plants. If

plants extinct, so do human beings too. On the other hand, if human beings

3 Stefano Moncuso and Alexandra Viola, Bitki Zekâsı (İstanbul: Yeni İnsan Yayınevi, 2019): 13.

4 Jean Marie, Marcel Mazoyer and Theodore Monod, Bitkilerin En Güzel Tarihi, Translated by

Nedret Tanyolaç (İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2017): 8.

§

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

9

go extinct, plants survive and even prosper everywhere. Besides, they represent

more than 99.5 percent of the bio mass of the planet.5

Furthermore, Charles Darwin had mainly studied them and tried to find

some proof about the evolutionary theory in plants.6 As plants have had a

longer evolutionary process than human beings, they can develop newer strategies

to survive different condition. For example, as a part of their defense

mechanism, certain plants have developed different characteristics such as

having nutritional values, remedy, poisoning influence, the influence of

drunkenness.7 Namely, they know how to feed, dress and intoxicate people

for at least ten thousand years.

Furthermore, people need plants not only for oxygen but also for the consumption

of meat. All edible animals consume these plants to feed. Furthermore,

thanks to them turning into fossils under – ground, energy sources appear

and thanks to their biological characteristics, some plants such as opium

or cannabis are used in the medical industry. In this context, plants feed people

and people let them grow and protect them from insects.8 Therefore, so as

to make possible the stability and continuity of natural life with their nutrition,

remedy, fossil and photosynthesis, they present their products and they annihilate

their existence.

Although plants cannot move, they are so intelligent that they made use

of insects, and wind for pollination. The pollination of plants can be thought

as a huge market where buyers are insects, vendors are plants, products are

nectars and pollen. Also the advertisement for this market is the smell and

colors of flowers.9 These indicate the mutual and complicated relationships

between a bee and a flower. While bees receive their food requirement, the

genes of apple can be transported. All living things consider the increase of

5 Stefano Moncuso and Alexandra Viola, Bitki Zekası, 43.

6 Ibid., 120.

7 Michael Polland, Arzunun Botaniği, Trans. by Sevin Okyay (İstanbul: İnkılap Yayınevi,

2018).

8 Stefano Moncuso and Alexandra Viola, Bitki Zekâsı, 44.

9 Ibid., 97-100.

O K A N C E Y L A N

10

their copies. In addition to bees, thanks to their sweetness or nutritional values,

plants also persuade people to cultivate them as much as people prefer

them to cultivate. Therefore, although humans consider plants as an object,

they are the subject that direct people at the same time.10

From this point of view, Michael Polland focuses on plants in socio-economic

life and the desires of people towards these plants. In this context, Polland

points out that humans crave an apple for its sweetness, tulip for its

beauty, a potato for controlling and cannabis for drunkenness and pleasure.

Furthermore, the desires of human beings provide survival strategies for

them.11 Similarly, the desires of human beings for rice are nutrition, status

indication and wealth. This might be regarded as a relationship based on mutual

interests. For example, while apple had been used to open new lands to

settle in the USA, it had gained new habitats and new species.12 That is to say,

during the evolutionary process, quite good and harmonious relations as well

as divisions of labor between human beings and plants have developed. This

relationship is mutual and beneficiary. In the same way, as a molecular biologist,

Ignacio Chapela thinks that farming culture results from the extraordinary

good dance between plants and human beings.13

Furthermore, Rowen White argues that a sacred and mutual relation between

human beings and seeds began together with the cultivation of corn in

Central Amerika 10,000 years ago. Thanks to the cultivation of corn, tribes

had turned into civilizations and it had spread through migrations. Similarly,

in addition to migrations, wars and trade, the rice robbery of Thomas Jefferson

also played an important role in the spread of risotto rice in Monticello in

the eighteenth century. Then, more than one million tons of risotto rice seeds

were distributed to farmers in 1890.14

10 Michael Polland, Arzunun Botaniği.

11 Ibid., 125.

12 Ibid., 4.

13 Jon Betz and Taggart Siegel, Seed: The Untold Story

14 Ibid.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

11

Actually, with planting seeds, people become a part of this evolutionary

process.15 In other words, as a mediator, human beings have served the spread

of seeds that are alive embryo. These seeds have the energy of life. Thanks to

the differences in their genetic codes, distinct seeds follow different ways.

While some of them spread through winds, fires or the animals who move

constantly. Moreover, seeds can be thought as time capsule which both protects

the genetic characteristics coming from the past and transfers them to

the future. In this context, there are about 300,000 plant species in the world.

However, while only 10 percent of them are edible, most of the people mainly

consume 10 plants such as wheat, barley, corn, rice and bean.16

However, from an anthropocentric point of view, people regard themselves

as actors and objectify nature rather than consider their mutual interests.

On the other hand, from the standpoints of plants, they make use of people

and bees intelligently spread their genes. In this context, it seems that

people and bees serve plants.17 However, together with the beginning of farming

and the growth of population, the humans have attempted to enforce their

own laws on plants. Furthermore, due to the human factor in agriculture, the

borders between natural and artificial selections are not clear.18 Indeed, the

story of the Green Revolution explains this process in detail.

1.1.2 The Influence of the Green Revolution

Thanks to the increase of agricultural inputs such as fertilizer, pesticides and

mechanization as the signs of the Green Revolution, crop yield and their durableness

against diseases have increased since the beginning of the 1950s.

This situation has made the nutrition of people guaranteed and the increase of

new cultivation areas in the agrarian sector possible. However, today these

areas are under the threat of global warming at the same time.19

15 Jess Phillimore, Seeds of Freedom, The Gaia Foundation and the African Biodiversity Network,

in collaboration with MELCA Ethiopia, Navdanya International and GRAIN, 2012.

16 Jon Betz and Taggart Siegel, Seed: The Untold Story.

17 Jean Marie, Marcel Mazoyer and Theodore Monod, Bitkilerin En Güzel Tarihi, 10.

18 Michael Polland, Arzunun Botaniği.

19 Stefano Moncuso and Alexandra Viola, Bitki Zekâsı, 92.

O K A N C E Y L A N

12

Actually the Green Revolution first began in Mexico in 1945. According

to Raj Patel, the Green Revolution was against the red revolution rather than

the consciousness of the environment. It aimed to avoid people from communism

through the production of cheap food in capitalism. Thus, the Green

Revolution developed new kind of seeds for big companies. Namely, it got

rid of the traditional experience that had been obtained by farmers for thousands

of years and supported the developments of modern industrial or market

– oriented farm culture. In this context, Vandana Shiva points outs that the

Second World War is an important turning point for the transformation of agricultural

structures. In addition to new seed varieties, the chemical industry

that produced war technology was transformed into a chemical agrarian industry

with the reformulation of some chemical molecules of bombs and

gases. Thus they began to produce chemicals such as fertilizer and pesticides

for the agrarian sector in these years.20 Agriculture began to depend upon industry

and market in the twentieth century. Traditional experiences and labor

force were replaced with modern mechanization. Besides, agricultural lands

and plants have become addicted to these pesticides in time.21 These agricultural

inputs cause an increase in production costs of farmers, environmental

pollution and the decline of food security.22

Furthermore, the Green Revolution transformed seed from an element that

vitalizes the commodity for market -oriented production on a global scale.

Therefore, with the hybridization of plants farmers lost their control on the

seeds and thus, market - oriented seed became widespread. Thus farmers depend

on the market economy from seed to the growing and the marketing of

their crops. On the one hand international companies have monopolized their

profit coming from agriculture and global food system around the world since

the 1960s, farmers have tried to gain much more money with less intensive

labor force on the other hand. In spite of their increased production costs and

debts, farmers still have given up on traditional farming culture. However,

some of them may give up cultivating their land in time. Thus, the profits of

20 Jon Betz and Taggart Siegel, Seed: The Untold Story.

21 Jess Phillimore, Seeds of Freedom.

22 Michael Polland, Arzunun Botaniği, 166.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

13

these companies became more important than the living conditions of farmers.

23

The reports of the United Nations pay attention to the Food Crisis and the

negative influence of global warming in 2020. Therefore, to be able to direct

the food crisis adequately and to produce raw material for industry, the agriculture

sector is an indispensable part of socio-economic life.24 The genetic

variability of plants can prevent the emergence of global scarcity. 25

All in all, these ideas emphasize the mutual relations between human beings

and plants as well as the leading role of plants in the socio-economic life

of humans. Thus, rather than their objectification, plants are regarded as an

agency in the making of history. However, anthropocentric standpoint has still

been widespread today. Therefore, it is also essential to deal with how other

authors approach the role of plants in particular to rice in different disciplines.

1.2 Rice from the Eyes of Different Disciplines

In the literature review, there are some academic studies on rice cult ivation

both in the Ottoman and in Republican periods. The articles and books that

focus on rice cultivation in Ottoman period mainly deal with the role of the

state in the spread of rice farming, the influence of rice farming on the spread

of malaria and the relations between the state- controlled land system and

çeltükçi reayas’ tax system. In general, historians and economists study the

rice cultivation system in Ottoman State.

On the other hand, rice cultivation in the republican period has been studied

by academicians, who have various academic disciplines such as agricultural

engineering, medicine and social sciences (history, geography and economics).

They mainly study rice cultivation in terms of statistical information

of rice production and its cultivation areas, the agricultural conditions and the

biological characteristics of rice, the influence of government through rice

23 Jess Phillimore, Seeds of Freedom.

24 Cem Seymen, “Çeltikten Pirince,” Para Dedektifi Belgeseli, CNN TÜRK, 2014.

25 Jon Betz and Taggart Siegel, Seed: The Untold Story.

§

O K A N C E Y L A N

14

codes, and also the discussions on the relationship between malaria and rice

in Turkey separately.

1.2.1 Rice from the Eyes of Agriculturalists

First of all, rice cultivation has been studied by some professors at Agricultural

Faculties. For example, in Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, Turan Güneş reveals

the general structure of rice cultivation in the 1950s and the 1960s in

Turkey. The thesis of this work is to indicate the economic difficulties of rice

growing from its cultivation to marketing and discuss some actions to be

taken. As field- work, he selected Ankara province in which small peasants

were predominant and Adana province in which big landowners were predominant.

Based on the mode of production, labor force, and the relations of

production, he separated Turkey into eight geographical regions in rice cultivation.

In addition to agricultural characteristics of rice, the economic and

public dimensions of rice agriculture from its sowing to marketing are explained.

26

Second, in Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatinin Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin

Fiziki, Kimyevi Vasıfları ve Pişme Degerleri üzerine Araştırmalar, Mustafa

Uluöz explains the distribution of rice cultivation areas in Turkey, the varieties

of rice cereal at the end of the 1940s, the processing of rice cereal (çeltik)

to paddy (pirinç), rice trade, and the comparisons of Turkish rice and foreign

rice in the world. The thesis of this work is to indicate the importance of the

high nutritional value of paddy for societies and evaluate the rice farming

situation of Turkey from economic, political and agricultural points of view

in the early republican period. 27 Third, in Sıcak İklim Tahılları, Osman Tosun

write on rice, corn and canary grass. From the varieties, economics, biological

characteristics to the plant disease of rice are dealt with in this study.28

26 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi (Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi, 1971).

27 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar (Ankara: Gürsoy Basımevi, 1955).

28 Osman Tosun, Sıcak İklim Tahılları (Ankara: Teksir, 1969).

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

15

Fourth, in Çeltik, Ekrem Kün gives information about rice farming from cultivation

to harvest technics, rice growing conditions and some rice varieties

in the 1970s and 1980s.29

In addition to academicians, some professional agricultural engineers

have written some books on rice. For example, in Çeltik Yetiştirme Tekniği,

Nazım Durlu focuses on the general situation of rice cultivation in Turkey, the

soil structure of paddy fields, rice irrigation and the techniques of rice growing

and harvest.30 Second, in Çeltik Ziraati, Mirza Gökgöl emphasizes the

reasons for the preference of rice cultivation, in contrast to other cereals,

higher yield characteristics of rice, the distribution of rice cultivation areas

and its consumption in an urbanized world.31 Similarly, in Çeltik Tarımı, Halil

Sürek in Thrace Agricultural Research Institute explains the agricultural characteristics

and economic conditions of rice cultivation. He tries to develop a

widespread and analytical perspective on rice agriculture in Turkey. From the

growing of rice, the history of rice and its marketing to the breeding of different

rice varieties are explained.32 In general, the explanations that these works

offer are limited to the agricultural growing technics of rice. Apart from the

works of Güneş and Uluöz, others are descriptive rather than being theoretical.

However, almost all of them regard the Rice Cultivation Law of 1936 as

a restriction to the development of rice farming in Turkey. Furthermore, they

have been against the association of rice with malaria.

1.2.2 Rice from the Eyes of Medical Experts and

Social Scientists

The relation between rice and malaria has been studied by historians, medical

experts and agriculturalists. While agriculturalists cannot associate direct relation

between them, historians and doctors claim that there is a connection.

One of the first studies was written by Mehmet Şerif Korkut who was a doctor

and the Deputy of Burdur province in 1946. He wrote a book in 1950 entitled

29 Ekrem Kün, Çeltik (Ankara: Türkiye İş Bankası, 1985), 1-27.

30 Nazım Durlu, Çeltik Yetiştirme Tekniği (Ankara: Fon Matbaası, 1966).

31 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı (Ankara: Güven Matbaası, 1960).

32 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı (İstanbul: Hasad Yayıncılık, 2002).

O K A N C E Y L A N

16

Sıtma ve Çeltik. As a thesis, he propounded the rise of agrarian capitalism at

the end of the 1940s from a Marxian perspective. In this context, there were

some impoverished peasants who worked in paddy fields and enriched big

landholders thanks to rice cultivation. Korkut also explained the sources, the

distribution and the folkloric reflection of malaria. He associated a connection

between rice cultivation and malaria.33

Kyle T. Evered and Emine Ö. Evered wrote an article in 2016 entitled “A

Conquest of Rice: Agricultural Expansion, Impoverishment, and Malaria in

Turkey.” They mainly developed a theory based on M. Şerif Korkut’s study

on rice cultivation at the end of the 1940s. Thus they focused on the critique

of agrarian capitalism in the early Cold War period. They tried to reveal how

rice cultivation led to poverty, malaria and corruption. They also emphasized

the relations between big landowners and government in rice cultivation.34

In an article entitled Pilavdan Dönen İmparatorluk: Meclis-i Mebusan'da

Sıtma ve Çeltik Tartışmaları, Chris Gratien explains the distribution of rice

cultivation areas, economic and ecological discussions in the Second Constitutional

era and their continuity in the early Republican era. As a thesis, he

indicates the close relations of ecological problems with the socio-economic

and political transformation in the late Ottoman period. In this context, he

mainly focuses on the parliamentary discussions about rice between liberals

and technocrats and also the measure for the prevention of malaria. He tried

to indicate the common political attitudes of the deputies who had different

political ideologies in case of having common economic interests. 35

Fatih Tuğluoğlu wrote an article in 2008 Türkiye’de Sıtma Mücadelesi

1924-1950. Tuğluoğlu pays attention to a relation between agricultural activities

and the spread of diseases in the world. He regards malaria as a social

33 Mehmet Şerif Korkut, Isıtma ve Çeltik, (Ankara: Yeni Matba, 1950).

34 Kyle T. Evered and Emine Ö. Evered, “A Conquest of Rice: Agricultural Expansion, Impoverishment

and Malaria in Turkey,” Historia Agraria 68, (2016): 103-136.

35 Chris Gratien, "Pilavdan Dönen İmparatorluk: Meclis-i Mebusan'da Sıtma ve Çeltik

Tartışmaları," In Osmanlı'dan Cumhuriyet'e Salgın Hastalıklar ve Kamu Sağlığı, edited by

Burcu Kurt and İsmail Yaşayanlar (İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 2018), 97-117.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

17

problem that prevents the continuity of a healthy generation and prevents labor

productivity and agricultural production. Malaria was the first disease that

was dealt with or talked in National Medical Congress in 1925. He discussed

the sources of malaria, in what ways this disease spread and what measures

were taken against malaria by the state through laws.36

Similarly, Ümmügülsüm Candeğer wrote an article in 2016 Cumhuriyet’ten

Günümüze Sıtma ile Savaş. She specified when and how malaria disease appeared

in Anatolia. She emphasized an institutional and legal basis in the campaign

against malaria in the twentieth century.37Furthermore, Ümit Akagündüz

wrote an article II Meşrutiyet Döneminde Toplumsal Bir Sorun Olarak

Sıtma ve Sıtmadan Korunma Çareler, Akagündüz mainly focused on the perception

of malaria by the society and the state at the beginning of the twentieth

century. The measures of state in the eradication of the sources of malaria,

medical treatment against malaria and the discussions in the Chamber of Deputies

about rice cultivation were dealt with in detail.38

Besides, rice cultivation was studied from social, economic and political

perspectives by historians. For example, Halil İnalcık wrote an article in 1982

entitled Rice Cultivation and Çeltükçi Reaya System in the Ottoman Empire

in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. İnalcık tried to define and systematize

a term of çeltükçi reaya. He also explained the role of the Ottoman Empire in

the rice cultivation in some regions, tax payment, the organization of peasants

in rice agriculture and rice consumption culture in the Ottoman Empire.39 According

to İnalcık, since rice required intensive labor force, paddy fields became

small. However, this is much more related to cultivation techniques

36 Fatih Tuğluoğlu, “Türkiye’de Sıtma Mücadelesi,” Türkiye Patoloji Dergisi 32, no. 4 (2008):

352- 356.

37 Ümmügülsüm Candeğer, “Cumhuriyetten Güzünümüze Sıtma İle Savaş,” In International

Turkic World Educational and Social Science Congress, edited by Sinan Demirtürk, (Ankara:

Türk Eğitim-Sen, 2016), 411-419.

38 Ümit Akagündüz, “II Meşrutiyet Döneminde Toplumsal Bir Sorun Olarak Sıtma ve Sıtmadan

Korunma Çareleri,” Kebikeç 41, (2016): 95- 124.

39 Halil İnalcık, “Rice Cultivation and the Çeltikçi Reaya System,” Turcica XIV, (1982),

O K A N C E Y L A N

18

according to agriculturalists. However, Faroqhi said rice was a modest luxury

not a popular, everyday food for the Ottomans.40

Feridun Emecen wrote an article in 1993 Çeltik, where he explained the

rice cultivation in Adana’s Kozan region. Sis was the older name of Kozan

district and there was a Sis Code that regulated rice cultivation areas and the

share of rice production among peasants, states and workers. Emecen also

explained how rice was consumed as a diet in festivals, Ramadan, hospitals

and hospices.41

Zeki Arıkan wrote an article in 1990, 15 ve 16 yy da Anadolu’da Çeltik

Üretimi; Arıkan mainly focused on the spread of rice from its homeland into

the world, rice cultivation in the Ottoman from the eyes of travelers such as

Ibn Batuta and Evliya Çelebi, and also the rice cultivation in Anatolian

beylics.42

Mehmet Akif Erdoğru wrote two works entitled XV ve XVI yy da Aydın

Sancağında Çeltik Tarımı and Fatih Sultan Mehmet Devri Aydın İli Mufassal

Defterleri. In these studies, Erdoğru mainly points out that in addition to miri

lands, there had been rice cultivation in Waqf lands in Aidin Beylics. He explained

the names of settlements, and then explained how Aidin Principality

controls these places and how it collects taxes for rice cultivation,.43

Mehmet Karagöz wrote an article in 2004 1193/1779 Senesi Rüsum Defterlerine

Göre Bazarcık/ Tatarpazarında Pirinç Üretimi. Karagöz mainly explains

what cereals were consumed in the Ottoman Empire. Due to the requirement

of the intensive labor force, rice was regarded as a valuable cereal.

Karagöz explained rice cultivation and rice consumption in Ottoman Filibe as

40 Suraıya Faroqhi, “İktisat Tarihi (17. ve 18. Yüzyıllar)” In Türkiye Tarihi 3 Osmanlı Devleti

1600-1908, edited by Oğuz Akkan and Sina Akşin (İstanbul: Cem Yayınevi, 1995), 191-215.

41 Feridun Mustafa Emecen, "Çeltik," TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi 8, (1999): 265-266.

42 Zeki Arıkan, “15 ve 16 yy da Anadolu’da Çeltik Üretimi” V. Milletlerarası Türkiye Sosyal ve

İktisat Tarihi Kongresi Tebliğler, (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1990).

43 Mehmet Akif Erdoğru, "Aydın Sancağında Çeltik Tarımı XV-XVI Yüzyıl,” In Tarihin Peşinde

Bir Ömür, Abdülkadir Özcan’a Armağan, edited by Hayrunnisa Alan and Ömer İşbilir

(İstanbul: Kronik Yayıncılık, 2018); Mehmet Akif Erdoğru and Ömer Bıyık, T.T 0001/1 M.

Numaralı Fatih Mehmet Devri Aydın İli Mufassal Defteri: Metin ve İnceleme (İzmir: İzmir

Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi, 2015).

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

19

an administrative part of Edirne Province in the eighteenth century.44 In addition,

rice cultivation takes part in Turkish Literature and Turkish Cinema. Teneke

novel of Yaşar Kemal, Kurbağalar and Acı Pirinç films explain social

lives around rice cultivation.

There are also three important dissertations about the socio-economic aspects

of rice. The first two of them were written by Okan Gaytancıoğlu and

Ahmet Şapaloğlu at Namık Kemal University Agricultural Faculty and the

third was written by Sermin Kiraz Göloğlu at Middle East Technical University.

Türkiye’de Çeltikte Uygulanan Üretim, Fiyat ve Pazar Politikalarının

Değerlendirilmesi dissertation written by Okan Gaytancıoğlu in 1997 mainly

depends upon the questionnaire method with 294 farmers, 32 factories, 8 retailers,

and 600 consumers around Turkey. Gaytancıoğlu; tries to develop new

suggestions for production, marketing and price policy of rice. He also explained

the production process of rice and socio-economic conditions of rice

growing in Turkey.45 However, this thesis both tried to develop new suggestions

for the increase of rice production and paddy marketing of Turkey.

Pirinç Üretim – Tüketim Zincirinde Pazarlama Kanallarının Yapısı ve Pirinç

Pazarlama Marjları thesis written by Ahmet Şapaloğlu in 2015 tries to

explain the economic voyages of rice from seed to pilaf in dinners. He does

research on the production, marketing and processing channels of rice, the

structure of the rice industry and the profit margins of them.46

Finally, Gender Division of Labor in a Rice Producing Village written by

Sermin Kiraz Göloğlu who mainly explains the influence of the process of

rural transformation, production, and reproduction on the gender division of

labor. She made her field study in a rice producing village of the Tosya district

of Kastamonu. Göloğlu pays attention to the fact that while men specialize in

44 Mehmet Karagöz, “1779 Senesi Rüsum Defterine Göre Bazarcık- Tatarpazarı’nda Pirinç

Üretimi,” Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimleri Dergisi 14, no. 2, (2004): 275-299.

45 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye'de çeltikte uygulanan üretim fiyat ve pazar politikalarının değerlendirilmesi”

(PHD Thesis, Trakya Universitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, 1997).

46 Ahmet Şapaloğlu, “Pirinç üretim - tüketim zincirinde pazarlama kanallarının yapısı ve pirinç

pazarlama marjları: Edirne ili örneği” (MA Thesis, Namık Kemal University Fen Bilimleri

Enstitüsü, 2015).

O K A N C E Y L A N

20

mechanized works, women specialize in labor- intensive works. Despite of

agricultural mechanization, the labor intensity of women increased, the socioeconomic

status of women has not increased and patriarchal relations have

still continued to exist.47Actually, all of these works have an anthropocentric

perspective in the sense that they exclusively focus on human beings.

1.3 A Critical Survey of Existing Literature

However, this dissertation is different from abovementioned academic studies

in terms of attributing an agency role to rice, multidisciplinary perspectives

and methodological approach. While all these studies mainly put people at

the center and develop more anthropocentric viewpoint in their rice research,

this thesis put the agricultural and biological characteristics of rice at the center

and deals with the reciprocal and mutual interests between people and rice.

While the humans benefit from rice in terms of nutrition, economic wealth

and socio – economic prestige, the rice also benefits from people because this

way it can pass down its genes. Thus it explains the socio-economic relations,

socio-cultural life, and socio-political structures or institutions that revolved

around rice cultivation.

In this context, rather than putting the role of people or government policies

at the center, rice in its geographical context is mainly thought as the

active agent in the making of socio-economic history. Besides, all services of

the ordinary people, private - governmental institutions, or fiscal policies are

considered as means of the growth of rice. In contrast to the modernist technical

perspective of the abovementioned works, we will approach this subject

from a more historical and social perspective.

Secondly, while these works in the literature only approached from one

side of rice such as health, trade or agriculture in the historical process, this

dissertation deals with rice cultivation from more analytical and multidisciplinary

perspectives often prioritizing social relations. Especially three books

47 Sermin Kiraz Göloğlu, “Gender division of labor in a paddy/rice producing village” (MA

Thesis, ODTÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, 1998).

§

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

21

such as La Plus Belle Histoire des Plantes, The Botany of Desire, Verde Brillante

and Bitkiler Düşünür mü? encourage me to form the theoretical infrastructure

of this dissertation. All of these studies regard plants as an actor and

emphasize their reciprocal relations with human beings in a historical process.

In Verde Briallante, Stefano Moncuso and Alexandra Viola mainly explain

the secret and complicated world of plants with Darwinian theories. In this

context, they also take into account the biological, social, and intellectual

properties of plants.48 Second, the authors of La Plus Belles Histoire des

Plantes also indicate that plants are actors in the course of the historical process.

They deal with the relations of plants with insects, people and other

plants in their evolutionary period.49 Third, in Botany of Desire, Michael Polland

pays attention to the reasons why people or bees get into relations with

these plants and questions the desires of human beings and bees. In this reciprocal

and mutual opportunities, he also indicates how plants directs people

and bees. Thus, he objects to anthropocentric perspectives and the objectification

of nature.50 Besides, in the article entitled as Bitkiler Düşünür mü? in

1976, based on the climate factors Temel Gençtan explains that plants have

thinking skills and decision making process in tillering and spikelet process

to increase their yield and carry their seeds into future. As an example, he

gives wheat, corn, and legumes.51

48 Stefano Moncuso and Alexandra Viola, Bitki Zekâsı, 13-16.

49 Jean Marie, Marcel Mazoyer and Theodore Monod, Bitkilerin En Güzel Tarihi, 7-12.

50 Michael Pollan, Arzunun Botaniği.

51 Temel Gençtan, “Bitkiler Düşünür mü?” Bilim Teknik 9, no. 107, (1976): 22-23.

22

2

Introduction to Rice: Agricultural and Biological Properties

lthough, the actions of human beings are mainly put in the center, and

the role of plants in the making of history is not seen directly or ignored

in the course of history, as an agent, plants have played a vital role in the

demographic, the economic and the political developments of many societies

and civilizations on a global scale. Furthermore, as if it was an invisible hand,

the power of plants that results from their biological and agricultural properties,

topography and climate have led to many wars, migrations or commercial

activities among societies for centuries. In this context, thanks to their

calorific value, carbon hydrate and substance content, especially cereals as

staple foods have had a special place in the daily food consumption of people,

agricultural production, economics, and trade.

Among cereals, rice is an annually cultivated plant that has the third largest

sowing area after wheat and maize around the world.52 Rice that is a kind

of nutrient cereal, regarded as a staple food of more than half of the world

population.53 While our body benefits from 69 percent of wheat, it benefits

52 A. Kadir Kıran, Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi Çeltik Tarımı, Bugünkü Durumu ve Geliştirilmesi

(Diyarbakır: Güneydoğu Anadolu Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü Yayını, 1988); 2; “Cereals,”

FAOSTAT accesed November 12, 2019, http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC

53 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 11.

A

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

23

from 88 percent of rice. Especially, rice and rice starch are used to treat the

stomach ache of babies.54 Similar to other cereals, rice is an essential store of

carbohydrates for people.55 Moreover, since rice includes phytin and lecithin,

it is the most natural digestible and the most productive cereal.56 It has the

highest level of nicotinic acid. However, concerning zinc and iron, rice is

poorer than other grains. It results from processing that turns rice into the

paddy. In the course of sparkling, pericarp, testa, aleurone, and embryo are

got rid of the paddy. Thus, vitamin A, B, and E contents disappear. However,

in the protein level of rice, the mineral of irrigated water and soil types are

influential.57

Especially, from a socio-economic and socio-cultural point of view, rice

plays an essential role in the nutrition of the Southeast and Far East Asia.

Namely, rice is an Asiatic crop. These regions have had 89 percent of the cultivation

area and 91 percent of rice production in the world.58 However, how

these cereals are consumed and cooked differentiate in distinct parts of the

world. While wheat has the highest consumed staple food around the world,

densely populated Monsoon Asian countries consume rice due to the socioeconomic,

cultural, and climatic factors in Asia.59 Therefore 90 percent of

rice is produced in Asia where 60 percent of the world population lives. While

the Asian community takes 76 percent of their calorie from rice, this is only

21 percent for the rest of the world population.60 Furthermore, rice cultivation

has a special place in India and China where there has been the highest level

of production concerning providing self-sufficiency and livelihood security.61

54 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 4.

55 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 11.

56 Rahmi Çeltik, "Türkiye'de Pirinç Ziraatı," Ziraat Dergisi, no 15 (March 1941): 26.

57 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 146- 150.

58 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi (Samsun:

Karadeniz Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü, 1993), 2

59 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar, 1-5

60 Yılmaz Kaya, Gülfidan Kuyumcu, Selin Karakütük, and Yunus Emre Arman, “Kır Çeltik

Bitkisi,” YYÜ Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi 27, no.1 151

61 K.K Tripathi, O.P Govila, Ranjini Warrier and Vibha Ahuja, Biology of Oryza Sativa L.

(Rice), (New Delhi: Ministry of Environment and Forests Government of India, 2011), 1-2

O K A N C E Y L A N

24

To be able to understand the socio-economic developments at the macro

level, rice that is unique, remarkable, and invaluable needs to be discovered

and put in the center with its biological properties at the micro -level. Therefore,

this study deals with rice from its germination to turning into a pilaf.

Since all struggles of people are to provide higher rice yield and productivity

for their economic gain, this chapter mainly tries to explain what the biological

and agricultural traits of rice are and how these properties direct peasants

or producers in the cultivation, in the preference of rice varieties, the pest

control, the fertilization and the harvest of rice.

2 .1 The Biological and The Morphological Properties of Rice

At first, biologically, the first study about rice genetic was done in 1908 by

Von Der Stok.62 When the botany of rice is researched, concerning taxonomy,

it seems that the kingdom of rice is Plantae, the division of rice is Magnoliophyte,

the class of rice is Liliopsida, the order of rice is Cyperales, the

family of rice is Poaceae, and the genus of rice is Oryza. There are 25 species

under the Oryza genus. However, Due to their economic and nutritious value,

Oryza sativa L. and Oryza glaberrima L. which were two species of 25 rice

species were firstly cultivated in agriculture.63 While Oryza sativa L. is

mostly grown in Asia and America, Oryza glaberrima L. is grown in Africa.64

There are more than 40.000 varieties of cultivated rice. With its wild species,

more than 90, 000 rice species are stored in Rice Gene Bank of the International

Rice Research Institute (the IRRI) founded by Ford, Rockefeller, and

62 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 56-84; Mehmet Oğraş, Çeltik Tarımı, (İzmir: Ege Bölge Zirai

Araştırma Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü, 1987), 5.

63 K.K Tripathi, O.P Govila, Ranjini Warrier and Vibha Ahuja, Biology of Oryza Sativa L.

(Rice), 3.

64 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 56-84; Necla Türkoğlu, “Türkiyede Çeltik Alanlarının Dağılşı”

Ankara Üniversitesi Türkiye Coğrafyası Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi 7, no 14

(1992): 209

§

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

25

the government of the Philippines in 1960.65 However, the number of rice varieties

in rice banks of IRRI increased to more than 110,000 in 2017.66

Furthermore, the Rockefeller Foundation was the first institution that

made financial support to rice studies across the world. Then Henry Ford and

Bill Gates Foundations entered into the rice sector. Due to the high nutritional

value of rice, it was selected as model cereal for gene research. Thus, Rockefeller

made big donations to Cornell University, Stanford University, Purdue

University, Ghent University, and Leiden University. More than 700 scientists

from 30 countries took place in this research and 500 milliard USD was spent.

In addition to Adrian Dubock who is a biotechnologist at Syngenta, with the

participation of Ingo Potrykus in Switzerland Federal Technology Institute

and Peter Beyer in Freiburg University who studied rice at Biological Science

Center in Germany, they found DNA map of rice in 1988. In the end, the first

GDO paddy was produced in 1999 and tried to be spread in the 2000s.67

Paddy is a product of Oryza sativa L. In its processing, cargo rice is obtained

through husking but not pearling. Rice is achieved through husking,

pearling, and getting rid of its embryo and aleurone layer.68 Therefore, the

starch content of rice is 78 percent, its protein content is 8 percent, its moisture

content is 13 percent, and its oil value is 1 percent.69

65 B.P Caton, M. Mortimer, and J.E Hill, A Practical Field Guide to Weeds of Rice in Asia,

(Laguna: International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), 2004): 1

66 Halil Sürek and Necmi Beşer, tape recorded interview by author, İpsala, Edirne, Turkey. November

21, 2019.

67 Soner Yalçın, Saklı Seçilmişler (İstanbul: Kırmızı Kedi, 2019), 63-67.

68 Halil Sürek, “Türkiye’de Üretilen ve Yeni Tescil Edilen Çeltik Çeşitleri, "Trakya Tarımsal

Araştırma Enstitüsü Çeltik Yetiştiriciliği Semineri Edirne, (May 29-31, 1991): 34

69 Nejat Gamzeli “2015-16 Çeltik Sezonu Değerlendirmesi” Çiftçi ve Köy Dünyası Dergisi, (October

2015): 39.

O K A N C E Y L A N

26

2. 2 Rice Cultivation Methods

Rice is grown under four different ecosystems: irrigated, rainfed lowland,

rainfed upland, and flood- prone.70 Besides, rice is grown under different

conditions and production systems but submerged in water. 57 percent of rice

is cultivated on irrigated lands, 25 percent on rainfed lowlands, 10 percent on

uplands, 6 percent in deep water, and 2 percent in tidal wetlands.71 Rice is

grown in the areas where average annual rainfall is less than 2500 millimeters

through the irrigated water. In addition to white grain color, rice might be in

different colors such as purple, brown, red and black.72 Second, in the rainfed

lowland ecosystem, rice is not irrigated, and soil surfaces are flooded less than

the 50 cm depth of water. It is common in Monsoon Asia. Third, in the upland

ecosystem, rice is grown in dry fields that are not flooded or flooded for short

periods such as nine days. It is seen in Monsoon Asia. Fourth, in tidal wetlands

rice cultivation, rice is grown in the areas which periodically flooded

by sea or ocean water source from the tidal cycle. It is seen in New York.

Finally, in the deep-water ecosystem, rice is grown in the flooded fields at

least 50 cm depth of water. It is seen in India.73 Due to the lack of enough

water sources, there is a search for waterless rice cultivation.74

In its vegetation period, concerning the biological equilibrium, rice is a

quite sensitive cereal. It requires all of its nutrients, water requirements and

environmental conditions, such as humidity, temperature and solar radiation

on time and at an adequate dosage. All of these require quite intensive and

disciplinary labor force. Since the irrigated ecosystem is widespread in Turkey,

this study mainly explains rice cultivation from the perspective of the

70 K.K Tripathi, O.P Govila, Ranjini Warrier and Vibha Ahuja, Biology of Oryza Sativa L.

(Rice), 1

71 V.L Chopra, and S. Prakash,” Evolution and Adaptation of Cereal Crops” Annals of Botany,

91, no.4 (2002):500-501.

72 "Rice and human nutrition"International Year of Rice, (Rome: FAO, 2004), 1.

73 D.J Mackill, W.R. Coffman and D.P Garitty, Rainfed Lowland Rice Improvement, (Manila:

IRRI, 1996), 1-4

74 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey. August 20, 2018.

§

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

27

irrigated rice ecosystem. Rice is the only cereal that uses oxygen soluble in

water. Besides, water in rice fields is essential to prevent herbs that influence,

the morphological trait of rice, nutrients and the yield of rice. However, water

depth should be 15 cm ideally for water- saving and yield: water depth in rice

field influences tillering and the number of panicles. On the other hand, in the

case of more than 15 cm water level, the temperature of soil and water declines,

the robustness of rice root weakens, and rice begins to lodging. To

prevent lodging, ammonium sulfate fertilizer should be cut, water flows into

rice should be cut at certain intervals, and the panicles of rice should be harvested.

75

2. 3 The Development and the Growth of Rice

Rice is classified according to its grain size and shape. However, the rice classification

in India and the Philippines are different from each other. The classification

of rice has been developed by the Ramaiah Committee in 1965

which was appointed by the Government of India. Based on the length and

width ratio of the kernel, rice varieties are separated into five groups such as

long slender, long bold, short slender, short bold and medium slender.76

Similarly, the international classification of rice has been developed by

the IRRI.77 Rice is separated into three groups. These are long length rice

varieties that are 7-8 mm, middle length rice varieties that are 6-7 mm and

also short length rice varieties that are 5-6 mm. For example, Bersani is a long

length, Maratelli and Lançio (Dervish) are mid-length grain and also Egypt

and Sarı kılçık is a short length.78

Biologically, rice has three pericarps. These are palea inferior, palea superior,

pericarp, and testa. The rest area that is starch part of rice is called

75 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 5-15.

76 K.K Tripathi, O.P Govila, Ranjini Warrier and Vibha Ahuja, Biology of Oryza Sativa L.

(Rice), 1-2.

77 Ibid, 2.

78 Muzaffer Alap, Çukurovada Çeltik Ziraatı ve Sulama Tekniği, (Adana: Yıldız Matbaası,

1957), 11.

§

O K A N C E Y L A N

28

endosperm that is rich in potassium, phosphor, and magnesium. Rice is a caryopsis

that is composed of one seed, and its length is similar to a boat. The

grain of rice is thick with glume, caryopsis, endosperm, and embryo. In stems,

mesocotyl is a kind of small stem that develops between the seedling of rice

and seed. Mesocotyl also pushes the first leaf into the soil surface. In the other

part of the embryo, the seedling of rice begins to vegetate. Then the first leaf

grows shaped like a cylinder. The stems of rice are composed of nodes and

internodes. The length of the internodes depends upon rice species and environmental

conditions. Each internode produces only one leaf. For the growth

of leaves, rice needs at least 16 oC. While the number of nodes differentiates

between 13 and 16, the number of upper nodes is 4 or 5. As the water level in

the field is raised, the distances among sub-internodes increases.79

In this process, tillering begins to be in the period between the holding of

rice seedling on to the soil and the beginning of a panicle. Tillering continues

for thirty days and it is closely related to weather conditions. Temperature

between 25 and 30 oC is essential to be tillering. Although at first, the new

tillers attach to the main stem of rice, they take root by separating from the

remaining seedling.80

Furthermore, the tillering of rice depends upon plant seed rate, daylight,

nutrients, water depth, and growing technique. Based on the rice varieties, the

number of tillers is between 3 and 12. Adequate tillering enables uniform maturity

and vegetation in rice fields. Due to competition among plants for sunshine

and nutrients, the plant seed rate of rice influences tillers. As their seed

rate decreases, the number of tillers increases. Irrigation and fertilization with

nitrogen and phosphor fertilizers enable the growth of tillering, leaf blade narrow,

and long. Averagely, a new leaf is out on the main seedling of rice once

a week. Before the period of panicle of rice, low temperatures and long days

increase the number of leaves.81 Although the use of phosphor is suggested

before the cultivation of the soil, the rice fields where have been cultivated

for an extended period do not need it too much.82

79 Halil Sürek Çeltik Tarımı, 10-15.

80 Ibid., 55.

81 Ibid., 11-20.

82 Ibid., 98.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

29

There is a panicle at the top of rice from each internode on parallel to the

panicle branch out. The density of the panicle depends upon the number of

spikelets that are composed of the grain of rice and the angles between tillers

and the main stem. The first tillers have more panicles. If there is not enough

water flow, the formation of panicle delays. Besides, in awned varieties of

rice, there is an awn develops as the extension of the median vein in the inner

glume. The environmental conditions widely influence the awn of rice. However,

the length of awns varies among different spikelets on the same panicle.

83

The vegetation period of rice depends upon climatic factors, varieties, and

day length. Therefore, when all rice varieties considered, rice grows between

100 days and 210 days. The generative period of rice takes shape between the

panicle and florescence.84 Based on their vegetation period, rice varieties are

grown between 100 and 125 days called as early seasoned varieties, those that

are grown between 125 and 150 days called as mid-early seasoned varieties

and also those grown between 150 and 180 days called as late seasoned rice

varieties that have the highest productivity.85 Rice needs a calorie between

4000 and 5000 in its vegetation period.86

The period of the panicle is a quite significant period concerning high

productivity. In this process herbicides should not be used, the water level

should remain at the same level, the sunshine duration of rice should be adequate,

air temperature should be more than 13 oC and the last nitrogenous fertilizer

should be used. Similarly, during the periods of the tillering, the seedling,

and the panicle of rice, herbicides have an adverse effect on the plant.

Herbicides should be used in the period between the end of tillering and before

the beginning of the panicle.87

83 Ibid., 13-17.

84 Benito S. Vergera, “Plant growth and development." In Rice Production, edited by Bor. S.

Luh (Laguna: Manual. University of the Philippines, 1970): 13; Halil Sürek Çeltik Tarımı, 14.

85 Muzaffer Alap, Çukurovada Çeltik Ziraatı ve Sulama Tekniği, 11.

86 Nuran Taşlıgil and Güven Şahin, “Türkiye’de Çeltik Yetiştiriciliği ve Coğrafi Dağılımı,” Adıyaman

Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 4, no. 6 (June 2011): 184-185.

87 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 21-55.

O K A N C E Y L A N

30

Florescence takes shape shortly afterward of the panicle and continues for

five days. Florescence is the most sensitive process to air temperature therefore

22, and 35 0C is essential to be florescence. In this process, spikelet opens

almost two hours and closes after pollination that is necessary for the formation

of grain. Rice is self-pollinated, and it occurs until midday. Starch begins

to be seen in endosperm three days later. However, strong wind and low

temperatures widely prevent pollination.88 After this thirty or forty-five days

of the period, the grain of rice matures in almost thirty days. It also coincides

with the period when the panicles are out in half. It continues to be until 21

percent of moisture content in rice grain.89

As temperature decreases, the maturing time increases. Thus, solar radiation

is quite essential for higher productivity. The maturing level of grain and

the environmental conditions during the maturing time of grain determines

the yield, the grain image, and the cooking quality of rice. The color of grain

turns from green to yellow. The sub leaves of rice die and upper leaves are

green. The filling of the rice grains based upon the amount of carbohydrate,

the number and the size of spikelet and air temperature.90

2. 4 The Geographical Distribution of Rice

The borders of rice cultivation are between Amur River between Russia and

China on 53 north and central Argentina on 40 south latitudes.91 Based on the

temperature and air conditions, the vegetation period of rice extends, and its

competition against herbs declines from Ecuador to polar circles.92 Rice is

the only agricultural product that adapts to different climates, water conditions,

and soil types. Concerning altitude and temperature, rice can be sown

88 Ibid, 17-56.

89 W. Stansel, "The rice plant: its development and yield," In Six Decades of Rice Research in

Texas, edited by J.C. Miller, (College Station: Texas A&M University, 1975): 9-21; Halil Sürek,

Çeltik Tarımı, 18-56.

90 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 18-56.

91 International Rice Research: 25 Years of partnership, (Los Banos: IRRI, 1985): 1.

92 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 27.

§

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

31

lower than 2500 meters, and it needs air temperature between 18 and 35 0C.93

For example, rice can be grown in the mountains of Nepal as an upland crop

and under irrigation in the hot deserts of Pakistan in different parts of Asia,

Africa, and Latin America.94

2. 4. 1 Ecological Factors: Precipitation, Temperature,

Winds and Soil Types

In the historical process, due to its high productivity and high price, rice began

to be spread into other parts of the world besides, tropical regio ns after the

Second World War. 95 Although rice necessitates an intensive labor force and

agricultural inputs such as fertilizers, modern agrarian equipment, and herbicides,

it is quite sensitive to weather conditions such as air temperature, water

temperature, moisture, fog and precipitation at the same time. All of them

influence both its growing process and its productivity directly.96 Excessive

raining together with high temperature leads to the rise of relative humidity

that causes fungus. Similarly, raining also prevents solar radiation adequately

delays its harvest, and decreases its productivity. Solar radiation especially is

essential 40 days of a process before the maturing of rice. Winds also prevent

rice from the filling of grain and cause lodging and yield decrease.97

Climate, air temperature, the quality of irrigated water, the amount of

herbicide, the amount of fertilizer used in the rice fields affect the growth of

rice. Rice needs 20 and 31 0C of air temperature during its vegetation period.

Otherwise, low air temperature decreases the seed germination vigor and

93 Nuran Taşlıgil, Güven Şahin, “Türkiye’de Çeltik Yetiştiriciliği ve Coğrafi Dağılımı,” 184-

185.

94 K.K Tripathi, O.P Govila, Ranjini Warrier and Vibha Ahuja, Biology of Oryza Sativa L.

(Rice), 1.

95 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraati, 3.

96 Halil Sürek Çeltik Tarımı, 56-82.

97 Halil Sürek, “Çeltikte Verim Komponentleri ve Bunlara Etki Eden İklim Faktörler,” Trakya

Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü Çeltik Yetiştiriciliği Semineri, Edirne (May 29-31, 1991): 49;

Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 58.

O K A N C E Y L A N

32

seedling growth.98 While rice growing depends on air condition, on the one

hand, it directs peasants in using agricultural inputs on the other.

The quality of water and water temperature are two essential criteria in

rice cultivation. Hard water and cold water are not suitable for rice. Water

temperature should be ideally between 13 and 23 0C. However, the most suitable

degree of water temperature is between 18 and 35 0C. Although water

temperature less than 12 0C cannot lead to cold damage in a day, it causes the

pale and the death of rice in a week. In the growing of rice, 12 0C and 42 0C

of water temperature are critical threshold values. While rice cannot be germinated

less than 12 0C, the number panicle declines. While the average water

temperature is 24 0C in Edirne, it is lower in Samsun and Diyarbakır.99

Indica, Javanica, and Japonica are sub-species of Oryza sativa L. differentiate

concerning morphology from each other. Indica rice grows in tropical

regions such as India, North China, and Malasia, has 75 percent of World rice

trade.100 Indica subspecies have large and light green leaves. They are long

long, and they have a narrow, long, and flat grain structure.

On the other hand, Japonica subspecies that grow in the subtropical region

have narrow and dark green. They are short, and they have short and large

round grain structure.101 They are grown in subtropical regions such as Southeast

Asia, Korea, and Japan.102 While Japonica subspecies of rice cannot grow

under 10 0C, those of Indica cannot grow under 20 0C. Indica sub-species are

more sensitive to insolation. Therefore, while the Indica sub-species mature

in 90 days in the fields of the IRRI, they grow at least 150 days in the fields

of Thrace Agricultural Research Institute in Edirne. In the pollination period,

rice is quite sensitive to low temperatures. In this period, 15 and 20 0C are

98 Ibid., 19- 43.

99 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 55-83.

100 Yılmaz Kaya, Gülfidan Kuyumcu, Selin Karakütük, and Yunus Emre Arman, “Kır Çeltik

Bitkisi,” 151.

101 Mehmet Oğraş, Çeltik Tarımı, 6.

102 Yılmaz Kaya, Gülfidan Kuyumcu, Selin Karakütük, and Yunus Emre Arman, “Kır Çeltik

Bitkisi,” 152.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

33

critical temperatures for sterility of rice. Due to cold damage on rice, germination

rate decrease, a decline of spikelet and tillering, and also irregular and

delayed maturing of rice can be seen. On the other hand, hot wind damage

also increases the possibility of sterility. It is seen in Africa, the Middle East,

and Pakistan.103 In case of cold air temperature, as a measure, the water level

of rice fields should rise.104

Although the low moisture during the growing period of rice decreases

the possibility of plant diseases in particular fungus, temperature differences

between day and night increases the potential of spikelet sterility in Edirne.

In contrast to lower air temperature, due to higher relative humidity, a fungus

is more common in the rice fields of Samsun. When the rice fields of Karacadağ

in Diyarbakır are considered, it is seen that there are high air temperatures

and low relative humidity during summer. Although it decreases the possibility

of fungus, high air temperature during florescence and pollination

increases spikelet sterility. Namely, the productivity of rice is based on temperature,

insolation, relative humidity, precipitation, and wind.105

When the distribution of precipitation in Karacadağ is considered, 98 percent

of raining is seen between October and May rather than summer.106 When

the average annual precipitation between April and October in Edirne, Samsun,

and Diyarbakır have been researched since 1929, it seems that it is 296

mm in Edirne, 351 mm in Samsun, and 149 mm in Diyarbakır.107 In Samsun,

summers are warm, and winters are mild and rainy. The relative humidity is

103 Halil Sürek, “Çeltikte Verim Komponentleri," 44.

104 Mustafa Yıldız, “Çeltik Zararlıları,” Pancar Çiftçi Dergisi, no. 141 (June 1964): 10.

105 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 50-59; T.C GAP Bölge Kalkınma İdaresi Başkanlığı, “GAP Bölgesinde

Sulu Tarım Koşullarında Uygun Çeltik Çeşitlerinin Saptanması,” Tarım Araştırma

Raporları 13, (1993): 6.

106 A. Kadir Kıran, Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi Çeltik Tarımı, Bugünkü Durumu ve Geliştirilmesi,

6.

107 “İllerimize Ait Genel İstatistiki Veriler,” Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü, accessed August 12,

2019, https://www.mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?k=undefined&

m

O K A N C E Y L A N

34

quite higher than Thrace and Southeast Anatolia. There is a continental climate

in which there are high temperatures and drought in summer in Edirne,

Diyarbakır, Şanlıurfa, and Mardin.

According to the research of Tarsus İrrigated Farming Research Institute,

salty and alkaline soils that occupy a significant place in Turkey can be reclaimed

and used to obtain high yield only through rice cultivation.108 Furthermore,

rice cultivation is regarded as a solution for the drying and improvement

of marsh areas. However, rice cultivation was transitory for such

lands.109 The size of salty and sodium lands was 12700000 decars in Turkey

in the 1990s. These lands are seen in closed basins and some deep alluvion

plains.110

Salty soils are seen in dry and hot climate regions. Regarding soil type

and climate, rice is the most suitable crop for the reclaimation of these areas

and getting a higher yield.111 In addition to the salty lands of Bafra, Çarşamba

and Meriç Plains, the high-level water table in these plains force peasants to

involve in rice cultivation.112 Water filled rice fields decreases the amount of

salt in the soil until sixty cm.113 For the improvement of these lands, farmers

spend vast sums for the cleaning and mending of water channels to keep water.

These expenses are shared among farmers based on the size of the plain.114

Peasants have cultivated more profitable crops in time. Although rice can be

grown in all types of soils, nonpermeable soils such as clayed soils and vegetal

earth, little sandy, and little calcareous soils are the most suitable lands.115

108 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 14.

109 Necla Türkoğlu, “Türkiyede Çeltik Alanlarının Dağılşı” 219.

110 Necmi Beşe, “Tuzlu ve Alkali Şartlarda Çeltik Tarımı,” Trakya Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü

Çeltik Yetştiriciliği Semineri, Edirne, (May 29-31, 1991): 40.

111 Getraud Repp and A. Aras, “Tuzlu Toprakların Çeltik Ziraatı ile Islahı,” Ziraat Dergisi, no.

109 (September 1951): 31-34.

112 Arzu Özalp, “Trakya’da Çeltik Üretiminin Ekonomik ve İstatistiksel Analizi,” (Uzmanlık

Tezi: TÜİK, 2003): 25.

113 T.C Tarsus Zirai Araştırma Enstitüsü, “1963 Yılı Araştırma Raporu, Tarsus” (1963): 34-43.

114 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 69- 95.

115 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 60.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

35

Rice needs a pH-value between 6.5 and 7.5. However, most of the water

has a pH-value between 4.5 and 6 in Turkey. Rice moderately resists to soils

that are rich in chlorite, sodium, calcium, and alkali. Rice is especially sensitive

to salinity during its germination and tillering stages. This problem is

seen primarily in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin.116 Salinity also causes a

decrease in the number of the tillers, kernel weights and spikelet number. 117

Besides, the lack of zinc is one of the most critical issues in rice fields.

Due to the cultivation of high productive rice varieties, the use of urea fertilizer

instead of ammonium sulfate fertilizer and the use of overdose phosphor

fertilizer, the zinc of rice decreases. Thanks to the lack of zinc tolerant varieties,

cropping systems and the use of zinc, this problem can be solved.118

For the growth of plant roots in irrigated farming, the deepness of soil is

quite essential. Otherwise, in shallowing soils, plant roots cannot grow adequately.

The rate of shallowing soils in Southeast Anatolia is between 57 and

83 percent. Furthermore, it is cultivated in the stony lands of the Karacadağ

Agriculture Basin where is located between Diyarbakır and Şanlıurfa in extensive

methods.119

2. 5 The Preparation of Rice Fields

The first golden rule in rice cultivation is the proper preparation of fields

within a fixed time. The cultivation of the soil is necessary for agricultural

control, the increasing of the effects of fertilizer and the unearthing of nutrients.

120 Thanks to adequate plowing, new microorganisms come to exist and

water holding capacity of soil increases. This process begins with deep plowing

in autumn that is necessary for the mellowness of soil during winter. To

116 A. Kadir Kıran, Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi Çeltik Tarımı, Bugünkü Durumu ve Geliştirilmesi,

5.

117 Necmi Beşe, “Tuzlu ve Alkali Şartlarda Çeltik Tarımı," 40.

118 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 64-65.

119 A. Kadir Kıran, Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi Çeltik Tarımı, Bugünkü Durumu ve Geliştirilmesi,

2.

120 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 68.

§

O K A N C E Y L A N

36

retain water, the land is cultivated by disc-harrow. However, if there is mellowness

of soil, peasants should plow their rice fields. However, in dry seasons

they should use disc harrow.121

Figure 2.1: Rice Cultivation in İpsala in the 1950s

SOURCE: İpsala State Hydraulic Works

On the other hand, in spring, the plowing of rice fields should be more shallowing.

122 Before agricultural mechanization, borderlines among rice fields

were made by human labor and rice fields were plowed by oxen or horses. 123

Then, tractor mounted land blade make these bank which is called as tir or

manda beli in Edirne or kaş in Samsun. The length of them is between 30 and

50 cm. Their size is between 30 and 40 cm.124 After the invention of the tractor,

peasants only used draught animals while carrying rice bunches in Meriç, the

121 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 4-19.

122 Muzaffer Alap, Çukurovada Çeltik Ziraatı ve Sulama Tekniği, 9.

123 Using draught animals in plowing firstly began to be seen in Sumerians, Ahmet Özçelik,

Tarım Tarihi ve Deontolojisi (Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi, 2005), 23.

124 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 68.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

37

Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins in the 1970s.125 In these three

basins, tractors have been used by small landholders since the mid-1960s.

Figure 2.2 The Transportation of rice seed in İpsala in 1951

SOURCE: İpsala State Hydraulic Works (DSİ)

Figure 2.3 Land Leveling in rice fields (the Meriç Basin)

SOURCE: https://www.tractorweb.tv/case-ih-155-puma-kaba-tesviye-uygulamasi_

1da8f93d8.html

125 Mehmet Topçu and Hasan Topçu, tape-recorded interview by the author, Akçadam, Meriç

Edirne, Turkey August 20, 2018.

O K A N C E Y L A N

38

Land leveling is the necessary second step for the homogeneous spread of

adequate water and vegetation in a rice field, the drainage of the soil surface

and the control of herbs in rice fields.126 Furthermore, thanks to land leveling,

the size of fields increases, and the number of borderlines between them decreases.

127 But large sized of fields makes it difficult for seeds to hold into the

soil. Waves result from winds; seeds may move.128 Until the land leveling

by laser technology in the 1990s, rice fields had been harrowed by draught

animals such as horses, oxen, and buffalos or by tractor-mounted leveling

blade.129 Laser technology made larger sizes of rice fields possible. Thanks

to harrowing, the pieces of hard soil could be demolished, the permeability of

soil decrease and land could be compacted.130 Thus the spread of water and

the growth of rice plants in the rice field could be provided homogenously.

After the plowing, disc harrowing and land leveling, the subsurface tillage

in rice fields ends. These are the golden rule of providing homogenous rice

quality, higher productivity and yield. These explanations are valid for Edirne

where rice has been cultivated in the alluvial valley plain along the Meriç and

Ergene rivers since the 1930s. By the same token, Samsun where rice has been

grown in the alluvial plains of Kızılırmak and Yeşilırmak since the mid- nineteenth

century.131 While the use of animals in rice cultivation was between 13

and 17 percent in Samsun before the 2000s, many small landowners have used

tractor since mid the 1960s in Edirne.132

While mechanization has been needed in the rice cultivation of Samsun

and Edirne, it has not been the same for Karacadağ. Rice has been cultivated

in the method of surface irrigation in stony and salty lands without implementing

land leveling, plowing or without making rice fields in Karacadağ

126 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 89.

127 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 22.

128 Bülent Kıral, Halil Sürek, A. Kadir Ezer, Mustafa Nergis and İ. Hakkı Yüce, Çeltik (Edirne:

Zirai Araştırma Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü, 1985):11; Mehmet Oğraş, Çeltik Tarımı, 10.

129 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 66.

130 Nazım Durlu, Çeltik Yetiştirme Tekniği, 5.

131 T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Tarım İstatistikleri 1928-34 (Agricultural

Statistics 1928-1934). Ankara: 1936, 32-34.

132 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 13.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

39

for centuries.133 Furthermore, the intermittent flow irrigation method is used

in this basin.134 These lands are called beyar colloquially in the Karacadağ

Agriculture Basin.135 This type of cultivation method made rice different from

other agricultural products in Southeast Anatolia such as wheat, lentil and

cotton.136 The same rice cultivation method was seen in Kahramanmaraş in

the 1960s.137 Since there was no ground surface tillage in primitive agriculture,

the rice fields cannot be cultivated for more than two years.138 However,

thanks to this cultivation method of rice, the use of fossil fuel and the production

cost of rice decline.139 While these lands are named as beyar, flat lands

are called kepir in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin.140

Then, these fields are prepared for sowing. In this context, there are three

methods of rice planting. Before the use of rice seed, peasants should control

if it is clean regarding red rice and other herbs. The changing of seeds is suggested

once every three years. Red rice matures early, needs more pearling in

plants and causes a decrease in yield and price. Red rice can be seen in rice

fields where a cropping system is not implemented. Both farmers and industrialists

do not prefer red rice.141

While half of the rice producers left their rice seed or supply it from other

farmers, the rest half of them bought it from merchants or cooperatives. Furthermore,

while almost 30 percent of Bafra’s farmers bought from cooperatives,

only 10 percent of Çarşamba’s farmer bought it from cooperatives in

133 A. Kadir Kıran, Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi Çeltik Tarımı, Bugünkü Durumu ve Geliştirilmesi,

8-9.

134 Şerif Kahraman, Şeyhmus Atakul and Sevda Kılınç, “Diyarbakır Yöresinde Çeltik Tarımının

Yapısal Durumu,” Bahri Dağdaş Bitkisel Araştırma Dergisi 8, no. 1 (2019): 84.

135 Kardaş Ailesi, tape- recorded interview by the author, Yenişehir, Diyarbakır, Turkey. August

09, 2018.

136 M. Adil Kayapınar, Şerif Kahraman, tape- recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz, Diyarbakır,

Turkey August 09, 2018.

137 Mehmet Şirin, “Maraş’ta Çeltik Ziraatı,” Pancar Çiftçi Dergisi, no. 177 (June 1967): 30.

138 Ahmet Özçelik, Tarım Tarihi ve Deontolojisi, 12.

139 Şerif Kahraman, Şeyhmus Atakul and Sevda Kılınç, “Diyarbakır Yöresinde Çeltik Tarımının

Yapısal Durumu,”, 83.

140 Kardaş Ailesi, tape- recorded interview by author, Yenişehir, Diyarbakır, August 09, 2018.

141 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 69.

O K A N C E Y L A N

40

the 1990s.142 Peasants leave a fair amount of seed from their fields in Karacadağ.

In Edirne, while some peasants use their rice as seed, some of them

buy from cooperatives.

2. 5. 1 The Sowing Methods of Rice

The sowing of rice depends upon the temperature of the air, water, soil and

also the vegetation period of rice varieties.143 Based on the research of Thrace

Agricultural Research Institute in Edirne and Black Sea Agricultural Research

Institute in Samsun, to be able to provide the highest yield, the most suitable

sowing time of rice in Turkey where is in the mild temperate zone and it is

the second week of May. Furthermore, while earlier cultivation might cause

cold damage, late cultivation may cause late maturing and harvest. On the

other hand, according to the rice research of Çukurova Agricultural Research

Institute in Adana and Southeast Anatolia Agricultural Research Institute in

Şanlıurfa, the most suitable period for rice cultivation for their regions is between

the second week of April and the first week of May.144 However, due

to the limited amount of irrigated water, peasants have lined up for rice cultivation

in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin. Thus peasants cultivate their lands

in the period between 15 April and 15 June.145 Similar to Karacadağ, lack of

an adequate amount of water may delay or make difficult rice cultivation in

Edirne and Samsun. Besides, as an important criterion, the amount of available

water determines the size of cultivable lands of rice. However, as the fields

are cleaned from stones, peasants may cultivate wheat, barley and vegetables

in Karacadağ.146 For harvest time, October 15 and 20 is the most suitable date

for Meriç, Karacadağ, Lower Yeşilırmak and the Lower Kızılırmak Basins.147

142 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 13.

143 Ibid., 2.

144 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 73.

145 A. Kadir Kıran, Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi Çeltik Tarımı, Bugünkü Durumu ve Geliştirilmesi,

9-11.

146 Şerif Kahraman, tape- recorded interview by author Yalankoz, Diyarbakır, Turkey. August

09, 2018.

147 Nuran Taşlıgil and Güven Şahin, “Türkiye’de Çeltik Yetiştiriciliği ve Coğrafi Dağılımı,” 185.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

41

As is seen, the differences in the period of rice cultivation sources from a

geographic altitude of these basins.

There is three weeks’ time gap between tillage and sowing. Rice seeds

had been germinated in big barrels during 2-3 days before sowing into rice

fields. Similar to Turkey, broadcast sowing is the oldest and the most widespread

cultivation method of rice in the world. This pre-germination before

sowing provides rice with protection against cold damage. Germinated rice

grains in water swell out and get heavier. Thus they sink to the bottom quicker

and grow in fields in a short period. Since the layer of alluvion sinking over

the rice seed provides them with holding into the soil, slightly blurred water

is essential for cultivation.148 Each decar of rice field needs one ton of water

per hour.149

Although broadcast sowing cultivation encourages tillering, there is a

negative correlation between the number of tillering and the length of the panicle.

150 As it can be seen Krosnodarsky-424, and Rocca have much more panicle.

151 The other cultivation methods are the broadcast sowing of rice seeds

with the help of fertilizing machine and drilling. However, in drilling, rice

seeds are sown in dry soils. Since drilling increases expenses, labor force and

the possibility of herbs, it is not preferred. After a week of sowing, the water

flow of rice fields is cut. For five days these fields are dried, and thus the roots

of rice seedlings hold on to the soil. Otherwise, at least 20 percent of rice (5

kg) seeds go to waste.152 In this period, the water level of the fields should not

exceed the length of rice seedling.153

148 Bülent Kıral, Halil Sürek, A. Kadir Ezer, Mustafa Nergis and İ. Hakkı Yüce, Çeltik, 9-16.

149 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 4.

150 Yusuf Şavşatlı, Coşkun Köycü, and Ali Gülümser, “Fideleme ve Serpme Ekim Yöntemlerinin

Bazı Çeltik Çeşitlerinde Verim ve Verim Unsurlarına Etkisi,” OMÜ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi

21, no. 1 (2006): 6 -8.

151 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 73-75.

152 İlhan Ceylan, tape-recorded interview by the author, Rahmanca, Meriç, Edirne, Turkey, August

20, 2018.

153 A. Kadir Kıran, Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi Çeltik Tarımı, Bugünkü Durumu ve Geliştirilmesi,

2.

O K A N C E Y L A N

42

To be able to germinate, rice seeds in fields need at least 9 0C and at most

42 0C. Except for this gap, rice has difficulty in germinating. The average

annual weather temperature has been at 19 0C in Edirne, about 23 0C in Diyarbakır

and also 19 0C in Samsun in the months between April and October since

1929.154

The other method is transplanting. It is the Japanese method of rice sowing.

However, different cultures developed the same technique without being

aware of it .155 The history of the transplanting method goes backs to the

1940s.156 Apart from rice, transplanting cannot be seen in the cultivation of

other cereals.157 For seedling growing, rice needs the temperature between 25

and 30 0C. If the temperature goes below 12 0C seedlings die.158 Rice seedling

has grown in a month sown into the fields in the deepness of 2 cm as 2 or 5

roots. They can hold on the soil in 5 days, and nitrogen fertilizers are used in

this period. The rice varieties that have a higher potential for tillering are more

suitable for the transplanting method. This method is implemented in Southeast

and Far East Asia where indica subspecies grow in a short period, and

the labor force is cheaper and excessive. Thanks to transplanting, herb control,

higher yield, 30 percent of water saving and homogenous vegetation can

be provided.159 Furthermore, seedling both increases the resistance of rice to

loading and increases the number of tillers. While the rice varieties such as

Camolin, Americano, Rocca, Plovdiv and Egypt are more suitable for transplanting,

Maratelli is more suitable for broadcasting sowing.160 However, in

154 “İllerimize Ait Genel İstatistiki Veriler,” Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü, accessed August 12,

2019.

155 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 43

156 Yusuf Şavşatlı, Coşkun Köycü, and Ali Gülümser, “Fideleme ve Serpme Ekim Yöntemlerinin

Bazı Çeltik Çeşitlerinde Verim ve Verim Unsurlarına Etkisi,” 6.

157 D. H Giss, “Yarı Dünya’nın Temel Gıdası Pirinç,” Translated by, Hatif Öğe, Ziraat Dergisi,

102 (July 1950): 31.

158 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 55.

159 Ibid., 75-76.

160 Halil Sürek, “Fideleme ile Trakya Bölgesinde Kışlık Tahılardan Sonra İkinci Ürün Çeltik

Yetiştirme İmkanı,” Trakya Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü Çeltik Yetiştiriciliği Semineri,

Edirne (May 29-31, 1991): 62.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

43

general, japonica subspecies of rice in Turkey mature in a more extended period

and not suitable for transplanting.161

Averagely, 15-20 kg seed of rice is used per decar. The number of rice

seeds used in the fields depend on the fertility of the land, soil type, rice varieties,

the size of rice seeds, thousand kernel weight, and sowing time.162

Firstly, based on the size of seeds, while 19 kg of Ribe and Rocca were used,

22 kg of Plovdiv and 16 kg of Korosnadarsky-424 were used per decar.163

Second, the amount of rice seed per decar can be increased under the conditions

in which there are rice varieties that have shorter vegetation period and

less tillering. For example, the peasants of Samsun uses 24 kg of rice seed per

decar.164 To be able to get higher productivity, the number of rice plants in a

square meter should be between 160 and 220. The number of the roots of rice

should be at least 300 in a square meter. However, in the case of dense plant

spacing, competition among rice for nutrients increases. Therefore, rice plants

become more sensitive to lodging and diseases.165

2. 6 The Irrigation of Rice Field

Besides, the water depth of rice fields should adjust accordingly to the types

of rice, the temperature difference between night and day and also soil types

such as permeable, salty, or alkali soils. However, the most critical period for

the water requirements of rice is twenty days before and ten days after florescence.

166 The water of rice fields should be drained periodically to ventilate

soil, to prevent algae and to increase the tillering of rice.167

Based on the Rice Cultivation Law of 1936, there are two irrigation methods

in Turkey. The first is intermittent flow irrigation that is implemented for

161 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 75-76.

162 Arzu Özalp, “Trakya’da Çeltik Üretiminin Ekonomik ve İstatistiksel Analizi,”7.

163 Bülent Kıral, Halil Sürek, A. Kadir Ezer, Mustafa Nergis and İ. Hakkı Yüce, Çeltik, 9.

164 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 102.

165 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 70.

166 Nazım Durlu, Çeltik Yetiştirme Tekniği, 28.

167 Ferdi Akıncan, “Çeltik Ziraatında Suyun Değeri,” Ziraat Dünyası, 116 (September 1959): 9.

§

O K A N C E Y L A N

44

insect control in particular mosquitos. Besides, thanks to intermittent flow

irrigation, the effects of the concentration of carbon dioxide, iron, and organic

acid on rice can be decreased. It is quite suitable for salted and alkali soils. In

this irrigation method, water is cut once every ten days. However, this irrigation

method should be implemented after the tillering to make easy pest control.

Peasants should consider irrigation interval, weather conditions, soil

structure, and rice varieties.168

Figure 2.4 Rice Fields in the Meriç Basin (Edirne)

SOURCE: Hudut, September 11, 2015

The second method is perennial irrigation that is envisaged to be implemented

3 km distance from settlements.169 However, mostly this rule is ignored. According

to the result of research in the Kyushu region of Japan in the 1970s,

the highest yield and the most effective pest control are provided with this

method of irrigation. In the same way, the period when cutting off irrigated

168 Halil Sürek Çeltik Tarımı, 83-84.

169 “Çeltik Ekim Kanunu” Resmi Gazete, June 23, 1936; Çeltik Ekim Kanunu (Ankara: Trak Matbaası,

1964): 1-11

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

45

water is influential on rice yield as far as which method of irrigation is implemented.

The most suitable period for the cutting of water is after 30 days’ later

florescence. Otherwise earlier cutting of water causes crocked rice grains and

prevention of the filling of grain. On the other hand, in a delayed cutting of

water, wetlands make difficult the harvest of rice.170

The water requirement of rice fields is drowned by moto-pump from rivers,

lakes, and dams built by the government.171 In Samsun, almost 60 percent of

farmers benefited from drilling water, and the rest benefited from underground

waters, Kızılırmak and Yeşilırmak.172 In Edirne, peasants receive 65

percent of their water requirements from the Meriç River and the Ergene

River 28 percent from the lakes of villages and 6 percent from artesian

spring.173 Similarly, the rice farmers of the Karacadağ benefit from the river

reaches of the Dicle and Fırat and lakes. Notably, the melting snows in winter

contribute to these water sources. However, water flows into rice fields are

provided with channels. To irrigate rice fields, the pulling of water requires

energy consumption. While diesel driven water pumps were used, electrically

operated water pumps have been used since the end of the 1980s.174 There are

three types of channels. The first is the main channel that passes above the

rice fields should be large and deep. The second is irrigated water that passes

along the fields. It moves the water of the main channel into rice fields and

discharge channels. The third is discharge channels that move the water of

irrigated fields into lakes or rivers.175 Rice producers also paid an amount of

money in return. Perennial irrigation also increases coal gas emissions.176

170 Halil Sürek and Haluk Yakan, Edirne Yöresinde Çeltik Sulaması, (Kırklareli: Tarım ve Köy

İşleri Bakanlığı Kırklareli Atatürk Araştırma Enstitüsü Yayını, 1990): 2.

171 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 87-88.

172 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 18.

173 Halil Sürek, “Fideleme ile Trakya Bölgesinde Kışlık Tahılardan Sonra İkinci Ürün Çeltik

Yetiştirme İmkânı,” 62.

174 Mustafa Öden, tape-recorded interview by the author, İpsala, Edirne, Turkey, August 20,

2017.

175 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 25.

176 Fahri Yavuz, Türkiye’de Tarım, (Ankara: Tarım ve Köy İşleri Bakanlığı, 2005): 168.

O K A N C E Y L A N

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2. 7 The Fertilization of Rice

Fertilizers are kinds of substances that are made of natural stones, coal gas

and atmospheric nitrogen in industries. Nitrogen, phosphor, and potassium

are the three main elements that enable the growth of plants. While nitrogen

provides plants with the development of stem and length, phosphor helps florescence

and the filling of grain.177 In this context, since rice is cultivated in

water, fertilizer is used to be regained the loss of nitrogen and organic substance.

178 Fertilization depends upon rice varieties and soil type.179 Although

rice does not consume water much more than other cereals such as maize, the

roots of rice need water to absorb nutrients180 and to compete against herbs.

Similarly, flowing water both prevents mossiness and supports the growth of

the rice plant. Especially in the periods of bolting and florescence, rice consumes

water at the highest level.181 In this context, ammonium sulfate and

urea fertilizer come into prominence.

However, based on the research of the IRRI, urea fertilizer causes the increase

of pH degree and the loss of nitrogen through vaporization. Similarly,

based on the analysis of Thrace Agricultural Research Institute, ammonium

sulfate fertilizer provides the highest productivity.182 Also based on the reports

of Tarsus Irrigated Farming Research Institute, 25 kg -80 kg ammonium

sulfate fertilizer and 10-50 kg superphosphate per decar could be used together.

Ammonium nitrate fertilizer is directly influential in the obtaining

higher productivity in rice. 183 The IRRI suggests that based on the vegetation

177 Nurettin Baloğlu, “Suni Gübre Nedir ve Nasıl Kullanılır?” Demokrat Keşan, October 22,

1955.

178 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 92.

179 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 13.

180 A. Kadir Kıran, Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi Çeltik Tarımı, Bugünkü Durumu ve Geliştirilmesi,

2.

181 Bülent Kıral, Halil Sürek, A. Kadir Ezer, Mustafa Nergis and İ. Hakkı Yüce, Çeltik, 9.

182 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 94.

183 Nazım Durlu, Çeltik Yetiştirme Tekniği, 14-17; Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 88-

92.

§

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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period of rice, the amount of pure nitrogen used in rice growing should be

between 18 and 21 kg per decar. However, it is between 15 and 18 kg per decar

in Turkey. However, while 8 kg of pure nitrogen is used in Çarşamba Plain,

10 kg of pure nitrogen is applied in Bafra. There has been unconscious consumption

of fertilizer in its amount and time interval.184

However, different organs of rice plant absorb nitrogen at different rates.

For example, 10 percent by roots, 50 percent by plant stem, and 40 percent by

grains.185 Superphosphate fertilizer and farm manure are suggested after the

first deep plowing. However, ammonium sulfate fertilizer is recommended in

sowing, growing time, or in the second drying period when implemented forty

days later sowing time.186 Ammonium sulfate fertilizer receives nitrogen and

phosphor needs of rice.187 Ammonium sulfate and ammonium nitrate are nitrogen

fertilizers. Ammonium sulfate is called as sugar fertilizer colloquially.

188 The influence of ammonium sulfate fertilizer on productivity is 100

percent. However, this is 92 percent in ammonium nitrate, 86 percent in ammonium

phosphate, 82 percent in urea, and 40 percent in sodium nitrogen.189

Although it is not implemented in Turkey, edible and fodder legumes, are important

fertilizers and organic substances in crop rotation for rice.190

In the growing of rice such as tillering, panicle, leaf development, and

dark green color tones, the most essential nutrient is nitrogen. For the efficiency

of nitrogen, the equivalent amount of potassium and phosphor is necessary.

191 Potassium protects rice from the plant diseases and strengthens the

organs of rice.192 Thanks to potassium, photosynthesis can be increased, and

184 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 92-95.

185 Ibid., 95.

186 Nazım Durlu, Çeltik Yetiştirme Tekniği, 14-17; Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 88-

92.

187 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 19.

188 Nurettin Baloğlu, “Suni Gübre Nedir ve Nasıl Kullanılır?”

189 Mehmet Oğraş, Çeltik Tarımı, 14-15.

190 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 36; İzzettin Öztunalı, “Tava Usülü Çeltiklerde Gübreleme,"

Ziraat Dünyası, no 109-111 (1959): 15.

191 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 92.

192 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 20.

O K A N C E Y L A N

48

the growth of leaves, the increase of thousand kernel weight, and homogenous

vegetation can be provided in the fields. Thousand kernel weights of Japonica

subspecies are between 30 and 40 gr. Potassium is a kind of mineral that protects

rice from unfavorable weather conditions. However, agricultural lands

have plenty of potassium in Turkey.193

The fertilizer need for rice directs the producers using the fertilizer at a

specific dosage and on time. To prevent the flow of fertilizer into other fields,

it is used in the period when water flow is cut and closed the water flow places

between rice fields. The time interval in the use of nitrogen can be separated

into three periods. Half of the nitrogen should be used a week later sowing

time. A quarter part of it should be a month then. The rest should be used at

the beginning of the panicle. Rice needs nitrogen especially in periods of tillering

and panicle. Furthermore, rice feels the influence of nitrogen 45 days

later more and more.194 Regarding time interval in the use of fertilizer, 55

percent of farmers used nitrogen in one time, about 40 percent of farmers used

it two times in Samsun in the 1990s.195

Since the biological property of rice depends upon the equilibrium among

weather conditions, the dosage of nutrients and sowing time, excessive use of

nitrogen and delayed fertilization cause the retardation of the ripening process,

lodging, and fungal diseases.196 However, in the 1950s and the 1960s,

there were no manure tests adequately. Although the use of fertilization and

the mechanization of Turkish agriculture was related to the Marshall Plan in

the beginnings of the 1950s, the use of fertilizer began to be more widespread

among small landholders after the mid-1960s.197 As the use of fertilizer increase

and spread among peasant, productivity and yield-oriented rice varieties

have developed. While rice productivity from per decar was 250 kg in

1920 and 400 kg in 1960, it rose to 500 kg in 1980 and 800 kg in 2000 averagely

in Turkey. While the fertilization rate in the rice fields was averagely 65-70

193 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 102.

194 Ibid., 95.

195 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 15.

196 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 92-93.

197 Halil Sürek, tape- recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey. August 20, 2018.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

49

percent across Turkey, it was at 91 percent in Thrace or Marmara, in Southeast

Anatolia was 46 percent and in Black Sea Region was 42 percent.198 In contrast,

fertilization began to be widespread after the mid-1980s in Southeast

Anatolia. Thus rice productivity has been increased from about 190 kg to 468

kg per decar today.199

2. 8 Pest Control in Rice Growing

The seeds of herbs arrive in rice fields through irrigation, drainage, floods,

winds, rice seeds, and agricultural equipment. Since rice is grown in humid

fields, these areas enable herbs to grow. However, the density and the damage

of herbs on rice field can be decreased through land leveling that allows the

homogeneous spread of adequate water and agricultural pest control on time

and at sufficient dosage. If the herbicides are not used before fertilization, the

herbs in the fields compete with rice and cause the decline of grain yield,

thousand kernel weight, tillering, panicle of rice and its qualification. Thus,

agricultural pest control before fertilization is essential for higher rice production.

200 Agricultural pest control is firstly begun almost thirty days later

sowing time. The second pest control is made 43 days after sowing time. Two

days before the pest control, water flows into the rice field is cut off. In the

period of agricultural spraying, rising weather temperature, relative humidity,

and soil humidity increase the effectiveness of herbicides on herbs. If there is

a wind, its efficiency declines.201 Furthermore, cutting off irrigated water exempt

agricultural spraying and fertilization causes the increase of the density

of herbs.

198 Halil Sürek, “Son Yıllarda Ülkemiz Çeltik Üretiminde Ulaşılan Verim Seviyesi ve Geliştirilen

Bazı Yeni Çeltik Çeşitleri ve Verim Potansiyelleri,” Hasad Dergisi 346, (March 2014):

72.

199 Şerif Kahraman, tape- recorded interview by the author, Diyarbakır, Turkey August 09, 2018.

200 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 36.

201 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 115.

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50

Marketing conditions and water capacity are two essential criteria in being

decided rice cultivation.202 However, without the implementation of crop rotation,

not only agricultural pest control is difficult and expensive but also the

productivity and yield of rice decline.203 The importance of crop rotation in

rice cultivation was explained in the Congress of Rice Producers in the USSR

in 1937. They dwell on triangular crop rotation to get more qualified rice as it

was in Japan, Italy, and Spain. Thanks to the cultivation of forage plants in a

crop rotation system, Italy could develop husbandry, increase rice productivity,

and get extra- economic gain.204 High moisture and temperature cause the

growth of herbs.205 Furthermore, short and late bloomer rice varieties are less

competitive with herbs than that of long and earlier maturing.206

Since there was no significant amount of herbicides in rice cultivation,

until the 1970s, pest control had been implemented in a mechanical way which

required more labor force and caused more expenditure rather than herbicide

that is unhealthy.207 Neither peasants had had information about how to use

herbicide nor had they found when needed these chemicals. While there was

76 percent of chemical ways, there was 23 percent of the mechanical way in

agricultural pest control in Samsun in the 1990s.208 When the case of Samsun

is taken account, while the use of herbicides was higher in Edirne, it was

lower in Diyarbakır. Many rice cultivators in Edirne firstly began to use pesticides

that were used for wheat to annihilate sedges in rice fields in 1969.209

A study about the use of pesticides for plant protection in 15 villages and three

districts of Samsun in 2014 indicates that there is a negative relationship between

the educational level and the amount of the use of pesticides. Similarly,

202 Nazım Durlu, Çeltik Yetiştirme Tekniği, 5; Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 85-86.

203 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 111.

204 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 39.

205 Halil Sürek, tape- recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey August 20, 2018.

206 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 104-106.

207 Melih Enginsu and Serkan Yılmaz, “Karadeniz Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü Çeltik Islah

Araştırmaları,” Çiftçi ve Köy Dünyası Dergisi, 370 (October 2015): 42-43.

208 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 16

209 Hasan Topçu and Mehmet Topçu, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey, August

20, 2018.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

51

there is a positive relation between loan usage and the amount of the use of

pesticides.210 Furthermore, the use of pulverization increases the amount of

used pesticides. Poranil, Monilate, Bensulfuron, Thioben carb, Bentazon,

MCPA, Bispyribac Sodium, Chalofob Butyl, Exhoxy Sulfron, propanil, Flint

and Malathion have been used as pesticides in rice cultivation since the mid-

1960s.211

As Aquatic weeds in rice fields, a soft rush, Echinochloa colonum, sairpus

maritimus, Cyprus difformis, Alisma Plantagos, couch grass, and buckthorn

are seen.212 Since Echinocla clonum and couch grass grow in water and are

not cleaned in selectors or in haymakers, they are mostly seen in fields.213

However, the peasants of the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin have traditionally

cultivated their rice. The use of modern agricultural technics is at a very low

level such as tractor, fertilizer, and herbicides. Rice is exposed to competition

against herbs. Therefore, the growth of rice slows down, and rice yield declines.

214 Topography and climate conditions determined agricultural technics.

In primitive agriculture, productivity is low and ground surface tillage

is insufficient.215 In addition to herbs, there have been 500 pest varieties of

1500 for rice around the world. However, 240 pest varieties are seen in Turkey,

and 70 pest variety of them are harmful to rice and decline the yield of rice at

50 percent.216 For example, in the rice fields of Karacadağ, grasshoppers have

been a big problem. The use of fertilizer and agricultural pest began in the

210 Ahmet Semih Uzundumlu, Göksel Tozlu, and Okan Gedikli, “Çeltik Üretiminde Kimyasal

İlaç Kullanımını Etkileyen Faktörlerin Analizi: Samsun İli Örneği,” Tarım Ekonomisi Dergisi

20, no. 2 (2014):79-85.

211 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 114.

212 Hüseyin Gökçora, Bitki Yetiştirme Islahı, (Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi, 1969), 488;

Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 105.

213 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 35.

214 A. Kadir Kıran, Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi Çeltik Tarımı, Bugünkü Durumu ve Geliştirilmesi,

8-9.

215 Ahmet Özçelik, Tarım Tarihi ve Deontolojisi, 12-13.

216 Ahmet Semih Uzundumlu, Göksel Tozlu, and Okan Gedikli, “Çeltik Üretiminde Kimyasal

İlaç Kullanımını Etkileyen Faktörlerin Analizi: Samsun İli Örneği,” 81.

O K A N C E Y L A N

52

1990s.217 Mole cricket and mice live in humid borderlines of the rice field. To

annihilate them, the water level of rice fields can be risen, or Korcide pesticides

can be used.218

2. 9 Rice Diseases

The first research on the rice diseases was done by Özkan and by Bremer in

1946 and by Gobelez in 1953. Inadequate fertilization or excessive use of nitrogen,

environmental pollution, high relative humidity, high air temperature,

and plant residues increase the possibility of rice diseases. There are more

than seventy rice diseases. They can be collected under three titles such as

fungus, nematodes, and mycoplasma.219

Pyricularia oryza, Heminthosporium oryzae and Sclerotium oryzae are

the most seen fungal diseases in Turkey. There were no herbicides against

fungus in the 1960s. While bacterial diseases dry the leaves of rice, physiological

or abiotic diseases cause color change such as red or brown marks.

Moreover, Gobelez determined that Pyricularia oryzae causes yield loss between

25 and 75 percent in the Black Sea Region. Pyricularia oryzae was

firstly determined at the beginning of the 1900s. It has been seen more than

seventy countries. It was seen that Maratelli was sensitive to pyricularia, Rodina

and Krosnadasky-424 were more resistant in 1991.220 In addition, Aphelenchoides

besseyi is a kind of nematode disease firstly seen in İpsala, and

Gönen in 1955 caused yield loss. Phytophthora oryzae was seen in Marmara

Region in the 1990s caused yield loss of Baldo variety of rice.221

217 Süleyman Kızılkaya, tape recorded interview by the author, Diyarbakır, Turkey, August 09,

2018.

218 Mustafa Yıldız, “Çeltik Zararlıları,” 9.

219 Halim Gümiştekin, “Çeltiklerde Görülen Önemli Fungal Hastalıkları Tarihçesi, Dağılımı ve

Zararları,” Tarım, Orman ve Köy İşleri Bakanlığı Trakya Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü Çeltik

Yetiştiriciliği Semineri, Edirne, (May 23-29, 1991): 1-2.

220 Nazım Durlu, Çeltik Yetiştirme Tekniği, 31.

221 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 116-119.

§

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

53

Excessive use of nitrogen causes Pyricularia oryzae that has different

color marks on leaves incrementally. Rice is sensitive to this disease, especially

at seedling, tillering and panicle stages.222 Furthermore, plant density,

cold irrigation water, the deepness of water in the fields increase the possibility

of Pyricularia oryzae in mild climate zone. All of them should be at an

adequate level. In more detail, since Pyricularia oryzae grows up on the

leaves, it reduces photosynthesis. Therefore, the production of carbon hydrate

declines, filling of rice grain reduces, and the growth of rice slow down.

While the agricultural pest control of this disease increases the expenditure,

on the one hand, it causes yield loss on the other hand.223 Pyricularia Oryzae

especially began to be seen in Edirne from 1996 onwards.224

Helminthosporium firstly seen in Bangladesh in 1942 caused starvation

source from yield loss in rice fields between 40 and 90 percent. It appears as

brown marks on the roots of germinated grains. On the account of humidity

and temperature degrees between 20 and 30 oC, it develops. Rather than

pathological factors, it results from the lack of nutrients such as potassium,

magnesium, iron, and calcium. As measures against it, crop rotation, using an

adequate level of nitrogen and cultivating the rice varieties resistant to this

disease should be implemented.225

Phytophtora oryzae was firstly seen in Japan in 1928. In general, it is seen

in the earlier period of graminated rice grain in Asia. It is contaminated from

soils, seeds or plant residues. To prevent the rice from it, qualified seeds, crop

rotation, an adequate level of fertilizer, and tillage are regarded as important

measures.226

222 Ibid., 117; İsmail Sezer and Zeki Mut, “Samsun İlinde Çeltik Tarımının Durumu ve Üretimi

Arttırmak İçin Öneriler,” GOÜ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 21, no. 1 (2004): 64.

223 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 124.

224 “Çeltik Yanıklık Hastalığı İlaçlama Zamanı Geldi,” Vatandaş, July 25, 1998.

225 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 125.

226 Ibid., 128-131.

O K A N C E Y L A N

54

2. 10 Rice Varieties

Scientifically, the first studies on plant breeding began in the 1880s by farmers.

Lachow was one of the most famous farmers in this field in the world.227

However, local rice varieties have been cultivated for centuries in Turkey.

These are Mihallıçık, Tosya, Sarıcakaya, Sarıkılçık, Ak çeltik, Kırmızı Çeltik,

Kasım Kırmızısı, Kasım Beyazı, Karakılçık, Kıbrısçık, Karasu, Kılçıklı,

Sofraz Sarısı, Yerli Sultan Suyu, and Karacadağ. In general, they have similar

morphological and biological properties. Due to different local appellation,

their names differentiate.228 Furthermore, Trakya, Altınyazı, Meriç, İpsala,

and Ergene were registered by Thrace Agricultural Research Institute in

1979.229 In addition, foreign rice varieties began to be cultivated after the mid

-1930s. Their seeds were imported from Italy, Eygpt, the USA, Iran, and Australia.

230 The first imported rice variety was Ribe.231 As some foreign origin

rice varieties, Ribe, Rocca, Baldo Gritna, Lieto, Plovdiv, Veneria, Krosnadarsky-

424, Ranballi, and Rodina can be indicated.232 The development of

rice breeding in particular Osmancık-97 variety and the use of laser technology

increased rice production in Turkey.233

2. 10. 1 Local Rice Varieties

Ak Çeltik was the oldest rice variety of Anatolia. Since it did not pull out its

grain, it was the most widespread and the most demanded rice variety in the

1950s. However, since it was not resistant to plant diseases, it gave way to

227 Ahmet Özçelik, Tarım Tarihi ve Deontolojisi, 72.

228 Mehmet Oğraş, Çeltik Tarımı, 5.

229 Halil Sürek, “Türkiye’de Üretilen ve Yeni Tescil Edilen Çeltik Çeşitleri,” 21-33.

230 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar, 28.

231 Halil Sürek, “Son Yıllarda Ülkemiz Çeltik Üretiminde Ulaşılan Verim Seviyesi,”72.

232 Bülent Kıral, Halil Sürek, A. Kadir Ezer, Mustafa Nergis and İ. Hakkı Yüce, Çeltik, 21- 29.

233 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey August 20, 2018.

§

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55

Maratelli that was foreign rice variety. The productivity of Ak Çeltik was between

200 and 600 kg per decar. Also, its yield (randıman)was between 55

and 60 percent. Akçeltik was cultivated in Edirne, Sinop, Ankara, Mardin

Maraş and Çorum in 1949.234 Furthermore, Tosya, Taşköprü, Native rice, Bulgarian

rice, Abanos, Dağıstan and Kasım Beyazı had been cultivated in the

1920s and 1930s. The yield of local rice was low and it was not resistant to

lodging and diseases. Rice cultivation was far from playing an important role

in the agrarian economy in the beginnings of the 1920s. Therefore, M. Civani

Sanpiyatro from Italy was invited by the Ministry of Economy to research

rice farming in Turkey. Sanpiyatro especially focused on the rice cultivation

in Tosya and Boyabat and specified that Tosya was the most suitable area for

rice cultivation in his report presented to the Ministry of Agriculture.235

Sarıçeltik was cultivated in the regions where there was lower air temperature.

It demands plenty of water. Its productivity was between 150 and 450

kg and its yield was between 50 -65 percent. Sarıçeltik was cultivated in Eastern

Anatolia, Maraş, the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin, Hatay, and Tosya regions.

236 It could compete with Genova rice in Italy regarding taste. Furthermore,

regarding productivity and taste, Sarı çeltik was more qualified than

Plovdiv and Ak çeltik. After the 1960s, the cultivation areas of Sarı çeltik gave

way to cotton fields in Maraş.237

There were also semi-annual rice varieties that were cultivated primarily

in the Karacadağ and Southeast Anatolia in the 1950s. It grows late, and it was

resistant to plant diseases. Its productivity was between 250 and 500 kg per

decar. Also, its yield was between 55 and 62 percent. In local varieties, such

234 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar, 49.

235 Rahmi Çeltik, "Türkiye'de Pirinç Ziraatı," 27; Ufuk Tidim, "Tosya Pirinci 1929'da Anadolu'nun

En İyisi Seçildi," Nasrullah Gazetesi, May 19, 2018.

236 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar, 50.

237 Mehmet Şirin, "Maraşta Çeltik Ziraatı," 30.

O K A N C E Y L A N

56

as semi-annual rice, Ak Çeltik, Sarı Çeltik, and foreign rice varieties such as

Blue Rose, Cava, and Caroline had the most superior cooking value.238

Three-month rice variety was a kind of Sarı Çeltik that was cultivated in

the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin. It was also called as Gevran in this basin. It

was resistant to plant diseases and grew earlier. Its productivity was between

200 and 300 kg per decar. Its yield was between 50 and 65 percent.

Kasımbeyazı was cultivated in the southern Marmara Region. Termebeyazı

was grown in the Middle and Eastern Black Sea Region. Karacadağ was cultivated

in Southeast Anatolia. Finally, Kırçeltiği was cultivated in Rize in the

1950s and the 1960s.239

In addition to these varieties, İpsala, Meriç, Altınyazı, Ergene, and

Trakya rice varieties have been developed as a result of the hybridization and

rice breeding 1979 onwards, and their pedigree seeds were produced in 1989

by Thrace Agricultural Research Institute with their production license. The

rice varieties that have been bred in Turkey, can be obtained through introduction,

selection, hybridization, and mutation. Furthermore, half of the 50

rice varieties have been bred through hybridization. Since due to the narrowing

of the gene pool of rice, most of the new rice varieties are similar to each

other.240 All of them need 80 kg of ammonium sulfate fertilizer and 20 kg of

triple superphosphate. Their average yield is 60-65 percent. However, they

differ regarding vegetation period, productivity, hybridization, and thousand

kernel weight. On the other hand, foreign origin rice varieties required 9-15

kg of pure nitrogen and 8 kg of pure phosphor.241

Firstly, İpsala rice variety was the hybridization of Rodina and Delta rice

varieties. Physically, its height is 105 -115 cm and its thousand kernel weight

is 40 gr. Its vegetation period is 130 days. It had averagely 750-800 kg of

productivity per decar. Secondly, Meriç rice variety was produced as a result

238 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar, 83-103.

239 Ibid., 28-58

240 Rasim Ünan, Halil Sürek ve ark. "Hibrit Çeltik ve Türkiye'deki Geleceği,” Uluslararası Katılımlı

Konuralp Çeltik Çalıştayı 2015, Düzce (September 2016):13.

241 Halil Sürek, “Türkiye’de Üretilen ve Yeni Tescil Edilen Çeltik Çeşitleri," 21-33.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

57

of the hybridization of Delta and Akçeltik in 1979. It has almost the same vegetation

period, thousand kernel weight, height, fertilizer requirement, and

yields with İpsala rice variety. Thirdly, Ergene rice variety was developed as

a result of the hybridization of Delta and Zoria. Its vegetation period is 115-

120 days. Its thousand kernel weight is 35-36 gr, its height is 115-120 cm, and

Its productivity is between 700-750 kg per decar. Fourth, Trakya rice variety

was developed as a result of the hybridization of Baldo and Komsomolsky

rice variety. Its thousand kernel weight is 37-38 gr, its height is 110, its productivity

is 800-900 kg per decar. Fifth, Altınyazı rice variety was developed as a

result of the hybridization of Baldo and Ribe. Its thousand kernel weight is

36-37 gr, its height is 115 cm, its productivity is between 750-800 kg and its

vegetation period is 125-130 days.242

Nazım Durlu sent N1-41T-1T-OT rice variety to Thrace Agricultural Research

Institute in 1976. Its cultivation is more suitable for Mediterranean,

Aegean, and Southeast Anatolia Regions. It got a production license in 1986.

The agricultural research institutes that were responsible for the conservation

of this variety were Edirne and Adana in these years. Its long height grain and

has 33-34 gr of thousand kernel weight. Since its height is 90 cm, it is resistant

to lodging and suitable for a combine harvester. Its vegetation period is 130-

140 days, its productivity is 750 kg, and its yield is between 60 and 65 percent.

243

2. 10. 2 Foreign Origin Rice Varieties

Ribe that was registered in the 1960s was imported from Italy by the General

Directorate of Agricultural Affairs. Primarily, it had the largest cultivation

area in the Black Sea Region in the 1970s and 1980s. Since its height is 100

cm, it is resistant to lodging. Its vegetation period is 140 days, its average

productivity is 550 kg, and its yield is between 55 and 60 percent. Its thousand

kernel weight is 32-33 gr. Two institutes that are responsible for the pedigree

242 Ibid., 22- 26.

243 Ibid., 29.

O K A N C E Y L A N

58

seeds of Ribe are Thrace and Aegean Agricultural Research Institutes.244 Ribe

is moderately sensitive to Pyricularia, and it is somewhat resistant to Helminthosporium

and Fusarium.245 Ahmet Aydın who is one of the prominent rice

farmers in Samsun says that Ribe could be introduced by the advertisement

brochure of the General Directorate of Soil Water Institution in Samsun.246

Secondly, Gritna that was Italian origin rice variety, was registered by Ege

University in Turkey. Ribe and Gritna are the same with regard to vegetation

period, grain size and yield. Their vegetation periods are averagely 130-140

days. They are long height grain rice. They have 550-600 kg of productivity

per decar, and their yield is between 55 and 60 percent. Similarly, Rocca was

an Italian origin rice variety registered in 1983 by Thrace Agricultural Research

Institute. Rocca that resistant to Pyricularia and Helmintosporium, but

it is moderately resistant to Fusarium. Besides, except for 650-700 kg of

productivity per decar, regarding the grain size, the vegetation period and the

yield of Rocca have the same values those of Ribe and Gritna.247

Karakılçık is resistant to cold weather and diseases. It had a short vegetation

period. The seeds of kara kılçık were small and rigid. The quality and

productivity of Kara kılçık were on medium levels.248 Karakılçık was similar

to Ak Çeltik regarding productivity and yield. It is sensitive to plant diseases,

and it is earlier rice variety.249 Karakılçık is the only foreign rice variety that

is not resistant to pyricularia.250

Lieto rice variety was registered by the Antalya Agricultural Research Institute.

It was regarded as a secondary agricultural product due to its 110 days

of vegetation process. Its average productivity is 350 kg per decar.251 Baldo

was an Italian origin rice variety. In general, it was cultivated in the Marmara

244 Ibid., 31.

245 Mehmet Oğraş, Çeltik Tarımı, 3.

246 Ahmet Aydın, tape- recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey August 6, 2018.

247 Bülent Kıral, Halil Sürek, A. Kadir Ezer, Mustafa Nergis and İ. Hakkı Yüce, Çeltik, 21-29.

248 Osman Tosun, Sıcak İklim Tahılları 40; Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 81-84.

249 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar, 56.

250 Mustafa Yıldız, “Çeltik Zararlıları,” 9.

251 Bülent Kıral, Halil Sürek, A. Kadir Ezer, Mustafa Nergis and İ. Hakkı Yüce, Çeltik, 21-29.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

59

and Aegean Regions. Its height is averagely 100 cm, its vegetation period is

125-135 days, its thousand kernel weight is 38 gr, and its productivity is between

550-600 kg.252 It is resistant to Helminthosporium, moderately resistant

to pyricularia, and sensitive to fusarium.253

Plovdiv was imported from Bulgaria and registered in 1983 by Thrace Agricultural

Research Institute. Its yield is 50-55 percent, and its productivity is

650-700 kg per decar.254 Its vegetation period is between 110 and 130 days, and

also its height is between 105 and 120 cm.255 Plovdiv that is short- grain rice

is well resistant to plant diseases and lodging. However, its cultivation area is

limited.256

Krosnodarsky-424 was imported from Bulgaria was registered by Thrace

Agricultural Research Institute in 1983. It had 700-800 kg of productivity per

decar and 60 percent of yield.257 Its thousand kernel weight is 28-30 gr, its

height is between 110 and 115, its vegetation period is between 110, and 115

days, its productivity is between 700 and 800 kg, and also its yield is 70 percent.

It is thought to be a secondary product in the Aegean and the Mediterranean

Regions. While it is resistant to plant diseases, it is moderately resistant

to lodging.258

Camolini (Americano-1600), Nerodi Violen and Pembe Göbek varieties

were grown in the 1950s and they were an Italian origin. Pembe göbek grows

in fertile lands. Firstly, it was cultivated in 1939. The productivity of Pembe

Göbek was between 300 and 700 kg per decar in the 1950s. It was grown in

Thrace and western Black Sea regions. Besides, Blue Rose and Carolin were

grown in the Mediterranean in the 1950s were Australian origin. Camolini was

Chinese variety and improved in the USA. Then it was sent to Italy and Turkey.

It is resistant to plant diseases and lodging. It grows in all types of soil.

252 Halil Sürek, “Türkiye’de Üretilen ve Yeni Tescil Edilen Çeltik Çeşitleri," 28.

253 Mehmet Oğraş, Çeltik Tarımı, 3.

254 Bülent Kıral, Halil Sürek, A. Kadir Ezer, Mustafa Nergis and İ. Hakkı Yüce, Çeltik, 21-29.

255 Halil Sürek, “Türkiye’de Üretilen ve Yeni Tescil Edilen Çeltik Çeşitleri," 32.

256 Mehmet Oğraş, Çeltik Tarımı, 4.

257 Bülent Kıral, Halil Sürek, A. Kadir Ezer, Mustafa Nergis and İ. Hakkı Yüce, Çeltik, 21-29.

258 Halil Sürek, “Türkiye’de Üretilen ve Yeni Tescil Edilen Çeltik Çeşitleri,"30.

O K A N C E Y L A N

60

Its productivity is 400 kg per decar, and its yield was between 60 and 65 percent.

Its vegetation period is 160 days. It was mainly cultivated in Thrace and

Mediterranean.259

Egypt rice variety was Japan origin and imported from Egypt. Since its

plant stem is thin, it tends to lodge. But it is resistant to plant diseases. It was

cultivated primarily in Kilikia and Southeast Anatolia in the 1950s and the

1960s. It is spineless and more fertile than Dervish and Bersani that are

spiny.260 Its vegetation period is about six months. Its yield is high; it is resistant

to lodging and small grains.261

Ranballi was imported from Bulgaria, and it registered in 1983. It has 125

days of vegetation period. It has 700 kg of productivity per decar and it had

45-60 percent of yield. Also, Rodina was imported from Bulgaria registered

by Thrace Agricultural Research Institute in 1983. It has 125 days of vegetation

period and 650-700 kg of productivity per decar. Its yield is 45-55 percent. 262

Veneria was an Italian origin rice variety. Its vegetation period is between

125 and 135 days. Its productivity differentiates between 600 and 700 kg.263 It

is resistant to lodging and plant diseases. It has medium and long grain. Similarly,

Maratelli was an Italian origin rice variety. It is very sensitive to Pyricularia,

moderately sensitive to Helminthosporium, and quite resistant to

Fusarium. Maratelli was grown in Thrace and West Black Sea region in the

1970s and the 1980s. Its yield is between 55 and 70 percent. Its pilaf is less

qualified than that of Ak Çeltik. Maratelli had the largest cultivation areas in

foreign rice variety in the 1970s. R. Bersani was Italian origin rice variety. Its

vegetation period is 140 days and it is long grain rice. Since it grows earlier,

its productivity is low. It has 56 percent of yield. Violine is a small grain rice

that has almost the same vegetation period with R. Bersani. Also R. 82 rice

259 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar, 29-80.

260 Mehmet Şirin, "Maraşta Çeltik Ziraatı," 30.

261 Mehmet Oğraş, Çeltik Tarımı, 5.

262 Bülent Kıral, Halil Sürek, A. Kadir Ezer, Mustafa Nergis and İ. Hakkı Yüce, Çeltik, 4.

263 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar 29- 103.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

61

variety is called Sessia or Kulaklı. It was improved in Vercelli Station in Italy.

It was quite a new rice variety therefore; it was rarely known in Turkey. Its

vegetation period is the same with R. Bersani and Violine but its tillering is

lower.264 It is resistant to lodging. However, its productivity is lower.265

Nerodi Violone was an Italian origin and it is known as Black Rice or

Bombay. It is grown in calcareous and clayey lands. Its vegetation period is

150 days. Its productivity is between 400 and 500 kg and its yield is between

50 and 55 percent. It was cultivated in Edirne, Maraş and Boyabat. Similarly,

Cava (Giaxo/ ostella) was an Italian origin. It was resistant to plant diseases

and lodging. Its productivity is between 350 and 750 kg per decar. It was cultivated

in Ankara in the 1950s.266

In the 1980s, there were 32 different rice varieties in Turkey. Especially

Baldo, Rocco, Ribe, Maratelli, Egypt, and Gritna were six prominent varieties

in Turkey. Furthermore, thanks to their resistance to fusarium, their cultivation

was encouraged by the Ministry of Agriculture. Thus, one- third of cultivated

areas were Baldo and Ribe. Rodiana, Krosnadarsky-424 and Ramballi

were registered by Thrace Agricultural Research Institute.267 Finally, Dervish

(Lançio) was an Italian origin resistant to lodging and not resistant to plant

diseases. Its yield is between 56 and 58 percent.268 It was cultivated in the-

Maraş region, Hatay and Karacadağ in the 1950s and the 1960s.269

When the grain sizes of rice varieties are analyzed during the 1960s, it

seems that Bersani, Violin, Sezya, Karolin, Yasemin, Java are long grain rice.

On the other hand, Egypt rice is short grain rice. Also, Maratelli, Ak çeltik,

Sarıçeltik, Dervish and Karacadağ are medium grain rice. When the amount

264 Nazım Durlu, Çeltik Yetiştirme Tekniği, 4.

265 Mehmet Oğraş, Çeltik Tarımı, 5.

266 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar, 75-79.

267 Erdoğan İndelen, “Türkiye’de Ekilen Çeltik Çeşitlerinin Üretimdeki Payları ve Çeltik Tohumluğu

Üretim Programı,” Trakya Birlik (August 1983): 14.

268 Kemal Kaptan, “Türkiye’nin Planlı Dönemde Ticaret Gübresi Tüketimi ve Bunlardan Elde

Edilen Saf Hasıla Tutarı ile İlgili Bir Araştırma”, Ziraat Ekonomisi Dergisi, no. 4-5 (1971):

38.

269 Nazım Durlu, Çeltik Yetiştirme Tekniği, 4.

O K A N C E Y L A N

62

of rice production based on rice varieties analyzed in the 1960s, Bersani rice

had 32 percent, Maratelli rice had 22 percent, Egypt rice had 19 percent, local

rice species such as Ak kılçık, Sarı kılçık, and Kara kılçık had 12 percent in

Turkey.270

In addition to Ak kılçık and Sarı kılçık, the cultivation area of R. Bersani

had been at 70 percent in Samsun until the 1970s. Although it was nonresistant

to lodging, it had very qualified rice. Maratelli had almost 30 percent of the

cultivation area due to its short vegetation period and high productivity in the

1970s and the 1980s. Moreover, until the mid-1990s, 74 percent of rice fields

in Çarşamba Plain was ribe, 11 percent was Rocca and about 4 percent was

veneria. On the other hand, 55 percent of rice fields in Bafra plain was ribe,

almost 30 percent was veneria and 14 percent was Rocca.271 Since the local

species of rice is more suitable for making pilaf, they had higher prices in the

market. In two years of crop rotation, there were corn and wheat cultivation

in Samsun. In Çarşamba and Bafra Plains, polycultural plants such as wheat,

corn, barley, rice, sunflowers, tobacco and legumes have been grown.272

Before the 1960s, while there had been Filibe Pembesi and Kasım Beyazı

varieties, after the 1960s, Italian origin rice varities such as Bersani, Maratelli,

Violone, Camolin, Rialto, Baldo, Australian originated Carolina and Riverto

began to be cultivated in Edirne. In these varieties, Kasım beyazı was nonresistant

to plant diseases. While the rice quality of Camolin was low, its

productivity was high. Caraolina that was more resistant to diseases and lodging,

had higher productivity. There were the cultivations of wheat, sunflowers,

truck garden, and corn in Edirne in crop rotations that were made every

other year.273 Due to the flooding of the Meriç and Ergene rivers, apart from

rice, peasants preferred the cultivation of corn that was more resistant to water

in plain. In some years, there was sugar beet cultivation.

270 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 133.

271 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 13-19.

272 Atilla Ocaktan, Samsun Yöresinde Şekerpancarı, Çeltik, Soya, Domates, Biber, Patlıcan ve

Hıyarın Üretimi ve Maliyetleri, (Samsun: Tarım, Orman ve Köy İşleri Bakanlığı Samsun Tarımsal

Araştırma Enstitüsü Yayınları, 1989): 21

273 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 86.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

63

In addition to Violin and Americano, there were 47 percent of R. Bersani,

and 22 percent of Maratelli in the 1960s and the 1970s in Edirne. In Black Sea

Region, more than half of the production was Bersani and there was at least

25 percent of Maratelli.274 Although Americano and Camoline have higher

yield, tillering and productivity, their rice quality is lower.275 However, after

the 1980s, with the rice research of Thrace Agricultural Research Institute in

Edirne, more unified rice has been provided across Turkey. Until the beginning

of the 2000s, Rocca, Baldo, Serhat -92, Sürek 95, Osmancık-97, Ergene

and Veneria, Krasnodarsky-424, Kıral, Demir and Yavuz species were spread

and cultivated in Edirne and across Turkey.276 However, Maratelli, Bersani,

Rocco and Baldo had been cultivated as prominent rice varieties until the mid-

1990s in Edirne.

In the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin, while more than half of the production

belonged to local species, there was 30 percent of Egypt rice in the 1970s.

In addition, Egypt rice, Dervish, Kırmızı kılçık, karakılçık, Sarıçeltik, R. Bersani,

Maraş rice, Karacadağ rice and Ak kılçık have been cultivated in this

region. Since the altitude of the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin is very high, the

rice species that were resistant to the stony soil structure, low water and air

temperature can be cultivated. Ak kılçık that was the famous rice of Diyarbakır

had long-thin seeds and had low productivity but had higher pilaf quality.277

The productivity of all of these rice species in Karacadağ are very low and

they are sensitive to plant diseases due to extensive agriculture. In the Karacadağ

Agriculture Basin, the process of crop rotation is almost seven years.

These stony fields have been used as grasslands for animals when rice is not

sown. Actually, seven years of period is determined based on the irrigation

water capacity and the extent of rice cultivation areas by peasants.278

274 Ibid., 133.

275 Nazım Durlu, Çeltik Yetiştirme Tekniği, 5.

276 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 72.

277 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 81-133.

278 Şerif Kahraman, Şeyhmus Atakul and Sevda Kılınç, “Diyarbakır Yöresinde Çeltik Tarımının

Yapısal Durumu,”83.

O K A N C E Y L A N

64

Since melting snow water is used in irrigation, the rice varieties of Karacadağ

are rich in vitamin, mineral, enzyme and protein. Although other rice

varieties cannot grow less than 15 0C of irrigated water, Karacadağ rice varieties,

most of which are local varieties has grown at 10 0C.279

2. 11 The Harvest and the Storing of Rice

The harvest of rice is in the month of September or October. Its vegetation

period shows changes between four or five months. Also, due to the high temperature

of Mediterranean and Southeast Anatolia, the vegetation period of

rice lengthens out. Therefore, the harvest period of rice changes based on climatic

characteristics. Namely, it coincides with 34 days’ later florescence in

tropical regions and 45 -50 days’ later florescence in Turkey. After two weeks

of cutting of the irrigated water flows into fields, harvest begin. The harvest

of rice should be on time. Otherwise, in earlier harvest, due to immature

grains, grains have difficulty in separating and yield loss is seen. In delayed

harvest, crocked rice and the pulling out of some grains can be seen.280

For a quicker, more qualified and less costly harvest, the drainage of fields

is important. In harvest, since a caterpillar truck of combine harvesters had

not developed, peasants had reaped matured rice, tied them in bunches and

moved them in threshing fields a few days later in Edirne and Samsun until

the mid-1990s. 20 percent of the harvest was made by sickle and the 80 percent

was made by combine harvesters in Samsun and Edirne. Besides, while 86

percent of Bafra Plain has been completed in September, only half of

Çarşamba Plain has been harvested in the 1990s. 281 In contrast to the example

of Edirne and Samsun, in general the peasants of Karacadağ still have harvested

their rice by sickle. Due to the stony land structure, the use of combine

harvester in Karacadağ is less than Samsun and Edirne.

279 Ebru Baybara Demir, "Karacadağ Pirinci," accessed September 10, 2018, https://ebrubaybarademir.

blogspot.com/2017/09/pirinc.html

280 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 132-133.

281 İsmail Sezer and Zeki Mut, “Samsun İlinde Çeltik Tarımının Durumu,” 64.

§

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

65

Since the rice fields are muddy, carrying the wet and heavy panicles of

rice was quite difficult.282 There, these panicles of rice had been harvested by

people and blended by threshing machines or combine harvesters. If the peasants

threshed their fields via combine harvesters, they sundried their products.

283 However, rice farming began to be more mechanized in the USA since

the 1940s and the 1950s.284 In this context, combine harvesters have been

used.285 For the first time, Bekir Ünal who lived in Karahüyük village of

Kahramanmaraş made use of the caterpillar system in his combine harvester

in 1965. 286 However, combine harvester could not be widespread in rice cultivation

until the mid-1990s. In these years, Sami Dubacı who has been one

of the prominent rice cultivators of İpsala District of Edirne heard the caterpillar

technology in Italy. Therefore, Dubacı went to Bafra District of Samsun

to buy tank track from artisan Kemal in the mid-1980s.287 However, as Halil

Sürek said, tank truck was firstly used by Sami Dubacı in 1986. It was purchased

in İskenderun.288 It can be said that Sami Dubacı initiated track technology

of combine harvesters in rice cultivation. Dubacı has supported the

use of technology in rice production since 1979. In the use of laser technology

for land leveling, mobile drying machine and combine harvester in the mid-

1980s, Dubacı brought innovations to rice cultivation.289 The origin of technological

innovations in rice cultivation is Italy. Since many technological

282 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 106.

283 Hüseyin Gökçora, Bitki Yetiştirme Islahı, (Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi, 1969),

488.

284 Pete Daniel, "The Crossroads of Change: Cotton, Tobacco, and Rice Cultures in Twentieth

Century," The Journal of Southern History 50, no. 3 (August 1984): 452 -455.

285 Orsenigo Mario, “Arkansas’ta Çeltik Ziraatı,” Translated by Nazım Durlu, Ziraat Dergisi,

no. 117-118. (January-February 1954): 77.

286 Ömer Aktürk, “Elbistan’da Çeltik Ziraatı,” Pancar Çiftçi Dergisi, no. 181 (October 1967):

22.

287 Ahmet Aydın, tape-recorded interview by author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey August 6, 2018.

288 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey August 20, 2018.

289 Halil Sürek, “Gerçek Anlamda Dubacı,” accesed November 20, 2018, dubacı.com/hakkımızda.

php

O K A N C E Y L A N

66

innovations has come from the west, Edirne have used new technical developments

more than Samsun and Diyarbakır.290

Since rice is grown in watery fields, rice grain includes a high level of

moisture. Due to the lodging of rice, plant diseases increase, productivity and

yield decreases. In this case, combine harvesters move slowly.291 In the same

way, new rice varieties suitable for the harvest by combine harvester have

been bred and encouraged. By the same token, spiny rice varieties that are not

suitable for combine harvesters have been left.

While cutting down the rice, the moisture content of rice grains should be

between 22 and 24 percent.292 The moisture content of rice grains in harvest

directly determines yield. However, to get higher yield, the moisture content

and drying temperature can change based on the rice variety. For example, in

Osmancık-97 variety, it should be at 24 percent moisture content in the harvest

and dried at 45 OC. On the other hand, Baldo variety needs 19-21 percent moisture

content in harvest and 55 OC drying temperature. Since rice is grown in

wetlands and it is harvested in autumn, it needs to be dried.293 If the moisture

content in rice grain is not decreased to 14 percent, rice spoils, decreases its

yields and it cannot be stored.294 The drying of moisture content of rice grain

is quite important to get a higher yield, more qualified products and higher

demand in marketing.295

In this period the number of rice drying machines was limited and these

machines had been mostly used by big landowners until the beginning of the

2000s. In general, rice has been dried on a tarp, blended and winnowed to be

dried and cleaned. Therefore, in villages, trashing floors are determined in the

high and smooth places for drying under the sun and winnowing in wind. One

290 Rasim Ünan and Melih Enginsu, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun Turkey

August 6, 2018.

291 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 135-208.

292 Hüseyin Gökçora, Bitki Yetiştirme Islahı, 488.

293 G. Evci and P. Ülger, “Çeltiğin Hızlı Kurutulması Sonucu Maximum Randıman Alabilmek

Amacıyla Hasad Nemi-Maximum Randıman Arasındaki İlişkinin Belirlenmesi,” Tekirdağ Ziraat

Fakültesi Dergisi 3, no. 3 (2006): 275.

294 Hüseyin Gökçora, Bitki Yetiştirme Islahı, 488; Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 107.

295 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 132.

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67

of the first drying machines imported from Italy were founded by Çukobirlik

in 1960. However, since it was designed according to Italian rice origin, it

could not dry spiny rice varieties such as Sarı Çeltik, Plovdiv and Akçeltik. It

could dry 150 tons of rice a day.296 Similarly, there were drying machines in

Osmancık district of Çorum, Samsun, İstanbul and Bandırma district of

Balıkesir. These drying machines were run by coal or petroleum as fuel and

they were not mobile.297 The Ministry of Agriculture aimed at founding the

second rice dry plants that was 100 tons of capacity in Edirne in 1966.298 İpsala

Municipal council accepted the foundation of rice dry plant that provided

20,000 TL daily income in 1971.299

However, rice drying machine technology was not widespread in Turkey.

The rice of Yusuf Kiraz who was one of the famous rice cultivators of Bafra

was not accepted by the administrator of Soil and Products Office in Samsun.

Therefore, he rented a flat and dried his rice through a heating stove. 300 Yusuf

Aytin was one of the first rice cultivators in Edirne who used drying machine

technology in 1985.301 The use of drying machines decreased excessive labor

force and crocked rice and shortened harvest period but increased expenditure.

302 While drying machines were run on gas or fuel oil in the 1980s, they

are run on electiricity or coal in the 2000s.303 They used at least 800 liters of

oil diesel a day. Alaattin Tokatlı invented a new rice drying machine as domestic

production in 2003 in Edirne.304

296 Mehmet Şirin, "Maraşta Çeltik Ziraatı," 30.

297 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 107.

298 “Çeltik Kurutma Tesisleri Yapılacak,” Edirne Sesi, June 1, 1965.

299 “İlçemizde Çeltik Kurutma Fabrikası Yapılacak,” İpsala, October 25, 1971.

300 Osman Kiraz, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey August 6, 2018.

301 Hasan Topçu and Mehmet Topçu, tape-recorded interview by the author, Akçadam, Meriç,

Edirne, Turkey August 20, 2018.

302 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomi, 92-106.

303 Bülent Kıral, Halil Sürek, A. Kadir Ezer, Mustafa Nergis and İ. Hakkı Yüce, Çeltik, 20-21.

304 “Uzunköprü’de Çeltik Kurutma Makinesi İmal Edildi,” Vatandaş, December 9, 2003.

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68

Figure 2.5 Rice Harvest in İpsala

SOURCE: İpsala State Hydraulic Works (DSİ)

With the suggestion of Gürsel Şimşek who was a chairman of İpsala Commodity

Exchange, Fehim Karagöz devised a rice drying machine run on coal

to decrease the increasing cost of rice at 80 percent in İpsala in 2006.305 On

the other hand, rice drying machine technology has not developed in Southeast

Anatolia. Although corn drying machine is found, it burns the rice.306

In order to equilibrate homogenous moisture content, the drying of rice

should be between at least 10 hours and at most 24 hours. However, they dry

rice grain at 30-40 0C for a length of time between 4 and 8 hours based on the

moisture content of rice grain.307 40 OC is an ideal temperature. More than

this degree, the germination capacity of rice declines.308

305 “Çeltikte Kömürlü Kurutma Devri,” Son Haber, September 30, 2006.

306 M. Adil Kayapınar and Şerif Kahraman, tape-recorded interview by the author, August 9,

2018, Yalankoz, Diyarbakır, Turkey.

307 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 139; Selim Tahan and Turan Ekmekçi, “Çeltikte Randımana Etki

Eden Faktörler ve Alınabilecek Tedbirler,” Türk Tarım, (November-December, 2014): 69.

308 İsmail Sezer and Zeki Mut, “Samsun İlinde Çeltik Tarımının Durumu,” 65.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

69

Figure 2.6 İpsala Rice Treshing

SOURCE: İpsala State Hydraulic Works

Figure 2.7 Mobil Drying Machine

SOURCE: Bereketli Topraklarımız, June 27, 2015

After the harvest of the field, in order to ease its transportation, to prevent its

spoiling and to protect it from external factors the grain of rice is filled in

linen sacks and hoarded in storehouses. Furthermore, the pilaf of stored rice

is better. However, the moisture content of stored rice grain should be at least

12 percent and at most 14 percent. Apart from these percentages, the yield and

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70

the germination rate and vigor of rice seeds decline.309 Peasants should consider

the air conditioning in their storehouses to prevent its spoiling.310 If the

sacks are put on top of each other, more than six sacks should not be put. If

rice is kept in bulk, the length of the stack should not be more than 150 cm.

Before the 1970s, in the Marmara Region, the conditions of the storehouse

were suitable for rice. Rice is stored four or five months there. In Black Sea

Region, the conditions of storehouses were not enough. Rice kept waiting for

two and four months. In southeast Anatolia, rice was sold immediately. Only

those who had their own selling space, had storehouses.311 Today, rice might

be stored or sold based on the economic conditions of peasants in three basins.

However, since the peasants of Karacadağ sell their products as paddy rather

than rice, they may store their paddy in the storehouses of industrialists by

paying rent.312

In Turkey, in terms of varieties, cropping systems and the structure and

size of agricultural enterprise differs among regions. The preferred rice varieties

should comply with the climatic conditions of regions. Similarly, they

should be productive and have market demand to provide peasants with a high

economic income. However, more qualified rice has lower productivity.313

Based on their economic gain, the expectation of peasants, industrialists, and

consumers differs from each other. Peasants demand higher productivity. Industrialists

try to get higher yield. The yield of rice is how much paddy is

obtained out of 100 kg of rice. Consumers demand more qualified and delicious

rice.314 Averagely, 60 kg out of 100 kg of rice is paddy. This indicates

the yield of rice. Also, 20 kg out of 100 kg of rice is husk. 10 kg out of 100 kg

of rice is paddy bran. The rest of it is crocked rice.315

309 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 143.

310 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 120.

311 Nazım Durlu, Çeltik Yetiştirme Tekniği, 36.

312 Süleyman Kızılkaya, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz, Diyarbakır, Turkey

August 9, 2018.

313 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 70

314 Ibid., 145; Selim Tahan and Turan Ekmekçi, “Çeltikte Randımana Etki Eden Faktörler ve

Alınabilecek Tedbirler,” 68.

315 Nuran Taşlıgil, Güven Şahin, “Türkiye’de Çeltik Yetiştiriciliği ve Coğrafi Dağılımı,” 184.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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Consumers demand rice that has a better cooking quality and qualified

pilaf. However, the qualification criteria are valid for the countries where rice

is not consumed as a staple food.316 The physical properties of grain, its protein

and starch content, gelatinization temperature that means the swelling

temperature of rice (55 and 79 o C) and its amylose content determine the

qualification of rice. As the protein content and gelatinization temperature of

rice increase, the water requirement increases and cooking time of paddy

lengthens out. Amylose provides paddy with distribution while cooking. It is

the most important factor in determining the quality of rice. The overrun of

rice, its water absorption and the brightness depend on amylose. In the case

of low amylose, pilaf is mushy.317 Besides, in the course of cooking, it has

aromatic characteristics due to volatile oil acids.318

2. 12 Concluding Remarks

In Conclusion, for breeding and the spread of rice varieties, there have been

some scientific research since the last quarter of the nineteenth century from

Japan to Italy. However, rather than evaluating rice cultivation in the historical

process, this chapter mainly focuses on how rice plays a significant or

central role in directing farmers and agriculturalists together with its biological

and agricultural properties such as cultivation, pest control, fertilization

and harvest from micro to the macro level. All struggles of people in rice cultivation

is to provide higher yield and productivity for their economic gain.

Although rice cultivation or production depends on social entrepreneurship in

villages, rice productivity and yield depend on the individual success of farmers

and climate. Therefore, it requires working discipline, coherent teamwork,

traditional experience and following new agrarian technology. Although some

principles are expressed in rice cultivation, the rice production system in the

Karacadağ Agriculture Basin is in conflict with Meriç, the Lower Kızılırmak,

316 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 145.

317 Halil Sürek, “Türkiye’de Üretilen ve Yeni Tescil Edilen Çeltik Çeşitleri,” 37-38.

318 Ebru Baybara Demir, "Karacadağ Pirinci."

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and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins. However, it is seen that there is a communication

at the level of agricultural research institutes, industrialists and some

prominent farmers.

Rice is a cereal that depends upon biological stability in its water requirement,

environmental conditions and nutrients at an adequate dosage and on

time. On the other hand, rice accommodates some paradoxical biological

properties such as growing in different production modes, different ecosystems

and in different continents or geographies except for Antarctica. Similar

to wheat and corn, rice has been a staple food of densely populated Asian

communities. Although rice is Asiatic and tropical cereal, modern technology

in rice cultivation spread from west to east and higher productivity is provided

in sub-tropical areas. Besides, rice is a unique product that can be grown in

salty, alkali and improved lands. Namely, rice has strong adaptability to differents

soil types and climates. Similar to fish, rice is the only and unusual

cereal that can use soluble oxygen in water.

73

3

The History of Rice

griculture has been an indispensable part of the socio-economic life

since the Neolithic period. In addition to the biological properties of

agricultural products, it is closely related to politics, society, and economics

in the historical process. Furthermore, due to the food requirements of the

growing population of society and the economic values of foods, political authorities

have tried to control agrarian economics such as production process,

trade, prices and taxation throughout the history. Thus, there has been a clash

of interest among different states for the fertile agricultural lands and trade

roads.

Although foods have directed the fiscal policy of states, individually many

people do not have any information about where the homeland of agricultural

products is or how these foods have arrived nowadays. The importance of

foods is not discussed adequately apart from global climate change or the

famine threat, but people need them at least three meals a day. Also, many

foods have played an essential role in shaping history. Regarding their nutritional

value, cultivation areas and trade, cereal groups such as wheat, rice and

corn that have high calorific value are the most important staple foods in socio-

economic history. Although starchy foods in particular cereals have been

staple foods in distinct geographies, their modes of production, marketing,

A

O K A N C E Y L A N

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and their consumption style have differentiated.319 The findings related to the

first agricultural production were seen in the river banks of Nile, Fırat and

Dicle. Firstly, due to their short vegetation period, barley, rye, and oat were

domesticated respectively.320

However, rice was later adapted to semi-aquatic cultivation which ensured

its high yields and popularity. Seventeen out of twenty-five countries where

the rice is cultivated are located between Pakistan and Japan in southeastern

Asia. While the population of these Asian countries constituted 60 percent of

the world population, their rice production constituted 92 percent of all rice

production. After Asia, Latin America and Africa have been important regions

in rice consumption. By the same token, rice has been an important diet for

these Asian societies just like what bread is for the Europeans.321 As a symbol

of fertility, birth, and satiety, rice is regarded as a sacred crop in China, India

and Thailand.322

In this context, this chapter claims that as a staple food and nutritious cereal,

rice is an actor in making history in terms of political, economic, and

social dimensions. In other words, due to the food requirements of people,

rice has had a central role in determining the course of historical events. Besides,

methodologically this study tries to explain the historical importance of

rice from macro to micro level. The purpose of this study is to explain the

main role of rice from its evolutionary history, its international spread and its

historical past in Anatolia to the stories of rice cultivation in the Meriç Basin,

the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin and the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower

Yeşilırmak Basins in the beginnings of the 1950s. Thus, it aims to be an infrastructure

and main source of the relations between rice and state, rice and

economics and rice and society from 1948 to 2018.

319 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar, 1.

320 Ahmet Özçelik, Tarım Tarihi ve Deontolojisi, 6.

321 Fernand Braduel, Civilization and Capitalism 15thand 18th The Structure of Everyday Life

(London: Collins, 1981), 145.

322 Güzin Yalın, Mutfaktan Tabaktan Sokaktan (İstanbul: RGK Yayınları, 2014), 343.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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3.1 The Origin and the Evolutionary History of Rice

In human nutrition, rice has an older historical past than many other foods.323

Oryza genus is originated from Gondwanaland where India, Australia, Africa,

and South America were located.324 Apart from 23 rice species, Oryza sativa

L. and Oryza glaberrima independently evolved in the same process in Asia

and Africa respectively. Oryza sativa emerged as a result of the evolutionary

process of Oryza rufipogon evolving into Oryza nivara. In the same way,

Oryza glaberrima emerged as a result of the evolutionary process of Oryza

longistaminata evolving into Oryza bartii. In this evolutionary process, there

is a transition from perennial wild plant into an annual plant.325

Geographically, while the primary center of diversification of Oryza glaberrima

was the upper delta of Niger River in 1500 BC in West Africa, its

secondary diversification center formed 500 years later in Southeast Guinea.

The first areas where Oryza glaberrima was domesticated were Mali, Sene-

Gambia, and Guinea 2000 or 3000 years ago.326 After the domestication of

rice, its morphological properties began to differentiate such as larger leaves,

longer stem and longer panicle. However, archeological excavations point out

that Oryza glaberrima was domesticated later than Oryza sativa. Porteres

thinks that there were two central origins such as the East of Sudan and the

Casemance River Valley in Senegambia in Africa goes back to 1500 BC. Rice

cultivation in Africa developed independently from Asia.327

323 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 24.

324 TE- TZU, “The Origin, Evolution, Cultivation, Dissemination and Diversification of Asian

and African Rices,” Euphytical 25, no. 1 (1976), 425-441.

325 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 25; D. Robert Huggan, “Co-Evolution of Rice and Human,” Geo

Journal 35, no. 3 (1995), 262.

326 R. Porteres, “Taxonomie Agrobotanique des Riz Cultivés O. sativa L. et O. glaberrima,” S.

J. Agric. Trop. Bot. Appl, no. 3 (1956): 341–384.

327 R. Porteres, “Taxonomie Agrobotanique des Riz Cultivés O. sativa L. et O. Glaberrima,” 161;

Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 26- 27.

§

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76

The exact time and the development of rice will perhaps never be known.

Some geographical studies on rice cultivation indicate that the origin of rice

is the foothills of the Himalaya Mountains in Southeast Asia. The cultivation

lands of Oryza sativa extend to Burma, Thailand, and Indochina. It was spread

into different regions thanks to migrations and commercial activities. As a

result of distinct ecotypes, Oryza sativa separated into three sub species such

as Indica, Japonica, and Javanica. Among these sub-species or ecotypes, Indica

is the oldest one. It has a long length, weak stem and large open green

leaves. Geographically, Oryza sativa was spread into tropical areas such as

India, Malesia, Central China, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. The Japonica subspecies

spread from China to Korea, Russia, and Japan. Second, the origin of

Japonica is Southeastern Asia and in time, it spread into mild climate zones

such as the lower basin of the Yangtze River in Northeastern China, Korea

and Japan. It has a shorter length, fewer tillers, and narrow green leaves. Finally,

Javanica subspecies are grown in tropical climates such as Indonesia,

Taiwan and Japan. It has thick stems, long length, fewer tillers. While Japonica

and Javanica subspecies are more resistant to pulling out of grain, Indica

is not resistant.328

3. 2 The First Archeological Findings about Rice

Concerning Oryza sativa, in the archeological excavations, some rice grains

that belongs to 7000 BC were found in the Chekiang province of China.329

However, the oldest archeological pieces of evidence are found in the middle

and lower Yangtze River and upper Huia river of China. Its history goes back

to 11.000 and 12.000 BC.330 Rice cultivation goes back to at least 2800 BC.

Rice has been a staple food for densely populated Monsoon Asian and the Far

Eastern societies. Since it is a staple food, it has had a special place in long

328 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 25-29; J.L. Maclean, D.C. Dawe, B. Hardy, and G.P. Hettel, Rice

Almanac, (Wallingford, Oxon: CABI Publishing, 2002), 1.

329 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 24.

330 R. Porteres, “Taxonomie Agrobotanique des Rizcultivés O. sativa L. et O. glaberrima,” 341–

384.

§

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77

distance international trade between east and west for centuries.331 On the

other hand, the most reliable archeological pieces of evidence concerning the

domestication of rice were found in Southeastern Asia in 1966 by Wilhem G.

Solheim. Thanks to puddling and transplanting, rice could be domesticated in

China and cultivated in river valleys or deltas for the first time. The findings

as to rice grain and husk were discovered at Non Nok Tha in the Korat region

of Thailand. Thanks to these research, the historical past of rice is determined

as more than 4000 years. Furthermore, based on the residues of rice in the

Spirit Cave where it is close to the frontiers between Thailand and Mymmar

indicates that the cultivation of rice goes back to 10.000 BC.332 More interestingly,

as some intellectuals claim, although the history of agriculture goes

back to 10,000 years before, that of rice goes back to 3,000,000 years ago. The

southwestern part of China and Assam region of India are the regions where

rice had been first seen millions of years ago.333

3. 3 International History of Rice

In the spread of rice cultivation, political, socio-cultural and socio-economic

interactions among societies such as trades, migrations, the Age of Explorations,

colonialization, and wars have been influential. However, rice is cultivated

under dry lands in uplands. Wetland rice cultivation was firstly carried

by the migrant people of Southern China and northern Vietnam to the Philippines

in the second millennium BC. Similarly, this type of cultivation was

carried to Indonesia about 1500 BC by Deutero Malays, it was implemented

in Sri Lanka and Western India in 1000 BC, and it was introduced to Japanese

society from Koreans and Chinese in 100 BC.334 Furthermore, due to the moderate

climate, the cultivation of rice began in southern China. However, due

331 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 11.

332 J.L. Maclean, D.C. Dawe, B. Hardy, and G.P. Hettel, Rice Almanac, 25.

333 Güzin Yalın, Mutfaktan Tabaktan Sokaktan, 343.

334 J.L. Maclean, D.C. Dawe, B. Hardy, and G.P. Hettel, Rice Almanac, 25.

§

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to the cold climate, the spread of rice cultivation into northern China and Korean

had been slower. Since the dryland rice farming method had been exercised

in Korean in the earlier stages, rice yield was lower.335

On the other hand, it is thought aquatic rice firstly was seen in India and

reached to Southern China overland or by the sea in about 2000 BC. Then rice

settled and spread slowly in Chinese cuisine as a diet. Although rice was seen

in the Japanese cuisine in the first century AD, it had not been essential food

in Japanese diet until the seventeenth century. Thanks to the development of

agricultural infrastructure, the increase of agricultural production, and growing

trade under the Tokugawa Dynasty in the seventeenth century, the Japanese

population grew. On the other hand, rice or only other cereals were not

adequate for the nutrition of people in India in the eighteenth century thus the

increasing population led to starvation.336

Rice can be thought of as a miracle food that feed the densely populated

Manson Asian population thanks to its high productivity. As rice cultivation

spread into distinct areas, it had distinct local names such as ladang in Malaysia

and Indonesia, ray or rai in Vietnam, djoung in India and tavy in Madagaskar

in the tenth century.337 In the spread of rice into distinct parts of the

world, natural conditions such as water sources, climate, and topography had

been influential.338

Furthermore, apart from Monsoon Asia and the Far East, rice was spread

into the Mediterranean basin by the members or soldiers of the Alexander the

Great who made the Indian expedition in 344-324 BC. In this context, Sicily

and Greece were two central origins in the spread of rice into southern Europe

and North Africa.339 Although rice came to the Mediterranean in the early

period, it had not been cultivated until the seventh century. Rice spread from

335 Jared Diamond, Tüfek, Mirop ve Çelik, Translated by Ülker İnce (Ankara, TUBİTAK, 2002),

1044.

336 Fernand Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism 15thand 18th The Structure of Everyday Life,

147-158.

337 Ibid., 147-152.

338 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar, 12.

339 J.L. Maclean, D.C. Dawe, B. Hardy, and G.P. Hettel, Rice Almanac, 2.

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79

Nile Delta to Camargue delta in France, Po Plain in Italy, and Spain.340 Firstly,

Europe introduced rice in 300 BC.341

Rice was also carried to the Middle East and spread by the Arabs into

North Africa, Spain and the southern parts of France.342 It is regarded that rice

came to Turkey before the fifth and sixth centuries from Egypt.343 According

to Sürek, there was no exact information about where rice came to Anatolia.

However, most of the local rice varieties are spiny thus; they are similar to

the rice varieties in Egypt.344

Rice was cultivated on the coast of the Caspian Sea in Sassanians in the

sixth and seventh centuries. Thanks to trade on Silk Road, rice, species, and

porcelain were carried from east to west. Based on the Chinese sources, some

Turkic tribes had cultivated rice in the Fergana region in the Second BC. According

to Kaşgarlı Mahmut, Turks had cultivated rice and they called rice

tuturkan in Central Asia. When Turks came to Anatolia, they called paddy as

birinç that is Persian origin vocabulary.345

With the beginning of the Age of Explorations, early European settlers

such as Portuguese and Spanish introduced rice cultivation to New Worlds.

For example, while Portuguese introduced it to Brazil, Spanish carried it to

Central and South America through African slaves.346 Rice was cultivated in

the Virginia province of the USA for the first time in 1647. It was taken by

Dutchmen and Englishmen.347 Based on the mechanization in agriculture, it

340 U. Ramseyer, “The Origin and History of Rice: From Shifting Agriculture to Wet Rice Cultivation”

Swissair Gazette 2, no. 17–19 (1989); Halil Sürek Çeltik Tarımı, 26.

341 Necla Türkoğlu, “Türkiye’de Çeltik Alanlarının Dağılışı,” 209.

342 S. Göney, “Sıcak Bölgelerde Ziraat Hayatı,” Coğrafya Enstitüsü, no. 116, (1980); NuranTaşlıgil

and Güven Şahin, “Türkiye’de Çeltik Yetiştiriciliği ve Coğrafi Dağılımı,” 183.

343 Halil Sürek Çeltik Tarımı, 26.

344 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey, August 10, 2018.

345 Feridun Mustafa Emecen, "Çeltik," 265-266.

346 J.L. Maclean, D.C. Dawe, B. Hardy, and G.P. Hettel, Rice Almanac, 2.

347 Abdullah Türkoğlu, Gıda Maddeleri, (İstanbul: İstanbul Matbaası, 1979); Necla Türkoğlu,

“Türkiye’de Çeltik Alanlarının Dağılışı” 209; Nuran Taşlıgiland Güven Şahin, “Türkiye’de

Çeltik Yetiştiriciliği ve Coğrafi Dağılımı,” 183.

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80

was spread into the southwest of Louisiana in the eighteenth century, California’s

Sacramento Valley, Mississippi, and Missouri. Rice was spread into the

east of Arkansas, and the southeast of Texas in the first quarter of the twentieth

century.348 Thanks to water sources, large cultivable plains, soil structure, and

weather conditions, rice cultivation was quite suitable in Arkansas. There was

a Stuttgart Rice Breeding Station in Arkansas.349 Furthermore, Rice Experience

Stations were founded in Louisiana, Texas, and California in 1909.350

With the advent of the short and medium rice grain that complied with the

climatic conditions of Sacramento and came from Japan in 1908, rice production

increased.351 Furthermore, the British had taken some slaves from Senegal,

Gambia and Sierra to South Caroline in the USA between the seventeenth

and the nineteenth centuries. These slaves, who knew rice agriculture, began

to cultivate rice with the African rice cultivation technics. Since the workmanship

of rice required ingenuity, experience and intensive labor, and the

rice industry depended upon slave labor, the population rate of slaves to natives

increased incredibly and reached 78 percent in the last quarter of the

eighteenth century. However, with the banning of slavery, the labor force decreased.

The building of the Suez Channel, the trade between North Europe

and Asia increased and they began to receive their rice needs from India rather

than South Caroline. After the emergence of the American Civil war in the

1860s, rice production was carried to western provinces such as Texas, Arkansas,

and California.352

In the spread of rice, cultural exchanges result from colonialization was

also influential. In this context, rice was taken to the Solomon Islands by travelers

and missioners in the nineteenth century. The inhabitants of Solomon

Islanders got their first taste of rice at missionary schools and institutions. As

348 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 26; Pete Daniel, “The Crossroads of Change: Cotton Tobacco, and

Rice Culture in the Twentieth century,” 436.

349 Mario Orsenigo, "Arkansas'ta Çeltik Ziraatı," Translated by Nazım Durlu, Ziraat Dergisi,

(January, February 117-118, 1954), 72-77.

350 Mario Orsenigo, "Arkansas'ta Çeltik Ziraatı," Translated by Nazım Durlu, Ziraat Dergisi,

(June 122, 1954), 56-57.

351 Kassim Alkbatib," Rice Production in California: Past, Present and Future," Uluslararası

Katılımlı Konuralp Çeltik Çalıştayı (September 2016), 20.

352 Betty Joyce Nash, “Economic History Rice to Riches,” Region Focus, (Winter 2008), 36-38.

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81

rice has been consumed in meals, it displaced traditional starch staples such

as cassava, sweet potato, taro, and yams. Rice began to be consumed in public

institution and plants as a meal in the 1920s and it was distributed by the

American Army to people with rations during the Second World War. Also, it

was consumed in festivals, funeral rites, and social organizations. The consumption

of rice and its localization as one of the main foods were the indication

of the transformative influence of globalization on local cuisine culture.

Rice has been taken as a prestigious gift in house visits. Since the

availability and the cooking of rice were easy and it was nutritious, rice was

quite practical for the people who lived in urban areas. Similar to cities, rice

consumption began to be widespread in rural areas in the 1970s.353

Ramseyer thought that a Japanese migrant cultivated rice in irrigated conditions

in New South Wales in Australia in 1914.354 However, its cultivation

has become widespread since 1952.355 Furthermore, While China and India

have had the highest level of rice production for being self-sufficient in staple

food requirements; California and Australia have had the highest level of

productivity in rice around the world.356 Based on population growth, rice

consumption has increased since the 1950s.357

353 Christine Jourdan, “The Cultural Localization of Rice” University of Pittsburg, of the Commonwealth

System of Higher Education 49: 4, (Fall 2010), 263-270.

354 J.L. Maclean, D.C. Dawe, B. Hardy, and G.P. Hettel, Rice Almanac, 2.

355 U. Ramseyer, “The Origin and History of Rice: From Shifting Agriculture to Wet Rice Cultivation”;

Halil Sürek Çeltik Tarımı, 27.

356 Serkan Yenal, “Çeltik Üretim ve Ticareti Etkinlik Verimlilik Çözümlemesi,” Türk Tarım Dergisi,

no. 208 (December 2012), 83

357 Hatıf Öge, "Dünya'nın Yarı Temel Gıdası Pirinç" 30.

O K A N C E Y L A N

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Map 3.1 The Spread of Rice Cultivation in the World

SOURCE: Anthony Scott and Kyra Anzola” Rice as a Commodity” accesed Janu

ary 10, 2020 https://ecohisf12rice.wordpress.com/globalization/

3. 3. 1 The Importance of Rice in the Nutrition of Asian Population

While rice has been a staple food for Manson Asia, bread has been for the

Europeans. Chinese made 80 percent of their expenditure on food went on

cereal, about 16 percent on vegetables and spices, and 3 percent on meat. They

have taken 2000 cl in daily nutrition since the seventh century. Besides, rice

was evaluated as a new sign of civilization.358 Furthermore, a major part of

the Asian population received between 30 and 57 percent of their calorie requirement

from rice. 94 percent of World rice production had been realized

and this production hardly received the requirement of Asian societies until

the beginning of the Second World War in Asia where half of the world population

lived. After the war, both rice productions were tried to be increased

and wheat was imported. Although the size of the rice fields was 1500000

hectares larger, its production was 5400000 tons lower. This situation resulted

from the destruction of rice fields and water channels during the war.359

While the World population had taken averagely 20 percent of its calorie

from rice, it was 36 percent in Asia, 11 percent in South America, and 5 percent

in Africa in the twentieth century. Although the largest rice cultivation areas

358 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar, 12.

359 Ibid., 5-7

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are in Asia, Africa and South America, the highest productivity is in Europe.

360 Similarly, due to a decline in rice production and the rise of population,

rice consumption decreased exempt Brazil, Portuguese, and Egypt after

the Second World War.361

3. 3. 2 The Institutionalization of Rice Production at

International Level

Before the Second World War, wheat and barley had been more prominent

cereals concerning cultivated areas and production. However, thanks to the

higher productivity of rice, the amount of rice production in Western Block

exceeded that of its wheat production. Due to its nutritional value, the higher

productivity and economic gain, rice ceased to be the only product of tropical

climates, it spread into mild temperature zones and there was market- oriented

rice production in these areas after the 1960s.362

In contrast to the growing Asian population, the decline of rice production

and rising rice prices created starvation in Asia. The decline of international

rice trade was 66 percent. However, rice cultivation began to spread outside

of Asia after the 1950s. Thus, it is claimed that the Second World War was an

important turning point in the expansion of rice farming, rice production and

the consumption of paddy. The mechanization of agriculture, the increase in

the use of herbicides, and fertilization after the Marshall Plan in 1948 contribute

to rice production. Namely, the expansion of rice can be regarded as a gift

of the Green Revolution.

Moreover, the insufficient production of rice became an international and

social issue across the World. Thus, the International Rice Commission was

founded in 1947. The first meeting was realized with the participation of 19

states and 8 organizations. They mainly dealt with rice cultivated land, the

360 Tarım ve Köy İşleri Bakanlığı, Trakya Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü Çeltik Yetiştiriciliği Semineri

(Mayıs 23-29, 1991), 1.

361 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar, 26.

362 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 3.

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increase of rice productivity and quality, and also the marketing conditions of

rice. The commission regulated second meeting in Rangoon (Yangon) in Myanmar,

the improvement of rice was talked to increase rice production.363 To

distribute paddy equitably around the world, the International Food Control

Commission was involved in the foundation of a subsidiary commission in

Singapore in 1946. Similarly, the conference organized by the international

rice commission in Baguio in 1948 provided the required infrastructure to increase

rice production.364

Based on the population growth, the increase of cultivable lands and

productivity, and essential infrastructure for the increase of rice production

was talked in the conference held by the International Rice Commission.365

Also, the International Rice Research Institute (the IRRI) was founded by

Ford, Rockefeller and the government of the Philippines at the University of

Philippines in Los Banos in 1959. The IRRI aimed at the environmental sustainability

of rice production, the rice requirement of people and improving

the life quality of rice cultivators.366

3. 3. 3 The History of Rice in Anatolia and Rumelia

Although there is no exact date about the advent of rice in Anatolia, it is well

known that rice cultivation had not been widespread and influential in the

agrarian economy until the beginnings of the 1950s. However, it is supposed

to have come from the south, the southeast and the east through trade, wars

and migrations. The advent and the spread of rice cultivation in Anatolia were

parallel to the routings of the Spice Road that origin from Calcutta city in

India and arrived in Cairo in Egypt and the Silk Road that origin in Lo-Lang

city of China and the Cambay City of India had a special place.

363 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar, 7-12.

364 Hatıf Öge "Dünya'nın Yarı Temel Gıdası Pirinç," 39.

365 Ibid., 35-36.

366 International Rice Research Institute- the IRRI-Rice Science for a Better World accessed on

November 12, 2018, irri.org

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

85

There are distinct views about what time it came and which geographical

route map it followed coming to Anatolia. Since rice is a Southeast Asia origin

cereal, it most probably came to Anatolia through Silk Road either from the

East or south. However, another view is that rice spread to Rumelia from

Greece or Sicily after the expedition of Alexander the Great. Besides, it is

claimed that rice was taken to Anatolia from Central Asia by Turks.367 Due to

limited transportation and communication, people might have cultivated rice

without being aware of each other.

Rice was taken to Iraq in the period of the caliphate Omer in the seventh

century. Rice had been spread into Islamic countries based on climatic and

environmental conditions. Although the exact date of the beginning of rice

cultivation in Anatolia is not known, there are historical records such as wakf

documents concerning rice production in Anatolian Principalities in the thirteenth

century. Famous traveler Ibn Battuta mentioned rice trade in the markets

of İstanbul and Ayasulug in the fourteenth century. 368

It is thought that rice came to Anatolia from Egypt and cultivated in Tosya,

and in İzmir by Aydınoğulları Principality in the fourteenth century. Furthermore,

the vicinities of Kastamonu, Maraş, Diyarbakır, and Edirne were the

first important centers for rice cultivation.369 Besides, there were some similarities

in rice cultivation, rice varieties and irrigation technics between Maraş

and Diyarbakır. The labor force in rice irrigation and harvest in the Karacadağ

Agriculture Basin has been received from Maraş.370

According to Ottoman land registry books and the research of Halil

İnalcık, rice had been cultivated in the plains of Bursa, Bolu, and Beypazarı

irrigated by the reaches of Sakarya Rivers and belonged to Havass-ı Hümayun

in the fifteenth century. Besides, grand vizier Sokullu Mehmet Pasha and

367 Mehmet Karagöz, “1779 Senesi Rüsum Defterine Göre Bazarcık- Tatarpazarı’nda Pirinç Üretimi,”

277.

368 Yaşar Yücel, XIII and XV Yüzyıllar Kuzey-Batı Anadolu Tarihi Çobanoğulları Candaroğulları

Tarihi, (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, 1980), 191; Zeki Arıkan, “15 ve 16 yy da

Anadolu’da Çeltik Üretimi,” 477.

369 Nurhan Taşlıgil and Güven Şahin, “Türkiye’de Çeltik Yetiştiriciliği ve Coğrafi Dağılımı,”

184; Mehmet Akif Erdoğru, "Aydın Sancağında Çeltik Tarımı XV-XVI Yüzyıl,” 522.

370 Mehmet Şirin, "Maraşta Çeltik Ziraatı," 28-30.

O K A N C E Y L A N

86

good shot Ahmet Pasha had rice fields. However, from Bursa to Antalya and

Adana there was rice cultivation in distinct parts of Western Anatolia and

Mediterranean. In the period of Suleiman, the Magnificent, there were thirteen

rivers used in the irrigation of rice fields. Due to drought, rice was cultivated

sexennial and there were 924 out of 4031 rice producers in Aydın district

in the same period. The history of rice cultivation in southeast Anatolia goes

back to Mamelukes in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.371

As Korkut explains, since merchants who made a trade of snuff and chewing

tobacco between Anatolia and Egypt could have a chance to see the profit

of rice, they had tried to carry it to Anatolia. However, Mehmet Ali Pasha had

struggled to protect the monopoly of rice cultivation in the Mediterranean

Basin. Therefore, a person who was known as Üdürgücü in Maraş had carved

reed walking stick and filled rice seed in Egypt. Thus he had brought rice

from Egypt to Maraş fugitively and secretly at the end of the eighteenth century.

372 But this date is too late for rice cultivation in Anatolia.

3. 4 The Role of the Ottoman State in Rice Cultivation

Although the state had a central role in rice production, rice cultivation among

Ottoman State, Karamanids, Akkoyunlu (White Sheep Turcomans) and Mamelukes

had some common and distinct features. Furthermore, being exempt

from extraordinary taxes and paying less çift resmi were common principles

on the one hand, the providing of rice seed, modes of production, the division

of labor and the share of rice were different on the other. There was a sharecropping

system in Karamanids. The rice cultivators were completely exempt

from extraordinary tax, çift resmi and sheep tax in Karamanids. In this context,

half of the seed was provided by the state or owner and the rest was

provided by sharecropper. Therefore, the production of rice was shared

equally between them.373

371 Zeki Arıkan, “15 ve 16 yy da Anadolu’da Çeltik Üretimi,” 480.

372 Mehmet Şerif Korkut, Isıtma ve Çeltik, 37.

373 Halil İnalcık, “Rice Cultivation and the Çeltikçi Reaya System,” 87-93.

§

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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As Braudel claims, in China between the eleventh and the fourteenth century,

rice cultivation has increased state control, the number of population and

strict social discipline.374 In the Ottoman Empire, there was a scarcity of labor

force in contrast to plenty of cultivable lands and rice cultivation required

water. Thus, the state controlled rice which was a precious product firmly and

also the state regulated its modes of production, production process, water

sources, and prices elaborately.375 Furthermore, to prevent the reduction of

the quality of rice, rice seeds were supplied by the state.376 Rice was cultivated

mainly in fief rather than in the manorial system (tımar) to prevent the labor

exploitation of peasants who were called çeltikçi reaya. These people were

recorded in the Ottoman land registry book separately and their çeltikçi status

passed from father to son. Since the Ottoman Empire regarded rice cultivation

as public service that required ingenuity and experience, çeltikçi reaya were

exempt from extraordinary tax.377 Their community was also called as

cemaat – i çeltikçiyan in the Ottoman land registry books. To be headman in

rice fields, people paid a price called pişkeş to state. Therefore, some other

reayas had demanded this status in the end of the sixteenth century.378

The basic features of Çeltikçi reaya came from the sharecropper slave

system.379 In the same way, due to heavy work load, health problems and the

intensive exploitation of labor, peasants avoided rice cultivation. Thus state

applied a special status and privileges to rice cultivators.380 After Sultan II.

Mehmet, rice growing areas extended in different parts of regions particularly

374 Fernand Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism 15th and 18th The Structure of Everyday Life,

149.

375 Gül Akyılmaz, “Osmanlı Devleti’nde Yönetici Sınıf Reaya Ayrımı,” Gazi Üniversitesi Hukuk

Fakültesi Dergisi 1-2, no. 239 (2004), 8.

376 İbrahim Solak, “XVI Yüzyilda Güvercinlik Kazası,” Osmanlı Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama

Merkezi Dergisi 18, no. 16 (2005), 370.

377 Halil İnalcık, “Rice Cultivation and the Çeltikçi Reaya System,”80-92; Gül Akyılmaz, “Osmanlı

Devleti’nde Yönetici Sınıf Reaya Ayrımı,” 8.

378 Ömer Lütfi Barkan, XV ve XVI Asırlarda Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Zirai Ekonominin Hukuki

ve Mali Esasları, (İstanbul: İstanbul Üniversitesi, 1943), 205-208.

379 Halil İnalcık, “Rice Cultivation and the Çeltikçi Reaya System,” 103-107.

380 Ibid., 84.

O K A N C E Y L A N

88

in Rumelia. In this context mulk, tımar and wakf lands were taken under the

control of the state and infrastructural investments such as water channels and

ways were built. Çeltikçi reaya status was regarded as essential to provide

continuance in rice production. The water requirement and the sowing time

of rice fields were controlled by the reis who was the head of waterman who

is called saka in Cilician Plain381 yamak in Rumelian, cenan in Diyarbakır,

and sucu in Samsun.

Since Tatars who migrated from Crimean in 1418 were settled in Bazarcık

situated near the Meriç Basin, its name was called Tatarpazarı. The first findings

of the rice cultivation in Tatarpazarı and Edirne province go back to the

mid-fifteenth century. After the conquest of Rumelia after the mid-fourteenth

century, Lala Şahin Pasha who was an advisor of Sultan Murat had taken rice

cultivation to Filibe, Tatarpazarı, Semizce and Harmanlı.382 Besides, the rice

fields in Filibe, Drama, Serez and Burgaz were public lands and rice was produced

through land tenure to receive the requirement of the Ottoman Palace.

383 Thus Ottoman State had earned four million of akçe annually. In addition

to the Balkans, rice has been cultivated in the vicinity of Maraş, in some

regions on the coast of the Black Sea, in Southeast Anatolia and Iraq since the

fourteenth and the fifteenth century.384 Similar to tulip that was introduced to

Europe by Ogier Ghieslain de Busbecq who was an Austrian ambassador in

İstanbul in the mid-sixteenth century,385 rice was quite a bureaucratic commodity.

In the Ottoman State, there was a relation between the share- cropper and

slave that was regulated by the state in rice production. In rice cultivation,

captives, paid workers, free peasants, nomads and slaves worked in rice

381 Ibid., 93-98.

382 Ibid., 70.

383 Tayyip Gökbilgin, XV ve XVI Asırda Edirne ve Paşa Livası (İstanbul: İşaret Yayınları, 2007),

10-128; Mehmet Karagöz “1779 Senesi Rüsum Defterine Göre Bazarcık- Tatarpazarı’nda Pirinç

Üretimi,” 278-280; Feridun Mustafa Emecen, "Çeltik,” 265-266.

384 Chris Graten, "Pilavdan Dönen İmparatorluk: Meclis-i Mebusan'da Sıtma ve Çeltik Tartışmaları,”

99.

385 Michael Polland, Arzunun Botaniği, 64.

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fields. As a result of the changes in their servile status, slaves as a sharecropper

disappeared in the II. Beyazıd. However, the central authority of the Ottoman

State in rice cultivation had continued until the seventeenth century.

With the emergence of tax farming, rice growing lands turned into areas

where exploitation of reaya labor and the public sources of revenue were present.

As a dominant group, nomadic Turks involved in rice cultivation in Cilician

Plain. Rice production in Çukurova regions was similar to Mamelukes.

Rice came to Çukurova from Mamelukes.386

The revenue of 24 rice rivers out of 27 belonged to Sultans in Sis Sanjak

(Kozan-Feke) and the administration of these rice fields and rivers was regulated.

The total has revenues of these rivers were 144,900 akçes in the sixteenth

century. Rice seed was supplied by the state before the cultivation of

rice but in harvest this seed was paid to the state. Kınık sub district had the

largest rice cultivated areas in Adana. Their total income was 740,000 akçe.

While 50,000 akçes was paid to Ramazanoğlu Halil Bey, the rest was paid to

the Ottoman Sultan.387

In Agriculture, thanks to miri land system and çifthane system that had

been inherited from Byzantium and Anatolian Seljuk to the Ottomans, traditional

modes of production in which a pair of oxen was used, there were small

scale enterprises and there was a scarcity of labor force that had continued

until the 1950s. From the conservation of a socio-economic order perspective,

the Ottoman state always controlled the production of cereal. Therefore, Miri

lands were public lands where only cereals were cultivated to receive the food

requirement of military and cities under the conditions of limited transportation

and to prevent any food scarcity or famine. In this system, since small

scale enterprises could be taxed easily and their labor was scarce, the Ottomans

not only tried to control production, price and consumption process to

regulate the economy but they also tried to guarantee both lands and the labor

386 Halil Inalcık, Rice Cultivation and the Çeltikçi Reaya System,” 93-100.

387 Yılmaz Kurt, “Sis Sancağı (Kozan-Feke) Mufassal Tahrir Defteri Tanıtım ve Değerlendirmesi.

Ekonomik Yapı,” OTAM, 2 (1991), 151-199.

O K A N C E Y L A N

90

of peasants for the continuation of production. This case was seen more explicitly

in villages where rice was cultivated.388

Family- owned small scale enterprises had between 60 and 150 decars of

land.389 The size of the rice fields was based on the amount of rice seed. In

addition to bushel and sieve, mud was used as a basic unit of measure. To

define the size of rice fields, furrow (evlek) was used as a term.390 In addition

to the scarcity of labor force, the insufficient amount of water source limited

the size of rice cultivated lands in Miri and Wakfs lands. The income of rice

production was assigned to the banner lord. In addition to the labor of peasants,

due to irregular water regime in rivers, state regulated water rights of

cities and rice cultivators. Water sources and the irrigation system were the

most essential condition in determining rice cultivation.391 Apart from an

inheritance from father to son, miri lands could not be sold or transferred to

other people. Thus the state tried to prevent the emergence of feudal authorities

based on land.392 Furthermore, apart from miri and wakf lands, the Ottoman

State gave a letter of conveyance to support individual entrepreneurship

in rice cultivation. In this context, İsa Bey who was a frontier lord in Üsküp,

Sokullu Mehmet Pasha and Feridun Ahmet Bey in Bursa were prominent rice

cultivators as statesmen.393

388 Halil İnalcık, “Köy, Köylü ve İmparatorluk,” In V. Milletlerarası Türkiye Sosyal ve İktisat

Tarihi Kongresi Tebliğler, 1-3; Mehmet Genç, “Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Devlet ve Ekonomi,”

In V. Milletlerarası Türkiye Sosyal ve İktisat Tarihi Kongresi Tebliğler, 21.

389 Ibid, 19.

390 Halil İnalcık, “Rice Cultivation and the Çeltikçi Reaya System in Ottoman Empire,” 122-123;

ZekiArıkan, “15 ve 16 yy da Anadolu’da Çeltik Üretimi,” 480.

391 Halil İnalcık, “Rice Cultivation and the Çeltikçi Reaya System in Ottoman Empire,” 80-83.

392 Mehmet Genç, “Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Devlet ve Ekonomi,” 19.

393 Halil İnalcık, “Rice Cultivation and the Çeltikçi Reaya System in Ottoman Empire,” 70-73.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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3. 5 The Consumption and Marketing of Rice in

the Ottoman Period

In the consumption process, due to intensive labor force in rice agriculture

and expenses, paddy prices were high-priced and its consumption was limited.

Paddy consumption began to be widespread in the Ottoman palace and

on special days such as festivals, weddings and Islamic memorial services

from the mid -seventeenth century onwards.394 Paddy was consumed as rice

soup, saffron and rice dessert and also rice pilaf in meals of rich families.395

In addition to the Ottoman Palace, rice had been consumed in the institutions

and almshouses in festivals, Ramadan and weddings. According to H.

Dernschwan who was from the embassy of Austria, Turks consumed rice with

meat. While one kg of Anatolian and Rumelia rice was between 13 and 17

coins, one kg of Egypt rice was 33 coin in the fifteenth century.396 Namely,

the paddy price was higher than that of meat.

Rice was mainly consumed by urban people who had higher economic

income.397 On the other hand, Turks received their carbohydrate requirements

from bulgur in daily meals; paddy consumption was closely related to economic

income level, urbanization and social ceremonies. While paddy consumption

was higher in the meals of urban areas, bulgur was consumed in

rural parts of the Ottoman Empire. However, since the urban population could

not find paddy during the First World War (1914-1918), the consumption of

bulgur increased in İstanbul. Thus the people of İstanbul called bulgur as the

paddy of Enver Pasha.398

394 Feridun Emecen, “Çeltik,” 265; Mehmet Karagöz, “1779 Senesi Rüsum Defterine Göre Bazarcık-

Tatarpazarı’nda Pirinç Üretimi,” 276-280.

395 Suraıya Faroqhi, “İktisat Tarihi (17. ve 18. Yüzyıllar)” 191-215; Mehmet Karagöz, “1779 Senesi

Rüsum Defterine Göre Bazarcık- Tatarpazarı’nda Pirinç Üretimi,”280.

396 Feridun Emecen, “Çeltik,” 265-266.

397 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar, 16.

398 Soner Yalçın, Saklı Seçilmişler, 62.

§

O K A N C E Y L A N

92

Hans Dernschwam who was one of the famous German travelers mentioned

that he saw the rice fields and sesame fields in his İstanbul trip in the

mid- sixteenth century. These two products were taken to Rumelia by

Turks.399 Thrace was the cereal store of İstanbul after the fifteenth century.400

Due to high rice productivity in Rumelia, the Ottoman State had made some

legal arrangements that were called Kanun-ı Çeltükçiyan since II. Murat.401

Evliya Çelebi wrote that since there was a big trade network, the number of

the members of rice artisan was 400 in İstanbul in the mid-seventeenth century.

402 Furthermore, after the loss of a major part of Rumelia in the Ottoman

Russian War in 1878, the Ottoman Empire began to import rice.403 After the

agricultural exhibitions in Paris in 1855 and London in 1862, the third agricultural

exhibition was organized in Sultan Ahmet Exhibition Building in İstanbul

on February 27, 1863.404 In the rice exhibition of İstanbul in 1863, 42

rice varieties were exhibited. Especially Kızılca, Taşköprü and Biga rice were

drawn attention.405

3.6 Rice Cultivation in the Early Republican Period in A

Contradictory Discussion: Rice Cultivation and Malaria

Threat

In the early republican period, the Rice Cultivation Law of 1936 had a negative

effect on rice production. Since rice cultivation was regarded as a source

399 Hans Dernschwam, İstanbul ve Anadolu’ya Seyahat Günlüğü (Mersin: Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı,

1992), 41-42; Zeki Arıkan, “15 ve 16 yy da Anadolu’da Çeltik Üretimi” 477-478.

400 Fernand Braudel, II. Phillip Döneminde Akdeniz ve Akdeniz Dünyası, Translated by Mehmet

Ali Kılıçbay, (İstanbul: Eren,1989), 150; Ömer Lütfi Barkan, XV ve XVI ıncı Asırlarda Osmanlı

Imparatorluğunda Zirai Ekonominin Hukuki ve Mali Esasları, 54.

401 Ahmet Akagündüz, Osmanlı Kanunnameleri ve Hukuki Tahlilleri (İstanbul: Osmanlı Araştırmaları

Vakfı, 2006) 402-406.

402 Zeki Arıkan, “15 ve 16 yy da Anadolu’da Çeltik Üretimi” 478.

403 Feridun Emecen, “Çeltik,” 265-266.

404 Ahmet Özçelik, Tarım Tarihi ve Deontolojisi, 61

405 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar, 12.

§

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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of malaria, it caused a psychological effect on people and the state. However,

big capitals did not comply with the requirements of this law. The rice economy

could not be ruled correctly in Turkey. Therefore, the technical aspect of

rice cultivation, the scientific studies of imported rice seed, and the breeding

of rice varieties complied with the climate conditions of Turkey were not handled

properly. Therefore, the productivity of rice and its consumption were

low but it was imported expensively. Rather than rice cultivation, marsh areas

and waterholes where anopheles lived were the sources of malaria. After the

reclaimation of marsh areas, rice cultivation was a solution to decrease the

rate of saltiness and prevent swamp. To deal with malaria, DDT disinfection,

the use of quinine, and the regulation of rice irrigation were necessary.406

The Ottoman Empire was firstly involved in irrigation works that included

river reclamation and the building of irrigation networks in the last quarter of

the nineteenth century. However, due to the outbreak of the First World War,

these works failed.407 In the republican period, in 1924, Waterworks Organizations

in Turkey was founded.408

After the codes of Rumelia and Çeltikçiyan that regulated labor and production

in the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries, agricultural chambers

were charged with the regulation of rice cultivation in the Code of Rice Cultivation

on May 8, 1910. However, since this code had not regulated the use

of water and the conflicts among farmers, the Rice Cultivation Law of 1936

was enacted.409 Similarly, a code on rice cultivation on May 6, 1928 had

aimed to regulate the division of water and the protection of rice cultivation.

410 Due to the malaria threat, the Ministry of Health put forward at necessary

code that regulated rice cultivation. The malaria threat in rice fields

that had been discussed since the Second Constitutional Monarchy, malaria

was one of the most important reasons in the enactment of this law. Besides,

406 Ibid, 13-15.

407 Ahmet Özçelik, Tarım Tarihi ve Deontolojisi, 56.

408 Ibid, 101.

409 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar, 16.

410 Rahmi Çeltik, "Türkiye'de Pirinç Ziraatı," 26.

O K A N C E Y L A N

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the Rice Cultivation Law of 1936 was taken example from the Rice Cultivation

Law in Italy of 1905. While there was pest control in particular to mosquito

and health control in Italian Rice Cultivation Law, the Rice Cultivation

Law of 1936 focused on the irrigation technics, the role of local administrators

in the regulation of rice cultivation, and the duties of the Ministry of Agriculture

and the Ministry of Health in this process.411

However, intermittent flow irrigation had been implemented until 1943.412

The Code had been accepted as a result of two years of labor. It was enacted

in 1937. Furthermore, the first intermittent flow irrigation method was implemented

in testing fields of the Ministry of Agriculture in Tosya and Maraş in

1937. Although Civani Sanpiyetro determined Tosya as the best area for rice

cultivation, he found the rice productivity inadequate. This resulted from the

drought of Devrez River irrigated rice fields at that time.413

After the research of Sanpiyetro in Anatolia, three Turkish youths who

graduated from university were sent to Vercelli Rice Institute in Italy to research

by the Ministry of Agriculture. Vercelli Rice Institute had done the

technical and scientific research on rice since 1908.414 Harun Aziz Bey was

one of these youths that were charged in the testing fields of Tosya. He did a

field study on rice cultivation in Tosya. Among 44 rice varieties, Italian rice

varieties had the highest productivity. Thus Harun Aziz Bey solved the problems

of lack of rice seed and specialist. Inebolu port was the opening door of

Tosya rice into the world and it was transported by Italian ships that came

from Marseilles.415

Although there were no adequate studies on the breeding of rice varieties

until the 1950s, some studies on rice cultivation had been done in Antalya

Summer Growing Plants Station until 1941.416 This institution focused on rice

411 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar, 16-17.

412 Ibid, 32.

413 Ufuk Tidim, "Tosya Pirinci 1929'da Anadolu'nun En İyisi Seçildi,"

414 Rahmi Çeltik, "Türkiye'de Pirinç Ziraatı," 26.

415 Ufuk Tidim, "Tosya Pirinci 1929'da Anadolu'nun En İyisi Seçildi."

416 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar 30.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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cultivation and the imports of high productive rice varieties from Italy. Karolina

and Blue Rose rice varieties were imported from Australia by this institute.

The quality and the amount of irrigated water in rice cultivation were

determined in the 1930s. The most suitable rice varieties were determined according

to different regions. Agricultural and sanitary measures were determined.

Increasing the rice cultivable lands was tried 417 Besides, some local

rice studies on seed testing were done in Kızılcahamam District of Ankara

and Tosya District of Kastamonu. However, there was a requirement of new

rice seed testing stations in Central Anatolia to test the suitability of local and

foreign rice varieties in the climate conditions of Turkey and distribute them

to peasants.418

However, the sources of malaria were swamp lands and, water holes and

inefficient pest control against anopheles rather than rice cultivation. While

the size of swamp lands was 4920000 decars across Turkey, it was 151000

decars in Diyarbakır, 80,000 decars in Edirne, 15000 decars in Samsun at the

beginning of 1950s. Similarly, while the rice cultivable lands were 1299950

decars, rice cultivated lands were 250000 decars across Turkey at that time.

The rate of rice cultivated lands to rice cultivable lands was 14 percent.419

When the rice cultivable lands and rice cultivated areas are considered in 1950,

17000 out of 226400 decars in Diyarbakır, 20530 out of 185000 decars in

Edirne, and 6780 out of 10,000 decars in Samsun.420

Malaria disease was mainly seen in periods of war, military mobilization

and low agricultural production. This was seen in Italy during the Second

World War. Since the Rice Cultivation Law of 1936 controlled the rice cultivated

lands and its production strictly, it was to the detriment of the national

economy rather than fighting malaria. In this context, area studies about

417 Rahmi Çeltik, “Türkiye’de Pirinç Ziraatı,” 29.

418 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar 30.

419 Ibid., 21-22.

420 T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Zirai Bünye ve İstihsal 1946-1953 (Agricultural

Structures and Production 1946-1953). Ankara: 1954, 70- 134.

O K A N C E Y L A N

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fighting malaria had been done effectively in the periods between 1940 and

1955.421

Citrus trees, cotton, and banana were prominent agricultural products of

Antalya in the beginnings of the 1950s. Since there were anopheles that caused

malaria, rice cultivation had been forbidden in Antalya in 1940. However, with

the collaboration of the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Agriculture,

the field was disinfected with DDT through the machines that had been developed

by Ankara Machinery and Chemical Industry Corporation. Thus, the

farmers of Antalya could have a chance to cultivate rice on condition that they

paid a royalty as three Turkish Liras per decar. Due to deaths related to malaria,

rice had been called the bloody agriculture by the peasants of Antalya

in the 1940s. Therefore, farmers owed their lives and rice productions to DDT

in the 1950s. Antalya had 100000 decars of rice cultivable lands and 40000

tons of potential production. There were 20000 decars of rice cultivated lands

and more than 5000 tons of production.422

3. 7 A Short Story of Rice Cultivation in Three Basins in

the first half of the Twentieth century

Edirne, Samsun, Şanlıurfa, Mardin, and Diyarbakır where this dissertation

focuses on have had rice farming culture for at least five hundred years. Topographically,

while rice has been cultivated in river valleys, plains and river

delta in Edirne and Samsun such as Meriç Plain, Çarşamba and Bafra Deltas,

it has been cultivated in volcanic and stony lands of Karacadağ in Diyarbakır,

Mardin, and Şanlıurfa.

3. 7. 1 The Meriç Basin

Although rice has been cultivated since the fifteenth century in the vicinity of

Edirne, the Ottoman Russian Wars, the changes of political borders and forced

migrations in the nineteenth century led to the loss of hinterlands and changes

421 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişme Değerleri Üzerinde Araştırmalar 18-22.

422 “DDT Antalya'da Pirinç Ekilmesine Yeniden İmkân Verdi” Demokrat Keşan, July 22, 1953.

§

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in the farming culture of Edirne. After the proclamation of the republic, rice

was cultivated in the northern parts of Edirne along the Tunca Rivers. These

areas were closer to Filibe where rice has been cultivated since the fifteenth

century and at least 20 percent of Meriç and Ergene Plain had been marsh

areas until the 1950s. However, apart from the marsh lands in Meriç and

Ergene Plain, some areas were used as tile kiln and also cultivated lands such

as mulberry gardens for silkworm breeding, bean, corn, and sugar beet.

It is quite interesting that the first rice cultivation of Edirne began in the

northern part of Edirne where it is located closely to Filibe by Bekir Kara at

the end of the 1920s. He was a member of the Committee of Union at the

beginnings of the twentieth century. Bekir Kara goes under the name of Kara

Bekir. This fame was given to him by Fuat Balkan who had important duties

against Bulgarian, Greek and Serbian bands in Thrace between 1908 and 1923.

He not only played an important role in defending of Edirne but also contributed

to the agrarian economy of Edirne with rice cultivation.423

According to the declaration of Ahmet Göksoy, Ataturk visited Edirne and

held a meeting in the Turkish Heart in 1930. In this visitation, the peasants of

Kemal Village complained about the marsh areas, land conflicts and mosquitos

resulted from the rice cultivation of Bekir Kara. The next day, with his

committee, Ataturk went to rice fields of Bekir Kara in the plain of the Kemal

Village. Ataturk asked Bekir Kara whether rice was cultivated in elsewhere.

As a response, Bekir Kara said that the İpsala and Enez plains were suitable

for rice cultivation. Ataturk said that he had to cultivate rice in these plains.424

After the proclamation of the Republic, for the first time, Bekir Kara cultivated

rice in Enez in 1934. The water channels of Bekir Kara could be seen

until the 1980s.425 Bekir Kara, Vizeli Hüseyin Bey, Hasan Buğdaycı, Hasan

423 Hilmi Dinçer “Kara Bekir, Önder, September 6, 2017.

424 “Mütehassir Trakya Halkı Çoşkun ve Emsalsiz Tezahuratla Büyük Kurtarıcısını Bağrına

Bastı,” Edirne Postası, December 12, 1930; Hilmi Dinçer," Kara Bekir" Devrim, September

5, 2017.

425 “Çeltik Üretim Projesi İlk Olarak İlimizde Uygulandı,” Vatandaş, January 29, 1979.

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Deniz, Ali Çakırlar, Yusuf Aytin and Mustafa Öden were prominent rice cultivators

in the 1950s and 1960s. They had been cultivating the plains of villages

in Meriç Plain through land tenure or sharecropping.426

3. 7. 2 The Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins

There has been rice cultivation in the vicinity of Samsun since at least the

fifteenth century. Çeltikçi reaya was working in charge of the head of rice in

has lands that belonged to Sultan. In the sixteenth century, the revenues of

rice were sent to Sultan's son in Amasya, however the fiefs and imaret of II.

Beyazıd were sent to Sultan. The rice cultivation in Terme, Ünye and Arım

(the vicinity of Çarşamba and Tekkeköy) was abolished and the çeltikçi reaya

of these districts began to involve in cannabis cultivation. On the Other hand,

the rice cultivation in Samsun, Bafra and Satılmış districts continued.427

Moreover, tobacco was taken by British and Venetian merchants to the

Ottoman State between 1601 and 1605. After the eighty years ban on the cultivation

of tobacco and the use of tobacco products, tobacco cultivation began

in 1687 in Syria and Macedonia428 and in 1788 in Bafra. The Greek and Armenian

peasants of Bafra took a leading part in the spreading of tobacco cultivation

in Samsun. Tobacco cultivation began to spread in Muslim villages in

this period. Bafra tobacco was sent to the markets of İstanbul and abroad by

the ships of British and Austrian merchants in 1835. Since the tobacco trade

boosted the market economy of Bafra and 80 percent of people involved in

tobacco cultivation, Bafra Trade and Industry Chamber was founded in 1903.

Furthermore, to make tobacco transportation easy which was made by camels

and mules, the roads were used that was marshland between Bafra and Samsun

port was mended in the beginnings of the twentieth century.429

426 Hasan Topçu and Mehmet Topçu, tape-recorded interview by the author, Akçadam, Edirne,

Turkey, August 20, 2018.

427 Mehmet Öz, “Tahrir Defterlerine Göre Canik Sancağında Nüfus (1455-1643),” Ondokuz Mayıs

Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, no. 6 (1991): 173-205.

428 Ahmet Özçelik, Tarım Tarihi ve Deontolojisi, 55.

429 Turgut Demir, "Bafra Tütün Tarihi," HyeTert accessed March 06, 2015

https://hyetert.org/2015/03/06/bafra-tutun-tarihi/

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However, tobacco was more suitable for family farms. Based on the soil

structure, the peasants of Samsun cultivated rice, tobacco and vegetable in the

plain. The story of rice cultivation began in the Bafra Plain with the water

melon trade of Yusuf Kiraz in Boyabat District of Sinop. Yusuf Kiraz saw rice

fields and learned information about it. Then he loaded 4 sacks of rice seeds

on two mules and took them from the Boyabat districts of Sinop. He arrived

in Bafra by truck. Kiraz firstly cultivated rice in Karıncak village of Bafra in

1952. Due to the complaints of some peasants regarding the anxiety of malaria

and unauthorized rice cultivation, he was taken into custody. With the help of

the village headman, Yusuf Kiraz got out of prison. After the harvest of rice,

he sold his product in Boyabat. Nowadays, rice is cultivated in 110000 decars

and 90000 tons are produced by 2400 farmer families in 42 villages.430 To

irrigate his rice fields, Yusuf Kiraz purchased moto pumps from Ömer

Sabancı in Adana.431

Boyabat and Tosya were one of the oldest areas in rice cultivation. The

history of rice in Boyabat and Tosya goes back to the fifteenth and the sixteenth

centuries.432 Rice had been cultivated in the areas where the water of

Kızılırmak could arrive in Bafra Plain in the 1950s. Vegetables and rice have

been cultivated in Bafra Plain. However, in the years when Kızılırmak has

been flooded, rice has not been cultivated. However, agricultural lands were

virgin in the 1960s, in addition to draught animals such as horses and oxen,

tractors started being used in rice cultivation. While one- fourth of Bafra Plain

was rice, the rest was corn, wheat, vegetable garden and tobacco. However,

tobacco cultivation was more widespread in mountain villages. Tobacco was

more suitable for small sized family enterprises. On the other hand, rice has

been the most advantageous and profitable crop.433 Apart from rice and tobacco;

wheat, corn, vegetable and hazelnut are other prominent products of

Samsun.434

430 “Protokol Çeltik Ekti,” Milliyet, May 10, 2016.

431 Osman Kiraz, tape-recorded interview by the author, Samsun Turkey August 6, 2018.

432 Murat Tanrıkulu, “Tosya’da Pirinç Üretiminin Dünü, Bugünü ve Geleceği,” Akademik Bakış

Dergisi, no. 71, 2019, 244.

433 Ahmet Aydın, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun Turkey August 6, 2018.

434 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 8.

O K A N C E Y L A N

100

3. 7. 3 The Karacadağ Agriculture Basin

Rice has been cultivated in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin which is situated

in the intersection of provincial borders of Diyarbakır, Şanlıurfa and Mardin

for at least 500 years. It is believed that rice came to this agriculture basin

from the southern regions such as Egypt and Iraq. Rice has been cultivated in

the mountainside of volcanic Karacadağ and irrigated with the melting snow

water. Although other rice varieties cannot grow less than 15 Celsius of irrigated

water, Karacadağ rice varieties most of which are local varieties has

grown at 10 Celsius.435 Therefore, the paddy of Karacadağ draws in much

more water while cooking.436

In the second Constitutional Monarchy period, Pirinççizade Fevzi Bey

was specifying that Diyarbakır had the highest level of rice production with

2700 tons across the Ottoman state.437 Sarı çeltik is called as Karacadağ rice

in Diyarbakır. This rice variety had been cultivated in Maraş and Adıyaman.

In the development of rice cultivation in Karacadağ, Armenian craftsmen

taught this rice farming culture to Turkish and Kurdish peasants in 1915. Pirinççizade

family who are the relatives of Ziya Gökalp were prominent rice

cultivators in Diyarbakır in the beginnings of the twentieth century. Furthermore,

although the family of Cahit Sıtkı is from Pirinççizade family, Bekir

Sıtkı who is the father of Cahit Sıtkı took Tarancı rather than Pirinççioğlu as

surname in Surname Law of 1934 as a reaction to low productivity of rice.

Tarancı means farmer in Uyghur Turkish.438 Besides, Hacı Haşim

Özkahraman and Hacı Ali Demiroğlu have been two prominent rice cultivators

in Diyarbakır since 1948.439

435 Ebru Baybara Demir, "Karacadağ Pirinci."

436 Kardaş Ailesi, tape-recorded interview by author, Yenişehir, Diyarbakır, Turkey August 10,

2018.

437 Chris Graten, "Pilavdan Dönen İmparatorluk: Meclis-i Mebusan'da Sıtma ve Çeltik Tartışmaları,"

103.

438 Mehmet Mercan, “Cahit’in Özlediği Memleket,” Tigris, October 12, 2014.

439 İlhan Avcı, tape-recorded interview by the author, Diyarbakır, Turkey, August 09, 2018.

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3. 7. 4 The Changes of Rice Cultivated land in Three

Basins Between the 1930s and the 2000s

While Southeast Anatolia and Cilician Plain had been more prominent in

rice cultivation until the 1960s, and the 1970s, Edirne, Samsun, and Balıkesir

have been more prominent provinces since the 1960s. Due to drought and water

problems, rice cultivation decreased and cotton and lentil have become

more popular in the agriculture of Southeastern Anatolia. In Cilician Plain,

instead of rice that required intensive labor force and water, peasants were

involved in profit -making products such as cotton, citrus trees, and corn cultivation.

Due to the geographical position, the Mediterranean climate is suitable

for a few crop rotations in a year. However, since there has not been

ground surface tillage in stony lands of Karacadağ, in general rice has been

cultivated in a limited level for centuries. On the other hand, due to the geographical

position, the floods of rivers, salty lands and groundwater tables in

plains in Edirne and Samsun, peasants have demanded rice cultivation. Therefore,

rice cultivated lands have been seen in northern, northwest, and southeastern

regions in Turkey since the 1980s.440

3. 8 Concluding Remarks

All in all, from macro to a micro level, rice is one of the oldest crops that has

directed international trade, political acts of state and societies in the world in

the historical process. Since Silk Road and Spices Roads had a special role in

its spread and introduction, rice cultivation and its consumption were a result

of socio-cultural and socio-economic interactions among different civilizations.

Therefore, its advent to Anatolia is closely related to the geographical

position of Anatolia which is located at the intersection of important trade

roads.

While migrations, wars, expeditions, colonialization, and trade had played

an important role in the spread of rice until the last quarter of the nineteenth

century, the scientific research of agricultural research stations of different

440 Necla Türkoğlu, “Türkiye’de Çeltik Alanlarının Dağılışı,”219.

O K A N C E Y L A N

102

states such as the institutions in the USA and Italy and international institutions

such as the IRRI in the Philippines contributed the improvement of rice

quality for preventing starvation, the development of rice trade and economy

in the twentieth century.

Since rice is a staple food that feeds the societies, states have always

played a central role in rice farming such as in its cultivation, marketing,

prices, trade and breeding. For example, while the rice was cultivated in public

lands under the control of the Sultan in Ottoman to regulate scarce labor

force and to receive rice needs of the Ottoman Palace, it was cultivated with

the permission of the state to prevent potential malaria threats in the republican

period.

Although rice has been cultivated for centuries, its consumption had been

limited with the consumption of richer families, palaces, public institutions

and social organizations such as festivals, carnivals, weddings and religious

ceremonies until the end of the nineteenth century. Rice cultivation began to

be more expensive in the conditions of the post- Second World War, to receive

the food requirement of countries. In this process, after the Marshall Plan, the

reclamation of soils, the scientific research of the IRRI, agricultural mechanization,

the use of fertilization and herbicides increased its cultivable lands

in the process of the Green Revolution. However, rice became a more important

staple food of a growing population after the 1980s under the conditions

of the liberal marketing economy of Neo-liberalism. Rice turned into

daily consumed meals of ordinary people in societies.

Specific to Turkey, rice cultivation areas have changed since the fifteenth

century. This chapter enables us both to evaluate the special places of rice

cultivation in the Meriç, Karacadağ, Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak

Basins in the historical process and understand the advent and the spread of

rice cultivation in the World from broader perspectives.

However, statesmen, sultans and bureaucracy played an important role in

its cultivation and spread in Anatolia and Rumelia. In addition to receiving

food requirements and economic revenues, rice that was a quite delicious and

precious cereal was an indication of socio-economic prestige. Rice farming

requires ingenuity, experience, and background. These three basins have had

rice farming culture for at least six hundred years. However, this study focuses

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103

on the story of rice cultivation in the republican period after the mid- twentieth

century when rice cultivation began to be widespread after the Second

World War. In this context, the role of people, states and institutions were

explained in the historical period. Thus it aimed at being infrastructure of the

next chapters.

104

4

Rice and the State in Turkey

hanks to their distinct characteristics such as intoxication, nutritiousness,

adaptation, and high economic values, foods have a secret power

that creates demand in the agricultural policies of states. Thus, the state takes

part in agrarian economics with its codes, agricultural subsidies, investment

projects, and institutions. Furthermore, although the reasons of state intervention

into the cultivation of various agricultural products such as cereals, medicinal

plants, and cash crop differs, the political agenda of states aims at receiving

the food requirement of increasing population, the protection of

public health, the benefiting ideally from the cultivated lands and the controlling

of food prices.

In this context, due to their nutritiousness and economic values, cereals

such as wheat, rice and corn have had special importance in the agricultural

policies of the state in distinct geographies throughout history. Furthermore,

to understand better the directive role of the secret powers of cereals in the

formation of government policies, this chapter mainly focuses on rice farming

that requires infrastructural investments, the organization of public institutions,

agricultural supports, legal regulations that lay a burden on state and its

producers mutually and scientific research. Therefore, this study claims that

rice is an agency in directing state policies and also quite public and a bureaucratic

commodity that requires the support of the state to generate its genes.

In other words, in the development of rice farming, there has been a mutual

T

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105

interaction between the political acts of the state and the biological and agricultural

properties of rice. In this context, the study aims to deal with the role

of state policies between 1948 and 2018 in the development of rice farming in

three different regions of Turkey such as the Meriç Basin in Edirne, the Lower

Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins in Samsun, and the Karacadağ Agriculture

Basin located in the western part of Diyarbakır, the eastern part of

Şanlıurfa and northwestern part of Mardin.

This chapter is constituted of two parts. The first part includes the role of

the government in the legal basis and the infrastructural investments of rice

farming and also the settlement of rice culture in these basins such as the influence

of the Rice Cultivation Law of 1936, the Land Reform and Irrigation

investments. The second part comprises the agricultural, institutional and economic

infrastructure in the development of rice in three basins such as Agricultural

Research Institute, Turkish Grain Board (TGB), Agricultural Supports,

Cooperatives, and Fertilizer Industry.

Furthermore, in a historical process, while rice cultivation was under state

control in the Ottoman period due to excessive labor force and ingenuity, it

has been controlled in the Republican period due to malaria threat. Similarly,

as Braudel says the increase in the number of rice fields necessitates the increase

of state control in China. Therefore, rice cultivation requires bureaucratic

and political regulations in the presence of the state.441

Agricultural policies of the government aim to improve the socio-economic

welfare of farmers, to increase agricultural production, and to protect

the consumers from excessive price increases.442 Legal, institutional, and social

regulations in the agricultural policies have been seen since the Tanzimat

Reform Era in 1839. Similarly, Abdulhamid II supported the development and

the spread of the agricultural credit cooperatives, the education of farmers,

the reclamation of soil, use of the high fertile seed, agricultural pest control,

and irrigated farming. Furthermore, in the era of the Committee of Union and

441 Fernand Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism 15th and 18th The Structures of Everyday Life,

149.

442 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, Türkiye Pirinç Piyasasının Sorunları ve Çeltik Üretim Potansiyeli, (İstanbul:

İstanbul Ticaret Odası, 2007), 16-17.

O K A N C E Y L A N

106

Progress, the foundation of the Department of Agriculture, the chamber of

Agriculture, and the regulation of agricultural education were present.443

Since 80 percent of the Turkish population lived in rural areas in the early

Republican period, animal production and plant production were the main

economic sectors of Turkey at that time. Furthermore, although the population

rate of urban areas firstly exceeded that of rural areas in the mid-1980s,

the migrants in urban areas continued their socio-economic and socio-cultural

ties with their villages. Moreover, with the production of food, state investments

and the influence of food prices on the increasing inflation, agrarian

politics influences the lives of all citizens nowadays directly. Therefore, by

taking into account the importance of geographical and topographical differences

in three basins, this study also deals with the development of the relations

between government policies and agricultural sectors in rural areas

around rice farming through history from below methods between 1948 and

2018.

4. 1 Legal Regulations: The Role of the Rice Cultivation Law of

1936 in the Rice Farming of Turkey

In the legal and institutional regulations of rice farming in Turkish agriculture,

the period between the Second Constitutional Era in 1908 and the Early Republican

Era (between the 1920s and the 1950s) is quite a remarkable and important

period. The foundation of the Ministry of Agriculture, Agricultural

Research Institutes, Agricultural Combines Administrations, State Hatcheries,

Agricultural Credit Cooperatives, and State Hydraulic Works that contributed

to the development of rice farming could be seen.

The Ottoman government accepted a code that tried to standardize rice

farming country- wide such as the direction of rice fields, measures against

increasing malaria threat, and rice cultivation in 1910. Since this law regarded

rice farming as the source of malaria disease and environmental pollution, it

443 Ahmet Özçelik, Tarım Tarihi ve Deontolojisi, 58.

§

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laid a burden on rice growers to maintain ecological balance.444 According to

the declaration of the Ministry of Health on June 9, 1936, the Rice Cultivation

Law on May 8, 1910, could not prevent the spread of malaria in rice cultivated

regions.445 As a result of the biennial working period,446 the Rice Cultivation

Law and Malaria Defense Organization were enacted in 1936. Also, their enactment

coincided with the ban on rice importation and the increase of rice

production between 1934 and 1936.447

Furthermore, this code brought responsibility to local administrators, rice

cultivators and workers mutually. Similarly, it charges governor in provinces

and district governor in districts as the head of rice commission. Furthermore,

the president of the chamber of agriculture and directors of agriculture and

government doctor, and the rice cultivator who is elected by farmers are

charged as the members of the commission. This commission is obliged to

reply to the letter of application of farmers in two months. Similarly, they

have had the authority on the permission of rice cultivation in specified areas,

determining the distribution and the use of water, the types of irrigation, and

pest control. Rice cultivation commission also roughs out the rice fields.448

There is also a mutemed committee that is composed of local directors to

control the implementation of the code and to deal with water control and the

disagreements among farmers in rural areas. While the travel allowance and

daily wages of the members of the commission in their visiting is determined

by the Ministry of Agriculture, the annual wage of watermen (sucu, cenan,

saka or yamak) are determined by the rice commissions.449 Also, rice commissions

follow cultivation, the irrigation, pesticides, and the fertilization period

of rice fields.450

444 Chris Gratien, “Pilavdan Dönen İmparatorluk: Meclis-i Mebusan’da Sıtma ve Çeltik Tartışmaları,”

100.

445 BCA. Z.V. 22/185-8, (August 19, 1939)

446 Rahmi Çeltik, “Türkiye’de Pirinç Ziraatı,” 27.

447 Mehmet Uygun, “Türkiye’de Çeltik Üretimi ve Tüketimi,” Çiftçi ve Köy Dünyası, no. 260

(2006), 56.

448 “Çeltik Ekim Kanunu,” Resmi Gazete, June 23, 1936.

449 Ibid.

450 Turan Güneş Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 25.

O K A N C E Y L A N

108

In return of these, rice cultivators pay royalty and some amount of price

for consumptive water in rice fields. Rice cultivators specify the region of

their rice fields, their land size, their rice varieties, their water sources and the

distance of their fields from settlements three months before their rice cultivation.

451 However, the amount of royalty is under the initiative of the governor

or district governors.452

4. 1. 2 The Debates of the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of

Agriculture on Rice Farming in the Rice Cultivation Law of 1936

Due to its sanitary problems, economic and nutritious values, rice is a product

that is in the center of conflicts of interest and collaboration not only in socioeconomic

life but also in public institutions. Although distinct public institutions

look out for public welfare, the rice policies of the Ministry of Health

and the Ministry of Agriculture clash with each other.453 While the Ministry

of Agriculture primarily regarded rice cultivation as the contribution to the

national economy, the Ministry of Health principally considered the public

health and the eradication of malaria.454 Due to the malaria threat, rice is regarded

in the intersection between the economic development and public

health of Turkey. Although there were different modes of rice production

around Turkey in the 1950s, the rice codes of developed countries and the use

of modern technics are suggested to be analyzed.455

451 T.C. Tarım Bakanlığı, Çeltik Ekim Kanunu, 1-11; Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 25-

31.

452 Çorum Milletvekili Cahit Angın ve 11 arkadaşının, çeltikçiliği geliştirmek, verimi artırmak

ve maliyeti düşürmek yolunda gerekli tedbirleri saptamak amacıyle bir Meclis Araştırması

açılmasına ilişkin önergesinin görüşülmesi (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, February 9, 1977).

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/TUTANAK/MM__/d04/c023/mm__04023043.pdf

453 Çeltik üretimi ruhsata tabii olduğu için Avrupa Birliği Uyum sürecinde Çiftçi Kayıt Sisteminin

uygulanmaya başlamlmasıyla birlikte çiftçilerimiz bir takım zorluklarla karşı karşıya kalmışlardır.

(TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, June 23, 2005) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanalar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d22/c088/tbmm22088116.pdf

454 BCA B.M.U. M. 26/1108 (March 9, 1953).

455 Behçet Hazar, “Çeltik Ziraatı ve Sivri Sinek,” Çiftçi 10, no: 117-119 (1955), 364.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

109

Such debates have continued since the Ottoman period. Chris Graten separated

them as technocrats and liberals in the Ottoman Parliament in 1910.

While the technocrat politicians most of whom were doctors defended the

implementation of strict regulations in the process of rice production to eradicate

malaria, liberal groups some of whom were rice growers and agricultural

experts emphasized the economic interest of rice growers and economic goals

of the Ottoman State.456

The Rice Cultivation Law that was prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture

and the Ministry of Health with the worry of malaria, ordered the distances

of settlements from the rice fields where intermittent flow irrigation is

implemented. While it was 50 meters from villages and 100 meters from districts,

it was 1000 meters from provinces. However, if there was perennial

irrigation, rice fields were regarded to be 3000 meters of distances from all

settlements457 due to the flight distance of mosquitos.458

Although the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Agriculture agreed

on intermittent irrigation that had no influence on rice fertility and led the

death of larva, the Ministry of Health especially insisted that rice farming had

to be 3000 meters away from settlements. This would cause the decline of rice

production ten times, the increase of expenses for rice importation, and the

disadvantage of the economic development of peasants. On the other hand,

thanks to rice irrigation, the extent of irrigable lands, vineyards, and orchards

and the economic value of fields could be increased.459 However, the Ministry

of Health thought that a 3000-meter distance of rice farming from the settlements

could not be associated with the financial hardships of peasants.460

There were some discussions about the perennial irrigation in 1948 in İpsala

District of Edirne. Thus, eight farmers submitted a petition to Edirne

Governorship about the cultivation of 5900 decars out of 7000 decars of rice

456 Chris Gratien, “Pilavdan Dönen İmparatorluk: Meclis-i Mebusan’da Sıtma ve Çeltik Tartışmaları,”

102.

457 “Çeltik Ekim Kanunu,” Resmi Gazete, June 23, 1936.

458 BCA. S.İ.M.V.184/ 268 -14 (June 18, 1943).

459 BCA. Z.V. 22/185-8, (August 19, 1939).

460 BCA. S.İ.M.V. 184/268-14, (June 18, 1943).

O K A N C E Y L A N

110

according to 20. Article of the Rice Cultivation Law of 1936, although it did

not comply with 19. Article. In the response of Edirne Governorship on May

11, 1948, their application was accepted by the public works engineer and director

of agriculture except for the provincial health director and the president

of malaria control.461 Not only the Ministry of Agriculture but also the scientists

in Agricultural Faculties in Ege and Ankara Universities, such as Mustafa

Uluöz and Turan Güneş thought that the Rice Cultivation Law caused a negative

influence on rice production in Turkey. Since rice cultivation was targeted

as the source of malaria, it created a psychological influence on the state

and people.462

Similar to the rice growers of Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak and Lower

Yeşilırmak, many rice growers in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin regard the

Rice Cultivation Law as an obstacle.463 Therefore, as professional agricultural

engineers, Şerif Kahraman in Diyarbakır and Halil Sürek in Edirne supported

the abolishment of the Rice Cultivation Law. Furthermore, Sürek said that

although there is no rice farming in Ödemiş district of İzmir, there is intensive

mosquito population due to corn farming. Therefore, Sürek and Kahraman

say that the Law causes bureaucratic obstacles for rice farming and there is

no similar law in the world.464 On the other hand, the professional agricultural

engineers Melih Enginsu and Rasim Ünan in Samsun who are against the

limitation of rice farming express that the existing law is better than the alternative

rice legislative proposals. The Law only considers the existence of adequate

water. It does not consider the distance of rice cultivated lands from

461 Edirne Milletvekili Fethi Erimçağ'ın, İpsala İlçesindeki çeltik ekimi hakkındaki sorusuna Tarım

Bakanı Cavid O rai'm sözlü cevabı (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, November 10, 1948).

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanalar/TUTANAK/TBMM/d08/c013/tbmm08013004.pdf

462 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişirme Değerleri Üzerine Araştırmalar, 12; Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi

463 Süleyman Kızılkaya, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz Village of Diyarbakır,

Turkey, August 09, 2018.

464 Şerif Kahraman, tape-recorded interview by the auther author, Yalankoz, Diyarbakır, Turkey,

August 09, 2018; Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey, August

13, 2018.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

111

the settlements in practice. If a new code is prepared, the geographical conditions

and the views of rice growers and specialists have to be evaluated.465

However, almost all rice growers and engineers think the updating and revision

of the Law to comply with the requirements of the contemporary age. In

general, they compared the rice cultivated lands of Turkey with those of Japan

and Italy.466

4.1. 3 The Implementation of License Tax and Sanitary Tax of

the Rice Cultivation Law: the Case of Edirne (the Meriç Basin)

In rice cultivation, the position of water is the main determinant factor. This

might be thought in terms of a flood, drought, and the physical conditions of

rice cultivable lands. On the one hand, due to the lack of adequate water, the

Edirne rice commission did not permit rice cultivation in Tayakadın and

Sazlıdere villages in 1963.467 On the other hand, due to the flood threat, rice

commission in İpsala banned rice cultivation in Fere bridge and Dipçikada

positions where located in dead lands between levee and the Meriç River in

1968.468 Due to the work of State Hydraulic Works (SHW) rice cultivation in

the positions around Kızkapan and Vakıf Lakes was banned by the rice commission

of İpsala in 1970 and 1971.469

Farmers have responsibilities for the building of water channels, the payment

of license tax, and sanitary measure that changes per decar year by

year.470 Besides, the rice commission has demanded the expense of the discharge

channel from farmers based on their extent of rice field.471 In general,

465 Rasim Ünan and Melih Enginsu, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey,

August 06, 2018.

466 Şükrü Derebey and Temel Kaya, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey,

April 30, 2019; Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey, August

13, 2018.

467 “Tayakadın ve Sazlıdere Köylerinde Çeltik Ekilmeyecek,” Vatandaş, March 6, 1963.

468 “İpsala Çeltik Komisyonu Başkanlığından,” İpsala, March 7, 1968.

469 “İpsala Çeltik Komisyonu Başkanlığından,” İpsala, March 2, 1970.

470 Ibid.

471 “İpsala Çeltik Komisyonu Başkanlığından,” İpsala, February, 26 1971.

O K A N C E Y L A N

112

people who have been influential in local politics try to be a farmer member

in these rice commissions.472

However, there is no connection between the distribution of rice cultivated

areas and malaria. Rather than preventing rice cultivation areas, a

planned program for sanitary measures and insect control discard the sources

of malaria disease. Furthermore, the size of rice cultivated areas extended in

the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins and the malaria threat

declined. The size of rice cultivated areas in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin

decreased, however, in the 1950s and the 1960s, malaria epidemics increased.

It resulted from inadequate insect control and malaria epidemics that came

from Syria and Iraq.473

In the case of unlicensed rice cultivation, the first penalty fine has been

imposed. If it is repeated, the water of the rice field is cut. Rice cultivators

have a right to apply for their objection to minor courts.474 However, since the

necessary controls of plains were not made, unlicensed rice cultivation continued,

the discussions and combats among rice growers for the use of water

continued and the Law could not be implemented comprehensively in the

1950s.475 For example, the district governor of İpsala and the head of the rice

commission ignored that one of the prominent rice growers closed the arch of

the big bridge between İpsala and Sarıcaali village and prevented water flow.

Therefore, the peasants of İpsala applied to the Edirne governor. According

to the local press, although the Edirne governor ordered the opening of the

arch of the bridge, the district governors disobeyed the order of Edirne governor

in 1953.476

The other case occurred in Kızkapan Plain where some villages of Keşan

and İpsala are located in 1976. According to a report prepared by the agricultural

officer under the head of district governors, water leakages between

472 “Çeltik Komisyonunun Çeltikçi Üyeliğine Eski AP’li Hamit Uysal Getirildi,” İpsala, March

24, 1971.

473 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 39.

474 “Çeltik Ekim Kanunu,” Resmi Gazete, June 23, 1936.

475 Mehmet Şerif Korkut, Isıtma ve Çeltik, 45.

476 “İpsala Kaymakamı Valinin Emrini Tatbik Etmiyor,” Demokrat Keşan, June 10, 1953.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

113

fields and inadequate water levels in Kadıköy Dam created conflicts among

peasants. First, due to unlicensed rice cultivation in Kızkapan village of

Keşan, the water leakage of rice fields damaged the dry farming products of

adjacent fields such as sun flowers, bean, or wheat. Secondly, the inadequate

water level of Kadıköy Dam caused some debates on rice irrigation between

big landowners and small land owners.477

Since it did not rain and the water level of Kadıköy Dam declined, big

landowners in Yapıldak village kept the water for their own rice. Thus unlicensed

rice fields started to dry. In the end, all of the rice fields dried in

Akhoca and 2000 decars out of 2500 decars of rice in Orhaniye village dried.

Although the rice was cultivated illegally in Kızkapan, 11. Regional Directorate

of SHW charged Mustafa Bezbaş who worked in Keşan District Directorate

of Agriculture and gave an order on July 9, 1976 for the irrigation of

these fields. Due to the criticisms of Keşan Press, the district governor said

that the rice fields in the southern of Karahisar Bridge were unlicensed, but

to relieve the peasants, gendarmerie was charged there to prevent the social

conflicts based on the use of irrigation water. Furthermore, he especially emphasized

that he was not the advocate of the rich.478

In addition to rice commissions and big landowners, those who cultivate

their rice unlicensed also had conflicts with sunflower growers due to the

leakages of water in water channels to sunflower fields.479 İpsala Rice commission

under the head of the district governor decided that rice growers who

cultivated rice in the position between Karahisar Bridge and the Lake of

Akhoca village in Kızkapan Plain levied a fine since they built water channels

that damaged their adjacent fields.480 The state held a mediatory position in

the solution to this debate. Under the decision of the Rice Commissions of

477 “Keşan ve İpsala İlçeleri Arasında Doğan Çeltik Anlaşmazlığı Yerinde İncelendi,” Vatandaş,

June 16, 1976.

478 “Keşan Kızkapan Çeltiklerinin Kurtarılmasına Çalışılıyor,”

Vatandaş, July 15, 1976.

479 “Kaçak Çeltikler Zararlı Oluyor,” Vatandaş, June 4, 1977.

480 “Kızkapan Ovasında Çeltik Ekenler Zarar Verdikleri Köye Para Ödeyecekler,” Vatandaş,

May 12, 1980.

O K A N C E Y L A N

114

İpsala and Keşan, the irrigation would be made under the control of gendarmerie

to prevent the drying of unlicensed rice. This event was also important

in terms of reflecting the manner of bureaucracy in the conflict of economic

interest between landlords and peasants.481 In contrast to Edirne, since the

adjacent fields have been used as a pasture in Diyarbakır, the leakage of water

from the rice fields lead to the growth of herbs at that time. Thus, it is regarded

as pleasing in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin where livestock breeding is

widespread.482

Since there was no sufficient water level in Kadıköy Dam, rice could not

be cultivated in the large parts of Çamlıca plain. Similarly, small family enterprises

in Karahisar, Kızkapan, Orhaniye, Akhoca, Gündüzler and Yapıldak

demanded the irrigation of their rice from Dokuzdereler, Kocadere, Musalı

and Katırcı ponds.483 Those who involved in unlicensed rice cultivation would

pay a penalty of 45 TL (52 USD) to SHW in Meriç, Uzunköprü and İpsala.

Furthermore, those who insisted on repudiating their debt would be sent in

the debt enforcer in 1987.484 Since there was not sufficient amount of water in

Kadıköy Dam and the Meriç River due to lack of rainfall, the rice cultivation

in Kızkapan, Orhaniye and Türkmenli plains were forbidden. Kadıköy Dam

that had 65 million m3 capacities only could irrigate 42000 decars of rice fields

and provide the potable water requirement.485

In contrast to the case in Kızkapan Plain of Edirne, there has not been a

common share of water in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin except for Ergani,

Derik and Çınar in the 1980s. Since every sharecropper has had a rain- fed

pond, bore water and natural fountains for irrigation, the water level of these

481 “Kızkapanı Ovasında Çeltiklere Sıra İle Su Verilecek,” Vatandaş, July 5, 1976.

482 Süleyman Kızılkaya, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz Village of Diyarbakır,

August 09, 2018.

483 “Keşan ve İpsala’da İzinsiz Ekilen ve Kavrulmaya Başlayan Çeltikler Su Bekliyor,” Vatandaş,

June 22, 1984.

484 “DSİ XI Bölge Müdürlüğü’nün Üreticilerden Alacağı Su Parası 450 Milyona Yükseldi, DSİ

bunun Ancak Şimdiye Kadar % 20’sini Tahsil Edebildi,” Vatandaş, July 28, 1987.

485 “DSİ’den Çeltikçilere Alarm,” Vatandaş, May 28, 1988.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

115

ponds determines the extent of rice farming in Karacadağ.486 There have been

some disputes between some rice growers in the villages of Çınar and those

of Derik in Şerifbaba Pond for rice irrigation since 1998.487 However, due to

large rice cultivable lands, there is a demand for water transportation from

Dicle Dam to the rice fields of Karacadağ to increase rice production today.488

Since Kızılırmak, Yeşilırmak, dams and artesian wells have been adequate in

rice irrigation, the rice growers of Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak

could not experience big disputes on the use of water.

The rice cultivation commission has directed the distribution of water and

the determination of rice cultivatable lands. Thus, since there was no adequate

water, 35000 decars of land was left for death in the Meriç Basin in 1973.489

While 89863 decars of lands were cultivated legally, 97021 decars was cultivated

illegally by 919 rice cultivators in Edirne. While 46978 decars of lands

were irrigated from the Meriç River and Kayalı Dam, 50043 decars of lands

were damaged due to drought. Except for private banks, their debts were delayed

in 1990.490 Namely unlicensed rice farming had been a routinized activity

in the Kızkapan Plain of Keşan in the 1970s and 1980s.

486 Süleyman Kızılkaya, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz Village of Diyarbakır,

Turkey, August 09, 2018.

487 Ferat Önal and Mübarek Kavan, tape-recorded interview by the author, Derik, Mardin, Turkey,

June 18, 2019.

488 Şerif Kahraman, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz Village of Diyarbakır, Turkey,

August 09, 2018.

489 Çorum Milletvekili Cahit Angın ve 11 arkadaşının, çeltikçiliği geliştirmek, verimi artırmak

ve maliyeti düşürmek yolunda gerekli tedbirleri saptamak amacıyla bir Meclis Araştırması

açılmasına ilişkin önergesinin görüşülmesi (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, February 9, 1977).

490 Edirne milletvekili Fuat Erçetin’in Edirne, Meriç, tpsala Uzunköprü tlçelerinde ve bağlı köyleri

çeltik ekimi ile uğraşmaktadır. Nehirlerdeki suyun kurumuş olması, bu yöredeki köylerimizi

büyük bir facia ile karşı karşıya getirmiş, tahmini 170 bin dekar çeltik arazisi kurumuştur.

Ayrıca, Enez ilçesine bağlı köylerde yağış düşmemesi nedeni ile kuraklık, netice itibarı ile

tarlalardan ürün almak mümkün olmamıştır. Bu köylerimizdeki, çiftçi açlıkla karşı karşıyadır.

Bu köylerde yaşayan çifçilerin T.C. Ziraat Bankası ve öteki Bankalardaki borçları ertelenecek

midir? Sorusuna Tarım Orman ve Köyişleri Bakanı Lütfullah Kayalar’ın cevabı. (TBMM

Tutanak Dergisi, September 18, 1990) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanalar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d18/c048/tbmm18048008.pdf

O K A N C E Y L A N

116

In addition to the irrigation water problem, within the scope of the EU

harmonization process, farmers had some bureaucratic difficulties with the

advent of the farmer register system during the application to the cultivation

license of rice in the 2000s. Since public lands and the lands given to farmers

within the scope of land reform could not be hired or sold, 200000 out of

650000 decars of rice cultivated lands could be taken into the scope of the

farmer register system. Thus, since these farmers could not get rice cultivation

license, this situation caused a penalty of 5 TL per decar in 2005 in Edirne.

Therefore, the Ministry of Agriculture sent a report to provincial directorates

of agriculture about the licensing for rice cultivation on February 30, 2005. In

this report, it was emphasized that the license had to be regulated according

to title deeds and tenancy agreement.491 Since there is a great number of title

deeds problems in the Bafra Plain, rice growers could not benefit from agricultural

supports. However, they could get a license for rice farming in practice.

492 Despite these bureaucratic procedures at a micro level, rice growers

have continued rice farming. State investments in soil, irrigation water and

seed play an important role in the development of rice farming at a macro

level in three basins.

4. 2 The Role of the Government in the Settlement of Rice

Farming Culture

Before the spread of rice cultivation culture in the Meriç Basin, there were

corn, soy bean, and mulberry gardens for silkworm breeding of many towns

and villages along the Meriç River. However, with the advent of rice cultivation,

farmers neither could cut their mulberry, that was fruit trees according

to 1528 numbered law nor could prevent the negative influence of standing

water. Thus some rice cultivators had difficulty obtaining certificates in the

491 İpsala’daki 200,000 dekar arazinin ÇKS ye henüz dahil edilmemesinden doğan zorluklar hakkında

Edirne Milletvekili Rasim Çakır’ın Tarım ve Köyişleri Bakanı Mehmet Mehdi Eker’e

soru önergesi ve cevabı. (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, June 25, 2005)

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanalar/TUTANAK/TBMM/d22/c088/tbmm22088116.pdf

492 Yahya Temiz, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, August 06, 2018.

§

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

117

1950s and the 1960s.493 Due to sanitary reasons, there had been no permission

for rice cultivation since the 1930s in the villages of central district Edirne.

However, some prominent people and a private agricultural company made

an application in 1952 to cultivate rice in Paşaçayırı, Kemalköy and Hamza

Farms.494 In addition to private entrepreneurship, the medical advances, technological

innovations in agriculture, the infrastructural investments of state

and the organization of farmers in cooperatives forced the government to

amend the Rice Cultivation Law especially about the removal of the limitations

on the extent of rice cultivation. Therefore, the Ministry of Agriculture

demanded a change in the second article of the Law that regulated the rice

cultivation process while preventing the debilitation of rice cultivated soil. It

had necessitated rotation of crops and banned rice cultivation in the same field

in two consecutive years in the 1950s. 495 However, this could not be implemented

by all farmers due to difficulties in pest control until the mid-1960s in

Uzunköprü districts of Edirne,496 in the rice fields of Samsun where other

cereals and vegetable were cultivated and in the rice fields of Karacadağ

which were cultivated septennial without ground surface tillage and used as

pasture lands. However, with the spread of chemical fertilizer, pesticides and

no alternative agricultural products apart from rice in wetlands, rotation of

crop had begun to be regarded as unnecessary. The demand of the Ministry of

Agriculture from the Ministry of Health would be realized in time. 497

Secondly, the accessibility of antimalarial drugs such as Larvicide and

Kuliside led to the spread of rice cultivation. Therefore, the limitations on rice

cultivation were removed in 1951 and 1952.498 Since June 25 was determined

as the final date for rice cultivation, the application for rice cultivation was

493 Edirne Milletvekili Fahir Giritlioğlu'nun, Edirne'nin Meriş ilçesinde çeltik ekimine müsaade

edilmemesi sebebine dair yazılı soru önergesi ve Tarım Bakanı Cavit Oral'ın yazılı cevabı

(7/120) (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, June 11, 1962) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/MM__/d01/c005/mm__01005100.pdf

494 “Edirne’de Çeltik Ekilebilecek,” Edirne Postası, August 06, 1952.

495 BCA Z.V 74-41, 1762, 4/ 5080, (April 25, 1955).

496 Hayati Tuncalı, “Çeltik Ziraatı- Zirai ve İktisadi Önemi,” Pancar, no: 137 (1964): 14.

497 BCA Z.V 74-41, 1762, 4/ 5080.

498 BCA S.S.Y.B. 26/1108 (March 09, 1953).

O K A N C E Y L A N

118

regarded as necessary at least three months before in Turkey. Under the chairmanship

of the minister of Agriculture Nedim Ökmen, a meeting was organized

about the determination of rice cultivated regions countrywide. In this

conference, the Minister of Health, 12 deputies as farmer’s representative and

some bureaucrats of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Health

took part in. These attempts increased rice production during the 1950s.499 On

the other hand, due to the abolishment of import barriers on rice in neoliberal

economic conditions and the lack of enough irrigable water in drought periods

during the 1980s, rice cultivated lands decreased. However, after the partial

solution of the water problem and the use of modern technology rice production

and rice cultivated areas have increased steadily from 1990 onwards.500

Technical inadequacies, environmental pollution, and the lack of clear cut and

programmed state policy in rice agriculture have continued in Turkey since

1948. However, in the spread of rice farming, the government has continued

its support through land reform, irrigational infrastructure such as the building

of ponds, dams, and channels and also seed distribution and debt relief in

some periods when there are natural disasters.

4. 2. 1 The Seed Assistance of Government in Case of Natural

Disasters

In the case of natural disasters and the impossibility of the cultivation of other

products, the Ministry of Agriculture could distribute rice seeds under the law

no 5254 on July 8, 1948 to provide the sustainability of agricultural production.

In this context, since 56 villages of Edirne experienced drought, Agricultural

Bank sent seed to them in 1949.501 Similarly, the Council of Minister

authorized the Ministry of Agriculture to extend the application period of

farmers for rice farming until June 25 in some years.502 Thus with Agricultural

Banks collaboration, the Ministry of Agriculture distributed 200 tons of rice

499 “Çeltik Ekim Sahaları Tespit Edildi,” Samsun Postası, December 28, 1951.

500 Mehmet Uygun, “Türkiye’de Çeltik Üretimi ve Tüketimi,” 56.

501 “Kuraklıktan Zarar Görenlere Yardım Edilecek,” Edirne Postası, August 10, 1949.

502 BCA. B.K.K.T.D. 6/4759 74-16/720, (May 28, 1965).

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

119

seed to farmers in these years.503 By the same token, due to excessive precipitation,

the same case was seen in 2014.504

In contrast to excessive precipitation and the flood in the Meriç Basin,

since drought is one of the biggest threats in the rice farming of the Karacadağ

Agriculture Basin, the government sent cereal seeds such as wheat, rice and

barley some years.505 Furthermore, the cultivable lands between Ergani and

Diyarbakır could not be cultivated due to the lack of mechanization and seed

supply in the 1960s.506 Thus, Agricultural Equipment Institution that had been

responsible for the supplement of agricultural inputs such as seed, machines,

pesticides and fertilizer distributed 1185 tons more qualified rice seed imported

from Italy to rice cultivated areas.507

4. 2. 2 The Contribution of Land Reform to Rice Farming

At a macro level, to get the political support of peasants, Prime Minister Demirel

demanded the determination of public lands and landless peasants

around Turkey in 1967. While there were 501,000 landless families in 1952,

there were 308,899 landless families, most of whom lived in internal, eastern

and southeastern Anatolia in 1968. Thus, the distribution of 700000 hectares

of public lands had been decided to be distributed until 1969.508

Land Reform first began to be implemented by a commission that was

assigned by the Ministry of Agriculture in Sırpsındığı (Sarayakpınar) Village

of Edirne in April 1948 and completed it in Köşen and İskender Village of

Edirne in June 1949. Although the process of expropriation and land distribution

were estimated as two months, it continued for more than one year.509The

Minister of Agriculture Cavit Oral thought that the integration of peasants into

503 BCA. Z.V. 01-186- 31- 11 (January 23, 1963).

504 “Çeltik Ekim Müracaatları 25 Hazirana Uzatıldı,” Adalet, June 5, 2014.

505 “Urfa Kuraklığı ve Ekincilere Yapılacak Yardım,” Yenilik, June 21, 1947.

506 “Ziraatımızın Gelişmesinde Ciddi Çalışmak Gereklidir,” Diyarbakır, June 3, 1963.

507 “ZDK 1185 Ton Çeltik Tohumluğu Dağıtıyor,” Yeni Zaman, April 30, 1974.

508 “Yurdumuzda Toprak Tevzi,” Edirne Sesi, September 16, 1967.

509 “Toprak Kanunu Tatbikatı,” Edirne Postası, April 22, 1948; “Toprak Kanunu Tatbik Ediliyor,”

Edirne Postası, May 12, 1948; “Toprak Dağıtımı,” Edirne Postası, June 29, 1949.

O K A N C E Y L A N

120

the production process through land reform and providing credit opportunities

were quite necessary.510 15 numbered Land commission distributed 33630

decars of lands to 1838 families in 45 villages and distributed 48163 decars of

meadow in 16 villages in Edirne.511 Çöpköy sub-district of Uzunköprü had a

crowded population and limited cultivated lands. Therefore, 3000 decars of

lands were distributed as 28 decars per household in Çöpköy. However, although

the wives of 10 household heads who worked in rice fields of Karacabey

in Bursa applied to land commission, their petitions were not accepted.

Thus, rice workers came to Çöpköy and applied to the Prime Ministry in

1953.512 The cadastral survey continued in the villages of Keşan and İpsala

such as Karpuzlu, Orhaniye and Koyuntepe in the 1960s.513

Edirne Board of Settling and 15 numbered Land Distribution Commission

distributed some public lands between 10-33 decars to 93 landless peasant

households.514 Similarly, land commission let 20495 decars of public lands

out in Paşaköy, Olacak, Türkmen, Yolageldi, Uzgaç, Demirhanlı and Karpuzlu.

Furthermore, 3672 decars of public lands in Paşaköy, and Karpuzlu villages

of İpsala was irrigated land for rice cultivation. Their hire purchase was

between 75 and 100 TL per each decar.515

However, since İpsala Plain have had large rice cultivable wakf lands, the

Regional Directorate of Foundation let them out to farmers. However, there

was a conflict of interest between small and big landowners on the hiring of

the foundation lands. While rich merchants hired 2 TL per decar, small landholders

hired 30 or 40 TL per decar in Karpuzlu village of İpsala and

Adasaranlı village of Meriç district in Edirne in the 1960s and the 1970s when

the rice farming began to be more widespread, popular and profitable.516

510 “Tarım Bakanının Trakya Gezileri,” Edirne Postası, August 20, 1948.

511 “Toprak Dağıtımı,” Edirne Postası, December 13, 1952.

512 “Toprak Dağılımı,” Edirne Postası, December 21, 1953.

513 “Keşan ve İpsala’da Arazi Kadastro Çalışmaları,” Vatandaş, June 7, 1963

514 “Akhoca Köyünde Toprak Dağıtıldı,” Vatandaş, June 11, 1976.

515 “15 Nolu Toprak Komisyonunun 1976 Programı Belli Oldu,” Vatandaş, June 25, 1976.

516 “Köylünün Davaları Öne Alınmalıdır,” Vatandaş, July 29, 1964.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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Similarly, since 32000 decars of wakf lands in Yeni Karpuzlu, Paşaköy

and Esetce villages of İpsala were put out to tender to be cultivated rice by

big landowners, the people of these villages who had cultivated rice these

lands before, prepared to submit a common petition to the government. They

demanded the distribution of these lands to landless peasants.517 15000 decars

of land conflict in Karpuzlu village that was the burning issue in the Land

Registration Court goes back to the Ottoman Period. The people of Karpuzlu

claimed that these lands belonged to the Ottoman state therefore they had to

be distributed to peasants. Village headman Basri Atalay said that although

this fact was known, these lands were cultivated rice by some prominent rice

growers. Although the peasants applied to the court, the opponents appealed

against this situation. Uysallı Case had continued for six years.518 Even worse,

since the controls of public lands use could not be made by fiscal directorate

which was not financed by the Ministry of Finance, these lands were trifled

away by a couple of big landowners.519 Therefore, land reform was not limited

to land distribution; it was thought to be supported by the regulation of

sharecropping, the increase of agricultural production and the mechanization

of agriculture.520

Furthermore, 2137 decars of lands as a result of the drainage of Kızkapan

Lake in Keşan Plain were distributed to 193 landless farmers in four villages.

42 farmers got 500 decars in Çelebi, 85 farmers got 860 decars in Akhoca, 23

farmers got 307 decars in Orhaniye, and 42 farmers got 420 decars in Barağı

villages. Under the head of Fiscal director of a district Hilmi Tanır, agricultural

specialist Ergün Gürbüz and settlement director Kenan Erk took part in

land distribution in 1965.521 Furthermore, the Ministry of Finance issued

eleven circular letters about land distribution in 1968.522 The distribution of

517 “İpsala’da 32,000 Dönümlük Vakıf Arazisi İcara Verilecek,” Vatandaş, February 24, 1979.

518 “Karpuzlu’daki Arazi Sorunu 6 yıldır çözülemedi,” Vatandaş, March 15, 1984.

519 “Maliye Bakanlığı Cevap Versin,” İpsala, October 31, 1975.

520 “Toprak Reformu Esasları Tespit Edildi,” Vatandaş, January 24, 1964.

521 “Kızkapan Gölünden Kazanılan 2137 dekar Arazi Dağıtıldı,” Edirne Sesi, December 5, 1965.

522 “Topraksız Vatandaşlara Dağıtılacak Topraklar İçin Kaymakamımız Orhan Haraççı Başkanlığındaki

Komisyon Aralıksız Çalışıyor,” İpsala, March 7, 1968.

O K A N C E Y L A N

122

public lands solved social conflicts between Karpuzlu and Sarıcali villages.523

Most of these lands would be used in rice farming.

On the other hand, since the southeastern Anatolia was ignored, there was

no adequate infrastructural investment and cadastral survey in agricultural

lands.524 Southeastern Anatolia is the region with the most inequitable land

distribution in Turkey. Thus, there are big landowners in the region. Furthermore,

since many peasants have not had agricultural equipment or organization,

large parts of their rice fields have been cultivated by share croppers.

Land reform had begun to be implemented again in the 1970s. Therefore,

Viranşehir and Akçakale districts of Şanlıurfa were determined as pilot areas.

Public lands were decided to be distributed to farmers.525 It was expected to

be completed in 122 villages of Akçakale on June 1, 1975. Also, the building

of sixty fertilizer stores and 333 km road, irrigation infrastructure, and electrification

were considered.526 According to under secretariat of the Land Reform,

for the successful implementation of land reform in Şanlıurfa, the government

paid almost one milliard TL. For example, 630 million total subsidies

were thought for the surveying projects of investments, 200 million TL would

be distributed as a credit to peasants and 90 million would be paid to the farmers

whose lands were publicized.527

When it comes to Samsun, there has not been big landownership due to

topographical, geographical and socio-economic reasons. Some of the population

of this region settled there through migrations from Balkans, Crimean

and Caucasia. The title deed problems have not been solved in Çarşamba and

Bafra Plains in Samsun. However, the government proposal for land reform

was criticized in Ankara University Faculty of Language and History, Geog-

523 “Sarıcaali ve Karpuzlu Köylerindeki Vatandaşlara Toprak Verildi, “İpsala, March 18, 1968.

524 M. Kemal Özer, “Köy Kalkınması,” Vatandaş, June 12, 1963.

525 “Toprak Reformunun İlk Hedefi Hazine Topraklarını Kiraya Vermek,” Bizim Karakoyun, April

27, 1974.

526 “Toprak ve Tarım Reformu Eylülde Başlıyor,” Yeni Zaman, September 1, 1974.

527527 “Urfa’da Reform İçin 1 Milyar TL Ayrıldı,” Yeni Zaman, April 15, 1974.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

123

raphy by Behram Öcal who was the head of the chamber of Agricultural Engineers.

He claimed that the state could not expropriate and big landowners

extended their lands.528

4. 2. 3 The Irrigation Infrastructure Investments of Rice Farming

in Three Basins

The General Directorate for State Hydraulic Works (GDSHW) was founded

in 1954. However, the legislation of Rice Cultivation Law of 1936, the foundation

of Water Works Chairship of 1929, The Protection Law from Flood of

1943, and the Drain Swamp Land Reclamation Law of 1950 were related to

the Establishment Law of GDSHW of 1954. GDSHW has been responsible

for the administration and development of all water sources in Turkey such

as the building of big dams, village ponds, and water channels that are required

for irrigation infrastructure and rice cultivation. GDSHW has 26 regional

directorates in certain provinces of Turkey. For example, there are regional

directorates of SHW in Edirne, Samsun, Şanlıurfa and Diyarbakır

provinces.529

Historically, Thrace Chief Engineering of SHW was founded in İpsala

with the suggestion of American experts in 1943. This chief engineering was

organized under the direction of the First Regional Directorate of SHW in

Bursa in 1955. However, with the foundation of 11 Regional Directorate of

SHW in Edirne in June 1960, this institution became responsible for the administration

of the water sources of Thrace such as Edirne, Kırklareli and

Tekirdağ.530

However, before the institutionalization of 11 Regional Directorates of

SHW in Edirne in 1960, the issue of preventing the floods of Meriç and more

productive use of Meriç Plain had been one of the prominently negotiated

528 “Ziraatçılar Toprak Reformu Tasarısını Tenkit Ettiler,” Vatandaş, February 18, 1965.

529 Devlet Su İşleri Genel Müdürlüğü (DSİ) aceesed May 18, 2019, http://www.dsi.gov.tr/kurumsal-

yapi/bolgelerimiz

530 Ibid.

O K A N C E Y L A N

124

subjects between Turkey and Greece since the 1930s.531 Therefore, there was

the Meriç Water Works Department that built some levee in İpsala and

Bosnaköy of Edirne along the Meriç River. However, it was closed in 1948.532

Thus the reclamation of Meriç was aimed to be completed more quickly in

the 1950s and the 1960s.533

Second, although 7 Regional Directorate of SHW was founded in Samsun

in 1954, this institution had been one of the five field services of Water Works

Chairship in 1929. It is responsible for the administration of the water sources

of Samsun, Sinop, Amasya, Ordu, and Tokat. Third, 10 Regional Directorate

of SHW was founded in Diyarbakır in 1954 and it is responsible for the administration

of the water sources of Diyarbakır, Siirt, Şırnak and Batman. Finally,

15 Regional Directorate of SHW was founded in Şanlıurfa in 1976 and

it is responsible for the administration of the water sources of Şanlıurfa and

Mardin.534

4. 2. 4 The Reclamation of the Meriç River and Plain

After the Marshall Plan, as a result of the meetings held in İstanbul on July

20, 1950, Turkey and Greece demanded Marshall Technical Assistance. Turkey

assigned Nahit Alper and Greece assigned Costas Caranicas to financial

affairs consultancy in Washington for this project in 1951. They did research

on flood protection, the potential of hydroelectric energy production, the potential

of agricultural production, and estimated economic income in the future.

Their work plan that consisted of the report, the ultimate project, and

conditions of contracts were thought to be completed in six months.535

Furthermore, a meeting was held in Athens about the reclamation of the

Meriç River between May 12 and 16, 1952. As a result of the mutual covenant,

531 BCA H.V. 030-18- 01-02/ 18-17-8, 31 (March 11, 1931).

532 “Meriç Su İşlerinin Lağvı,” Edirne Postası, August 25, 1948.

533 “Şimdiye Kadar DSİ Bölgesine Bağlı Bulunan Trakya Mıntıkası Merkezi Edirne Olmak

Üzere Ayrı Bir Müdürlük Haline Geliyor,” Trakya, May 12, 1960.

534 Devlet Su İşleri Genel Müdürlüğü (DSİ).

535 “Trakya’da Meriç Nehri Mecrası Marshall Yardımı ile Tanzim Edilecek,” Edirne Postası,

October 3, 1951.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

125

it was decided that the American Harza Company would fulfill this project.

For the reclamation of the Meriç River, the council of minister let the delivery

and the exportation of the plan, maps and photomosaic of the Meriç and

Ergene Rivers that were regarded as necessary for the USA by the Ministry

of Public Works on May 6, 1952. With the influence of the Ministry of Foreign

Affairs, Selahi Demirbilek who was one of the certified engineers of the Ministry

of Public Works was appointed to Meriç– Evros Permanent Committee.

This committee conducted the reclamation project of the Meriç River and determined

the common borders between Turkey and Greece. Turkey, Greece,

and the USA took part in the process of deciding on this project. Thus, the

American Economic Cooperation Administration sent 160,000 Dollars as a

free grant to governments and Harza Firms in Chicago conducted this project.

536

Since the Meriç River shaped the political borders between Turkey and

Greece, the Ministry of Public Works wrote an official letter that specified the

official permission of the Ministry of Domestic Affairs and the Ministry of

National Defense for 11 foreign specialists who examined geological, agricultural

and hydrologic surveying in the second forbidden zone in Edirne for the

reclamation project of Martisa River on May 15, 1952 and accepted by the

council of the minister on May 20, 1952. The specialists who participated in

this project were C. Kett Willen, Richard D. Harza, Ulfford Willia, Driving

Joseph, Lev Boggis, Roger Anderson, Paul Jacopson, H. R. Me Brney, George

T. Blane, Kenneth E. Sorensen, and Nile Z. Dimitriyadis.537

However, due to the floods of the Meriç River, the exchange of Turkish

and Greek borders became a current issue. Therefore, a map was prepared and

a protocol was organized in Edirne. The head of Turkish committee was Cani

Günver, agricultural engineer Süleyman Gül, architecture Arif Onat, squadron

leader Sabri Ozan, chief of police Enver Yanıker, and lieutenant colonel

Hüseyin Akalın. In the Greek committee, the head of the committee was Vani

536 BCA DİB. M.E. İ.D.U.M. 22 55 17076 21 79, (December 1, 1951).

537 BCA B.M.U. M, 030 18 01 129 42 13, (May 20, 1952).

O K A N C E Y L A N

126

Yenimates, Colonel Vasil Georkilokoz, lieutenant colonel Yordan Dimitriyatis,

engineer Histos Popotomis, agricultural engineer Kostas Sinopulos in

1959.538

There was no dispute and they had a common sensibility for the areas

between Kapıkule and the south of Adasarhanlı Village. To protect Edirne

from floods, Greece would build a levee 500 meters behind the Meriç River.

Turkey demanded the reclamation of the Ergene River to complete the Meriç

Project. Thus Harza Company had focused on this project until September

1952. After the building of levee and bridges, the borders would be discussed

between Turkish and Greek governments. 22,440,000 Dollar subsidy of this

project would be received from the foreign financial aid of Marshall. While

12,730,000 of the sum of money were received by Turkey, 9,710,000 Dollar

was received by Greece. In addition to the building of roads, bridges, and

levees, the wetlands of Meriç Plain would be drained.539 For the building of

levees, construction materials, and the service charge, there were some technical

problems in the collaborations with Greece. For example, 70 million

instead of 27 million caused the dissolutions of the reclamation of the Meriç

River at the end of the 1950s.540

The cleaning of Meriç would begin in Enez in 1955 and expected to continue

six years.541 A month later, Turkey and Greece signed a treaty for the

reclamation of Meriç for the amount of 90,000,000 TL. According to common

expressions of the Public Work Ministers of two countries, the reclamation of

Meriç would protect Meriç Plain and settlements from floods and wetlands,

open newly cultivated lands, and develop irrigation facilities. It also required

the opening of three river beds in the Meriç River.542

Furthermore, the Turkish and Greek governments would spend 70 percent

of Marshall Aid to local expenses. Both of them would assure the necessary

538 “Meriç Nehrinin Taşkınlıkları ve Mecra Değişikliği Sebebiyle Yunanistan Sınırında Düzeltmeler

Yapılıyor,” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, July 9, 1959.

539 BCA S.İ.R. 030 01 61 375 3, (July 6, 1952).

540 “Meriç ve Kollarının Islahı,” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, January 6, 1960.

541 “Tunca Meriç Nehirleri Temizleniyor,” Demokrat Keşan, January 29, 1955.

542 “Meriç Nehri Islah Ediliyor,” Demokrat Keşan, February 25, 1955.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

127

amount of subsidy from their counter party fund. The control of the flood was

required to prevent fertile soil and agricultural product loss. Thus 82000 hectares’

lands in total between two states could be won. While 32000-hectare

soil was won and 16400 hectares could be improved in terms of agricultural

production, 18000 hectares where had been not cultivated could be turned into

cultivable lands thanks to irrigation in 1951.543

For the Meriç River reclamation, a commission came to Edirne to discover

more about lands’ geography. They said that they could complete their

project in two years at most. In the project, both floods and droughts could be

prevented through the building of water channels.544 In the same way through

shaft sinking in various parts of the Meriç River, 300,000,000 m3 water could

be kept and thousands of decars of lands could be irrigated. For the protection

of 81000 hectares’ land, the land leveling of 200 km2 lands were needed.

Therefore, 12 million dollars’ investment was required. However, for the determination

of required buildings, the Turkish and Greek commission needed

20 million dollars in 1953.545

The building of levee along two banks of Meriç River and the building of

Ferre Thirian water tank would be begun in April 1960.546 The reclamation of

İpsala Plain as a part of the Meriç Plain was begun in 1961. The SHW İpsala

branch office under the head of Selahattin Ayçelik struggled to dry the wetlands

in the plain.547 However, due to contradictive political issues, the reclamation

of the Meriç River that determines the borders between Turkey and

Greece had not been handled until 1962.548 Therefore, a committee under the

presidency of vice general director of the SHW Arif Onat would represent the

Turkish government in the negotiations with Greece to solve the issues on

January 8, 1962. They had difficulty in dealing with the exchange of terrain.

543 “Trakya’da Meriç Nehri Mecrası Marshall Yardımı ile Tanzim Edilecek,” Edirne Postası,

October 3, 1951.

544 “Meriç Mecrasının Islahına Doğru,” Edirne Postası, June 13, 1953.

545 “Meriç Nehri’nin Temizlenme İşi,” Edirne Postası, June 24, 1953.

546 “Meriç,” Trakya, March 19. 1960.

547 “Selahattin Ayçelik Edirne’ye Tayin Edildi,” İpsala, October 27, 1969.

548 BCA B.K.K.T.D. 030 18 01 168 1 3, (January 7, 1963).

O K A N C E Y L A N

128

Therefore, apart from this, the Turkish Council of Minister authorized the

Ministry of Foreign Affairs to put technical provisions into force with the exchange

of notes.549 The sowing of poplar trees was decided along the Meriç

River to protect fertile lands in 1974.550 The Meriç River flows into the Aegean

Sea both emptied 10 decars of lands into the sea and exchange its riverbed

every ten years. Therefore, Turkey lost 500 decars its land to Greece in

the last 5 years.551

However, since Greece spent their budget of the Marshall, the reclamation

of the Meriç River with Turkish and Greece collaboration could not be

begun in May 1954.552 For the building of the water channel in İpsala, each

decar of lands were expropriated between 200 and 250 TL in 1959.553 Since

Greeks closed one reaches of Meriç that separated into two in Çatal position,

İpsala Plain submerged and rice fields were damaged.554 Turkish bureaucrats

went to Athens for making some negotiations with the Greek government that

caused the floods in İpsala Plain as a result of the demolition of levees in

1960.555

The people of Kadıdondurma village suffered from the fact that the SHW

did not pay expropriation due to the building of levee in 1964.556 Although the

soils of Subaşı and Küplü were not expropriated, the SHW was uncontrolled.

Also the problems of people were not solved in Edirne governorships in

1964.557The building of reclamation levees between Edirne and Enez along

150 kilometers was decided in 1956. Thus, the floods in the Meriç River could

be prevented and the plain could be irrigated regularly. Juristically Council of

Minister enacted 6862 numbered law was ambiguous which authorized about

549 BCA B.K.K.T.D, 030 18 01 119 19 14, (April 5, 1963).

550 “Orman Bölge Şefliğince Meriç Nehri’nin Kapıkule’den İpsala’ya Kadar Olan Bölüm Ağaçlandırılacak,”

Vatandaş, January 29, 1974.

551 “Meriç Nehri Sürekli Yatağını Değiştiriyor,” Vatandaş, June 30, 1976.

552 “Su Taşmasıyla Her Yıl Zarar Açan Meriç Nehri Mecrasının Temizlenme İşi Ne Olacak,”

Edirne Postası, May 17, 1954.

553 “İlan,” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, June 25, 1959.

554 “İpsala Ovasında Yunanlıların Sebep Olduğu Su Baskını,” Bizim Köy, October 1, 1960.

555 “Yunanistan’a Bir Heyet Gönderiyoruz,” Bizim Köy, October 12, 1960.

556 “DSİ Bu Paraları Neden Ödemez,” Vatandaş, September 11, 1964.

557 “Meriç’te DSİ’nin Yersiz Müdahaleleri Vatandaşı Üzüyor,” Vatandaş, October 18, 1964.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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the changes of political borders between Turkey and Greece. The tender of

this project was gotten by Harza Firm. Within the scope of this project, the

flow direction of Meriç that determined Turkey and Greek borders would

change. It would flow straight. This means the interchange of some lands between

the two countries. Therefore, in 8 eight years, while Greece would give

Turkey 8000 decars of Kavakkoru and 1600 decars of the Gavurada positions

near Enez, Turkey would give Çatal, Dikili and 1600 decars of the Sarıcaali

positions near İpsala. However, when the soil quality is considered, the

Sarıcali plain was one of the most fertile lands of Edirne on the contrary, Gavurada

position was a salty and arid land. Similarly, Çatal and Dikili position

were obtained with the drainage of wetland where only rice had been cultivated

for ten years. Furthermore, Kavaklıkoru was stony land. Arif Hikmet

Onat who was the minister of public work said the differences were regulated

by the bureaucrats of the Ministry of Agriculture.558

A meeting was held in Dedeağaç to discuss the building of levees. When

the levees of the two countries were not built regularly, the other side may

have been exposed to floods. However, Greeks demanded the demolition of

levee around the Telemeni and Adaağzı.559 The levee of Turkey damaged the

plains of Greece along the Meriç River. Since the Greek economy could not

deal with their building, Greece took a loan from the USA and Germany.560

Within the scope of bank and drainage, 992638 m3 filled land and 267846m3

the cleaning of drainage channel and stream bed were built between 2006 and

2008. The flood influenced rice fields negatively the plains around the rivers

of Tunca, Meriç and Ergene.561

558 Edirne Milletvekili Fahir Giritlioğlu'nun, Meriç nehri üzerinde yapılmakta olan seciler sebebiyle

Yunanlılarla mübadele edilen Türk topraklarına dair Dışişleri Bakanından soru önergesi

ve Bayındırlık Bakanı Arif Hikmet Onat'ın sözlü cevabı (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, January

08, 1964) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/MM__/d01/c024/mm__01024028.pdf

559 “Yunanistan Meriç’le İlgili Teklifimizi Kabul Etmedi,” Edirne Sesi, October 15, 1965.

560 “Yunanlılar Meriç Boyuna Mahmuzlar Yapacak,” Edirne Sesi, November 8, 1965.

561 Edirne Milletvekili Cemaleddin Uslu 'nun, Edirneli çiftçilerin bazı sorunlarına ilişkin sorusu

ve Çevre ve Orman Bakanı Veysel Eroğlu 'nun cevabı (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, December

O K A N C E Y L A N

130

The illegal build of levees by Greece along the bank of the Meriç River

in Küplü, Kadıdondurma and Adasarhanlı created potential flood risk. 562

Similarly the cutwaters of Greece in the Kofçalı region caused the loss of

Turkish soils and inadequate water for rice growers in 1974.563 Besides, by

virtue of continuing rainfall for two weeks, 25000 decars of rice and 10000

decars of sunflower field were damaged from the flood in Edirne. Thus, farmers

demanded a new credit facility and moratorium.564 To prevent soil erosion,

the building of cutwater continued in 1986.

For centuries, Edirne has experienced flood disasters due to precipitation

regime, the unsuccessful attempts of the reclamation of the Meriç River and

Meriç Plain. Furthermore, the floods in Edirne have been closely related to

the infrastructural investment in Greece and Bulgaria. Every winter the floods

in Edirne results from the opening of dam shutters in Bulgaria. Thus peasants

cannot cultivate their fields except for summer growing plants such as rice,

corn, sun flowers, bean and some vegetables in the Meriç Plain. Furthermore,

with the decline of water level in the Meriç River, news about the building of

a dam on Meriç in Bulgaria was made a current issue in the Turkish Grand

National Assembly in the 1980s and 1990s. If it was realized, the reclamation

of the Meriç Plain could have contributed to agricultural product ranges due

to irrigation infrastructure, the prevention of floods and the solution to the

16, 2008), https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d23/c034/tbmm23034028.pdf

562 Edirne Milletvekili Fahir Gtiritlioğlu'nun, Meriç nehri sahillerinde Yunanlılar tarafından yapılan

sedlerin su basmasına sebeholup olmıyacağına dair sorusuna Bayındırlık Bakanı Emin

Paksüt'ün yazılı cevabı (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, February 22, 1962),

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/TUTANAK/MM__/d01/c003/mm__01003053.pdf

563 “Yunanlılar Meriç Nehri’nin Akıntısını Kendi Taraflarına Çekiyorlar,” Vatandaş, February

27, 1974.

564 Edirne Milletvekili Mustafa İlimen'in, Edirne İlinde aşırı yağışların neden olduğu ürün kayıpları

ve çeltik üreticilerinin sorunları ile alınması gerekli önlemlere ilişkin gündemdışı konuşması

ve Turizm Bakanı İbrahim Gürdal'ın cevabı (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, November 5,

1998) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/TUTANAK/TBMM/d20/c065/tbmm20065015.pdf

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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water problem of rice. The conflict of interest on soil quality and other political

issues such as 6-7 September Events in 1955, Cyprus Issue, Aegean Islands

and the continental shelf have made the negotiation between Turkey and

Greece difficult since the mid-1950s.

Edirne has 6275950 decars square measure. 3802620 decars are cultivated

land, 1043280 decars are forest, and 81270 decars are meadow.565 Although the

reclamation of the Meriç Project could not be completed, SHW was founded

in 1960 in Edirne, built 110 km levee along Ergene and Meriç. Thus 250000

decars of lands were saved from floods and prevented coastal erosion in the

Meriç River.566 The building of levees was negotiated in 1935 and discussed

and projected in the 1950s.567 However, the building of the levees along Meriç

had begun in 1964 by 11. Regional Directorate of SHW and reached to 150 km

in 1984. According to the project of SHW, their building would be completed

until 1988. The total prices of this project were 1,143,000,000 TL.568 Similarly,

there were irrigation, protection from floods, mending in its 512,000,000 TL

investment program.569 The building of these levees along Meriç was completed

in 2000.570

4. 2. 5 The Building of Dams, Village Ponds and Water Channels

for Rice Farming

Thanks to the 5, 5 milliards of TL investments, 250000 hectares’ land had

been irrigated, 400000 hectares of lands had been protected from floods, and

the potable water need of 2425 villages had been solved until 1964 in Turkey.

571 The water channel projects of this institution in plains contribute to

565 Arif Semerci, “Trakya’da Tarımsal Yapı, Verimlilik ve Gelişmişlik Düzeyi,” Tarım ve Mühendislik,

no. 76-77 (2006): 64.

566 “DSİ’nin Bu Yıl 512 Milyon Liralık Yatırımı,” Edirne, October 21, 1986.

567 “Seddeler Olmasaydı Edirne’nin Hali Ne Olurdu,” Vatandaş, July 20, 1995.

568 “Meriç Nehri Kenarında Bu Yıl 17 km Daha Set Yapılacak,” Vatandaş, January 17, 1984.

569 “DSİ’nin Bu Yıl 512 Milyon Liralık Yatırımı, “Edirne, October 21, 1988.

570 “Baraj ve Göletler Sulama Kooperatiflerine Devredildi,” Önder, January 7, 2000.

571 “DSİ 1964 Yılında 1963’e Oranla % 46 Daha Fazla Yatırım Yapacak,” Vatandaş, December

17, 1963.

O K A N C E Y L A N

132

the increase of rice cultivation areas. However, in contrast to these irrigation

projects, the rate of rice cultivated lands to irrigable lands was about 14 percent

in the 1960s country wide. Therefore, to benefit from the irrigation project

of the GDSHW, to enlarge rice cultivated areas, irrigation cooperatives

and irrigation unions played an important role. 572 The GDSHW opened 14

percent of the cultivation areas to irrigation between 1955 and 1965.573

30262370 decars out of 239336141 decars cultivated lands could be irrigated

in 2015 and 2016.574 However, the extent of rice cultivated land in total irrigated

land was only 1158561 decars in Turkey in 2015 and 2016.575

4. 2. 5. 1 Dam Projects in the Meriç Basin

First of all, Altınyazı Dam that was aimed to irrigate 65000 decars of lands in

Ergene and Meriç Plains in Uzunköprü and İpsala had been built between

1965 and 1970 by the contractor Sinan Kocasinan as a government investment

was transferred to SHW.576 The Altınyazı Dam began to service in 1973 and

increased the agricultural productivity in Ergene plain three times. Although

the plains of Balabankoru, Balaban village, Karaağaç, Altınyazı and Tevfikiye

were wetlands, thanks to the dam, peasants began to cultivate especially rice,

sugar beet, and sun flower that were very profitable crops.577 To irrigate the

63000 decars of İpsala Plain, it was decided to pump water from the Meriç

572 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 43.

573 Ibid., 202.

574 “2016 Yılı Tarım Alanları İstatistikleri Açıklandı,” Sözcü, September 21, 2017; TÜİK accessed

March 20, 2019, http://www.tuik.gov.tr/UstMenu.do?metod=temelist; Toprak ve Su Kaynakları

accessed March 20, 2019, http://tarim.kalkinma.gov.tr/toprak-ve-su-kaynaklari

575 T.C TÜİK, Çeltik, accessed March 20, 2018, http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreTabloArama.do; Tarım

Ürünleri Piyasaları Çeltik, TAGEM, 2, accessed March 20, 2019, https://arastirma.tarimorman.

gov.tr/tepge/Belgeler/

PDF%20Tar%C4%B1m%20%C3%9Cr%C3%BCnleri%20Piyasalar%C4%B1/2019-

Temmuz%20Tar%C4%B1m%20%C3%9Cr%C3%BCnleri%20Raporu/2019-Temmuz%

20%C3%87eltik.pdf

576 “Altınyazı Barajı,” İpsala July 16, 1970.

577 “Altınyazı Barajı Suladığı Ovada Üretimi Üç Misli Arttırdı,” Vatandaş, May 4, 1973.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

133

River between 1972 and 1978. The price of this project was 120,000 TL.

Thanks to this project, the water of Altınyazı Dam could be used in summer

when the water level of the Meriç River declined. This project encompasses

some villages of Meriç, Uzunköprü and İpsala such as Altınyazı, Adasarhanlı

and Balabancık and so on.578

Kadıköy Dam that was built between 1965 and 1973 irrigated 38500 decars

of lands in Keşan and Kadıköy Plains. Thus, both irrigation problems could

be solved and rice and vegetable cultivation was increased in Bahçe, Çamlıca,

Seydi, Mercan and Büyükdoğanca villages in the 1970s. Thanks to this

dam, the economic income of peasants and the appreciation of their lands

increased.579 Until the 1960s, rivers and underground water had been used in

rice irrigation in Edirne. However, Altınyazı and Kadıköy Dams were the first

two big infrastructure investments for the productive use of water and rice

farming in Edirne. However, these dams and village ponds continued to be

used together with the Meriç and Ergene Rivers.

The water position of Ergene and the Meriç Rivers has been considered

for rice cultivation in agrarian economics by local administrators such as the

governor, director of agriculture and the administrators of SHW in Edirne

since the 1950s.580 Since the Meriç River rises in Bulgaria and determines

Greco- Turkish borders except for Karaağaç, the irrigation projects of Edirne

agriculture were also closely related to Greece and Bulgaria. Due to the hydraulic

plant of Bulgarians, they cut the flow of Meriç to produce electricity.

Therefore, the water level declined one meter. As a result, both dirty wetlands

appeared and the salty water of the Aegean Sea proceeded 30 kilometers into

the north. Rice growers of İpsala used salty water without realizing it in

1993.581 Furthermore, as a measure to protect rice fields from the flow of sea

578 “Meriç Nehri’nden Altınyazı Barajına Su Pompalanacak,” Vatandaş, June 4, 1977.

579 “Keşan’daki Çeltiklere Barajdan Su Verilmeye Başlandı,” Vatandaş, May 10, 1976; “Kadıköy

Barajı Keşan Ovasına Bereket Getirdi,” Vatandaş, June 21, 1976; “Kadıköy Barajı Sayesinde

Bir Mevsimde Üç Mahsul Alınıyor,” Vatandaş, August 17, 1976.

580 “Edirne’nin Zirai Kalkınması ve Çeltik Ziraatı Hakkında Bazı Yeni Kararlar Alındı,” Edirne

Postası, April 1, 1953.

581 Edirne Milletvekili Hasan Basri Eler'in, son günlerde meydana gelen üzücü olaylara, çiftçilerimizin

Bağ-Kur primine ve Edirne'deki çeltik üreticilerinin sorunlanna ilişkin gündem dışı

O K A N C E Y L A N

134

water into the Meriç river, the building of levee was discussed in 1992.582

Since the rice growers of Hasırcıarnavut village of Meriç district attempted to

cut the flows of the Meriç river with sandbags from the Turkish side to the

Grek side, this also caused the decline of the water level of the Meriç River

more and more in lower courses. However, as a head of the rice commission,

the Meriç district governor objected to the attempts of the peasants of

Hasırcıarnavut due to water problems and the prevention of international water.

583 Due to the water crises with Bulgaria, local directors considered the

water requirement of rice fields in Edirne. Annually the Meriç River has 9

milliard m3 water. Therefore, local directors tried to keep 1 milliard of the

Meriç River.584

In order to prevent the 200 milliards of economic loss, to solve the water

problem of farmers as it was in 1985 and 1990, to irrigate Meriç and Ergene

Plains which have been prominent rice stores of Turkey, to decrease rice import,

and to collect the excessive water of Meriç, both the completion of the

building of big dam projects such as Çakmak, Hamzadere, Sultanköy, Karpuzlu

and Koyuntepe and the signing of five-year water protocol with Bulgaria

were regarded as necessary in 1993. The water price can be paid by the rice

cultivators.585 Turkey paid 48 billion TL to Bulgaria to get 32, 6 million m3 of

water in 1993. Thus 96446 decars of rice fields were saved and 174 milliard

income was obtained.586

konuşması ve Devlet Bakanı Necmettin Cevheri'nin cevabı, (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, July

08,1993),https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklarr/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d19/c038/tbmm19038125.pdf

582 “Meriç Nehrine Deniz Suyu Tepmesi için Erken Tedbir Alınmalı,” Edirne, March 26, 1992.

583 İlhan Ceylan, tape-recorded interview by the author, Rahmanca, Meriç, Edirne, Turkey, April

22, 2019.

584 “Bu Yıl Sulama İçin Su Bol,” Vatandaş, March 28, 1996.

585 Edirne Milletvekili Erdal Kesebir'in, Trakya Bölgesindeki çiftçilerin sorunlarına ilişkin gündem

dışı konuşması ve Sanayi ve Ticaret Bakanı Mehmet Tahir Köse'nin cevabı (TBMM

Tutanak Dergisi, September 22, 1993) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d19/c040/tbmm19040006.pdf

586 “Trakya’da Barajların Durumu,” Edirne Haber, January 15, 2001.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

135

By the way, the evaluation of the 12 million m3 water potential of the Meriç

for the building of dams was made in 1960. Therefore, the building of

Suakacağı Dam was discussed between Turkish and Bulgarian statesmen.

However, in the case of its building, a large part of lands in Bulgaria would

remain under water, thus the project lengthened out. Therefore, the intensive

project about the building of these irrigation dams remained in the 1990s and

the 2000s.587

In addition, the Minister of Agriculture Refaiddin Şahin said that the Ministry

of Agriculture proposed a project on Turkish Rice Development in the

amount of 63, 200,000 TL.588 The drought in 70000 decars of rice field in

1985 resulted from the ignorance of the SHW, the political debates with Bulgaria,

and the unproportioned situation between rice cultivated lands and the

amount of water. Thus to solve this issue, the water release from Altınyazı

Dam, Süleoğlu Dam and Karaidemir Dam to the Meriç and Ergene rivers

could be made for a short amount of time.589

Apart from Kadıköy and Altınyazı Dam, Sultanköy Dam was aimed to

store 27 million m3 of water utilizing the Sarıcaali water pump from the Meriç

River and irrigate 10641 hectares of lands.590 11. Regional Directorate of SHW

projected the building of Sultanköy Dam on the Manastır stream that had 27

million m3 water capacities in 1986. Thanks to this dam, the water could be

pumped from the Meriç River and the irrigation of 80000 decars of rice in the

Ergene Plain could be provided easily.591 The tender of Sultanköy Dam was

587 “Hamzadere Barajında İnşaat Devam Ediyor,” Son Haber, December 2, 2006.

588 Edirne Milletvekili Erdal Kesebir'in, Trakya çiftçisinin sorunlarına ilişkin gündem dışı konuşması

ve Tarım ve Köyişleri Bakanı Refaiddin Şahin'in cevabı (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi,

June 21, 1994) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d19/c063/tbmm19063120.pdf

589 Edirne Milletvekili Muhittin Yıldırım"in, İpsala ve çevresindeki çeltik üreticileriyle ilgili

alınması gereken acil tedbirler konusunda gündem dışı konuşması (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi,

September 24, 1985) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d17/c019/tbmm17019007.pdf

590 “Hamzadere Barajında İnşaat Devam Ediyor.”

591 “DSİ XI Bölge Müdürlüğü Ergene Havzasındaki Çeltik Üreticilerinin Su Sorununu Ortadan

Kaldıracak İpsala Sultanköy Barajını İhaleye Çıkardı,” Vatandaş, July 15, 1986.

O K A N C E Y L A N

136

given to Antalya Canalette Construction Company in 1987. They specified

that the building of the dam would be completed until 1990.592 Therefore, 11

Regional Directorate of SHW allocated 276 million TL for the building of

Sultanköy Dam.593 Sultanköy Dam was begun to be used in rice irrigation in

1995. Thus, rice cultivated rice was expected to increase from 120000 decars

to 160000 decars.594

When the dam projects of Koyuntepe and Hamzadere are completed,

335640 decars of land would be irrigated and 9750 decars of land would be

protected from floods in Edirne in the 2000s.595 Thus the rice cultivated lands

would be 1400000 decars. Although 56 trillion was required for the building

of Hamzadere Dam, only one trillion funds were allocated in 2005.596 Yenikarpuzlu

Irrigation Dam could store 44 million m3 of water from Meriç to

irrigate 4642 hectares of land. Moreover, the Hamzadere Dam that is located

in the east of Koyuntepe village of İpsala was projected in 1962. However, its

construction ended in 2012. Therefore 181 construction equipment and 263

personals worked in the building of Hamzadere Dam.597 Hamzadere Dam that

went out to tender in 1998 could store 213 million m3 of water. It was aimed

to irrigate 33564-hectare land and would protect 975 hectares from floods.598

Thanks to Hamzadere Dam, 273350 decars of land would be irrigated in 28

villages of Keşan, İpsala and Enez. 50 percent of the project was completed

in 2017.599

592 “İpsala Sultanköy Baraj İhalesi Yapıldı,” Vatandaş, September 11, 1987.

593 “DSİ’den Çeltikçilere Alarm,”

594 “Barajların Doluluk Oranı % 51,” Vatandaş, March 31, 1995.

595 Işık Ocaklı, Edirne İli Çeltik Sektörü Raporu, (Edirne: Trakya Kalkınma Ajansı, 2012), 84.

596 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye'de çeltikte uygulanan üretim fiyat ve pazar politikalarının değerlendirilmesi”

84.

597 “Hamzadere Barajında İnşaat Devam Ediyor.”

598 “Uzunköprü’de Yapılacak Çakmak Barajı 50,000 Dönümü Sulayacak,” Vatandaş, April 25,

1994.

599 “Edirne Hamzadere Barajı Sulaması İle 273 Bin Dekar Zirai Arazi Sulanacak,” DSİ Haber,

June 29, 2017; accessed March 20, 2019, http://www.dsi.gov.tr/haberler/2017/06/29/edirnehamzadere-

baraj%C4%B1-sulamas%C4%B1-i-le-273-bin-dekar-zirai-arazi-sulanacak

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

137

Çakmak Dam has had 220 million m3 of water and irrigates 52200-hectare

land in 67 villages of Edirne named as the Southeastern Anatolian Project of

Thrace. If the subsidy of the Çakmak project is not cut, it is expected to be

completed.600 The building projects of Hamzadere, Koyuntepe and Çakmak

were dealt in 1995 due to water problems in the Meriç River and high rice

production potentials of the region.601 For the building project of Koyuntepe

Dam, the buildings of roads that provide transportation to the dam were built

with 24 milliard and 30 milliard subsidies in 1998 and 1999. MAPA Building

Trade Joint Stock Company did not just complete the building of Koyuntepe

Dam in 2000.602The Çakmak Dam project that required 65 million TL was

planned. Thanks to these dam projects, the water of the Meriç River could be

used more productively.603

All of these eight big dams in Thrace could store 618,971 m3 of water in

2000.604 However, the president of the Thrace Natural Resources and Energy

Association Hüseyin Erkin said that only 25 percent of Thrace soils can be

irrigated, the rest waited in hope irrigation farming in 2009. While 70 percent

of Hamzadere Dam that has about 31126 hectares irrigation capacity completed,

30 percent of Çakmak Dam that was taken into the program and has

had 52206 hectares irrigation capacity completed in 2009.605 For their building,

a 17,920,300,000 TL fund is required.606 However, its building process

continued slowly, only 30 percent of the dam could be completed between

2000 and 2009.607

600 “Uzunköprü’de Yapılacak Çakmak Barajı 50,000 Dönümü Sulayacak,” “DSİ’den Erdin Bircan’ın

Çakmak Barajı ile ilgili açıklamalarına cevap,” Gündem, February 09, 2016

601 “Barajların Doluluk Oranı % 51.”

602 “Hamzadere Barajı Unutuldu mu?” Önder, November 13, 2000.

603 “Çakmak Barajı ve Meriç İletim Kanalı Projeleri Unutuldu mu?” Adalet, August 1, 2014.

604 “Trakya’da Barajların Durmu,” Önder, January 15, 2000.

605 “Tarımsal Sulamada Sıkıntılar Yaşanıyor,” Son Haber, January 17, 2009.

606 Edirne Milletvekili Cemaleddin Uslu'nun, Hamzadere Barajı'nın tamamlanmasına ilişkin sorusu

ve Çevre ve Orman Bakanı Veysel Eroğlu'nun cevabı, (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, June 5,

2009) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d23/c046/tbmm23046100.pdf

607 “Evren Bulut’un 8 Yıllık Rüyası Gerçekleşiyor,” Önder, August 7, 2000.

O K A N C E Y L A N

138

Table 4.1 Dams in the Meriç Basin

Dams Building

Period

Launch

Date

Irrigation

Areas (Ha)

Capacity

Million m3

Altınyazı 1965-1970 1973 6500 33

Kadıköy 1965-1973 1975 4200 65

Sultanköy 1986-1990 1995 10064 27

Hamzadere 1999-2003 2019 34356 207

Çakmak 1995 - 52200 220

SOURCE T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, DSİ, https://www.tarimziraat.com/ barajlar/edirne/

In rice irrigation, thanks to soil water cooperatives, there have been quite strict

organization and division of labor in Edirne since the mid-1960s. The foundation

of irrigation cooperatives also goes back to the 1960s in Turkey. They

were established by the farmers who required the irrigation of their products

from artesian wells, ponds, rivers, and dams. Thus, irrigation cooperatives

that were established according to 1163 numbered law have been responsible

for the building and organizing of irrigation infrastructures such as channels,

the use of irrigation water and the providing of a waterman in cultivated

lands.608

4. 2. 5. 2 Village Ponds in the Meriç Basin

Since irrigation water is one of the first preconditions for rice cultivation, rivers,

lakes, village ponds, artesian wells, and dams are the water sources of

rice fields. However, the building of village ponds in Edirne began to be seen

in the 1970s. Artesian wells, boreholes, the Meriç, and Ergene Rivers had been

mainly used in rice or sugar beet irrigation in the 1950s and 1960s.609 Thanks

to village ponds, 100000 decars of lands could be irrigated and opened to rice

608 T.C Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı, Türkiye Kooperatifçilik Raporu (2016), 42-43, accessed

March 20, 2019, http://koop.gtb.gov.tr/data/592ea2dd1a79f514ac499aae/TKR-2016-

2017%200804-BASIM.pdf

609 Nadir Türkel, “Trakya’da Yeraltı Sularından Faydalanmanın Önemi,” Pancar Çiftçi Dergisi,

(Mart 1967): 15.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

139

cultivation. The dams or ponds in Edirne provided the use of water with balance

and productivity. They both have prevented floods and provided water

stock in periods when there have been droughts. While 93 villages of Edirne

had sufficient water sources, 172 villages did not have sufficient water. 178

out of 266 villages of Edirne did not have electricity until 1978. Therefore,

water pumps would be run with electricity rather than oil diesel from the mid-

1980s onwards.610

The Minister of Village Affairs Lebit Yurtoğlu made a statement to the

Anatolian Agency in 1964 that irrigation projects granted to peasants who

aimed at founding a soil water cooperative. The expenses of irrigational infrastructural

investment would be received by the state and conferred to the

cooperatives.611

Thanks to its agricultural potential and suitable topography, 10, 000, 000

TL investments were allocated for the building of ponds and dams in Edirne

in 1976.612 In addition to the spread of soil water cooperatives, the project for

the development of state irrigations of the Provincial Directorate of Agriculture

and Thrace Agricultural Research Institute was implemented in the 23

villages of Edirne for five years to increase the extent of irrigable land and

agricultural productivity in the 1970s.613 Four irrigation projects that had

2,856,000 TL estimated cost and providing 1,500,000 TL incomes were implemented

in 7500 decars of rice cultivated lands in Akçadam and Rahmanca

villages of Meriç, Çöpköy sub-district of Uzunköprü, and Necatiye village of

Havsa. Furthermore, they were four projects out of seven that would be implemented

by Edirne Soil Water Chief Engineer in 1974.614

The prices of these pond projects were 2,000,000 TL. While the water capacity

of Çöpköy pond had 750,000 m3 Akçadam and Rahmanca ponds had

1,500,000 m3. These ponds would be mainly used for agricultural irrigation

610 “Edirne İli Sorunları,” Vatandaş, August 6, 1974.

611 “Küçük Sulamalar İçin Kooperatifler Kurulacak,” Vatandaş, December 4, 1964.

612 “İlimizde Özellik Gösteren Gölet Yapımı Hızlandı,” Vatandaş, May 24, 1976.

613 “İlimizde Devlet Sulamalarını Geliştirme Proje Çalışmaları,” Vatandaş, February 12, 1976;

“Sulama Kooperatifleri,” Vatandaş, April 10, 1976.

614 “2,856,000 TL Keşif Bedelli 4 Sulama Projesi İhale Edildi,” Vatandaş, June 8, 1974.

O K A N C E Y L A N

140

such as rice, vegetables, sugar beet, and potable water.615 By the same token,

Paşayenice pond in Meriç District was built by SHW in 1976 within the scope

of Soil Water infrastructure with 453,000 TL investments.616 Soil Water Chief

Engineering built 15 ponds, drainage, and soil reclamation at the end of 1976.

In the investment program of 1976, 15000 decars cultivated lands of 1110

farmer households benefited from a total of seven projects. This institution

proposed eight projects for the 17000 decars of 1200 farmer households.

25,000,000 TL subsidies were allocated for the investment such as in

Hıdırağa, Subaşı, and Karayayla villages in 1977.617 SHW built 56 ponds and

dams with 540,000,000 TL investments until the end of 1979. While Altınyazı

Dam that had 33 million m3 capacities irrigated 56000 decars, Süleoğlu Dam

that had 34 million m3 capacities irrigated 32000 decars and protected 6000

decars from floods. Furthermore, with the building of levee between Kapıkule

and İpsala, 200000 decars of land in Meriç Plain could be irrigated and protected

from floods. Thus, 90 percent of agricultural irrigation and potable water

projects could be completed in Edirne at the end of the 1970s.618

615 “Uzunköprü Çöpköy, Meriç’in Akçadam ve Rahmanca Göletlerinin İnşaası Tamamlanıyor,”

Vatandaş, September 3, 1974.

616 “Paşayenice Göleti İnşaatı Sona Erdi,” Vatandaş, January 10, 1976.

617 “Edirne Toprak Su Ekip Başmühendisliği 1977 Yılı İçin 26 Milyonluk Proje Teklifi yaptı,”

Vatandaş, July 10, 1976; “Toprak Su 3. Bölge Müdürler Toplantısı Dün Başladı,” Vatandaş,

July 14, 1976.

618 “DSİ XI Bölge Müdürü İlha Yükseloğlu Sulama ve Gölet Çalışmaları Konusunda Açıklamalarda

Bulundu,” Vatandaş, October 9, 1979; “DSİ’den Sulu Tarım Yapacak Trakya Çiftçisine

Müjde Var,” Edirne, January 18, 1992.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

141

Figure 4.1 The Building of Kurtbey Pond

SOURCE: İpsala State Hydraulic Works (DSİ)

Edirne Soil Water Chief Engineering concentrated on the building of ponds,

the reclamation of water channels, land leveling, and irrigation facilities to

open 14300 decars of lands to irrigation with 90,000,000 TL investment price

in Tayakadın, Dereköy, Subaşı, Enez, and Havsa in Edirne in the 1980s.619

Four pond projects in Nasuhbey, Sığırcılı, Naipyusuf, and Alibey villages put

out to tender. Their total prices were 158,701,389 TL.620 Thanks to the irrigation

projects of Village Services in Nasuhbey village of Meriç, both agricultural

productivity and the varieties of agricultural products increased in 3000

decars in Meriç Plain in 1986. In addition to 32 village ponds, there were

Altınyazı, Karaidemir, and Kadıköy, that could be used in the rice irrigation

in Edirne. The building projects of Hamzadere, Sultanköy, and Çakmak Dams

waited to be completed Therefore, 309500 decars of lands could be irrigated.

619 Toprak Su 1980 Yılı Çalışmalarını Bölgemizde Yoğunlaştırdı,” Vatandaş, June 17, 1980.

620 “Köy Hizmetleri Müdürlüğü İlimizde Toplam 158,701,389 liralık 4 Baraj Projesini İhaleye

Çıkardı,” Vatandaş, July 28, 1986.

O K A N C E Y L A N

142

Since the farmers organized under Soil Water Cooperatives, they did not experience

water problems in irrigation in 1992.621 The water storing capacities

of these dams were 556 million m3 in Edirne in the 1990s.622 30 village ponds

have been built since 2003. Similarly, the building of 30 village ponds as a

project is thought to be built in Edirne in 2014.623

However, SHW demanded to transfer these ponds to irrigation cooperatives.

The irrigation of rice required an organization of meeting among the

governor, district governors, village headmen, and the bureaucrats of SHW in

Edirne in 1996. They talked about the building of 13 underground irrigation

projects, one dam, and four ponds in Edirne.624 In addition to 39 village ponds,

Altınyazı Dam, Kadıköy Dam, and Süloğlu Dam that had been built between

1965 and 1981 were transferred to irrigation cooperatives or village legal entity

between 1998 and 2000.625 Since the water capacities of Süleoğlu and

Kadıköy Dams were used for the potable water requirements of Edirne and

Keşan, the irrigation of rice fields became more difficult.626 Due to the irrigation

of rice, rice growers may experience bureaucratic obstacles. For example,

when rice growers in İpsala demanded the building of culvert on the levee to

irrigate their 80000 decars of rice fields, some public authorities made opposition.

Thus, rice growers thought this opposition was detrimental to rice that

was national wealth.627

621 “DSİ’den Sulu Tarım Yapacak Trakya Çiftçisine Müjde Var.”

622 “Trakya’da Bu Yaz Su Sıkıntısı Yok,” Vatandaş, July 7, 1997.

623 T.C Orman ve Su İşleri Bakanlığı, “Edirne,” accessed March 10, 2018, 9-17; http://basinhaber.

ormansu.gov.tr/osb/Files/GuncelHaberModulu/Edirne%20Bask%C4%B1.pdf

624 “Bu Yıl Sulama İçin Su Bol.”

625 “DSİ Bölgede 41,000 Hektarı Suluyor,” Vatandaş, November 21, 1998; “Baraj ve Göletler

Sulama Kooperatiflerine Devredildi.”

626 “Edirne ve Keşan Suya Kavuşurken Sulama Kanalları Boş Kalacak,” Vatandaş, May 30,

1988.

627 “Çeltikçiler Sedden Bir Menfez İstiyor,” Vatandaş, May 3, 1974.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

143

4. 2. 5. 3 The Irrigation Projects of the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower

Yeşilırmak Basin

The square measure of Samsun is 957888 hectares and 47 percent is agricultural

land, 40 percent is forest and 5 percent is a meadow. The extent of cultivated

lands is 4882090 decars. 811150 decars of lands out of 3212210 irrigable

lands can be irrigated. While 619090 decars were irrigated by people, 192060

decars were irrigated by SHW. As a result of the projects of SHW and the

General Directorate of Rural Services, 150000 hectares will be opened to irrigation.

Namely 14.8 percent of lands are irrigated.628 Almost 60 percent of

rice growers had used bore water and 40 percent of them had benefited from

the Kızılırmak and Yeşilırmak until the 1980s. Drought made rice irrigation

difficult in this period.629 With the building of Suat Uğurlu and Derbent Dam,

694740 decars of land in Çarşamba Plain and 407910 decars of land out of

900,000 decars in Bafra Plain would be opened to irrigation in the 1980s.

Thus, the size of rice cultivated land increase two or three times. This means

the increase of the share of rice in Çarşamba Plain from 6.7 percent to 28.5

and in Bafra Plain from 6.9 percent to 12 percent.630 There have been polyculture

farming in these plains such as wheat, bean, rice, tobacco, water melon

fields, sunflowers, vegetables, and sugar beet.631

The water measurement of Yeşilırmak for dam planning firstly began in

1939 and continued about thirty years. When the building of dams on

Yeşilırmak was decided, the projects and technical control were given to Consortium

of Engineers Electric Power Development Cooperation in Tokyo in

Japan in 1969. SHW tendered the building of Hasan Uğurlu Dam to Doğuş

Building and Trade Cooperation and Ercüment Sevgen Firm Group in 1971.632

628 İsmail Sezer and Zeki Mut, “Samsun İlinde Çeltik Tarımının Durumu,” 58-59; Atilla Ocaktan,

Samsun Yöresinde Şekerpancarı, Çeltik, Soya, Domates, Biber, Patlıcan ve Hıyar Üretimi ve

Maliyetleri, 10.

629 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 19.

630 “Suat Uğurlu Baraj İnşaatı Tamamlandı,” Mücadele, May 9, 1982.

631 Atilla Ocaktan 21.

632 İbrahim Balaban, “Hasan Uğurlu Barajı, Sivas Postası, April 5, 2019.

O K A N C E Y L A N

144

Thanks to the building of Hasan and Suat Uğurlu Dams were between 1971

and 1982, the building of Altınkaya Dam was between 1980 and 1989 and the

building of Derbent Dam was between 1984 and 1990, Kızılırmak and

Yeşilırmak were used to produce electricity and agricultural irrigation. The

first drainage etudes and the reclamation of the Bafra Plain began in the 1960s.

There were main channels connected to Kızılırmak to irrigate the plain.633

However, the altitudes of 75 percent of the cultivated lands are lower than 2

meters, drainage of water has been a big problem.634 After the drainage of

16.000 km in 1970, irrigation projects were begun to be talked as a necessity

for higher agricultural production.635 Thus the irrigation and drainage of Bafra

and Çarşamba Plains began at the end of 1980s as surveying.636

Suat Uğurlu Dam has a 36,100 km2 drainage area and Yeşilırmak has 4,6

milliard m3 water capacity. Thanks to the building of Hasan and Suat Uğurlu

Dam, 67000 hectare lands could be protected from floods.637 Hasan Uğurlu

Dam that was the second biggest dam in Turkey would produce 1,040,000,000

kilowatt electricity.638 Thanks to Hasan Uğurlu Dam, it was expected to be

two harvests yearly in Çarşamba Plain that was irrigated by Yeşilırmak. Moto

pumps were used in this irrigation.639 Besides, the cultivated lands could be

633 H. Arslan, M. Güler, B. Cemek, Y. Demir, “Bafra Ovası Yeraltı Suyu Kalitesinin Sulama

Açısından Değerlendirilmesi,” Tekirdağ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 4, no. 2 (2007): 221.

634 Abdulveli Sürat, İsmail Sezer and Hasan Akay, “Kızılırmak Deltasında Organik Çeltik Tarımı,”

GÜFBED 2, no. 2 (2012): 78.

635 “Bafra Ovası Sulama Projesi,” Hürsöz, September 1, 1976.

636 Samsun Milletvekili Sayın Ali Eser, Samsun'un, Türkiye genelinde, yerine mütenasip hizmet

alamadığı; özelde, Bafra ve Çarşamba ovalarının ihmali, havaalanı ihtiyacı, üniversitenin sorunları,

ziraî üretimle ilgili konuları hakkında gündem dışı konuşması, (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi,

November 23, 1989) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d18/c034/tbmm18034037.pdf

637 Samsun Milletvekili Hasan Altay' in, Aşağı Yeşilırmak Ovası sulama projesine ilişkin sözlü

sorusu ve Enerji ve Tabiî Kaynaklar Bakanı Sudi Türel'ın cevabı, (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi,

April 10, 1986) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d17/c027/tbmm17027091.pdf

638 “Türkiye’nin 2. Büyük Barajı 20 Kasımda Enerji Üretimine Başlıyor,” Vatandaş, November

2, 1979.

639 “Çarşambadaki Ekili Araziler Motopompla Sulanıyor,” Hürsöz, August 12, 1976.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

145

saved from floods in Çarşamba Plain in the mid -1970s.640 Furthermore, with

the building of the Kumköy Regulator in 1986, the irrigation of 83313 hectares

was predicted. The expenses of these investments in Çarşamba Plain was 76

milliard 700 million TL in 1986.641 In total sum spent on the irrigation project

in Çarşamba and Bafra Plain was 140,045 trillion TL. The building of the

Kumköy Regulator was about to be completed. Since Çarşamba and Bafra

plains are delta, their annual irrigation water requirement can be received

from the dams. Although the first land reclamation projects began slowly in

the 1960s, they were mainly implemented in the 1980s. In the case that the

subsidies are paid, the irrigation and drainage that were begun in the 1980s by

SHW in Bafra could be completed in 2007, and those of Çarşamba could be

completed in 2010. The land reclamation in the western part of the Bafra Plain

ended but the eastern parts have continued.642

Although an expropriation was determined in 1952 according to the general

rules of international law in the Paris Protocol that was the supplement

of the European Convention on human rights, during the expropriation of

lands for the building these dams, some people experienced unjust treatment

such as late payment and short change in Samsun. Due to these expropriations,

many peasants migrated to cities and unemployed. The World Bank

warned the SHW to comply with human rights since there have been 40000

legal cases since 1989.643 In addition to Kızılırmak, Yeşilırmak and big dams

640 “Hasan Uğurlu Barajı Yılda 1 milyar 250 milyon kw Saat Enerji Üretecek,” Hürsöz, August

25, 1976.

641 Samsun Milletvekili Hasan Altay' in, Aşağı Yeşilırmak Ovası sulama projesine ilişkin sözlü

sorusu ve Enerji ve Tabiî Kaynaklar Bakanı Sudi Türel'ın cevabı, (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi,

April 10, 1986)

642 Samsun Milletvekili Sayın Mustafa ÇAKIR'ın Enerji ve Tabi Kaynaklar Bakanı Hilmi Güler’e

tevcih ettiği, 7/1813-4260 esas no'lu yazılı soru önergesi T.B.M.M. İç Tüzüğünün 99

maddesi gereği DSİ Genel Müdürlüğünde alınan yazılı bilgiler doğrultusunda cevabı

(TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, January 27, 2004) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d22/c039/tbmm22039047.pdf ; Şükrü Derebey and Temel Kaya,

tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, April 30, 2019

643 Samsun Milletvekili Ali Eser ve 22 arkadaşının, baraj projeleri nedeniyle gerçekleştirilen

toplu kamulaştırmaların neden olduğu sorunları tespit etmek amacıyla Meclis araştırması

O K A N C E Y L A N

146

such as Hasan Uğurlu, Suat Uğurlu, Derbent, and Altınkaya, some artesian

wells have been used in rice irrigation. In contrast to Edirne, neither there are

adequate numbers of villages’ ponds nor have they been used in a rice irrigation

in Samsun. However, rather than soil water cooperatives, rice growers

have organized under irrigation unions. However, the administrations of these

irrigation unions were transferred to SHW in Samsun in 2018.644 For example,

while 60 percent of lands are irrigated by bore water, 40 percent of the lands

were irrigated by rivers in the 2000s.645 SHW Irrigation unions from 1994 onwards

are regarded as more autonomous and controllable in Samsun. On the

contrary, sometimes irrigation cooperatives might be under the arbitrary treatment

of their chief or village headmen.646 Although the rice cultivated lands

in Samsun increased about two times, irrigation unions of Samsun have still

implemented twenty years of irrigation projects since 1980. Thus, some rice

growers of Samsun think that their irrigation system is not productive.647 In

contrast to Edirne, there is not a strict and detailed organization in Samsun in

rice irrigation.

açılmasına ilişkin önergesi, (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, March 13, 1990)

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/TUTANAK/TBMM/d18/c042/tbmm18042088.pdf

644 “Bafra’da Sulama Birlikleri DSİ’ye Devredildi,” Samsun Gazetesi, May 29, 2018.

645 İsmail Sezer and Zeki Mut, “Samsun İlinde Çeltik Tarımının Durumu,” 63.

646 Önder Çırak, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, August 06, 2018.

647 Şükrü Derebey and Temel Kaya, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey,

April 30, 2019.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

147

Figure 4.2 Altınkaya Dam in Samsun

SOURCE: Gazete Gerçek, June 11, 2018

Table 4.2 Dams in the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins

Dams Building

Period

River Irrigation

Areas (Ha)

Capacity

m3

Hasan Uğulu 1981-1991 Kızılırmak - 1018360000

Suat Uğurlu 1985-1991 Kızılırmak 83312 182461000

Derbent 1984-1990 Yeşilırmak 4772 212500000

Altınkaya 1984-1990 Yeşilırmak 47727 5673000000

SOURCE T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, DSİ https://www.tarimziraat.com/barajlar/samsun/

4. 2. 5. 4 The Irrigation Projects in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin

There is drought, low fertility and poverty in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin

where agriculture and livestock breeding are means of living. Since this basin

is located in the eastern part of Şanlıurfa such as Siverek and Viranşehir and

the western part of Diyarbakır such as Çermik, Ergani and Çınar, and also the

northwest district of Mardin such as Derik. The rice fields in Karacadağ have

been irrigated with water sources or fountains in the mountainsides of KaraO

K A N C E Y L A N

148

cadağ in the 1950s and the 1960s. While perennial irrigation has been implemented

in the rice fields of Siverek,648 intermittent flow irrigation is also implemented

in Diyarbakır.649

In general, Diyarbakır has 6015635 decars of cultivated land. 4190000

decars of these lands are suitable for irrigation. However, only 15 percent of

these irrigable lands could be irrigated in 2014.650 Şanlıurfa has 11071140

decars of cultivated lands and 390000 decars could be irrigated today.651 However,

these irrigation facilities increased cotton rather than rice farming in the

region.

The projects of SHW first started to be seen in the 1960s with the opening

of artesian wells in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin and the building of village

ponds, such as Gözegöl pond, Nusaybin Çağ pond and Ortaviran pond.652

10. Regional Directorate of SHW moved from Elazığ to Diyarbakır in 1957.653

Furthermore, SHW tried to use underground water to increase agricultural

production in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin. In this context, the first works

began in the Derik districts of Mardin.654 Therefore, as water sources of Karacadağ

rice have been mineral water, boreholes and the reaches of the Dicle

River for centuries. Furthermore, the village ponds which the peasants of Karacadağ

mainly used in rice irrigation were built in the mid-1980s. Due to

being snow-fed water sources in Karacadağ, the water temperature is both

648 “Urfa İli Çevresi İçinde Yapılan Çeltik Ziraatı,” Yenilik, June 8, 1949.

649 Resmi Gazete, December 21, 2014.

650 GAP Uluslararası Tarımsal Araştırma ve Eğitim Merkezi, Tarımsal Veriler, (Diyarbakır: Furkan

Matbaa, 2015).

651 “Ekilebilir Alanlar ve Sulamalı Tarım,” http://www.investsanliurfa.com/karacadag-kalkinma-

ajansi--582 March 20, 2019.

652 “DSİ’nin Faaliyetleri Başlamak Üzeredir,” Diyarbakır, January 24, 1963.

653 “DSİ 10. Bölge Müdürlüğü Teşkilatı,” Dicle, October 11, 1957.

654 “DSİ Teşkilatı Faaliyete Geçmek Üzeredir,” Diyarbakır, June 1, 1963.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

149

low and rich in mineral.655 Although there is no adequate rain-fall, the Karacadağ

Agriculture Basin is rich in water sources.656

In the development of rice cultivation in Karacadağ, the building of Devegeçidi

Dam between 1965 and 1972 years was the first prominent project.

Devegeçidi Dam had firstly 187 million m3 water capacity and could irrigate

110000 decars of lands.657 However, the final construction work of the Devegeçidi

Dam was completed in 2010. While 62 percent of the water of this dam

was used in rice cultivation in 1973, 85 percent of its water was used for cotton

irrigation in the 2000s. Due to plant diseases in Cilician cotton, the building

of dams in Karacadağ, and working as seasonal workers in the cotton fields

of Çukurova, cotton farming began to be more widespread in Southeastern

Anatolia from the mid-1980s onwards. Therefore, the irrigation for rice farming

from Devegeçidi Dam ended in 1989 completely.658 Besides, the agricultural

supports of the government are influential in the development of cotton

farming.659 Rice growers irrigated their fields through electrical water pumps

and they shared water for a length of time in Ergani in the 1980s.660

Karakaya Dam had been built between 1976 and 1988 on the Fırat River

that has 30 milliards m3 annual water capacity near Çüngüş. It had 9,5 milliard

655 Diyarbakır Milletvekili Mahmud Altunakar'ın, Güneydoğu Anadolu'da meydana gelen kuraklık

ile bunun sebep olduğu kıtlık ve yokluk tehlikesi ve alınması gerekli önlemler konusunda

gündem dışı konuşması (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, May 21, 1987).

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/TUTANAK/TBMM/d17/c041/tbmm17041109.pdf;

Resmi Gazete, December 21, 2014: 25; İlhan Avcı, tape-recorded interview with the author,

Diyarbakır Turkey August 10, 2018.

656 A. Kadir Kıran, Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesinde Çeltik Tarımının Bugünkü Durumu, 11.

657 “Devegeçidi Barajı Dolup Taştı,” Yeni Zaman, April 15, 1974.

658 Nazime Demir, “Diyarbakır Devegeçidi Sulama Şebekesinde Sulama Sorunları,” (M.A Thesis,

Selçuk Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, 2008), 28-29; Hüseyin Başal, “Türkiye’de

Pamuk Tarımı,” Türktob (Nisan 2017), 7.

659 Lale Taş, tape-recorded interview by the author, Şanlıurfa, Turkey June 26, 2019.

660 Kardaş Ailesi, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yenişehir, Diyarbakır, Turkey, August

09, 2018.

O K A N C E Y L A N

150

m3 water capacity and the total cost was 99,2 milliards TL in 1987.661 However,

at the beginning of its building 55 million was spent in 1974.662 However,

its total cost was expected as 6,5 milliards and it had 9 milliard m3 water capacity.

663 The building of Devegeçidi and Kralkızı Dams would be important

water sources in the irrigation of Hoşot and Gevran Plains which has almost

30000 hectares.664

While Devegeçidi Dam had been built between 1965 and 1972 on Devegeçidi

reach of Dicle, Kralkızı Dam was built on Maden reach of the Dicle

River between 1985 and 1997. It has 520 million m3 water capacity. To irrigate

300000 decars of land, the Regional Directorate of Road, Water and Electricity

decided to implement nine projects in Siverek, Viranşehir and Halfet i. Its

value was 41 million.665 Similarly, the Regional Directorate of SHW opened

some irrigation wells in Ergani to irrigate 1500 decars of land. For this project,

350 billion TL was spent. While 35 percent of cultivated lands could be irrigated

around Turkey in the 1970s, it was only 5 percent in Diyarbakır.666 The

water sources and hydroelectric plant of Southeastern Anatolia can irrigate

687000 hectares and have 19 milliard kilowatts of electricity potentially. On

the contrary, only 66000 hectare of lands that corresponds to 8 percent of total

lands can be irrigated and 39 percent of electricity is received from Southeastern

Anatolia in the beginnings of the 2000s.667 Çınar Göksu Dam that had

been built between 1987 and 1991 completed in 1996. This dam was projected

for agricultural irrigation in the western part of Diyarbakır.668 Şerifbaba Dam

661 Savaş Uşkay, “Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi DSİ Çalışmaları,” Türkiye İnşaat Mühendisliği

9. Teknik Kongresi, Bizim Büro Basımevi 2 (16 November 1987), 9.

662 “Karakaya Barajına Bu Yıl 55 Milyon Lira Harcanacak,” Yeni Zaman, June 1, 1974.

663 “Karakaya Barajı İnşaatına Gelecek Yıl Başlanacak,” Yeni Zaman, October 4, 1974.

664 “Ergani Tarihçesi 3” Ergani Söz, 11 November 2004.

665 “Diyarbakır ve Urfa’da Sulama Projesi Gerçekleşiyor,” Yeni Zaman, November 11, 1974.

666 “Bereketli Köyünde Su Sevinci,” Ergani Söz, August 5, 2004.

667 Diyarbakır Milletvekili Nurettin Atik’in Çiftçi Sorunları, Tarımsal Sulama ve Ekonomi hakkındaki

konuşması (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, February 13, 2001).

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/TUTANAK/TBMM/d21/c054/tbmm21054057.pdf

668 DSİ 10. Bölge Müdürlüğü, http://bolge10.dsi.gov.tr/isletmedekitesisler/sulama accessed

March 20, 2019.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

151

between Çınar and Derik districts has irrigated 1300 decars of rice fields since

1998.

Figure 4.3 Rice Irrigation Pond in Karacadağ

SOURCE: Şanlıurfa Olay, May 13, 2015

Table 4.3 Dams in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin

Dams Building

Period

Irrigation

Areas (Ha)

Capasity

Million m3

Devegeçidi 1965-1972 11000 187

Karakaya 1976-1987 - 9.5

Kralkızı 1985-1997 30000 520

Göksu 1987-1995 3582 1.6

Dicle 1986-1997 126080 585

SOURCE T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, DSİ https://www.tarimziraat.com/barajlar/

diyarbakir/

O K A N C E Y L A N

152

4. 2. 5. 5 Southeastern Anatolian Project (GAP) and Agricultural

Irrigation

GAP was first planned as the development of water and soil sources in the

1970s such as agricultural irrigation and hydro-electrical power. It would be

implemented in the 70,000 km2 areas between Fırat and Dicle where

Şanlıurfa, Gaziantep, Diyarbakır, Mardin, Siirt and Adıyaman provinces were

located.669

Although the elementary idea of GAP was the water use,670 it was turned

into multi directional regional development plan that includes agrarian, education,

and health transportation and industry sectors in 1989.671 However,

since the expropriated prices were determined 2 or 3 times higher by valorization

commission, the State Hydraulic Works did not accept and demanded

a revision.672 These can be regarded as a part of Southeastern Anatolian Projects

which has been an integrated regional development project of hydroelectric

power in the Dicle and Fırat Rivers, agricultural irrigation, socio-economic

welfare and infrastructural investment.

With the development of irrigation infrastructure, the cultivation of cotton,

lentil and sesame developed rather than rice in this region.673 Therefore,

GAP is a project that can be transferred from generation to generation and

similar to the international reflections of water issues in the Meriç River, the

GAP created political tensions with other Middle Eastern countries. It has

669 Savaş Uşkay,“Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi DSİ Çalışmaları,” 7.

670 “Her Ay Bir Baraj,” Diyarbakır’daki GAP, (Mart 1990): 15.

671 T.C Sanayi ve Teknoloji Bakanlığı, GAP Bölge Kalkınma İdaresi Başkanlığı, accessed June

18, 2019, http://www.gap.gov.tr/gap-nedir-sayfa-1.html

672 T.C. Enerji ve Tabiî Kaynaklar Bakanlığı 9.4.1997 Devlet Su İşleri Genel Müdürlüğü Emlâk

ye Kamulaştırma Dairesi Başkanlığı Sayı: B. 15.1. DSİ.0.18.02.00/510 Konu: Kamulaştırma

bedellerinin belirlenmesi (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, December 2, 1998)

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanalar/TUTANAK/TBMM/d20/c066/tbmm20066027.pdf

673 “Bismil,” GAP’ta Diyarbakır, (Adana: Kemal Matbaası 1990), 20.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

153

been implemented since 1983 and 15 percent of investment funds were allocated

to GAP in the 1990s.674

4.3 The Contribution of the Government to the Agricultural,

Economic and Institutional Development of Rice

Farming

Legal regulations and public investments in rice cultivated lands support the

settlement of rice culture and regulate the method of rice farming. Besides,

Agricultural Research Institutes contributes to the agricultural and biological

development of rice. Agricultural Credit Cooperatives, Irrigation Cooperatives,

and the Fertilizer industry contributed both the agricultural and the institutional

development of rice. The Agricultural supports of the government

and TGB contributes to the development of the rice economic sector.

4. 3. 1 The Role of Agricultural Research Institutes in the

Development of Rice in Turkey

The contribution of the government in research and development has become

influential in the development and the spread of rice farming in Turkey.

Therefore, as public institutions, the rice variety breeding and the production

of certified seed projects of some Agricultural Research Institutes give idea

about the development of rice agriculture in the historical process.

The first rice variety breeding was begun at the beginning of the twentieth

century in the rice varieties selected for local adaptation by farmers who had

no knowledge about genetic principles. In the first decade of the twentieth

century, agricultural experiment stations were founded in every rice -growing

country of tropical Asia. The rediscovery of Mendel’s Law of inheritance in

1900 has set back selection activities. This led to the attention of researchers

674 “GAP’ın Sosyal ve Ekonomik Boyutları Diyarbakırda Tartışıldı,” Diyarbakırdaki GAP Dergisi,

(June 1990), 5.

§

O K A N C E Y L A N

154

and workers in India and Indonesia to the study of the inheritance of qualitative

characteristics of rice.675

The work of rice variety breeding was begun at General Agricultural Research

Station in Bogor of Java in Indonesia in 1905. While the first selection

works had been relating the purification of rice varieties until 1926, the mass

selection was made through varietal collection in lowlands in Monsoon Asia.

Although the work of rice variety breeding began in 1902 in the Philippines,

it had been limited until the Second World War. Immediately after the war,

food scarcity and the increasing population of Monsoon Asia led to the supply

of staple foods.676 It was preferred in terms of grain quality and more adapted

to Tropical Asia through selection. Hybridization was made through the different

characteristics of distinct rice varieties.677

In India, rice breeding works were firstly begun in East Bengal by economic

botanists at Dacca research station in 1911. These works continued in

Madras and Coimbatore. Furthermore, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research

has sponsored and aided rice variety breeding projects since 1929.678

The rice variety breeding aims of India were to research on vegetation period,

yield potential, grain quality, and the toleration of rice varieties to salinity and

flood.679

After the International Rice Research Institute was founded by Ford and

Rockefeller waqfs in the Philippines in 1960, highly productive rice varieties

were bred and spread into the different parts of the world. Thus, rice production

increased around the world two times.680 The first rice variety breeding

works that aimed at developing new rice varieties complied with 12 ecological

regions began in Japan in 1927. In these breeding works, new rice varieties

that were highly productive, resistant to diseases and had more qualified grain

675 N. Parthasathy, “Rice Breeding in tropical Asiaup to 1960,” In Symposium on Rice Breeding,

Los Banos, (IRRI, 1972), 6.

676 Ibid., 7-24.

677 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 200.

678 N. Parthasathy, “Rice Breeding in tropical Asiaup to 1960,” 14.

679 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 200.

680 Ibid., 201.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

155

were developed. There were 16 breeding stations in Japan. While seven of

them were national institutions, the rest was prefectural.681

Finally, the first rice breeding works initiated in the Crowley Station of

Louisiana Province in the USA in 1909. Furthermore, the breeding programs

of Agricultural Research Services, the United States of Agriculture, and the

State Agricultural Experiment Stations in Louisiana, California, Texas, and

Arkansas opened in 1931.682 The aims of breeding works in the USA were to

develop small, middle, and long-grain rice varieties.683

When it comes to Turkey, rice breeding works started to be seen exactly

in the beginnings of the 1980s. Since Turkey had imported rice from abroad

until 1927,684 rice cultivation was limited; the development of rice farming

and scientific studies were not to seen. After the enactment of the Rice Cultivation

Law of 1936 and the rice testing fields in Tosya and Maraş in 1937, the

studies on the growth of different rice varieties, their water quality, the sanitary,

and agricultural measures of rice farming were done. Furthermore, according

to the report of Italian rice specialist M. Civani Sanpiyetro in the

1930s, Tosya was the most suitable region for rice farming in Anatolia. Then

Harun Aziz Bey who had training on rice in Italy solved an expert problem in

the field and tested 44 rice varieties in the testing fields of Tosya in the 1930s

and the 1940s.685

Institutionally, Antalya Summer Growing Plants Station was opened in

1937 to develop higher yield rice varieties and import Italian rice varieties

such as Carolina and Blue-Rice.686 Apart from Antalya Summer Growing

681 Shiro Okabe, “Breeding for High Yielding Varieties in Japan,” In Symposium on Rice Breeding,

Los Banos (IRRI, 1972): 47-49.

682 T.H Johnston, N. E Jodon, C. N. Bollich, and J. N. Rutger, “The Development of Early Maturing

and Nitrogen-Responsive Rice Varieties in the United States,” In Symposium on Rice

Breeding, (Los Banos: IRRI, 1972): 61.

683 Halil Sürek., 201.

684 Fuat Soydan,” Türkiye’de Çeltik Ekim Mıntıkları,” Dönüm, no: 11 (September 1940): 461.

685 Ufuk Tidim, “Tosya Pirinci 1929’da Anadolu’nun En İyisi Seçildi.”

686 Rahmi Çeltik,” Türkiye’de Pirinç Ziraatı,”; 28-29; Zafer Toprak, “Türkiye Tarımı ve Yapısal

Gelişmeler,” In Türkiye’de Tarımsal Yapılar (1923-2008), Edited by Şevket Pamuk and Zafer

Toprak (Ankara: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 2008), 27.

O K A N C E Y L A N

156

Plants Institute, there had not been any institute that researched on rice until

the 1950s. When the rice cultivation was forbidden in 1941 in Antalya, the rice

studies of the institute in Antalya stopped. Therefore, some local studies about

rice were realized in the Tosya District of Kastamonu and Kızılcahamam District

of Ankara to do research on local rice varieties and to determine the foreign

rice varieties that were suitable for the climate conditions of Turkey.687

While scientific rice research studies began in the USA in 1915 and Japan

in 1930,688 these studies began in Tarsus Irrigated Farming Research Institute

in İçel and Yeşilköy Agricultural Research Institute in İstanbul in the 1960s.

Institutionally, Tarsus Irrigated Farming Research Institute was firstly

founded with the name of Alifakı Irrigated Farming Trying Station in 1947.

Its name was changed in 1956 to Tarsus Irrigated Farming Research Institute.

Then it would be Tarsus Research Institute in 1971, Rural Services Tarsus Research

Institute in 1985, and finally took the name of Soil and Water Sources

Research Institute in 2005.689 Since Tarsus Irrigated Farming Research Institute

had separated from the Ministry of Agriculture and began to work under

the Ministry of Village Affairs influenced its rice research. In this context, the

activities and the policies about the production of qualified rice seed were

limited.690 State Hatcheries were not interested in the production of pedigree

seeds of rice in the 1950s and the 1960s.691

Tarsus Irrigated Farming Research Institute did research on the reclaimation

of salty and alkali soils through rice cultivation, sowing methods

of rice, the water requirement of rice, the influence of fertilization and irrigation

on rice yield, and the yield testing of distinct rice varieties. In the spread

687 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişirme Değerleri Üzerine Araştırmalar, 30.

688 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, , Edirne, Turkey August 13, 2018.

689 T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüleri Tarihçe accessed December

12, 2018, https://arastirma.tarimorman.gov.tr/alata/Sayfalar/Detay.aspx?TermStoreId=

368e785b-af33-487d-a98d-c11d5495130b&TermSetId=de3f1ff9-4643-427d-8d7ff87522399d79&

TermId=7f477a6a-a8ea-4497-9ddb-173030b5be42&UrlSuffix=22/Tarihce

690 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişirme Değerleri Üzerine Araştırmalar 96.

691 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 202.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

157

and popularity of Egypt rice and IR-8 rice varieties, this institute had a special

place.692 Furthermore, since rice seeds degenerated, the Ministry of Agriculture

imported 20000 sacks of rice seed from Egypt in 1961.693

Yeşilköy Agricultural Research Institute started rice research in the testing

fields of the institute in Edirne in 1965. Yeşilköy Agricultural Research Institute

mainly dealt with the lodging of rice, vegetation, kernel weights, fertilization,

rice varietal purity the grain pulling out, and the yield conditions of 51

varieties in its testing fields. They found that 19 rice varieties out of 51 complied

with the climate conditions of Turkey such as Maratelli, R. Bersani, and

Sezya Therefore, 20543 tons of pedigree seeds were obtained from these varieties.

In order to protect the varietal purity of rice, elite and original seed

production program were begun. In this context, the elite and original seeds

of R. Bersani, Maratelli, and Sezya were produced and the yield testing of

these rice varieties was successful in 1967-1968. Furthermore, the production

of Italian origin rice varieties such as Rialto, Roma, Arberio and Baldo were

begun in 1969. The yield testing of rice variety in Yeşilköy focused on resistance

to lodging, vegetation period, grain pulling of rice varieties, and laboratory

analyses about paddy yield and kernel weights.694

For rice variety breeding, new rice varieties were imported from Italy and

the Philippines. With the equipment and adaptation studies, yield and agronomy

testing were done. Rialto rice variety was presented as a member for

registration in 1976.695 Yeşilköy Agricultural Research Institute opened a

branch to cultivate rice farming in 500 decars of lands in the position of Meriç

and Domuzbucağı in Karpuzlu Village of İpsala in 1957.696 Besides, to receive

the rice seed needs of farmers, Sezya, Maratelli, and R. Bersani rice

varieties were cultivated in 500 decars in Sarısazlık position of İpsala in

1963.697

692 Ibid., 201; Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 93-95.

693 “Pirinç Tohumu İthal Ediliyor,” Bizim Köy, January 24, 1961.

694 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 202; Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 96.

695 “Edirne Zirai Araştırma Enstitüsü Yeni Araştırma Projeleri Üzerinde Çalışıyor,” Vatandaş,

May 15, 1976.

696 “Zirai Araştırma Enstitüsü Bir Şube Açtı,” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, April 10, 1957.

697 “Edirne Deneme İstasyonunun Verimli Çalışmaları, “Vatandaş, July 18, 1963.

O K A N C E Y L A N

158

Fikret Sezen who was one of the specialists of Yeşilköy Agricultural Research

Institute and a Chinese agricultural specialist from FAO said that İpsala

Plain was the most suitable position for rice cultivation in Meriç Plain

and Europe in 1958. However, since only one-tenth of the Meriç Plain could

be used, they emphasized the building of levee and discharge channels along

the Meriç River to enlarge rice cultivated lands. Since rice was a staple food

and a medicinal plant in pharmacy, some measures had to be taken to rice

production. Furthermore, the people of İpsala demanded the building of a paper

mill to produce paper from the stem of rice.698 However, Yeşilköy Agricultural

Research Institute transferred rice studies to Thrace Agricultural Research

Institute in 1965.699 Although scientific studies were done on the

foreign rice varieties in agricultural bureaucracy, the credit mechanism, the

financial and economic system of the Agricultural Bank influenced the spread

of new foreign rice varieties in the socio-economic life of rice growers.

4. 3. 2 State Bureaucracy and Rice Farming: The Leading Role of

Rice Growers

While local rice varieties were used in the 1930s, foreign rice varieties were

cultivated in the 1960s in Turkey.700 In the importation of foreign rice seeds,

farmers experienced bureaucratic problems in Uzunköprü in 1962. Since Uzunköprü

Agricultural Bank provided a 10,000 TL loan instead of 40,000 TL,

many rice cultivators gave up imported rice seed from Italy and paid 70 TL

price gap to buy it from Agricultural Equipment Institution.701

Moreover, even though there was a list of credit demanders, Agricultural

Banks in Keşan and İpsala rejected the demand of farmers for import rice seed

because their rice seed did not degenerate and they could buy imported seed

698 “Çeltik Ekimine En Müsait Ova İpsala’dır,” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, November 12, 1958.

699 T.C Gıda Tarım ve Hayvancılık Bakanlığı, Trakya Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü 2012 Yılı

Araştırma Projeleri Raporu, Edited by Adnan Akcan, (2012): 40; accessed March 20, 2019.

https://arastirma.tarimorman.gov.tr/ttae/Belgeler /FaaliyetRaporlari/2012 faaliyet_raporu.pdf

700 Arzu Özalp, “Trakya’da Çeltik Üretiminin Ekonomik ve İstatistiksel Analizi,” 21.

701 “Enez’de Ziraat Bankası Açılması Kararlaştırıldı,” Vatandaş, March 19, 1963; “Ziraat Bankası

Enez’de,” Vatandaş, April 12, 1963.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

159

without credit. The rice growers of İpsala obtained import rice seed by means

of Agricultural Equipment Institution and importer companies. Thus, the

Ministry of Commerce commanded the loan of rice seed and an inspector was

sent to İpsala on April 11, 1962. In the end, while the rice cultivators of Uzunköprü

bought the required rice seed in Turkey, those who were in Keşan organized

a rice grower association in 1955 bought rice seed two years in a row

from Italy. Therefore, since rice seed degenerated in 4 years, they had more

seed than their needs.702

According to the explanation of İzmirlioğlu who was the Minister of

Commerce, for the purpose of the providing of rice seed in Thrace, hundreds

of thousands of dollars were paid to foreigners. Therefore, the representatives

of the Rice Growers Association in Thrace went to Ankara to negotiate a rice

seed production program with the specialists of Yeşilköy Agricultural Research

Institute in the National Seed Consultation Committee on December

25, 1961. Thus rice seed production program was determined and the rice

growers’ associations in Uzunköprü, İpsala and Keşan would import 2000

tons of rice seed from Italy for the last time through Agricultural Bank. In this

context, since some of the 186 rice growers who were the partners of Agricultural

Credit Cooperative and were also in difficult economic conditions, they

applied to import rice through Agricultural Credit Cooperatives. Therefore,

Agricultural Banks were declared innocent.703

The rice grower committee that was composed of 29 people and represented

thousands of rice growers visited Prime Minister İsmet İnönü. They

demanded that the TGB opened eight bureaus in rice cultivated regions to buy

Turkish rice and sell them to hospitals, schools, and military units to develop

rice production. İnönü said that both the TGB would involve in this process

and rice would be taken part in state planning programs in 1963.704 Although

702 Edirne, Milletvekili Fahir Giritlioğlu’nun, İpsala, Kesan ve 'Uzunköprü çeltiklerine, rcliik

ithali irin, T.C Ziraat Bankası eliyle verilmesi kararlaştırılan kredi esaslarında kanunsuz bir

işlem yapılıp yapılmadığına dair yazılı soru önergesi ve Ticaret Bakanı Muhlis Ete’nin yazılı

cevabı, (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, September 28, 1962). https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/MM__/d01/c007/mm__01007122.pdf

703 Ibid.

704 Çeltik Konusu Acele olarak Ele Alınıyor,” Vatandaş, October 23, 1963.

O K A N C E Y L A N

160

Italian rice varieties were used in Edirne and Samsun in the 1960s, the rice

growers of Diyarbakır used local rice varieties.

4. 3. 3 The Law about the Registration, Control and Certification

of Seeds

In addition to the institutional works of the institutes in Antalya, Yeşilköy, and

Tarsus, seed variety breeding was supported by legislation by the government

in the 1960s. This has determined the legal framework and the legal infrastructure

of rice variety breeding works, the registration and certification of

rice seeds that have been fulfilled by people or public institutions such as

Agricultural Faculties, Thrace Agricultural Research Institutes, and Black Sea

Agricultural Research Institute.

For the breeding of one rice variety, morphological, physiological, cytological

differences from other varieties are essential. Homogenous and uniform

vegetation in the field has to be provided.705 Since rice seed that was

comply with the climate conditions of Turkey had not been developed technically

until the 1960s, the Ministry of Agriculture and private entrepreneurs

imported rice seed from Italy, Egypt, and the USA and distributed them without

testing.706

The meaning of seed is the vegetative and generative parts that make possible

the reproduction of plants. The seed of rice is its grain. The grain of rice

should be purified from all foreign matters such as soil, herb seeds, red rice

and straw. The size of the grain should be homogenous. Otherwise, the small

size of the grain is less resistant to diseases. Based on the numbered 308 Law

that was enacted on August 21, 1963, while certificated and controlled seeds

can be produced by people or the institutions, pedigree and original seeds can

be produced only by Agricultural Faculties and Agricultural Research Institutes.

The rice cultivators who want to produce seeds have to get a seed growing

certificate regulated by the provincial directorates of agriculture. In addition

to a determination of breeding works of rice variety, these institutions

705 Hail Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 172.

706 Mustafa Uluöz., Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişirme Değerleri Üzerine Araştırmalar, 30.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

161

applied to the Ministry of Agriculture to be registered officially. Essential cultivation

areas and stores for rice variety breeding, adequate agricultural equipment,

and qualified personnel are important criteria for the determination of

rice variety breeding. Within the concept of this law, pedigree, original, and

certificated seeds are developed.707

Furthermore, before the application of the registration of new rice variety

to the Ministry of Agriculture, the statistical information about technological

properties and the resistance of new rice variety to diseases have to be tested.

The rice variety that has a superior economic value such as the quality of

paddy, storing and vegetation period are preferred for registration.708 Rice variety

breeding research is done to get new rice varieties that have higher

yields, shorter vegetation period, and more resistant to lodging are quite limited.

To take part in the registration testing of rice variety, an application is

made to the Directorate of Registration and Certification. In this process, testing

has to be made and reported, the document of rice variety property and

the translation of foreign varieties are required. Rice variety protection breeding

is required to protect its genetic. As a result of breeding, crop plants get

higher yield and are more resistant to diseases. In contrast, without the breeding

of rice varieties, these varieties lose their agronomic properties in time.

Thanks to the breeding of rice varieties that are more adapted to different climates,

higher sensitivity to fertilization, and more developed growing technics,

rice production has increased since the mid-1960s. Rather than the increase

of the land size, the breeding of rice varieties has increased the rice

production. Agricultural products are tried in three years in trying fields of

Agricultural Research Institutes, Agriculture Colleges, and Agricultural Faculties.

These tests are called as the performance tests. If rice variety is tested

in two distinct locations, this period has to be one year.709

Seed certificate determines the genetic, physical, and biological conditions

of seeds. While certified seeds are registered as a result of the testing or

controlling in laboratory and testing fields, controlled seeds are tested only in

707 Hail Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 171- 180.

708 Ibid., 173-174.

709 Ibid., 170-195.

O K A N C E Y L A N

162

laboratories. Second, pedigree seeds are the varietal purity of rice that has just

bred is protected and continued by the experts. Pedigree seeds are regarded

as the first step of original and certificated seeds. Third, original seeds that

continue the varietal purity of the pedigree seeds are developed and controlled

by certification and seed control organizations in Agricultural Research Institutes.

Similarly, certificated seeds carry the characteristics of the varietal purity

of original seed and foundation stock are developed and controlled by seed

control and certification organization in Agricultural Research Institutes.

Based on the seed growing certificate, the production of breeding rice varieties,

the cleanness of stores, combine harvesters and harvest, the annihilation

of herbs from rice fields, and the compliance with the measures about the

genetic protection of rice varieties are regulated.710

4.3.4 The Production of Contract Rice Seed and the Rice Projects

of Thrace Agricultural Research Institute and Black Sea Agricultural

Research Institute

Since the paddy prices increased and the amount of rice in the stocks of TGB

decreased, the Ministry of Agriculture decided to support rice cultivation

through the project of contract rice seed production.711 Before the experience

of foreign exchange bottleneck, to prevent currency loss, the production of

rice seed had been first thought as a project by the Provincial Directorate of

Agriculture in Edirne in 1974. The main aims of this project were to increase

rice yield, to get more qualified rice production, and to receive the paddy consumption

requirement. Within the scope of this project, provided that rice

seed, fertilizer and agricultural extension activities were supplied by the government,

2000 tons of Baldo, Rocco and Ribe rice varieties that were in the

amount of 35,400,000 TL were imported from İtaly.712

710 Ibid., 185-188.

711 “Sözleşmeli Çeltik Tohumu Üretim Projesi İlimizde Tatbik Edilecek,” Vatandaş, February 7,

1977.

712 “Çeltik Üretim Projesi İlk Olarak İlimizde Uygulandı,” Vatandaş, January 29, 1979.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

163

The project was accepted by the Ministry of Agriculture, the General Directorate

of Agricultural Affairs, TGB, and Agricultural Equipment Institution

was implemented in 50000 decars of land in twelve provinces of Turkey

in 1977. These provinces were Edirne, Diyarbakır, Samsun, Adana, Ankara,

Bursa, Çorum, İçel, Kastamonu, Kahramanmaraş, Malatya, and Sinop. Therefore,

10000 decars of fields in Meriç and 4000 decars of fields in İpsala in

Edirne were set aside. TGB would distribute the imported rice seed to farmers

through a bill without advance payment and interest-free. In return, the farmers

would sell their products to TGB in the harvest.713 427 farmers cultivated

6150 decars rice in five villages of two districts of Edirne. As a result of the

cultivation of 44700 kg Ribe, 39834 kg Baldo and 47150 kg Rocca, 3351 tons

of rice seed could be produced. Some amount of the rice seed was bought by

the Ministry of Agriculture; the rest was presented to free sale.714

To extend irrigated lands and to increase yield, the Provincial Directorate

of Agriculture and Thrace Agricultural Research Institute in Edirne under the

guidance of the Ministry of Agriculture supported five years’ soil irrigation

project that was conducted by SHW, Soil Water Cooperatives and Village Development

Cooperatives in four districts and thirty villages of Edirne from

1976 onwards. In this context, six conferences, twenty-five village talks, and

three field days were organized. 2500 letters that explained this project were

distributed to peasants.715 Similarly, in order to develop rice farming in Samsun,

the Provincial Directorate of Agriculture bought 38 tons of rice varieties

that had higher germination power such as Rocca and Baldo from Thrace Agricultural

Research Institute. Furthermore, these seeds were cultivated in rice

testing fields such as 200 decars in Çarşamba, 100 decars in Bafra, 75 decars

in Terme ad 50 decars in Alaçam in 1976.716

713 “Sözleşmeli Çeltik Tohumu Üretim Projesi İlimizde Tatbik Edilecek,”; “Pirinç Üretiminin

Arttırılması Kararlaştırıldı,” Vatandaş, February 13, 1977; “Sözleşmeli Çeltik Üretimi Yapılacak

İler Belli Oldu,” Vatandaş, February 20, 1977.

714 “Çeltik Üretim Projesi İlk Olarak İlimizde Uygulandı,”

715 “Merkez Keşan, Uzunköprü, Meriç İlçelerinde Uygulanan 2. Yıllık Toprak Sulama Projesi

Çalışmaları Başladı,” Vatandaş, April 11, 1977.

716 “Samsun’da Bu Yıl Artan Çeltik Rekoltesi,” 30000 tonu Bulacak, Hürsöz, September 22,

1976.

O K A N C E Y L A N

164

Although programmed works on rice began in the Thrace Agricultural Research

Institute in 1970, they had been limited with regional projects until

1982. Historically, the Institute that was founded in 1924 became the project

center of rice variety breeding and has been spread at the national level since

1980.717This institute was a research and development center for the breeding,

development, education, and spread of rice.718 The aim of research and development

support was to increase breeding works, to increase competitiveness

and to provide added value.719 There had not been adequate scientific research

and specialist in rice farming until the end of the 1970s. Then, the projects

about rice variety breeding, rice technology, and cultivation technics began in

Thrace Agricultural Research Institute in 1979.

Although Thrace Agricultural Research Institute produced between 70

and 80 original rice seeds and distributed them to farmers, certified seeds were

imported from Italy in the 1970s.720 The amount of rice seed production in

Thrace Agricultural Research Institute between 1970 and 2006 was 87 tons of

elite seed, 18266 tons of original seed, 7.4 foundation stock, 579 tons of certified

seed, and 2345 tons of controlled seed.721 The rate of certified rice seed

was too low level and it was 15 percent in total cultivated lands in Turkey in

2013. Since there has been no long run and programmed rice production policy,

there are some fluctuations and unbalanced situation both in rice seed

production and the demand of farmers for it. For example, while 144 tons of

rice seed was produced and 1836 tons were sold in 1988, 1034 tons of rice seed

717 Erdoğan İndelen, “Türkiye’de Ekilen Çeltik Çeşitlerinin Üretimdeki Payları ve Çeltik Tohumluğu

Üretim Programı,” 14.

718 Işık Ocaklı, Edirne İli Çeltik Sektörü Raporu, 70.

719 Ibid., 84.

720 Çorum Milletvekili Cahit Angın ve 11arkadaşının, çeltikçiliği geliştirmek, verimi artırmak ve

maliyeti düşürmek yolunda gerekli tedbirleri saptamak amacıyle, Anayasanın 88nci, Millet

Meclisi İçtüzüğünün 102 nci maddeleri uyarınca bir Meclis Araştırması açılmasına ilişkin

önergesi üzere Edirne Milletvekili Cevat Sayının Konuşması (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, February

9, 1977).

721 T.C, Gıda Tarım ve Hayvancılık Bakanlığı, Trakya Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü 2012 Yılı

Araştırma Projeleri Raporu, 50.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

165

was produced and 194 tons were sold in 1990.722 To increase both native rice

production and rice quality, the director of Thrace Agricultural Research Institute

Ahmet Bülbül said that they sold their rice seeds to contractual companies

and farmers directly.723

As Halil Sürek specifies, there was no national seed production program

and Turkey had had some problems in rice seed import until the 1980s.724 With

the supply of materials from the USA, Italy, the Philippines, and Bulgaria,

some adaptation testings were realized. In order to increase rice research at

the national level, a rice research project under the guidance of Thrace Agricultural

Research Institute began with the participation of agricultural research

institutes in Samsun, Diyarbakır, Adana, Antalya, and İzmir.725 These

comprehensive rice studies were about the breeding of more fertile rice varieties,

the enlargement of adaptation areas and the development of more resistant

rice varieties to drought and cold air in the 1980s.726 Hybridization

breeding was done in 1979 and mutation breeding was done in 1996. Thanks

to transduction, Osmancık 97 and Halilbey varieties resisted to pyricularia

oryza could be developed in 1997. 727 In the development story of the Osmancık

97 rice variety, Osmancık 97 district governor demanded the development

of a rice variety that was called Osmancık 97 from Thrace Agricultural

Research Institute. Thus, Osmancık 97 had been developed between

722 Samsun Milletvekili Cemalettin Şimşek ve 19 milletvekilinin, çeltik üreticilerinin sorunlarının

araştırılarak alınması gereken önlemlerin belirlenmesi amacıyla Meclis araştırması açılmasına

ilişkin önergesi (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, February 28, 2013),

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/TUTANAK/TBMM/d24/c044/tbmm24044072.pdf

723 “Türkiye’nin Çeltik Tohumluğu Edirne’de Yetişiyor,” Vatandaş, January 20, 1997.

724 Mehmet Reis, “2010 Yılında Pirinç Fiyatlarında Artış Olmayacak,” Hasad Tarım Dergisi, no.

301 (2010): 62.

725 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 202.

726 A. Kadir Kıran, Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesinde Çeltik Tarımının Bugünkü Durumu, 2.

727 Adnan Tülek, “Çeltikte Islah Çalışmaları Yeni Geliştirilen Çeşitler ve Çiftçilerin Bu Çeşitleri

Kullanımı,” Çiftçi ve Köy Dünyası, no. 370, (2015): 44.

O K A N C E Y L A N

166

1982 and 1997. Osmancık 97 is cultivated in Russia, Bulgaria, and Italy nowadays.

728

The requirement of rice seed was received by Thrace Agricultural Research

Institute, Agricultural Equipment Institution and State Hatcheries by

means of production and importation in 1981. However, since this was not an

adequate and qualified project, the Ministry of Agriculture began to implement

a rice seed production program in 1982. Thus 1778 tons of certified rice

seed such as Rocca, Ribe, Krosnodarsky- 424 and Plovdiv were produced for

the first time. However, 586 tons could be sold.729 In rice variety breeding

works, seed- time, harvest period, high grain yield, resistance to lodging, irrigation

methods, the amount of seed in sowing, and high paddy yield were

studied.730

With the implementation of the Southeast Anatolian Project, irrigable

lands increased. Thus rice cultivation can be encouraged as an alternative

product to clean the salty lands that appeared after cotton cultivation in

Şanlıurfa, Diyarbakır, and Mardin.731 These projects were important guidance

for rice cultivators. However, since the gene pool of rice becomes narrow,

new rice varieties have almost gained the same fertility level. Otherwise hybrid

rice variety breeding is quite expensive.732 Thrace Agricultural Research

Institute spent 277,500 TL for the breeding of new rice, barley, and wheat

varieties in 1980 and sent them to the Regional Directorate of Variety and

Testing in Ankara in 1980.733 Furthermore, rice farming in 300000 decars in

southeastern Anatolia became a current issue.734

728 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey, August 13, 2018; Ahmet

Aydın and Osman Kiraz, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey August 06, 2018.

729 Erdoğan İndelen, “Türkiye’de Ekilen Çeltik Çeşitlerinin Üretimdeki Payları ve Çeltik Tohumluğu

Üretim Programı,” 15.

730 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 202.

731 A. Kadir Kıran, Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesinde Çeltik Tarımının Bugünkü Durumu, 11.

732 Rasim Ünan, Halil Sürek, Melis Seidi and Mevlüt Şahin. “Hibrit Çeltik ve Türkiye’deki Geleceği,”

Uluslararası Katılımlı Konuralp Çeltik Çalıştayı, Düzce (September 2016): 13.

733 T.C Gıda Tarım ve Hayvancılık Bakanlığı, Trakya Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü 2012 Yılı

Araştırma Projeleri Raporu, 4.

734 “Türkiye’nin Çeltik Tohumluğu Edirne’de Yetişiyor.”

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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Thrace Agricultural Research Institute had registered and taken a production

license of 37 rice varieties until 2012. These are Rocca, Plovdiv, Krosnadarsky-

424, Ranballi, Rodina and Veneria. Firstly, Rocca, Krasnodarsky-424,

Plovdiv, Rodina, Ranballi, and Veneria rice varieties had been registered between

1983 and 1986. On the other hand, the first Turkish rice varieties such

as Ergene, Trakya, Meriç, İpsala, and Altınyazı were produced in 1990. Similarly,

Serhat was produced in 1992, Sürek was produced in 1995 and also Osmancık

97 was produced in 1997 in Thrace Agricultural Research Institute in

Edirne.735

Figure 4. 4 Rice Breeding Works of Halil Sürek in Thrace Agricultural

Research Institute

SOURCE: Anadolu Ajansı, March 10, 2017

735 ğük, “Son Yıllarda Ülkemiz Çeltik Üretiminde UlaşılanVerim Seviyesi ve Geliştirilen Yeni

Çeltik Çeşitlerinin Verim Potansiyelleri,”72-73.

O K A N C E Y L A N

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Table 4.4 Local Rice Varieties in Turkey

Years Rice Varieties developed by Thrace Agricultural

Research Institute

1990 Meriç, Trakya, Altınyazı, Ergene, İpsala

1992 Serhat-92

1995-1997 Serhat-95, Osmancık-97

2000-2002 Kral, Yavuz, Demir, Gönen,Nergiz,

Kargı,Neğiş

2004 Edirne, Kırkpınar, Halilbey, Ece

2006 Şumnu, Beşer

2007 Durağan, Kızıltan, Aromatik-I

2009 Gala, Tunca

2011 Çakmak, Hamzadere, Paşalı, Efe

2013 Biga İncisi, Tosy Güneşi, Manyas

Yıldızı, Yatkın, Küplü, Mis-2013, Sürek

M711, Kale

2015 IMI 2521, IMI 2554, Balaban, Sarıhan,

Ülfet

SOURCE Sürek (2016).

Similarly, the Field Crops Department of Agricultural Faculty at Ege University

registered the TOAG-92 rice variety in 1992 as a secondary product.736

Despite of these studies, with 1289 kg of seed production, Thrace Agricultural

Research Institute received only 3 or 4 percent of seed requirement in 2005.737

However, this rate increased to 49 percent in 2017.738 While the amount of

736 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 203.

737 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye'de çeltikte uygulanan üretim fiyat ve pazar politikalarının değerlendirilmesi”

93.

738 T.C TİGEM Tohumculuk Sektör Raporları (2017) accesed March 20, 2019, https://www.tigem.

gov.tr/WebUserFile/DosyaGaleri/2018/2/a374cc25-acc1-44e8-a546-

63b4c8bce146/dosya/2017%20TIGEM%20TOHUMCULUK%20SEKTOR%20

RAPORU.pdf

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

169

certified seed used in cultivation was 188 tons in 1997,739 it increased to 10491

tons in 2016.740

General Directorate of Agricultural Research began runing a project about

National Rice Research and Variety Development between 1996 and 1998.

This project was continued under the name of Thrace and Marmara Region

Rice Variety Breeding Projects between 1999 and 2006. Finally, it continued

under the name of Thrace Marmara Region Rice Variety Breeding Research

between 2007 and 2012. In the end, 14 rice varieties out of a total of 37 were

developed in these studies. Within the scope of this project, 21 farmer meetings

and 7 field days were organized in Edirne, Samsun, Sinop, Balıkesir Çanakkale,

and between 2007 and 2012.741 In general, in contrast to the agricultural

research institute, provincial directorates of agriculture do not regulate

training and extension activities in villages due to bureaucratic reasons. However,

since many rice growers are open- minded, they can communicate with

the professional agricultural engineering in rice farming through farmer

groups on social media or telephone in Edirne and Samsun. They also inform

farmers in the conferences and meetings about new rice varieties and pesticides.

742

Seed production projects were run in the Thrace, Aegean, and Cilician

agricultural research institutes. In the beginnings of the 2000s, almost 60 tons

of elite and original rice seed of 10 rice varieties were produced in Thrace

Agricultural Research Institute. Similarly, 6 tons of elite and 204 tons of original

seeds out of 22 rice varieties were produced in 2014. All of these new

pieces of research are explained to peasants in field days activities.743 Thanks

to the high yield property of Osmancık-97, rice production increased and rice

739 Fahri Yavuz, Türkiye’de Tarım, 158.

740 T.C TİGEM Tohumculuk Sektör Raporları (2017).

741 Republic of Turkey, Gıda Tarım ve Hayvancılık Bakanlığı, Trakya Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü

2012 Yılı Araştırma Projeleri Raporu 40- 64.

742 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey, August 13, 2018, 2018;

Rasim Ünan and Melih Enginsu, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey

August 06, 2018.

743 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 202-205; Adnan Tülek, “Çeltikte Islah Çalışmaları Yeni Geliştirilen

Çeşitler,” 44.

O K A N C E Y L A N

170

imports decreased. 80 percent of rice cultivated lands are constituted of Osmancık-

97 rice variety in the 2000s.744 Thus, it stimulated the rice economy

in Turkey. Thanks to the development of rice variety and seed production of

Thrace Agricultural Research Institute, they could sell their seed to seed firms

directly or by means of tender. In return, these firms pay research and development

prices to the circulating capital of the institute. In addition to 18 rice

varieties that are in the registration phase, Halil Sürek said that they have developed

53 rice varieties so far.745

Figure 4.5 Osmancık 97 Rice Variety

SOURCE: Halil Sürek, Trakya Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsünde

Geliştirileri Çeltik Çeşitleri.

In addition to Thrace Agricultural Research Institute, Black Sea Agricultural

Research Institute has done some research on rice breeding. The Institute was

founded in 1944 in Samsun with the name of Samsun Regional Station of Seed

Improvement. However, it has been called as Black Sea Agricultural Research

744 Melih Enginsu and Serkan Yılmaz, “Karadeniz Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü Çeltik Islah

Araştırmaları,” 41-43.

745 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey August 13, 2018.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

171

Institute since 1987.746 As a result of the studies, irrigation water, pyricularia

oryza, and weed problems are regarded as three big problems in the rice cultivation

of the Black Sea. Within the context of the testing of variety registration,

Black Sea Agricultural Research Institute developed four rice varieties

such as Karadeniz, Kızılırmak, Bafra Yıldızı, and Mevlütbey between 2005

and 2012. Thanks to meetings with farmers in field days, Black Sea Agricultural

Research Institute determines potential problems of rice cultivation and

also introduces certified seeds and new technologies in rice cultivation. Thus,

coordination could be provided among researchers, educators and producers.

747 In addition to 4 rice varieties, Black Sea Agricultural Research Institute

researched the amount of fertilizer in rice farming, rice variety breeding, and

crop rotation in rice. The institute is responsible for the development of rice

farming in the Black Sea Region such as Samsun, Çorum, and Sinop.748

Similarly, for the economic development of Southeastern Anatolia and the

solution of agrarian problems, Southeastern Anatolian Project (SAP) International

Agricultural Research Research, and Training Center was founded in

Kıtırbil Diyarbakır in 1962 with the name of Regional Agricultural Research

Institute. Since there was a limited number of agricultural experts in the districts

of Diyarbakır, and there was no sufficient number of vehicles, they

could not arrive at villages at that time. Therefore, the yields of rice were low

in Karacadağ in the 1960s.749 It took an existing name in 2011. This institute

mainly focused on product ranges, soil analyses, and agricultural production.

750 However, the farmers continued to use local rice varieties. Furthermore,

thanks to institutionalization in all eastern provinces, this institute

746 T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, Karadeniz Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü, Tarihçe, accessed

March 20, 2019, https://arastirma.tarimorman.gov.tr/ktae/Sayfalar/Detay.aspx?SayfaId=8

747 Melih Enginsu and Serkan Yılmaz, “Karadeniz Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü Çeltik Islah

Araştırmaları,” 41-43.

748 Rasim Ünan and Melih Enginsu, tape- recorded interview by the author, Samsun, Turkey,

August 06, 2018.

749 “Ziraatta Kalkınmamız,” Diyarbakır, March 8, 1963.

750 “Şehrimize Bir Zirai Araştırma Enstitüsü Kuruldu,” Diyarbakır, January 25, 1963; T.C

GAPUTAEM, accesed March 15, 2019 https://arastirma. tarimorman.gov.tr/gaputaem/Iletisim.

O K A N C E Y L A N

172

would increase agricultural production and yield in other products.751 With

the support of this institute, Diyarbakır Governorship applied to the Turkish

Patent Institute for the geographical indication of the Karacadağ rice variety

in 2010 and their application was accepted in 2014. However, the production

of certified seed of Karacadağ rice variety is almost nonexistent in any public

or private institute.752

Furthermore, Southeastern Anatolian Agricultural Research Institute was

founded in Şanlıurfa in 2007 with the combinations of Soil Water Resources

and Agricultural Research Institute in Şanlıurfa in 1976 and the Directorate of

Southeastern Anatolia Training, Extension and Research Center in 1977.

There are training projects on agricultural irrigation, agricultural technology,

agricultural input, and seed variety breeding at the regional, national, and international

levels.753 However, the rice growers of Karacadağ have used their

local rice varieties such as Sarıçeltik, Ak kılçık, Karacadağ, Kırmızı kılçık

and Siirt çeltiği. There are no rice variety breeding works in the institutes of

Şanlıurfa and Diyarbakır.

4. 3. 5 The Role of the Turkish Grain Board in Rice Economy

In addition to research and development projects, the government has been

influential in the economic sector of rice such as pricing, marketing, and consumption.

Therefore, the council of minister, the Ministry of Agriculture, and

TGB have been important actors.

Historically, the economic influences of the Great Depression in the 1930s

were influential in the foundation of TGB in 1938. First, with the decline of

wheat prices, Agricultural Bank was charged with wheat purchasing. Then,

TGB was charged with the regulation of the supplying of cereal and the market

prices of cereals. However, based on the cabinet decision, the first rice

751 “Zirai Araştırma Enstitümüz Faaliyete Geçmiş Bulunuyor,” Diyarbakır, April 18, 1963.

752 Resmi Gazete, December 21, 2014.

753 T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, GAPUTAEM, Tarihçe, accesed March 20, 2019, https://arastirma.

tarimorman.gov.tr/gaptaem/Menu/7/Tarihce

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

173

purchasing of TGB was in 1941.754 TGB had got into the rice market two times

in 1960-61 and 1966-67. As a state economic enterprise, TGB implements an

influential price policy in Turkey to protect the interests of both producers

and consumers.755 Based on the rules of the TGB, rice has to be not musty,

heated, and more than 17 percent of humidity. The yield rate has to be between

51 and 66 percent. Besides, the rate of crocked rice grain has to be not more

than 8.756 The TGB has provided its credit from Central Bank. For example,

the TGB got 450 million TL credit in its 1966 company.757

The TGB used two systems in its purchasing. They were rating the system

and technical purchasing scale. First, the rating system was implemented for

the first time in 1967. In this system, rice was separated into twelve degrees

and the control of foreign matter; humidity, and yield were made for each

degree. Since separated pricings were made for each degree based on the results,

this system influenced the profit of farmers. Second, in the technical

purchasing scale, the factors that influenced the prices of rice were determined

one by one and the physical properties and the content of rice such as

grain size, humidity, and foreign matter were evaluated separately. This system

was more beneficial for the profit of farmers.758

In addition to water capacity, rice prices are the main factor in deciding

on rice cultivation.759 In the course of application to rice cultivation commissions,

some peasants declare less amount of rice cultivated lands to pay less

754 T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı Toprak Mahsulleri Ofisi (TMO), Tarihçe, accesed March 10,

2019, http://www.tmo.gov.tr/Main.aspx?ID=13 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 170-

188.

755 İpek Atılgan Helvacıoğlu, Tuna Şener, Cem Tokatlı and Alpay Balkan, “Socio-Economic

Conditions and Behaviors of Rice Producers in Meriç Plain,” Tekirdağ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi

13, no. 4, (2016): 21.

756 T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, Toprak Mahsülleri Ofisi (TMO) Çeltik Alım ve Depolama

İşleri Hakkında Genelge, TMO Genel Müdürlüğü 033/ 06-101 ve 8.10.1966; Turan Güneş,

Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 170-188.

757 “TMO’ya Kredi Verildi,” Edirne Sesi, July 17, 1965.

758 T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, Toprak Mahsülleri Ofisi (TMO) 1968/69 Çeltik Kampanya

Raporu, 12; Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 188.

759 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 203.

O K A N C E Y L A N

174

license tax and in the course of sales some of them declare less fertility rate

with the worry of paying higher tax. Therefore, to prevent unlicensed rice

cultivation, TGB demands the documentation of sanitary license tax in the

course of the sale.760 However, since the TGB did not announce a fee description

of rice on time, rice cultivators cannot predict the rice market and sell

their products cheaper to merchants.761

4. 3. 6 The Agricultural Support Policies of Government in Rice

The Government has been also influential during the production process of

rice with its support. There had been statist economic policies in the agricultural

sector between 1914 and 1980. The government provided low interest rate

loans and subsidized the prices of agricultural inputs such as fertilizer, pesticides,

and machines that were sold in Agricultural Equipment Institutions.762

However, Turkey was integrated into the neoliberal economic conditions after

the Decisions of January 24, 1980. Agricultural inputs, the prices of agricultural

products, and credits began to comply with the rules of the neoliberal

economy.763 Especially, agricultural subventions had been abolished apart

from fertilizer and populist policies that had been implemented through market

price support between 1980 and 2000. However, since the government liberalized

the agricultural market, farmers have been exposed to high interest

rate loans, high cost of agricultural inputs, and low prices of their agricultural

products in the liberal market economy since 1980.764

760 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye'de çeltikte uygulanan üretim fiyat ve pazar politikalarının değerlendirilmesi”

30.

761 Edirne Milletvekili Erdal Kesebir'in, Trakya Bölgesindeki çiftçilerin sorunlarına ilişkin gündem

dışı konuşması ve Sanayi ve Ticaret Bakanı Mehmet Tahir Köse'nin cevabı (TBMM

Tutanak Dergisi, September 22, 1993).

762 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye'de çeltikte uygulanan üretim fiyat ve pazar politikalarının değerlendirilmesi”

130.

763 Çağlar Keyder and Zafer Yenal, Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2013),

37.

764 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye'de çeltikte uygulanan üretim fiyat ve pazar politikalarının değerlendirilmesi”

131.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

175

There have been agricultural supports that mean state interventionism in

agricultural sectors in many countries to provide the sustainability of production,

national food security, contribute to the national economy, and to get a

competitive advantage in foreign trade.765 These supports can be collected

under four titles as Market Price Support, Direct Income Support (DIS), General

Services Support, and Indirect Income Support.

First, Market Price Support that is producer oriented support is the means

of the regulation of agricultural production and the distribution of income. It

was firstly implemented in 1932 by the Agricultural Bank and by the TGB766

in the conditions of the Great Depression in the 1930s.767 TGB tried to deal

with potential economic risks by balancing the prices for producers and consumers,

to support and regulate the market of agricultural products such as

cereals, legumes, and oilseeds.768 Second, Direct Income Support (DIS) aims

to increase the income of producers and protect market balances. DIS is not

associated with the production of farmers. Its finance is provided from the

budget of the state. It is closely related to Farmer Registration System and

independent from agricultural production.769 On the other hand, indirect Income

Support is oriented to decrease the expenditure of producers. For example,

it is a support that is implemented to agricultural inputs such as fertilizer,

diesel oil, pesticides and seed. Finally, the General Services Support is related

to education, research, publication, and taxation. However, the price levels of

support are formed based on the Standby Treaty with the IMF.770

According to the criteria of the OECD, since regular purchaser and vendor

mechanism was not formed, Turkey had been one of the countries that intervened

in free trade wrongly until 2001. However, after the Standby Treaty

with the IMF, the intervention of the state such as agricultural supports and

purchases of the TGB, the prices of agricultural products, and the income of

765 Gökhan Günaydın, “Türkiye Tarım Sektörü,” Tarım ve Mühendislik, no. 76-77 (2006): 20.

766 Ibid., 20-21.

767 Fahri Yavuz, Türkiye’de Tarım Politikası, 11.

768 Işık Ocaklı, Edirne İli Çeltik Sektörü Raporu, 67.

769 Okan Gaytancıoğlu., “Türkiye'de çeltikte uygulanan üretim fiyat ve pazar politikalarının değerlendirilmesi”

47-63.

770 Gökhan Günaydın “Türkiye Tarım Sektörü,” 20-23.

O K A N C E Y L A N

176

peasants have decreased. The rules of foreign trade in rice and paddy are determined

by the Under Secretariat Foreign Trade. Similar to Market Price

Supports, Agricultural Input Supports were eliminated. While there is no

block for the export of paddy, sometimes the import of the paddy is prevented.

Under Secretariat Foreign Trade supports free rice trade rather than paddy

trade for the creation of added value, and the removal of agricultural supports

based on the international developments in agriculture.771 Furthermore, General

Services Supports decreased day by day. In the determination of the price

level of agricultural products, the prices of commodity exchange in the USA

is taken as a reference to comply with the international price. However, since

neoliberal policies have caused the decline of the acquisition of peasants in

the face of increasing costs of agricultural inputs, the peasants left the agricultural

sector.772

Turkey signed the Agricultural Reform Implementation Program with the

World Bank since the reform of the IMF was supported in accordance with

the Structural Adjustment Loans of the World Bank in 2001. This treaty has

four projects such as Direct Income Support (DIS), Alternative Product Project,

the Restructure of Agricultural Sale Cooperatives, and Project Support

Services.773 DIS requires an application to the Provincial or District Directorate

of Agricultures. It was though that 28 TL was given per decars in 2003.

The indications in the Farmer Registration System are considered as basic

criteria.774 However, the extent of land that could be supported was limited to

500 decars.775

Although the supports of the Ministry of Agriculture have increased rice

production in Turkey since 2002, Turkey is not self-sufficient in rice production.

776 Furthermore, due to high water consumption in rice fields, high cost

771 Ibid., 47-54.

772 Gökhan Günaydın, “Türkiye Tarım Sektörü,” 20-23.

773 Ibid., 21.

774 “Doğrudan Gelir Desteği,” Vatandaş, May 3, 2003.

775 “Çiftçiye Destek,” Ergani Söz, July 7, 2005.

776 Ömer Faruk Ekmekçi and Hikmet Özkan, “Türkiye’de Çeltik Üretimi ve Destekler,” Türk

Tarım, no. 199, (2011): 64-66.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

177

of production, and the difficulties in the competition with imported rice, the

Ministry of Agriculture prefer corn and sunflower cultivation rather than rice.

Similar to the Ministry of Agriculture, the State Planning Organization supports

rice import to nourish the increasing population and to balance rice

prices in the domestic markets of Turkey.777 However, when the rice consumption

needs of the growing population and increasing foreign trade deficit

are considered the prevention of rice import with the balanced policy between

production and consumption or production planning becomes more of an issue.

Furthermore, the state knows the cultivated lands of rice since it is subject

to license.778

However, firstly, after the decision of January 24, 1980, the retail prices of

fertilizer increased between 41 and 67 percent in 1981. In this context, the price

of fertilizer was marked up and 100,000 milliard TL government support or

subvention on fertilizer was abolished.779 While fertilizer support was 50 percent

in 1993, it decreased to 10 percent in 1994.780 However, Agricultural

Credit Cooperative paid 30 percent of fertilizer price and the rice growers in

Thrace used 187000 tons of fertilizer in 1993.781 However, thanks to premium

subsidies, rice variety breeding projects, and the use of modern technology in

rice, 23.000 rice cultivators in Turkey grow rice about 100.000 hectares of land

in the 2000s. Similarly, premium subsidies control rice production through

the direction of rice production, the protection of the income level of rice

growers, and the maintenance of rice production.782

777 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye'de çeltikte uygulanan üretim fiyat ve pazar politikalarının değerlendirilmesi”

55-56.

778 Çorum Milletvekili Cahit Angın ve 11 arkadaşının, çeltikçiliği geliştirmek, verimi artırmak

ve maliyeti düşürmek yolunda gerekli tedbirleri saptamak amacıyle bir Meclis Araştırması

açılmasına ilişkin önergesinin görüşülmesi (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, February 9, 1977).

779 “Gübreden de Devlet Desteği Kalktı,” Vatandaş, January 2, 1984.

780 “1995 Tarımda Felaket Yılı Olabilir,” Vatandaş, October 21, 1994.

781 “Tarım Kredi Kooperatifinden Çiftçiye Destek,” Vatandaş, October 21, 1994.

782 Ömer Faruk Ekmekçi and Hikmet Özkan., “Türkiye’de Çeltik Üretimi ve Destekler,” 64-66.

O K A N C E Y L A N

178

Table 4.5 Agricultural Supports in Rice Farming (2001-2017) (Per Ton/TL)

Years DIS Premium Diesel Oil Fertilizer Soil Analyse

2001 16 - - - -

2003 28 - - - -

2005 14 30 2,4 2 -

2007 10 90 4 3 -

2009 - 100 4 5 3

2011 - 100 4 5 3

2013 - 100 4.3 5,5 2,5

2015 - 100 4,85 6,6 2,5

2017 - 100 37,36 4 40

SOURCE TGB; The Ministry of Agriculture; Ziraat Dünyası, no. 543, (April 2015):62

While the DIS that is given to the owner of the lands rather than its cultivator

provides a commercial competitive advantage with farmers in developed

countries, it is not influential in developing countries.783 This support was

ended in 2007. Thanks to the Diesel Oil Support the agricultural production

came into force in 2003, peasants used 40 percent cheaper.784 According to the

Official Journal on July 6, 2015, Diesel Oil Support was determined as 8 liters

for each decar. 2005/8872 numbered decision about the payment of support

premium for cereal producers were taken on May 30, 2006.Thus, as long as

the rice producers present their sale notes, they benefit from this support. The

payments are made per each kilogram as 0,1 TL in 2010-2011. It has continued

as price support from 2012 onwards. Besides, seed support had been implemented

as 8 Turkish Liras per each decar between 2006 and 2011.785 Furthermore,

due to the first good agricultural practices in rice farming in Turkey, the

Ministry of Agriculture has paid agricultural support as 135 TL per decar in

783 Gökhan Günaydın, “Türkiye Tarım Sektörü,” 22.

784 Karaman Milletvekili Mevlüt Akgün'ün, tarımsal kalkınma kooperatiflerine destek uygulamalarının

etkilerine ilişkin gündem dışı konuşması ve Tarım ve Köyişleri Bakanı Mehmet

Mehdi Eker'in cevabı, (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, February 7, 2007).

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanalar/TUTANAK/TBMM/d22/c146/tbmm22146060.pdf

785 Serkan Yenal, “Çeltik Üretim ve Ticareti Etkinlik Verimlilik Çözümlenmesi,” 86-87.

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Samsun under the name of Environment Purpose The Protection of Agricultural

lands since 2010.786 The aim of this agricultural support is to protect soil

and water quality, to sustain natural sources, to prevent soil erosion, and to

decrease the negative influences of agriculture.787

Although, a specific part of the population is employed in the agrarian

sector, the agrarian economy concerns closely all nations. Since Turkey ignored

the agrarian sector between the 1960s and 1980s, a long-term policy

could not be formed in agriculture. While only 6 agricultural products such

as wheat, tea, and sugar beet had been supported in the 1960s, their number

reached 24 in 1980 and decreased to 3 products in 1994. The subvention of the

Agricultural Bank and Agricultural Credit Cooperatives are not adequate to

overcome the economic problems of peasants. In this context, Edirne Deputy

Şimşek suggests that agricultural supports should be directly given to peasants

through the implementation of the farmer register system. Especially, the

premium system that means the price difference in markets should be paid to

peasants. Şadan also suggested the legislation of crop insurance, agriculture,

and environment, land survey, and also the use of soil and terrain.788

The General Directorate for Agricultural Production and Development in

the Ministry of Agriculture has not developed sufficient policy for the rice

requirement of Turkey. However, the rice production and processing potential

of Turkey are sufficient to receive the paddy needs of Turkey. For example,

Since the Southeastern Anatolian Project developed the irrigated farming opportunity,

many farmers are involved in cotton production. However, to clean

the salt in soil that remained from cotton, rice can be cultivated.789

786 Hasan Toker, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, April 30, 2019.

787 T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, “Bitkisel Üretim,” May 20, 2019, https://www.tarimorman.

gov.tr/Konular/Bitkisel-Uretim/Tarla-Ve-Bahce-Bitkileri/CATAK

788 Edirne Milletvekili Şadan Şimşek 'in, tarım kesiminin sorunlarına ve alınması gereken önlemlere

ilişkin gündemdışı konuşması ve Tarım ve Köyişleri Bakanı Hüsnü Yusuf Gökalp'in

cevabı (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, February 13, 2001) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d21/c054/tbmm21054057.pdf

789 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye'de çeltikte uygulanan üretim fiyat ve pazar politikalarının değerlendirilmesi”

52- 53.

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180

From a political point of view, due to periodical changes of undersecretaries

in their duty and lack of sufficient financial support, planning in cultivated

lands and production cannot be developed.790 Furthermore, since there

has been no production planning and well directed policy, while some agricultural

products have been overproduced, some of them have been produced

inadequately.791

4. 3. 7 The Role Agricultural Credit Cooperatives in the

Development of Rice Farming

Agricultural Credit Cooperatives contributed to the agricultural and economic

development of Rice farming through the supplement of credit and agricultural

inputs. The development of cooperatives can be separated into two periods

as the pre-planned period (1923 and 1960) and post-planned period (1962

onwards).792 Historically, the Turkish cooperative system movement was

firstly begun with the Sovereign Wealth Funds founded by Mithat Pasha in

the Pirot District of Serbia where it was located in the Macedonian region of

the Ottoman State in November 1863. Mithat Pasha tried to unite credit cooperatives

and producer cooperatives with each other.793 Similarly, Sovereign

Wealth Funds that aimed to receive the credit needs of farmers were spread

country wide and played an important role in the institutionalization of both

Agricultural Credit Cooperatives and Agricultural Bank.794

More specifically, both increasing the credit needs of farmers and inadequate

measures in the modernization of Sovereign Wealth Funds led to the

foundation of Agricultural Bank instead of Menafi Sandığı formed as a result

790 Ibid., 53-54.

791 Edirne Milletvekili Şadan Şimşek 'in, tarım kesiminin sorunlarına ve alınması gereken önlemlere

ilişkin gündemdışı konuşması ve Tarım ve Köyişleri Bakanı Hüsnü Yusuf Gökalp'in

cevabı.

792 Reyhan Toplu, “Tarımsal Kooperatiflerin İktisadi Analizi: Diyarbakır Örneği,” (M.A Thesis,

İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, 2014): 57.

793 Necdet Bilgin and Şaban Tanıyıcı, “Türkiye’de Kooperatif ve Devlet İlişkilerinin Tarihi Gelişimi,”

KMU İİBF Dergisi, no. 15 (2008): 140.

794 T.C Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı, Türkiye Kooperatifçilik Raporu (2016), (Mayıs 2017): 3-4.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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of increasing 1 percent of the tithe in 1883.795 Furthermore, at first, cooperatives

were thought as a solution for the Ottoman economy and industry to

compete with foreign capitals by Turkish intelligentsia.796 As a state economic

enterprise, Agricultural Bank has provided a loan with farmers directly or

through Agricultural Credit Cooperatives and Agricultural Sale Cooperatives

since 1863.797

Before the proclamation of the Republic, although the government proposal

about Cooperative Association Law was partially accepted, it could not

be a law in course of the National Independence War. However, the importance

of cooperative association was made a current issue after the socioeconomic

conditions of the Great Depression on agriculture in 1929 and 1930

during parliamentary speeches and the nationwide tours of Atatürk and İnönü

to obtain finance and marketing. Furthermore, the first legal regulation of Agricultural

Credit Cooperative Law was made in 1929.798 Şükrü Kaya was

charged with the foundation of the Turkish Cooperation Society at İstanbul

University in 1931. Agricultural Sale Cooperatives and the Agriculture Credit

Cooperative entered into force in 1935. In this context, the first Agricultural

Credit Cooperative was established in the Tekir village of Mersin on June 30,

1936.799 In the case of natural disasters such as drought, frost and hail, the

Democrat Party (DP) government provided farmers who became indebted to

Agricultural Credit Cooperatives or Agricultural Bank with an opportunity of

debt relief in 1951.800 Agricultural Credit Cooperatives also generalized the

use of credits among small family enterprises in the 1950s. Thus, the number

of Agricultural Credit Cooperatives, the amount of credits and the number of

the partners of these cooperatives began to increase visually.801

795 Ruşen İlmen, “Tarım Kredi Kooperatifleri,” Karınca Kooperatif Postası, no: 168 (1950): 6.

796 Ahmet Özçelik, Tarım Tarihi ve Deontolojisi, 58.

797 M. Kemal Özer, “Mithat Paşa ve Ziraat Bankası’nın 100. Yılı,” Vatandaş, February 21, 1963.

798 Nurettin Hazar, Kooperatifçilik Tarihi, (Ankara: Türk Kooperatifçilik Eğitim Vakfı Yayınları,

1990); T.C Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı, Türkiye Kooperatifçilik Raporu (2016), 4-7.

799 Ahmet Özçelik, Tarım Tarihi ve Deontolojisi, 98-99.

800 Duygu Yılmaz, “Demokrat Parti Döneminde Aydın’da Tarım,” Atatürk Yolu Dergisi, no. 62

(Spring 2018): 368.

801 Korkut Boratav, Türkiye İktisat Tarihi (1908-2007), (Ankara: İmge Kitabevi, 2008),

O K A N C E Y L A N

182

When it comes to the 1960s, with the increase of unemployment, social

and economic issues, the governments implemented a planned economy to

increase agricultural production in rural areas and employment creation in

urban areas. Therefore, in the historical process, cooperative provisions took

part in the 1961 Constitution Act, Cooperative Law was enforced in 1969, and

the duties of state in the development of cooperatives were emphasized in the

1982 Constitution Act.802

There were 1600 agricultural cooperatives in the villages and districts of

Turkey. These cooperatives were founded according to 2836 numbered Law

and they worked as a branch of Agricultural Bank and provided cash credit

facilities with farmers in Turkey. On the other hand, agricultural credit cooperatives

supply the pesticides, fertilizer, and agricultural machines need of

their partners in Europe.803 According to 1581 numbered Law about agricultural

credit cooperatives in 1972, these institutions began to receive the agricultural

inputs of peasants such as fertilizer, pesticides, diesel oil, agricultural

machines, which rice growers need and animal feed as well as provided short

or long term credit facilities.804 In this context, Koyuntepe Agricultural Credit

Cooperative in İpsala District sold the first Fiat tractor out of 5 tractors which

had been booked before to partners Ömer and Mehmet Ersan in 1975.805 However,

with the collaboration of the Ministry of Agriculture, Agricultural Bank

and Agricultural Equipment Institution, agricultural machineries had been

supplied to peasants with five years’ maturity in the 1950s and 1960s.806

While Agricultural Credit Cooperatives had been worked within the structure

of Agricultural Bank until May 17, 1977, it has worked as an independent

farmer enterprise with the foundation of the Agricultural Credit Cooperative

Union since the end of the 1970s. While the administrative obligations of the

Agricultural Bank ended, it has still continued the role of being a finance bank

of these cooperatives. There were sixteen regional directorates of this union

802 T.C Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı, Türkiye Kooperatifçilik Raporu (2016), 5-6.

803 M. Kemal Özer, “Tarım Kredi Kooperatifleri,” Vatandaş, February 5, 1963.

804 Reyhan Toplu, “Tarımsal Kooperatiflerin İktisadi Analizi: Diyarbakır Örneği,” 66.

805 “Koyuntepe Tarım Kredi Kooperatifi İlk Traktörü Verdi,” İpsala, June 4, 1975.

806 “Beş Sene Vade ile Çiftçiye Makine,” Bafra, August 15, 1955.

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183

around Turkey.807 While Agricultural Credit Cooperatives provided a working

capital loan in the short run, they provided farmers with agricultural equipment

credit in the medium term. The prices of agricultural types of machinery

were liberalized in 1986.808

Table 4.6 The Number of Agricultural Credit Cooperatives and Members

in Turkey (1930-2016)

Years Cooperatives Members

1930 191 20170

1950 900 438410

1970 2021 1305461

1990 2459 1579208

2010 2489 1083041

2016 1625 1001418

SOURCE T.C Gümrük Bakanlığı Türkiye Tarım Kredi Kooperatifleri Raporu

The numbers of farmer households were 1751239 in 1927,809 2322391 in

1950,810 3376587 in 1970,811 3434 163 in 1980,812 4091530 in 1991,813 3069535

807 “Tarım Kredi Kooperatifleri Ziraat Bankasından Ayrıldı,” Vatandaş, October 18, 1977; Türkiye

Tarım Kredi Kooperatifleri, accsed March 20, 2019, http://www.tarimkredi.org.tr/index.

php/hakkimizda/tarihcemiz

808 İsa Kayacan, “Tarım Kredi,” Edirne, January 3, 1992.

809 T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK)Tarım Sayımı 1927 (Agricultural Census

1927). Ankara: 1970, 19- 20.

810 T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK)Tarım Sayımı Neticeleri 1950 (Agricultural

Census Results 1950). Ankara: 1956, 130.

811 T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK)Tarım Sayımı 1970 (Agricultural Census

1970). Ankara: 1979, 3.

812 T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK)Tarım Sayımı 1980 (Agricultural Census

1980). Ankara: 1982, 8.

813 T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK)Tarım Sayımı 1991 (Agricultural Census

1991). Ankara: 1992, 12.

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184

in 2001814 and 2176000 in 2016 in Turkey. Based on these numbers, there were

20170 members in 1930, 438410 members in 1950, 1305461 in 1970, 1 579208

members in 1990, 1083041 members in 2010 and 1001418 members in 2016.

While the partner numbers of these cooperatives had increased steadily until

the 1990s, their number began to decrease from 2000 onwards.815

Table 4.7 The Number of Farmer Households in Three Basins by Years

Provinces 1950 1991 2001 2017

Edirne 27362 42318 37816 27472

Samsun 53395 103329 86127 65615

Diyarbakır 30339 65099 50743 33735

Şanlıurfa 24747 72567 51647 58438

Mardin 28984 40375 38370 23658

SOURCE T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK)Tarım Sayımları 1950-

, 2001 (Agricultural Census 1950-2001); Çiftçi Kayıt Sistemi (ÇKS- 2017-

2018)

Agricultural Credit Cooperatives are influential in the direction of agricultural

policies. They provide farmers with the organization and the supplement of

agricultural inputs at affordable prices and credits.816 227 numbered Edirne

Agricultural Credit Cooperative was founded in the beginnings of the 1930s.

Lack of adequate storing was one of the main problems.817 While the number

of agricultural credit cooperatives in Edirne decreased from 101 to 28, between

814 T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK)Tarım Sayımı 2001. (Agricultural Census

2001). Ankara: 2004, 32.

815 T.C Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı, Türkiye Kooperatifçilik Raporu (2016), 40; “Türkiye’de

Tarımı 5,4 Milyon Kişi Sırtlıyor,” Hürriyet, May 13, 2016.

816 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye'de çeltikte uygulanan üretim fiyat ve pazar politikalarının değerlendirilmesi”

61.

817 Vatandaş, April 22, 1988.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

185

2005 and 2016. However, the number of partners increased from 13,040 to

15,752 between 2005 and 2016. Secondly, the number of Agricultural Credit

Cooperatives declined from 71 to 33 and there were 30.229 partners in Samsun

in 2016. There are 5 agricultural cooperatives in Diyarbakır, 13 cooperatives

in Şanlıurfa and 5 cooperatives in Mardin. There were 5,072 partners in Diyarbakır,

10,074 partners in Şanlıurfa, and 4,139 partners in Mardin in 2016.818

Due to the fear of natural disasters such as hail, storm and flood, the rice

growers of Karacadağ do not prefer to use a bank or cooperative credits. For

example, Süleyman Kızılkaya who is one of the prominent rice growers that

cultivates the rice fields of Yalankoz village in Diyarbakır through sharecropping

specified that he could not harvest his rice by reason of hail in 2017.

Thus, Agricultural Credit Cooperatives have not developed in the region819

due to traditional, conservative and tribal life style in rural areas. In contrast

to Karacadağ, rice growers in Edirne and Samsun began to use such credits

from Agricultural Cooperatives, public and private banks especially in the last

20 years more and more.820 Rice growers need to use credits due to the difficulties

of retrenching in small agricultural enterprises, slow capital turnover,

changing technological needs, price fluctuations of agricultural products, and

risk and uncertainties.821

4. 3. 8 Agricultural Irrigation Cooperatives

For the development, the organization and the spread of rice farming among

small agricultural enterprises, irrigation cooperatives have been important.

Since 70 percent of the Turkish population lived in rural areas and employed

in the agricultural sector in the 1960s, irrigation cooperatives that aimed to

818 T.C Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı, Türkiye Kooperatifçilik Raporu (2016), 40.

819 Süleyman Kızılkaya, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz Village of Diyarbakır,

Turkey, August 09, 2018.

820 Ahmet Aydın and Osman Kiraz, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey,

August 6, 2018.

821 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye'de çeltikte uygulanan üretim fiyat ve pazar politikalarının değerlendirilmesi”

58.

O K A N C E Y L A N

186

develop agricultural technology, increase fertility and increase welfare were

founded. To benefit from the state irrigation network, the organization of irrigation

cooperatives was stipulated. Furthermore, while there were only 13 irrigation

cooperatives in 1964, their number increased to 979 in 1971,822 1382

in 1976,823 and 2523 irrigation cooperatives at the national level in 2016. Similarly,

there were 303586 partners across Turkey in 2016. They took over the

management of irrigation services from the SHW.824 The number of irrigation

cooperatives decreased from 16 to 13 in Diyarbakır, from 12 to 4 in Şanlıurfa,

and decreased from 15 to 12 in Samsun between 1970 and 2016. While there

were 6 irrigation cooperatives in Mardin in the 1970s, their numbers decreased

to 2 in 2016. On the other hand, due to intensive rice cultivation, the number

of irrigation cooperatives increased from 16 in 1970 to 26 in 1980, 56 in 1984,

and to 90 in 2016 in Edirne.825 For example, 81 irrigation cooperatives have

12,047 partners in Edirne in 2005.826 Although their numbers increased to 90,

their partners decreased to 11,226 in 2016 in Edirne.827

Table 4.8 The Number of Irrigation Cooperatives in 5 Provinces (1970-

2016)

Provinces 1970 2016

Edirne 16 90

Samsun 15 12

Diyarbakır 16 13

Şanlıurfa 12 4

Mardin 6 2

SOURCE Zeren (1972); Türkiye Kooperatifçilik Raporu 2016.

822 Halil Zeren, “Türkiye’de Toprak ve Su Kooperatifleri ve Sorunları,” Türk Kooperatifçilik

Kurumu, no. 16 (Nisan- Haziran 1972): 3-6.

823 “Türkiye’de Bugüne Kadar 23, 735 Kooperatif Kuruldu,” Vatandaş, March 8, 1976.

824 T.C Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı, Türkiye Kooperatifçilik Raporu (2016), 42.

825 Ibid, 43; “Kooperatifler İl Müdürlüğü İlimizde Çeltik Kurutma ve Depolama Tesisi ile Mandıra

Yapılacağını Bildirdi,” Vatandaş, July 12, 1980; “Edirne’de Kooperatif Sayısı 203’e Yükseldi,”

Vatandaş, January 16, 1984.

826 Arif Semerci, “Trakya’da Tarımsal Yapı, Verimlilik ve Gelişmişlik Düzeyi,” 68.

827 T.C Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı, Türkiye Kooperatifçilik Raporu (2016), 43.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

187

Furthermore, rice farming and the foundation of these cooperatives contributed

to their developments mutually. For example, village headman Hüseyin

Taşkın took a leading part in the foundation of Irrigation Cooperative in

Akçadam village of Meriç district in 1967. In the foundation story of Rahmanca

Irrigation Cooperative, the teachers in the primary school of Rahmanca

were the pioneers in the 1970s. In general, these teachers graduated

from Kepirtepe Village Institute. Thanks to irrigation cooperatives in Edirne,

small agricultural enterprises have cultivated rice in their own fields rather

than share- croppers since the 1970s.828 Furthermore, thanks to irrigation cooperatives,

farmers could be more organized in rice irrigation and farming.

However, before the foundation of them, rice growers had supplied the irrigation

water of rice through their own means.

Irrigation cooperatives also provide the spread of new agrarian equipment

such as combine harvester, digger, and rice drying machine in villages. Although

irrigation cooperatives play an important role in the production, they

have not been involved in marketing.829 The foundation of cooperatives took

part in Land Reform that was prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture both to

increase the economic welfare of small peasants and to develop agriculture.

Since rice farming required expense, specialization, and mechanization, it had

been carried out by big landowners until the beginnings of the 1970s. Small

landowners let their fields out to big landowners. However, thanks to cooperatives,

both rice farming would develop and the welfare of farmers would

increase.830 While there has been a strict organization in the level of irrigation

cooperative in every village of Edirne where rice is cultivated, this organization

weakens and appears at the level of irrigation union in Samsun. On the

other hand, there are hardly any irrigation cooperatives in the Karacadağ Agriculture

Basin and every rice grower irrigate their fields from their ponds.

Therefore, the rice irrigation of Karacadağ in the 2000s is similar to that of

828 Hasan Topçu and Mehmet Topçu, tape-recorded interview by the author, Akçadam, Meriç,

Edirne, Turkey, September 01, 2018.

829 Halil Zeren, “Türkiye’de Toprak ve Su Kooperatifleri ve Sorunları,” 7-12.

830 M. Kemal Özer, “Toprak Reformu ve Kooperatifçilik,” Vatandaş, May 8, 1963.

O K A N C E Y L A N

188

Edirne in the 1950s. Namely, there is distinct historicity at the same history in

rice farming.

The General Directorate of Soil and Water Organization played a role not

only in the foundation of irrigation cooperatives but also in their administrative

works and organizations. To be a member of these cooperatives, having

land was necessary. Legally, there are five people who are elected biennially

in the board of directors. In addition to control the activities of these five people

quarterly, three auditors are elected biennially. Also, the Ministry of Commerce

can inspect these cooperatives.831 Due to institutional and legal reasons

such as insufficient management, capital, and legal restrictions and human

sources such as dishonest managers, low education, and political or ideological

disintegration, agricultural cooperatives have not been developed sufficiently.

832 Experienced directors, keeping the regular accounts, and accountability

mechanisms are three important criteria for the success of the

cooperative.833 To receive the expenses of oil and electricity, the Agricultural

Bank and the General Directorate of Soil and Water Organization signed a

protocol on November 15, 1969, to provide a working capital loan with a oneyear

maturity.834

The foundation of Irrigation Unions was seen in 1989. There are two approaches.

The initiative and activity under the control of the public sector,

farmers are regarded as responsible for the institutionalization. While there

were 2 irrigation unions in 1989, their number increased to 237 in 1997835 and

392 in 2017.836 Furthermore, after the first foundation of irrigation cooperatives

in 1966 and the enactment of 1163 numbered cooperative laws in 1969,

831 Halil Zeren, “Türkiye’de Toprak ve Su Kooperatifleri ve Sorunları,” 8-11.

832 İpek Atılgan Helvacıoğlu, Tuna Şener, Cem Tokatlı and Alpay Balkan, “Socio-Economic

Conditions and Behaviors of Rice Producers in Meriç Plain,”23.

833 Halil Zeren, “Türkiye’de Toprak ve Su Kooperatifleri ve Sorunları,” 11-12.

834 Ibid., 13.

835 Reyhan Toplu, “Tarımsal Kooperatiflerin İktisadi Analizi: Diyarbakır Örneği,” 71-72.

836 Sulama Birlikleri Listesi accesed March 15, 2019, http://www.tbb.gov.tr/storage/catalogs/birliklerin-

listesi.pdf

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

189

they developed and completed their higher organization. Thus, Irrigation Cooperative

Union of Turkey was founded in Ankara in 2001.837

4. 3. 9 A Role of State Policy in the Use of Fertilizer

Biologically, since rice is grown in wetlands, it needs fertilizer in its vegetation

period. Thus, the historical development of the fertilizer industry is directly

related to the yield, the production and the spread of rice. Furthermore,

since the cultivated lands of Turkey are not rich in nitrogen and phosphor,

chemical fertilizer has been needed. The raw materials of fertilizer such as

natural gases, phosphate stones, sulfur; intermediates such as ammoniac, ammonium

sulfate, and sulfuric and phosphoric acids are imported.838

According to Austrian specialist Steniner, the use of chemical fertilizer

was low and it began late in Turkish agriculture since agricultural specialists

were far from using programmed and long- term agricultural policies.839 The

use of chemical fertilizer began to become widespread in the mid- 1960s

among small agricultural enterprises. Turkey is self-sufficient in the production

of fertilizer about 50 percent in 1967,840 70 percent in 1998, and 53 percent

in 2007.841 Besides, the fertilizer industry developed in the 1960s. However,

there were differences in the amount of the used fertilizers among different

regions of Turkey. Averagely while it was 65 kg in the world, 5 kg of fertilizer

was used per each hectare in Turkey in the 1960s.842

In general, in contrast to big land-owners, small rice producers do not prefer

soil analyses. While DAP, urea and composed fertilizer are used in the

837 Türkiye Sulama Kooperatifleri Birliği, accesed March 15, 2019 http://tuskoopbir.org/hakkimizda/

838 Nuran Taşlıgil and Güven Şahin, “Türkiye’de Gübre Sanayi,” 13.

839 “Bir Konferans Dinledik,” Vatandaş, September 2, 1964; Suphi Rıza Doğukan, “Toprağın

Bereketi İçin,” Vatandaş, August 8, 1964.

840 Ahmet Özçelik, Tarım Tarihi ve Deontolojisi, 120.

841 Nuran Taşlıgil and Güven Şahin, “Türkiye’de Gübre Sanayi,” 2.

842 “Bir Konferans Dinledik,”; Suphi Rıza Doğukan, “Toprağın Bereketi İçin,”

O K A N C E Y L A N

190

Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins, ammonium nitrate and ammonium

sulfate is used in the Meriç Basin. 843 Similarly, due to saline soils

resulted from lack of rainfall; the use of ammonium sulphate has been suggested

in the rice farming of the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin.844

Turkey firstly laid the foundation of the fertilizer industry in Karabük Iron

and Steel Plant with the production of ammonium sulfate and superphosphate

in 1939. Some iron and steel plants produced ammonium sulfate, sulfur, and

sulfuric acid that were intermediate of fertilizers. For example, Karabük Iron

and Steel Plant was a state economic entrepreneur had worked under Sümer

Bank until 1955.845

However, there had not been any entrepreneurship in the fertilizer industry

until the beginnings of the 1950s. The first production of chemical fertilizer

began in İskenderun in 1953 and continued in Yarımca in 1961 by the

Turkish Fertilizer Corporation. While the plant in İskenderun started the production

of the triple super phosphate in 1968, the plant in Yarımca started its

production in 1974. After the first fluid fertilizer testing in İskenderun, it was

begun to be produced in 2006. İskenderun Iron and Steel Plant was founded

to produce fertilizer in the 1970s. However, it was privatized in 2002. Karadeniz

Copper Enterprise was founded in 1968 and has produced sulfuric

acid since then. The institutions in Kırıkkale, Aliağa and İzmit Turkish Petroleum

Refineries Corporation have produced sulfur as an intermediate of fertilizer

since the 1970s.

With the foundation of the Turkish Nitrogen Industry Corporation as an

economic enterprise in 1954, the industrial plants of Kütahya, Gemlik, and

Elazığ began fertilizer production. This institution that has the highest level

of fertilizer production of Turkey. Annually, it used only 26 percent of its total

production capacity. The fertilizer production oriented investments increased

843 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye'de çeltikte uygulanan üretim fiyat ve pazar politikalarının değerlendirilmesi”

109.

844 “Kimyevi Gübrenin Türkiye’de Kullanılmasına Dair,” Urfa, May 6, 1952.

845 Nuran Taşlıgil and Güven Şahin, “Türkiye’de Gübre Sanayi,” 2-12.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

191

in the 1970s and new plants were opened in the 1980s. It was taken within the

scope of privatization in 1998.846

Gemlik Fertilizer Industry Corporation was founded with 665,273 TL in

1973. It began its productive activity in 1978 and 1700 technical workers were

employed.847 However, it was privatized in 2004. Samsun Fertilizer Industry

Corporation has two plants. The first was founded in 1967 began to produce

compound fertilizer after the 1990s with 300000 tons of annual production

capacity. The second plant of Samsun Fertilizer Industry Corporation was

founded in 1971 produced di-ammonium phosphate and it started to produce

compound fertilizer after 2001 with the 264000 tons of annual production capacity.

All of these two plants were privatized in 2005. Kütahya Fertilizer Industry

Corporation has two plants the first was founded in 1955 with 1,500,000

capitals and began to productive activity in 1961. The other plant in Kütahya

was founded in 1966 and started to produce in 1968. It was closed down in

1993.848 3800 workers were employed in these plants. They produced 478500

tons of fertilizer and prevented 446,000,000 currency losses in 1975.849 However,

rather than the foundation of new plants and the increase of fertilizer

production, the modernization of existing plants has been seen at the end of

the 1980s. 850

Second, Urea fertilizer that is concentrated fertilizer is produced only by

the İstanbul Fertilizer Industry Joint Stock Company in Turkey. Thanks to the

partnership of the Turkish Petroleum Corporation and İzmit Tüpraş Refinery,

İstanbul Fertilizer Industry Joint Stock was founded in İzmit Gulf in 1974 and

began its productive activity. This institution firstly started to produce urea in

1977 and fertilizer in 1993. It was privatized in 2004. It has had 250000 tons

of production capacity from 2008 onward.851

846 Ibid 2-13.

847 “Gemlik Azot Fabrikası 1977 Yılında Tamamlanacak,” Adalet, March 25, 1975.

848 Nuran Taşlıgil and Güven Şahin, “Türkiye’de Gübre Sanayi,” 8-9.

849 “Kütahya Azot Fabrikası Günde 1320 Ton Kimyevi Gübre Üretiyor,” Adalet, May 1,1975.

850 Nuran Taşlıgil and Güven Şahin, “Türkiye’de Gübre Sanayi,” 2.

851 Ibid., 7-8.

O K A N C E Y L A N

192

Third, TEGESAN Thrace Fertilizer Industry was founded with 4,000,000

capitals to produce composed fertilizer by 40 farmers and businessmen in

Tekirdağ on August 1, 1973. It was expected to produce 20-20-0 and 18-46-0

fertilizer. Its participation shares were sold by 1000 TL in 1974.852

Fourth, Aegean Fertilizer Industry Corporation was firstly founded in 1973

and passed to productive activity in 1978. This institution produced mono ammonium

phosphate that is the intermediate of compound fertilizer. Its annual

production capacity was 155680 tons in 1998, and 159844 tons in 2008. Similarly,

Bandırma Fertilizer Industry Corporation was founded in 1969 produced

compound fertilizer, di-ammonium phosphate (DAP), and ammonium sulfate.

However, this institution has mainly produced DAP fertilizer since

2007.853

Taurus Fertilizer Industry and Trade Corporation was founded in 1974 and

started various kinds of chemical fertilizer production also in Ceyhan in 1981.

This institution spread into seven geographical regions that has 38 percent of

fertilizer production and 25 percent of market share in Turkey with 1781000

tons of production. The Mersin Fertilizer Plant that was founded with the partnership

of Turkish and Kuwaiti in 1968 and started chemical fertilizer production

in 1972 participated in Taurus Agriculture in 1990 and took the name of

Taurus Farming Mersin Manufacturing Facilities in 2005.854

Table 4.9 Fertilizer Industry in Turkey

Industry/ Founding Date/Locations

Karabük Iron and Steel Plant

(Karabük – 1939)

Ammonium Sulfate and Sulfur

Turkish Fertilizer Cooperation

(İskenderun -1953/Yarımca-1961)

Triple Super Phosphate

Karadeniz Cooper Enterprise

(Samsun-1968)

Sulfuric Acid

Turkish Petroleum Rafineries

(Kırıkkale,İzmit, Aliağa-1983)

Sulfur

852 “TEGESAN Trakya Gübre Sanayi Kuruluyor,” Adalet, January 21, 1975.

853 Nuran Taşlıgil and Güven Şahin, “Türkiye’de Gübre Sanayi,” 10.

854 Ibid., 2-12.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

193

Industry/ Founding Date/Locations

Turkish Nitrogen Industry

(Kütahya, Gemlik, Elazığ-1954)

Chemical Fertilizer

Gemlik Fertilizer Industry Coop.

(Gemlik/ Bursa- 1973)

Chemical Fertilizer

Samsun Fertilizer Industry Coop. I-II

(Samsun-1967/ 1971)

DAP, Compound Fertilizer

Kütahya Fertilizer Industry I-II

(Kütahya -1955/1966)

Chemical Fertilizer

İstanbul Fertilizer Industry

(İstanbul -1974)

Urea

Thrace Fertilizer Industry

(Tekirdağ-1973)

20-20-0 and 18-46-0

SOURCE Taşlıgil and Şahin (2012)

4. 4 Fertilizer İmportation

Sugar Beet Company and Agricultural Equipment Institution were important

institutions in the supply of fertilizer needs of farmers. Thanks to these institutions,

both fertilizer importation and its spread among rice growers increased

in Edirne in the 1960s and the 1970s. Agricultural Equipment Institution

imported 240000 tons nitrogenous, 400000 tons of phosphates and 25000

tons of potassium. With the increase of the use of fertilizer, the institutionalization

of Agricultural Equipment Institutions increased in Edirne. The number

of regional directors increased from 14 to 21, the number of agency chiefdom

increased from 87 to 122, the number of sellers increased from 406 to

1000, and the number of factorships was 20 in Edirne in the 1960s.855

While the fertilizer production was less than 500000 tons in the 1970s, it

increased to 2610398 tons in 1990, 2627986 tons in 2001, and 2960929 tons in

2008. However, six fertilizer plants used 50 percent of their production capacity

in fertilizer production. Especially while some amount of nitrogenous and

855 Edirne Milletvekili Fahir Giritlioğlu'nun, Meriç nehri üzerinde yapılmakta olan seciler sebebiyle

Yunanlılarla mübadele edilen Türk topraklarına dair Dışişleri Bakanından soru önergesi

ve Bayındırlık Bakanı Arif Hikmet Onat'ın sözlü cevabı

§

O K A N C E Y L A N

194

phosphorous fertilizers is produced in Turkey, almost all of the potassium fertilizers

were imported.856

The annual budgetary cost of the import of fertilizer is about 1.3 billion

TL. The major part of the import of Turkey is composed of energy, fertilizer,

and the raw material of fertilizer. Turkey imported fertilizer from Ukraine,

Russia, Romania, Tunisia, Egypt, Belgium, Lithuania, Libya, Italy, and Belarus.

Turkey began to export Triple Super Phosphate and some fertilizer intermediate

from 1982 onward. However, with the decline of the fertilizer prices

and the supports of fertilizers around the world, the rate of exportation decreased

between 1996 and 2000. While Turkey exported 32760 tons of fertilizers

in 1996, 207852 tons of fertilizers were exported in 2008 to Italy, Romania,

Brazil, Cyprus and India.857

Due to the problems of fertilizer production and the prices of fertilizers,

the amount of imported fertilizer changes. For example, the importation of

fertilizer was 1398183 tons in 1990, 2709875 tons in 2004 and 2078145 tons in

2008.858 The production of fertilizer began to decrease 69 percent towards the

end of the 1970s due to insufficient services in the domestic trade of fertilizer

and difficulties in the supplement of raw materials. In this period, although

there were 5130000 tons of production capacity, only 1654000 tons of fertilizer

could be produced. Based on the increase in the raw material prices, fertilizer

prices increased three times. The government was involved in this situation

through subventions.859 Furthermore, in the period between 2008 and 2018,

the average use of fertilizer was 5.2 million tons. However, 2.5 million tons

out of 5.2 million tons of fertilizer were imported.860

856 Nuran Taşlıgil and Güven Şahin, “Türkiye’de Gübre Sanayi,” 13.

857 Ibid.., 13-14.

858 Ibid., 13.

859 “Gübre Üretiminde % 69 Oranında Düşüş Var,” Vatandaş, February 20, 1977.

860 Türkiye Gübre Sektörü accessed March 25, 2019 http://www.etb.org.tr/media/raporlar/

G%C3%BCbre%20Sekt%C3%B6r%C3%BC%20K%C3%BCresel%20Bak%C4%B1%C

5%9F.pdf

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

195

4. 5 Concluding Remarks

In conclusion, the agency of this study is the directive function of rice in state

policies in three basins between 1948 and 2018. On the one hand, all these

indicate that rice directs the legal regulation, the public investments, the fiscal

policies, scientific projects and public expenditure of the government. On the

other hand, it seems that rice collaborates with the government to generate its

genes. To receive the food requirement of the population, to prevent currency

loss through rice import and to benefit from stony lands, salty lands and wetlands

more productively, the encouragement of rice and the collaboration with

it are regarded as necessary for the government.

The first part of the chapter includes the role of the government in the

legal regulations, the public investments for rice farming and also the settlement

of rice culture in these basins such as the influence of the Rice Cultivation

Law, government assistance, the Land Reform, and İrrigation investments.

The use of water requires the control of the government and welldisciplined

organization during the vegetation period of rice. In this context,

the legal basis of the Rice Cultivation Law determines rice cultivable lands,

the division of labor, bureaucratic process, social organization, and mutual

responsibilities between rice growers and statesmen. However, these legal

regulations had been made between 1908 and 1950. Therefore, despite the development

of rice variety breeding works, rice cultivation technology, and

paddy consumption in society throughout the twentieth century, the Rice Cultivation

Law appears to be stagnant, restrictive and far from responding to the

needs of today. Furthermore, the Law is far from considering the topographical,

the socio-economic, the water sources, and the rice farming culture of

these basins. Similarly, the scientists in agricultural faculties and the bureaucrats

of the Ministry of Agriculture think that the Rice Cultivation Law of

1936 poses an obstacle for the development of rice farming in Turkey. Similar

to these bureaucrats and scientists, rice growers demand the abolishment of

the articles of the Law which restrict rice cultivated lands. In this case, they

usually compare the rice farming of Turkey and that of Japan and Italy. However,

in practice, the rule of a certain distance between rice fields and settlements

is not implemented completely. Furthermore, although the government

O K A N C E Y L A N

196

knows the extent of rice cultivated lands based on the Rice Cultivation Law

and Turkey is not self-sufficient in rice, there is no planning in rice production

policy.

Furthermore, this study not only analyses the governmental acts in rice

cultivation but also indicates the reflection of these policies into the daily socio-

economic lives of rice growers. Since rice is located in the center of conflict

of interest, the relation between rice and state includes different interest

groups. This conflict of interest can be seen between public institutions such

as the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Health or the officers of

these ministries on the articles of the Rice Cultivation Law. While medical

experts regard rice as the sources of malaria, agricultural experts regard it as

the national food that nourishes the army and citizens. Although medical experts

emphasized certain conditions and strict rules in rice cultivation, the

medical advances and the advent of antimalarial drugs such as Larvicide and

Kuliside contributed to the spread of rice farming. Second, conflict of interest

can appear between big landowners and small landholders who cultivate rice

for the use of land and the share of irrigation water. In this case, as the head

of the rice commission the bureaucrats of the Ministry of Internal Affairs such

as district governors and governors are involved in the process as an intermediator.

In the settlements of rice farming culture, public investments such as the

distribution of land through Land Reforms, land reclamation the legal regulations

in title deed problems, and the building of irrigation infrastructure

have to be emphasized. However, while title deed problems in the Lower

Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins has still continued, the problems between

big landholders and small landholders who cultivate rice have continued

in the hiring of foundation lands in İpsala in the Meriç Basin. On the other

hand, in addition to some small agricultural enterprises in Siverek, in general

rice has been cultivated through sharecropping by some sharecroppers who

have the rice farming culture. They mainly experience inadequate water levels

in their ponds and bore water. Since rice is grown in wetlands, irrigation

water is the most prominent issue, the building of irrigation infrastructures

such as village ponds, dams and water channels solve the water requirement

of rice growers. Thanks to these irrigation infrastructures, both the rivers can

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

197

be used productively and the possible drought or water shortage are prevented

in rice farming in three basins. While the irrigation water needs of the Karacadağ

Agriculture Basin, the Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins

at the national level, the irrigation water of rice fields in the Meriç Basin is

closely related to the water position of Bulgaria and Greek. Since the Meriç

River has been used as the main water in rice irrigation, the Turkish government

usually has made some negotiations with Bulgaria for water supplies.

However, while all these irrigation infrastructures directly have developed

rice farming in the Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins,

they contributed to the development of cotton farming in the Karacadağ Agriculture

Basins. As a public institution, SHW has been responsible for the

fulfillment of irrigation infrastructures in these basins since the 1950s. Except

for Mardin, there are regional directorates of SHW in Edirne, Samsun, Diyarbakır,

and Şanlıurfa.

The second part mainly focuses on the agricultural, institutional, and economic

infrastructures in the development of rice in three basins such as the

Agricultural Research Institute, TGB, Agricultural Supports, Cooperatives,

and Fertilizer Industry. First, TGB and Agricultural Supports of the Ministry

of Agriculture are related to the economic sector of rice such as the marketing

and pricing of rice. While the agricultural subventions had contributed to the

decline of agricultural inputs in the statist period, they have only contributed

to the income of rice growers since 2000. The subvention of state in agricultural

sectors ended in the 1980s and the 1990s. However, new supports such

as diesel oil, fertilizer, premium and DIS appeared in the 2000s. However,

these supports are low, independent from production, and cannot be paid on

time.

In addition, the scientific projects of some Agricultural Research Institutes

are related to the biological part of rice such as yield, the breeding of new rice

varieties, and their agricultural extension. The agricultural and scientific projects

of rice began in the testing fields of Tosya and Maraş in the 1930s. Institutionally,

Antalya Summer Climate Plant Station between 1937 and 1941, Tarsus

İrrigated Farming Research Institute and Yeşilköy Agricultural Research

Institute in the 1950s and the 1960s focused on the development of high yield

rice varieties, new rice cultivation methods, and the reclamation of salty and

O K A N C E Y L A N

198

alkali lands. Although the rice studies of Thrace Agricultural Research Institute

firstly began in the mid-1960s, thanks to the production of rice seed this

institute became the most prominent national rice research center. Based on

the Seed Law of 1963, tens of rice varieties have been bred, registered, and

certified with the Rice Research and Variety Development Projects since the

1980s. These projects aim at developing more qualified and fertile rice varieties

that have a short vegetation period. Similarly, Black Sea Agricultural Research

Institute has developed four rice varieties. GAP International Agricultural

Research and Training Center in Diyarbakır took the geographical

indication of Karacadağ rice or Sarı Çeltik in 2014.

Third, irrigation cooperatives are related to the social and organizational

part of rice farming. Thanks to irrigation cooperatives, small agricultural enterprises

began to rice farming in the Meriç Basin. However, the organization

of small agricultural enterprises in Turkey decreases from the west to the east.

Fourth, Agricultural Credit Cooperatives are related to the economic part of

rice during its vegetation periods such as the supply of agricultural inputs and

credit. Finally, Fertilizer Industry supplied an important agricultural input for

rice that need nitrogen, phosphor or potassium. The economic policies of Turkey

also influenced the development of the Fertilizer Industry.

199

5

Rice and the Economy

hanks to their economic added values, nutritional values, employment

creation and international marketing networks, cereals such as wheat,

corn and rice have had an important place in the socio-economic lives of people.

For example, 85 percent of paddy production, 60 percent of wheat production

and also 25 percent of corn production are used in human food around

the world. Therefore, many people take an average of 50 percent of their calories

from these three kinds of cereal in their daily nutrition.861 Furthermore,

there are 12 food variety consumed by people in modern societies. Although

cereals are not rich in protein, people receive their protein needs through the

consumption of legumes. Together with the cultivation of cereals and legumes,

food production has increased remarkably.862

In this context, when paddy consumption is regarded, it seems that as the

economic welfare of people and urbanization increase, paddy has become

more popular and less luxury food at lunches and dinners in Turkey for the

last sixty years. Furthermore, paddy consumption per capita has steadily increased

during the twentieth century. While annual paddy consumption was

between 2.5 kg per capita in 1949, it increased to 4.2 kg per capita in 1969863

861 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 31- 32.

862 Jared Diamond, Tüfek, Mikrop ve Çelik, 284

863 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 165.

T

O K A N C E Y L A N

200

and 5.6 kg per capita in 1989, and 9.5 kg per capita in 2016.864 Thus, how it

has been produced and marketed need to be answered.

However, to gain a different standpoint, this study puts rice into the center

and pays attention to the reciprocal relations and interactions between the

economic lives of people and rice. In other words, rather than an anthropocentric

standpoint, this study emphasizes that rice has been an agent or actor

in the making of socio-economic history. In this reciprocal relation, the desires,

the expectations or the motivations of people about rice production or

consumption differentiates. For example, it is higher production and economic

income for farmers, it is making of more profit and yield for fabricators

and also it is taste and statue indication for consumers. Although it seems that

people consider their self-interest, actually they promote the generation of

rice genes and contribute to the increase of paddy production indirectly. This

study mainly explains how farmers, merchants, and fabricators in the rice sector

serve rice from its production to marketing in the Meriç, Karacadağ,

Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins in Turkey between 1948 and

2018. Therefore, a short history of rice in Turkey might give a general idea

about the development of rice production and consumption.

5. 1 A Short Historical Past of Rice Farming in Turkey

In a historical process, the development of rice farming in Turkey during the

twentieth century might be separated in three different periods. First, rice

farming had limited to some big landowners or patrons in the early republican

periods. Since rice production was low and it was luxurious, the consumption

of paddy in daily meals was not widespread. Furthermore, due to the malaria

threat, the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Agriculture enacted a legal

infrastructure of rice cultivation in 1936. More interestingly, although many

intellectuals have dwelled on the bureaucratic hardships of the Rice Cultivation

Law of 1936 and the relations between malaria and rice cultivation in the

864 T.C Gıda Tarım ve Hayvancılık Bakanlığı TEPGE, Durum ve Tahmin Pirinç 2017/2018, Edited

by Ebru Yazıcı (Ankara: TEPGE, 2018), 9.

§

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

201

1930s and the 1940s, the first attempts in the spread of rice farming began

slowly, soon afterward the Second World War

Second, the instruments of the Green Revolution, modern agricultural

technologies and the organization of farmers in the cooperatives contributed

to the spread of rice farming culture among small peasants in the 1960s and

1970s. Besides, with the increasing economic welfare of citizens, the growing

urban population preferred paddy consumption rather than boiled and

pounded wheat in Turkey in this period.865 In addition to these, together with

road transport infrastructure and the foundation of rice factories, many farmers

or rice growers turned into commodity producers and have done market

oriented production in all of these basins since the 1950s and the 1960s.866

Furthermore, on a global scale, due to the destruction of the Second World

War in the rice fields of Asia, rice that has been identified with tropical regions

and regarded as luxury began to be a more popular staple food in different

parts of the world such as Turkey, the USA and Europe from 1950 onwards.867

Third, with the rice variety breeding works of Thrace Agricultural Research

Institute such as Osmancık-97 and Black Sea Agricultural Research

Institute, the use of advanced technology such as combine harvester, laser

driven land leveling868 and drying machine and also the growth of paddy markets

in the neoliberal economy from 1980 onwards, both rice cultivation and

paddy consumption have steadily increased in Turkey.869 By the same token,

while the importation of rice or paddy had been limited until the 1980s870 and

many people could have consumed substitute goods such as bulgur and

pasta,871 free trade has also increased paddy importation and consumption

from 1984 onwards. Therefore, due to this uptrend in rice production and

865 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 2.

866 Çağlar Keyder and Zafer Yenal, Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu, 27.

867 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 3.

868 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Trakya Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü,

Edirne, Turkey, August 13, 2018.

869 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 39-40; İsmail Sezer and Zeki Mut, “Samsun İlinde Çeltik Tarımının

Durumu,” 62.

870 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, Türkiye Pirinç Piyasasının Sorunları ve Çeltik Üretim Potansiyeli, 23.

871 Arzu Özalp, “Trakya’da Çeltik Üretiminin Ekonomik ve İstatistiksel Analizi,” 28.

O K A N C E Y L A N

202

paddy consumption, rice farming in Turkey need to be analyzed at a geographical

level and historical context.

5. 2 The Development of Rice Farming Culture in Turkey

in the Twentieth Century

Rice farming is an economic culture that requires the planning of suitable

physical infrastructure, labor discipline, intensive and specialized labor from

its cultivation to harvest, and marketing. Since it accommodates economic

risks, rice farming culture requires both traditional experiences and considering

current conditions in the decision- making process. However, the regions

where rice is cultivated have changed since the 1930s. For example, while

Kahramanmaraş, Şanlıurfa, and Kastamonu had the largest rice cultivation

areas in the 1930s, Edirne, Adana, and Samsun began to be more prominent

from 1960 onwards. However, while the rice production in Edirne, Samsun,

Balıkesir has continued so far, many rice fields were turned into cotton and

corn fields with the government supports in Adana in the 1980s.

Especially, the conditions of water sources, the cultivation of other profitable

products, the economic conditions of farmers, agricultural policies and

the infrastructural investments of the state led to the moving of rice culture to

different regions.872 For example, while inadequate water sources influenced

negatively rice yield in the Aegean region, the liberalization of paddy importation

caused the decline of the profits of farmers in the Mediterranean Region

and Central Anatolia.873 Especially suitable water sources and rice prices are

two determinant criteria in decision making for rice cultivation in next year.

However, there is an inverse proportion between rice yield and rice prices.

Therefore, potential rice production is not stable in Turkey.874 Furthermore,

Kahramanmaraş that had been the largest rice cultivation area in the 1930s,

had the least rice cultivation areas with 30 decars in 2017.875 On the other

872 Nejla Türkoğlu, “Türkiye’de Çeltik Ekim Alanlarının Dağılışı,” 209- 216.

873 Halil Sürek Çeltik Tarımı 39- 40.

874 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 43.

875 T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, Toprak Mahsülleri Ofisi Genel Müdürlüğü, 2017 Hububat

Raporu, Ankara: 2018, 121.

§

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

203

hand, rice varieties which were bred in the 1990s were resistant to lodging and

suitable for mechanical harvest contributed to the development of rice farming

in the Meriç Basin and Lower Kızılırmak and Yeşilırmak Basins.

Table 5.1 The First Five Provinces that have had the Largest Rice Cultivation

Areas (Decar) in Turkey (1930-2017)

Years

Provinces

1930 1960 1995 2017

1. Maraş

(40000)

Edirne

(60000)

Edirne

(192100)

Edirne

(485846)

2. Şanlıurfa

(35000)

Mersin

(60000)

Samsun

(96080)

Samsun

(165965)

3. Kastamonu

(32000)

Adana

(40100)

Çorum

(52590)

Balıkesir

(144376)

4. Ankara

(32000)

Çorum

(34180)

Sinop

(34580)

Çanakkale

(82367)

5. Diyarbakır

(11000)

Samsun

(32810)

Balıkesir

(24700)

Çorum

(69131)

SOURCE Türkoğlu, (1993); T.C Tarım Orman Bakanlığı, Toprak Mahsülleri Ofisi

(TMO) Hububat Raporu 2017, 121

Rice is cultivated in 36 provinces of Turkey in the 2000s. However, between

80 and 90 percent of rice has been cultivated in Edirne, Samsun, Balıkesir,

Çorum, Sinop, Çanakkale, Çankırı since the 1960s. In contrast to the decline

of rice cultivation areas in the 1990s, they began to increase again from 2001

onwards.876 However, in contrast to the case of Turkey, on a global scale, rice

cultivation areas began to remain behind wheat and corn in the 2000s due to

coal gas emission877 and averagely 2000 tons of water consumption of one

ton rice.878 Furthermore, although the average rice yield of Turkey is higher

than that of the world, Turkey has not been self-sufficient in rice production

876 Arzu Özalp, “Trakya’da Çeltik Üretiminin Ekonomik ve İstatistiksel Analizi,” 20-22.

877 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişirme Değerleri Üzerine Araştırmalar, 7-8.

878 “Su Tarımın Can Damarı,” Vatandaş, March 19, 1977.

O K A N C E Y L A N

204

and imported rice.879 For example, while, the average rice yield was 869 kg

per decar in Turkey, it was 420 kg per decar in the world in 2013. Therefore,

it seems that Turkish rice farmers obtain more than two times rice yield than

the world average. 880 However, owing to the prices of imported rice, many

rice growers cannot sell their products and some rice growers preferred other

crops to rice.881 To understand the rice cultivation in Turkey more comprehensively,

the irrigation infrastructure and market-oriented rice production in

the Meriç, Karacadağ and Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins

are also explained.

5.2. 1 Land and Irrigation Water Infrastructure and Market

Oriented Rice Production in the Meriç Basin

Parallel to the increase of rice cultivation areas, the share of rice production

of Edirne increased from 30 percent to 50 percent in Turkey in the last forty

years.882 This is closely related to the plentiful water sources in the Meriç

Basin such as rivers, ponds, dams and artesian wells. For example, 99 out of

265 villages of Edirne are situated in the plains of Meriç and Ergene883 148

villages of Edirne have made use of agricultural irrigation. 52 villages use

artesian wells, 16 villages use bore water, and 62 villages of Edirne use rivers

in their agricultural irrigation.884 Thus, 50 percent of rice cultivation areas

have been irrigated by the Meriç and Ergene rivers, 32 percent of them are

879 Meral Peşkircioğlu, Harun Torunlar, Belgin Alsancak Sırlı and Others, “Türkiye’de Çeltik

Yetiştirmeye Uygun Potansiyel Alanların Coğrafi Bilgi Sistem Teknikleriyle Belirlenmesi,”

Tarla Bitkileri Merkez Araştırma Enstitüsü Dergisi 22, no. 1, (2013): 21.

880 Ibid., 20-21

881 Nuran Taşlıgil and Güven Şahin, “Türkiye’de Gübre Sanayi,” 196-197; Ahmet Şapaloğlu,

“Pirinç Üretim ve Tüketim Zincirinde Pazarlama Kanallarının Yapısı ve Pirinç Pazarlama

Marjları: Edirne İli Örneği,”43.

882 “İlimizde Üretilen Çeltik Yurdumuz Çeltik İhtiyacının % 30’nu karşılıyor, “ Vatandaş, June

14, 1988.

883 “İlimizin Zirai Durumu İncelendi,” Edirne Sesi August 26, 1965.

884 T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Edirne Köy Envanteri 1997 (Edirne Village

Inventory) Ankara: 2002, 37.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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irrigated by water holes and 13 percent of these lands are irrigated by ponds

and dams. However, the water pollution in the Ergene River from 1970 onwards

resulted from the industrialization in Çerkezköy and Çorlu, rice growers

have difficulty in using the water of Ergene in rice irrigation.885 Therefore,

they have used some artesian wells and bore water in Ergene Plain.

With the loss of Filibe in the Balkan Wars in 1912-13, rice farming culture

was moved to İpsala by Bekir Kara in the 1930s. However, thanks to the cultivation

of Italian rice varieties, market-oriented rice production began in the

Meriç Basin at the end of the 1940s.886 Therefore, İpsala became famous for

rice cultivation and rice farming culture settled in the mid - 1950s.887 However,

due to inadequate physical infrastructures such as water channels, the

reclamation of soils and levee along the Meriç River, the prominent rice growers

were exposed to floods lost their capitals in rice fields that could be regarded

as national wealth.888 Therefore, only one tenth of İpsala Plain could

be cultivated.889 However, despite this rate, 80 percent of rice in the Meriç

Basin was produced in İpsala in the 1950s.890

5.2. 2 The Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins

Second, almost 283 out of 974 villages of Samsun are situated in Çarşamba

and Bafra Plains which have 1450000 decars of land. Therefore, these plain

villages are seen in Alaçam, Tekkeköy, Salıpazarı, 19 Mayıs, Bafra,

Çarşamba, and Terme districts. 273 villages have irrigation facilities in their

885 Arzu Özalp, “Trakya’da Çeltik Üretiminin Ekonomik ve İstatistiksel Analizi, “ 24-35.

886 “Çeltik Ekimi,” Edirne Postası, June 26, 1948.

887 “Fikirler,” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, May 14, 1958.

888 “Meriç Ergene Nehri ve Ovamız,” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, November 11, 1956.

889 “53,000 Dekarlık Çeltik Müracatı Yapıldı,” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, April 10, 1957.

890 T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Zirai Bünye ve İstihsal 1954-1958 (Agricultural

Structure and Production 1954-1958). Ankara: 1959, 76.

O K A N C E Y L A N

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agricultural production. For example, 66 villages use artesian wells, 41 villages

use bore water, and 126 villages use the Kızılırmak and Yeşilırmak rivers

in their agricultural irrigation.891

Rice farming culture was moved by Yusuf Kiraz to the Lower Kızılırmak

Basin from Tosya, Boyabat, and Osmancık in the 1950s. It had been cultivated

in irrigable lands along Kızılırmak in Bafra Plain in the 1960s and the 1970s.

Especially, due to the high underground water of lands in Gelemağrı

(Koruluk) and Doğanca villages, rice is the most advantageous and unrivaled

crop for them. On the other hand, in addition to rice farming, Koşu Village

and Ahıllar can cultivate vegetables such as pepper and red cabbage alternatively.

892 There has been polyculture farming in the Lower Kızılırmak and

Lower Yeşilırmak Basins.893 Therefore, 42 percent of Bafra Plain and 35 percent

of Çarşamba Plain were rice in the 1990s.894

5.2. 3 The Karacadağ Agriculture Basin

Rice has been cultivated in the foothills of the Karacadağ and some plains of

the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin. There has been rice farming culture in the

villages of Yenişehir, Kayapınar, Bağlar, Çınar, Çermik, Ergani, Hazro and

Kocaköy districts of Diyarbakır, Hilvan, Viranşehir, and Siverek districts of

Şanlıurfa and Derik districts of Mardin.895 Especially, there are large plains in

Çınar, Siverek, Viranşehir, Ergani and Derik. Since the geographical position

of the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin is situated in the east of Şanlıurfa, the

891 T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Samsun Köy Envanteri 1997 (Samsun

Village Inventory 1997) Ankara. 2002, 4-41.

892 Ahmet Aydın and Osman Kiraz, tape-recorded in terview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey

August 6, 2018.

893 Atilla Ocaktan, Samsun Yöresinde Şekerpancarı, Çeltik, Soya, Domates, Biber, Patlıcan ve

Hıyar Üretimi ve Maliyetleri, 6-10.

894 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye’de Çeltikte Uygulanan Üretim, Fiyat ve Pazar Politikalarının

Değerlendirilmesi,” 14; Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 43.

895 Abdullah Öktem, “Şanlıurfa Koşullarında Karacadağ Çeltiği YetiştiriciliğiÜzerine Anket Çalışması,”

103.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

207

west of Diyarbakır, and the northwest of Mardin, rather than all of these provinces,

the settlements of rice farming culture in the Karacadağ Agriculture

Basin need to be analyzed in detail. As mentioned before, there are 12 districts

and 597 villages of these three provinces in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin.

315 out of 597 villages are situated in plains. 197 villages have irrigation facilities

in their agricultural production. 40 villages use dams, 56 villages use

rivers, 79 villages use artesian wells, 20 villages use bore water and also 17

villages use ponds.896 Since some villages are close to Ataturk Dam, they use

its water such as Yalankoz, Güvenli, Üzümlü and Beyceri.897

While the rice growers of the Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower

Yeşilırmak Basins cultivate other crops such as sunflower, wheat and water

melon, in general those of Karacadağ cultivate only rice through sharecropping.

The peasants of Karacadağ are interested in husbandry and go to Black

Sea Region for hazelnut harvest, Malatya for apricot harvest, and Çukurova

for cotton harvest every year.898 Hacı Haşim Özkahraman and Hasan Oruç

played an important role in the development of the rice economy in Karacadağ.

Furthermore, they went to the Meriç Basin to cultivate rice from 1950

onwards.899

Although rice farming culture in Filibe regions of Meriç, Lower,

Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak go back to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,

their cultivation areas were limited. Besides although rice farming culture

and its market have remained more limited in Karacadağ, the history of

rice farming in Karacadağ has a longer historical past. However, with the

896 T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Diyarbakır Köy Envanteri 1997 (Diyarbakır

Village Inventory 1997) Ankara. 20024-39; T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu

(TÜİK) Mardin Köy Envanteri 1997 (Mardin Village Inventory 1997) Ankara. 20024-37; T.C

Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Şanlıurfa Köy Envanteri 1997 (Şanlıurfa Village

Inventory 1997) Ankara. 2002 4-39.

897 Abdullah Öktem, “Şanlıurfa Koşullarında Karacadağ Çeltiği YetiştiriciliğiÜzerine Anket

Çalışması,” 104.

898 Şerif Kahraman and Adil Kayapınar, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz Village

of Diyarbakır, Turkey, August 09, 2018.

899 İlhan Avcı, tape-recorded interview by the author, Diyarbakır, Turkey, August 09, 2018.

O K A N C E Y L A N

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spread of market oriented rice production, rice production began to be commoditized

and the rice growers of these basins began to be integrated into the

market economy in the 1950s. While rice cultivation was done in 253 villages

in the 1990s, it increased to 317 villages in these three basins in 2016.900 However,

while the number of rice cultivated villages has increased in the Meriç,

Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins, their number has decreased

in Karacadağ in this period. It seems that this situation results from high underground

water,901 the cost account of farmers, and the government support

of some crops in specific regions. However, the number of rice growers in

the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin has increased since 2005.

Table 5.2 The Number of Rice Cultivated Villages in 5 Provinces

(1996 and 2016)902

Provinces 1996 2016

Edirne 79 118

Samsun 109 146

Diyarbakır 20 35

Şanlıurfa 32 15

Mardin 13 3

SOURCE Gaytancıoğlu (1997); Sürek, (2002) and ÇKS 2005-2018

900 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye’de Çeltikte Uygulanan Üretim, Fiyat ve Pazar Politikalarının

Değerlendirilmesi,” 14; Halil Sürek Çeltik Tarımı; ÇKS 2017.

901 Edirne İl Tarım Müdürlüğü, Edirne Tarım Master Planı, 2005, 47; Abdulveli Sirat, İsmail

Sezer and Hasan Akay, “Kızılırmak Deltasında Organik Çeltik Tarımı,” 78.

902 Esen Durmuş, “Diyarbakır İlinde Yerleşmelerin Yükselti Basamaklarına Göre Dağlışı,”

TÜCAUM 30. Uluslararası Coğrafya Sempozyumu, (October 3-6, 2018), 343; “Urfa İli

Çevresi İçinde Yapılan Çeltik Ziraatı,”; Lale Taş, tape-recorded interview by the author,

Şanlıurfa, Turkey, June 18, 2019; Ferat Önal and Mübarek Kavan, tape-recorded interview by

the author, İzmir, Turkey, June 18, 2019.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

209

Table 5.3 The Number of Rice Growers in 5 Provinces (1996-2016)

Provinces 1996-2005 2018

Edirne 8017 8000

Samsun 2480 3401

Diyarbakır 121 131

Şanlıurfa - 45

Mardin 18 25

SOURCE Gaytancıoğlu (1997); ÇKS (2005- 2018)

5.3 The Commodification of Rice Cultivable Lands and

Irrigation Water

Thanks to its high economic income, lands and irrigation water have gained

value in rice cultivation areas. Therefore, rice farming take place at the core

of court cases, conflict of interest, and labor exploitation. Together with the

beginning of rice cultivation, the wetlands, the mulberry gardens and the

meadow of Meriç Plain became more valuable at the end of the 1940s. However,

at the first stage since rice farming had required adequate capital, mechanizations,

intensive, and specialized labor force, in general, it had been cultivated

by capitalist big landowners who were well connected in the paddy

market and local politics until the mid-1960s. These men had cultivated the

lands of peasants through land tenure. However, thanks to physical infrastructures

in plains in irrigation and land reclamations, agricultural mechanization,

the building of irrigation cooperatives and increasing rice prices, rice farming

began to spread among small agricultural enterprises in the Meriç Basin in

the 1970s. Furthermore, since rice has a strong adaptation to salty lands and

floods for a while, it has been regarded as the most profitable product in Meriç

Plain.903 Therefore, the sale prices or land tenure prices of rice cultivable

lands in Meriç Plain is two or three times higher than other lands.

To indicate the value of rice fields, three cases in Adasarhanlı, Kadıdondurma

and Karpuzlu were quite explanatory examples. First, sixty families

903 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 13

§

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who tried to get more lands in plain took legal action and brought a lawsuit

to the detriment of the public purse in the amount of 900,000 TL in Adasarhanlı

village of Meriç District in 1951. These farmers tried to indicate as if

they had cultivated 10000 decar of public lands for 20 years. Thus, they demanded

to get the title deeds of these rice fields. However, these lands had

been meadow until 1947 and they had been cultivated rice by one of the prominent

rice growers through land tenure for four years.904 Similarly, some peasants

of Kadıdondurma village set forests on fire increase their rice cultivated

lands in Meriç Plain in 1964.905 Furthermore, due to bureaucratic problems,

the peasants of Karpuzlu village and some prominent rice growers disputed

and there was a conflict of interest for the cultivation of Paşalı Land. While

peasant demanded to cultivate these lands, capitalist rice growers said that

they paid 750,000 TL and hired 5347 decar of lands to cultivate rice. Both side

accused the regional directorate of foundations.906

In addition to soil, due to the irrigation water requirement of rice fields in

the summer months, some rice farmers have experienced difficulties and conflicts

of interest for the adequate irrigation water of their field every year.907

For example, with the spread of rice farming among peasants, they claimed

that irrigation water of Altınyazı Dam was used only by big landowners who

cultivated rice in Ergene Plain in 1968.908 Furthermore, the conflict of interest

among them caused both a bureaucratic crisis and brought a lawsuit. As it was

reported by the Journal of İpsala, due to water-holding in Altınyazı Dam

through the shackle, some prominent rice growers and SHW took issue with

each other allegedly. Therefore, they were deeply occupied with the irrigation

of thousand decars of rice fields. As a president of the rice cultivation commission,

Uzunköprü district governor said that they tried to pass the water of

904 “Meriç’te Hazine Aleyhine 60 Tarla Tescil Davası Açılmıştır,” Edirne Postası, November 23,

1952.

905 “Tarla Açmak İçin Ormanı Yakmışlar,”Vatandaş, November 29, 1964.

906 “Karpuzlu Köylüleri ile İsmail Kocman Arasındaki Arazi İhtilafı Gittikçe Büyüyor,” İpsala,

May 5, 1975.

907 “Trakya’da Pamuk,” Edirne Sesi, June 1, 1965.

908 “Ya Hep Ya Hiç,” İpsala, August 14, 1968.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

211

Kadıgebren stream through the chiffon under the water channel of SHW. Thus

there was no the shackle of Altınyazı Dam. Thanks to district governorship

and rice commission, this dispute was also brought to trial by SHW and the

contractor of chiffon in 1970. After the reconnaissance of Judicature, İpsala

SHW Chief Engineering took a machine to dismantled chiffon. The district

governor said that it was a legal subject, thus they could not interfere.909 Similarly,

one of the prominent rice growers who cultivated rice in unlicensed

lands shoot at gendarmeries in the course of opening sealed moto pumps of

Altınyazı Dam near Sultanköy on June 21, 1970. Although he was arrested at

first, the judge of execution abstained from the case.910 However, rice cultivation

in these basins necessitates regulation of the modes of production between

peasants and these prominent rice growers.

Although the lands of Meriç, Bafra and Çarşamba plains had been a

swamp, meadow and marshy until the 1960s, the economic importance of

these lands began to be felt with rice farming. Furthermore, with the cultivation

of rice varieties that have a higher yield, the value of these lands has

increased at least two or three times in recent years.911 As a rice grower and

older waterman, Hasan Topçu said that rice has played an important role in

the development of Akçadam village and he added that he prefers 30 decars

of rice field to 100 decars of wheat. When the soil structure of plains, the yield,

and the economic income of rice are considered, rice is the most profitable,

advantageous, and unrivaled crop in these basins. On the other hand, this is

not valid for the stony lands of Karacadağ. The peasants who clean these

stones cultivate other cereals rather than rice.

909 “Altınyazı Barajına Köstek Yaparak Sulamayı Engellemek İsteyen Çeltikçi Fuat Çakır Hakkındaki

Neşriyatımız Üzerine Uzunköprü Kaymakamı Cafer Eroğlu’nun Açıklaması,” İpsala,

May 19, 1970

910 “Jandarmaya Ateş Ettiği İddiasıyla Yakalanarak Adliyeye Sevk Edilen ve Yapılan Sorgusu

Sonunda Serbest Bırakılan Uzunköprülü Çeltikçi İsmail Kocaman (Papçık) Tevkif Edildi,”

İpsala, June 29, 1970.

911 Mustafa Öden, Interview by Authors, İpsala, Edirne, Turkey August 20, 2017; Ahmet Aydın,

Interview by Author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey August 6, 2018.

O K A N C E Y L A N

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5.4 The Modes of Rice Production in Three Basins

While the sharecropping system had been widespread in the Southeast Anatolia,

the land tenure system had been seen in the Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak

and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins until 1970.912 For example, rice was firstly cultivated

in Akçadam village of Meriç district by Hasan Buğdaycı in 1952.913

Similarly, Mustafa Öden had cultivated rice between the mid-1950s and the

mid-1970s through land tenure in Meriç Plain.914 Due to inadequate rice cultivable

lands, inadequate labor force and capitals and also the rice farming

culture of some prominent rice growers, the sharecropping system has continued

to some extent in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin.915 Sharecroppers

make a deal with the notables of villages and they distribute the share of peasants

separately.916 Many rice growers in Diyarbakır hired some land in

Nusaybin to cultivate rice in the 1960s.917 Besides, the process of sharecropping

and land tenure was limited to the vegetation period of rice. However, it

might be two years in the Meriç Basin. The total amount of land tenure paid

is based on the fertility of the soil. The share of landowners might have

changed from region to region. While sharecropping was made by means of

oral agreement in the Karacadağ, Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak

Basins, it was made through notarial deed in the Meriç Basin.918

Furthermore, in the production process, due to a lack of enough mechanization,

capitals and an organization in cooperatives in villages, rice farming

912 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 52

913 Hasan Topçu and Mehmet Topçu, tape-recorded interview by the author, Akçadam, Meriç,

Edirne, Turkey, September 01, 2018.

914 Mustafa Öden, tape-recorded interview by the authors, İpsala, Edirne, Turkey August 20,

2017.

915 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 54- 59.

916 Süleman Kızılkaya, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz Village of Diyarbakır,

Turkey, August 09, 2018.

917 “Bu Yıl Pirinçlerimiz de Bol Olarak İstihsal Edilmiştir,” Diyarbakır, February 12, 1963.

918 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 59.

§

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

213

had limited to the work of some rich men.919 For example, the peasants of

Subaşı could not cultivate their plain and their lands were hired by big landowners

for rice cultivation in the 1970s. They worked in their own lands as

laborers.920 While small agricultural enterprises make use of the labor of their

households, big agricultural enterprises have hired workers921 Apart from İpsala

and Enez, there have been small agricultural enterprises in the rice cultivation

of the Meriç Basin. Furthermore, some of these big landowners are

also the owners of rice factories, merchants, and industrialists who have lived

in districts.922 They cultivate between 3000 and 8000 decars of land which is

almost 25 percent of total rice cultivation areas in Turkey.923

Almost 57 percent of rice growers cultivated between 1- 50 decars of land

which corresponded to 18 percent of lands and produced about 24 percent of

rice. Also, almost 40 percent of rice growers cultivated between 51- 200 decars

of lands which corresponded to 60 percent of lands and produced almost 60

percent of rice. Finally, 3 percent of rice growers cultivated between 501- 5000

decars which was 14 percent of rice and produced 14 percent of rice in the

1960s and 1970s.924 The rate of rice growers who cultivate their own lands in

Marmara was 64 percent, in the Black Sea was 45 percent and in Southeast

Anatolia was 41 percent in the 1960s and 1970s. On the other hand, small

agricultural enterprises in the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins

cultivated averagely 21 decars of rice. While the percentage of rice growers

who cultivated their own fields increased to 86, the rate of those who cultivated

through land tenure declined to 7.925

919 Ferdi Akıncan, “Çeltik Ziraatında Tohumluğun Değeri ve İstihsal Usulleri,” Ziraat Dünyası,

no: 109-110-111, (1958): 16.

920 “Subaşı Köyü Kalkınma Hamlesinde,” Adalet, January 24, 1975.

921 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, Türkiye Pirinç Piyasasının Sorunları ve Çeltik Üretim Potansiyeli, 73.

922 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 62.

923 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, Türkiye’de Pirinç Piyasasının Sorunları ve Çeltik Üretim Potansiyeli,

56.

924 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 46-53.

925 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 5-10;

İsmail Sezer and Zeki Mut, “Samsun İlinde Çeltik Tarımının Durumu,” 62.

O K A N C E Y L A N

214

The shares of landowners and sharecroppers in the expenses of rice seed,

fertilizer, and weed cleaning changed. First, while seed expense was completely

paid by sharecropper in Karacadağ, it was paid completely or in half

by landowners in other basins. Second, while weed cleaning expenses were

received by sharecroppers in three regions, harvest expenses were paid by

sharecroppers only in Karacadağ, the Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower

Yeşilırmak Basins. However, sharecropper and landowners paid harvest expenses

and shared rice by half and half. Besides, in some cases due to higher

expenses and much more labor force of sharecroppers, they could get 60 or

70 percent of output. However, the marketing of rice was made separately.926

In contrast to other basins, there was a tribal community and much more landless

peasants in Karacadağ. For example, 48 percent of 56,613 peasant households

in Diyarbakır were landless and 32 percent of these families worked

through sharecropping in the 1970s.927 However, the rice cultivation techniques

of these basins have differentiated in time.

5.5 The Transformation of Rice Production Technics from

Cultivation to Harvest

Thanks to the instruments of the Green Revolution and the Marshall Plan such

as mechanization, fertilization and new rice varieties, total rice production

doubled928 and rice yield has increased 76 percent since the 1960s.929 However,

while the rice growers of the Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower

Yeşilırmak Basins have used intensive technology in time, those of Karacadağ

has still used traditional methods. Furthermore, the rice growers of Karacadağ

have not used tractors too much except fertilization, agricultural spraying and

the transportation of rice grain in the harvest in recent years. There had not

been agricultural spraying and fertilization until the end of the 1980s,930 therefore,

rice yield was lower than the other basins. Thus, it can be claimed that

926 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 60- 61.

927 “Diyarbakır’da 56,613 Çiftçi Ailesi 1,538,500 Hektar Arazileri Var,” Yeni Zaman May 4, 1974.

928 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 31.

929 Arzu Özalp, “Trakya’da Çeltik Üretiminin Ekonomik ve İstatistiksel Analizi, “ 17.

930 A. Kadir Kıran, Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesinde Çeltik Tarımının Bugünkü Durumu, 8.

§

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215

on the one hand the rice cultivation methods and rice culture of the Meriç,

Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins represent the modernization,

changes, and transformation, the rice cultivation technics and culture of the

Karacadağ Agriculture Basin represent traditionalism, immutableness and

continuation.

5.5.1 Rice Varieties

Based on the rice yield, technological transformation, rice prices in the free

market, and the popularity of new varieties, rice growers have changed their

rice varieties. For example, Maratelli, Ribe, Baldo, Violin, Karolin Rocca and

Osmancık varieties had cultivated in the Meriç and Lower Kızılırmak and

Lower Yeşilırmak Basins until the end of the 1990s. However, Sarıçeltik or

Karacadağ varieties have been cultivated in Karacadağ for centuries.931 68

percent of farmers prefer this variety due to its high yield, the rest prefers due

to its quality and price.932 Furthermore, the Karacadağ rice variety complied

with the environmental conditions such as soil structure and irrigation water

in Southeastern Anatolia.933 Due to its high yield, many farmers in the Meriç,

Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins began to cultivate Luna and

Ronaldo rice varieties in recent years. However, these varieties are used in

forage rather than cooking. Many rice growers preferred these varieties to

extinct red brass and to clean the field.934 Furthermore, some pesticides were

developed specifically for some rice varieties. For example, the pesticides of

Luna cannot be used for Ronaldo.935 In general, while the rice growers of the

931 Mehmet Oğraş, Çeltik Tarımı; Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi

ve Ekonomik Analizi, 10-13.

932 Abdullah Öktem, “Şanlıurfa Koşullarında Karacadağ Çeltiği Yetiştiriciliği Üzerine Anket

Çalışması,” 105.

933 Şerif Kahraman, Şeyhmus Atakul and Sevda Kılınç, “Diyarbakır Yöresinde Çeltik Tarımının

Yapısal Durumu,”82.

934 Kurtuluş Varol, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, August 6,

2018.

935 Hasan Topçu and Mehmet Topçu, tape-recorded interview by the author, Akçadam Köyü,

Meriç, Edirne, Turkey, September 01, 2018.

O K A N C E Y L A N

216

Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak have bought rice seeds from

merchants and agricultural research institutes, those of Karacadağ have used

their local rice varieties.936 Except for Karacadağ, other basins have complied

with the changes in rice technology and market conditions. For example, with

the advent of combine harvesters and drying machines in harvest, these basins

stopped the cultivation of spiny rice varieties.

With the use of agricultural machines, both rice varieties such as Maratelli

and Ribe that are suitable for modern technologies began to be grown and

more yields could be obtained.937 Furthermore, Thanks to the brochures of

the General Directorate of Soil Water on Ribe varieties, many rice growers

cultivated Ribe in the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins.938 Almost

33 percent of rice fields were R. Bersani, 22 percent was Maratelli, about

20 percent was Egypt rice and the rest was local rice varieties such as Akkılçık,

Karakılçık, and Sarıkılçık in Turkey in the 1960s and 1970s. When the rice

varieties of three basins are considered until the 1980s, while almost 70 percent

of rice fields in Edirne and Samsun were R. Bersani and Maratelli, more

than 50 percent of the rice fields of Karacadağ was local rice varieties and 30

percent was Egypt rice.939

Besides, by means of the breeding of new rice varieties that are sensitive

to fertilizer, suitable for mechanization, resistant to diseases, and adapted to

different regions, rice yield has steadily increased since the beginning of the

1980s.940 These rice varieties such as Osmancık 97 increased rice yield to almost

one ton per decar in the 2000s.941 Thanks to a higher economic income,

rice yield encourages rice growers to use modern agricultural technics and

new rice varieties. Namely, it can be said that rice farming requires an inno-

936 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 10-13;

Arzu Özalp “Trakya’da Çeltik Üretiminin Ekonomik ve İstatistiksel Analizi, 39.

937 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 128.

938 Ahmet Aydın, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra Samsun, Turkey, August 6, 2018.

939 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 133-136.

940 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı 195; Rasim Ünan and Melih Enginsu, tape-recorded interview by

the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, August 6, 2018.

941 Rasim Ünan and Halik Sürek, “Hibrit Çeltik ve Türkiye’deki Geleceği,” 13.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

217

vative standpoint and private entrepreneurship. In this context, the rice growers

of İpsala have visited the rice fields of Greece and Italy to get information

about the increase of rice yield.942 In addition to these, to get an easier pest

control and higher rice yield, crop rotation is required.

5.5. 2 Crop Rotation

Since rice fields are cultivated for many years without making crop rotation

and herbs gain resistance against pesticides, rice growers have had difficulty

in dealing with plant diseases, herbs, and low rice yield. Only 15 percent of

rice growers cultivated their rice fields 5 years in a row in the Lower

Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins in the 1980s and the 1990s due to the

decline of rice yield, the difficulties in agricultural pest control, and red brass.

In this crop rotation, they cultivated corn, wheat, sunflowers, and sugar

beet.943 Apart from Terme, rice growers made crop rotation quinquennial in

these basins.944 Especially, due to the higher yield of new rice varieties and

bank debts, many of them have not complied with crop rotation.945 Furthermore,

with the encouragement of the government, some farmers made hazelnut

farming.946

In general, some rice growers do not make crop rotation or some of them

made it decennially in the Meriç Basin due to the requirement of extra expenses

and the higher income of rice farming.947 They can cultivate only their

lands summer growing plants such as corn, bean, and kitchen garden due to

the floods of the Meriç River.948 Furthermore, Edirne Provincial Directorate

of Agriculture planned 3 years of corn cultivation project to receive forage

crop requirements.949 On the other hand, since the rice cultivated lands of the

942 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, Türkiye Pirinç Piyasasının Sorunları ve Çeltik Üretim Potansiyeli, 74.

943 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 10-13.

944 İsmail Sezer and Zeki Mut “Samsun İlinde Çeltik Tarımının Durumu,” 62.

945 Ahmet Aydın, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, August 6, 2018.

946 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, Türkiye Pirinç Piyasasının Sorunları ve Çeltik Üretim Potansiyeli, 117.

947 Arzu Özalp, “Trakya’da Çeltik Üretiminin Ekonomik ve İstatistiksel Analizi,” 38.

948 Halil Sürek, and Haluk Yakan, Edirne Yöresinde Çeltik Sulaması, 9-10.

949 “Çeltik Yerine Mısır,” Hudut, May 25, 2000.

O K A N C E Y L A N

218

Karacadağ Agriculture Basin are stony and volcanic lands, rice has been cultivated

without implementing ground surface tillage or land leveling. Thus,

the rice fields of the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin are cultivated septennial.

Otherwise, they have used these lands as meadows.950 Furthermore while 66

percent of them cultivate rice every four years, 24 percent of farmers cultivate

biennially. Apart from rice, they cultivate cotton, barley and wheat.951 Thus,

rice farming supports the development of husbandry and other crops in some

years.

5.5. 3 The Use of Seasonal Labor force in Rice Farming

In addition to the providing of higher yield in rice fields, the regulation of the

irrigation water of rice fields has created seasonal employment in these basins.

The big rice growers of these basins have hired watermen individually.

However, while the peasants of the Meriç Basins have hired their watermen

by Irrigation Cooperatives, the peasants of the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower

Yeşilırmak have provided and regulated their irrigation water themselves.

They benefit from the water channels of SHW and irrigation union.952 In contrast

to the Meriç Basin, the rice growers of the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower

Yeşilırmak Basins cannot take joint action in rice cultivation. Therefore, they

claimed the organization in the Meriç Basin make the work of rice growers

easier.953 These watermen have been employed in the months between April

and September. For example, the household heads of some poor families in

the villages of Edirne have been employed as waterman, engineman and

950 A. Kadir Kıran, Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi Çeltik Tarımı, Bugünkü Durumu ve Geliştirilmesi

12.

951 Abdullah Öktem, “Şanlıurfa Koşullarında Karacadağ Çeltiği Yetiştiriciliği Üzerine Anket

Çalışması,” 104.

952 Ahmet Aydın, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, August 6, 2018.

953 Osman Kiraz, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, August 6, 2018.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

219

cooker in rice cultivated areas since the 1950s. With the spread of rice cultivation

in the Meriç Basin in the 1970s, waterman became a more widespread

occupation in Edirne.954

Due to intensive labor requirements and excessive use of pesticides, fertilizer,

diesel oil, and electricity, economic mobility attracts attention in rice

cultivation areas.955 From the building of water channels and the bank lines

of rice fields to agricultural spraying and harvest, rice farming has required

both intensive and specialized labor. While these water channels had been

built by people until the 1980s,956 they have been built by diggers since the

end of the 1990s. Thus, Edirne Employment Agency demanded the names and

addresses of rice growers from the Directorates of Agricultural Affairs to provide

their labor requirements in 1965. Thus employment agency prepared a

staffing plan at the regional level. Therefore, rice growers would pay the share

of mentors who provided laborers from Maraş and Kars. Since the employment

agency carried out the employment of rice workers legally, Edirne deputies

presented a jeep to this institution.957 Furthermore, irrigation cooperatives

employed the workers to open water channels that had come in March

and April. These men had stayed in village coffees of Edirne.958

However, the labor wages of these workers have changed from region to

region. Similarly, rice growers had received money wages and food.959 With

the increase of rice cultivation areas from 3000 to 5000 hectares in Enez, rice

growers had difficulty in finding new workers for rice farming. Thus, teenagers

were employed for 35 TL in 1974.960 Thus, corn chandlers tried to get in

contact with rice growers three months before the rice harvest.961 Similarly,

954 “Keşan’da Çeltik Bakıcıları Ayda 6,000 Lira Kazanıyor,” Vatandaş, August 21, 1976.

955 Hayati Tuncalı, “Çeltik Ziraatı ve İktisadi Önemi,”15.

956 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 69.

957 “Tarım İşçilerinin Çalışma Şartları,” Edirne Sesi, March 25, 1965.

958 Hasan Topçu and Mehmet Topçu, tape-recorded interview by the author, Akçadam, Meriç,

Edirne, Turkey, September 01, 2018.

959 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 67.

960 “Enez’de Bu Yıl 50,000 Dekar Çeltik Ekildi,” Vatandaş, June 5, 1974.

961 “Bu Yıl Pirinç Rekoltesi İyi Durumda,” Vatandaş, July 28, 1974.

O K A N C E Y L A N

220

thanks to suitable climate conditions, high paddy prices and the encouragement

of the Provincial Directorate of Agriculture in Diyarbakır, the rice cultivated

areas increased from 3628 hectares to 4000 hectares in April 1974.962

However, since the health and socio-economic conditions of these wage laborers

had not been determined by laws, their labor could be exploited. Thus,

some of them evaded from rice fields.963 In such a case their wages were not

paid and they could not demand justice.964

Figure 5.1 The Building of Telmata Channel in İpsala in 1951

SOURCE: İpsala State Hydraulic Works (DSİ)

5.5. 4 The Means of Rice Production

In addition to seasonal workers who provide soil and irrigation infrastructure,

rice cultivation mainly depends upon the intensive labor of farmers. However,

962 “Şehrimizde 5420 Hektar Sahaya Çeltik Ekilecek,” Yeni Zaman, April 15, 974.

963 “Şimdi Tam Zamanı,” Vatandaş, April 24, 1963.

964 Çanakkale Milletvekili Ali Rıza Kırsever'in, Meriç nehri civarındaki Çeltiklerde çalıştırılan

işçilerin sihhi durumlariyle iaşeleri hakkındaki sözlü sorusuna Çalışma Bakanı Dr. Sadi Irmak'm

cevabı, (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, September 3, 1947) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanlar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d08/c006/tbmm08006080.pdf

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

221

rice cultivation technics have changed from labor-intensive production to

mechanized system in Meriç, the Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak

Basins in the last 60 years. For example, while water buffalos and oxen were

used to plough their rice fields and to build their bank lines, some top model

tractors cultivated these fields in the 2000s. Furthermore, the bank lines of

rice fields were called water buffalo waist colloquially in the Meriç Basin in

the 1960s. Similarly, planker mounted horses had been used for the land leveling

of rice fields in these basins until recent years. However, due to nonstandard

land leveling and slopes, the extent of rice fields was not more than

0.1 hectares. Thanks to laser-guided land leveling, the extent of rice fields

increased in the 2000s. Rice growers could deal with pest control and get

higher yield.965 Especially, laser-driven land leveling, the cater-pillar technology

of combined harvest and drying machines has remarkably made rice

farming easier, and increased rice production since the 1990s.

Figure 5.2 Caterpillar Technology in Combine Harvesters

SOURCE: YurtHaber, September 12, 2013

Since pesticides had not been used commonly, rice growers had been weeding

their rice with the labor force. Rice growers of Meriç, the Lower Kızılırmak,

and Yeşilırmak Basins had received their labors either from their own villages

or from neighbor villages through daily wages. Since weeding had required

965 Ahmet Aydın, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, August 06,

2018.

O K A N C E Y L A N

222

an intensive labor force and had taken a long time in wetlands, some relative

families also had helped with each other until the mid-1980s. Weeding was

implemented two times in the vegetation period of rice. However, some peasants

began to use pesticides at the end of the 1960s. Thus, the number of pulverizators

has increased remarkably in these basins. In addition to weeding,

fertilization and the harvest of rice fields required intensive manpower. Since

tractors mired in wetlands, draught animals were also used in transporting the

harvested rice bunches from rice fields to threshing machines.966

Since the use of modern technology in rice cultivation has come from

Italy and Greece, it was firstly seen in the Meriç Basins and a few years later

in the Lower Kızılırmak and Yeşilırmak Basins.967 However, due to the capital

of rice farmers and the importance of rice in the regional economy, new technologies

have been adapted slower in the Lower Kızılırmak and Yeşilırmak

Basin. Therefore, with the agricultural mechanization such as tractors, combine

harvesters, and disk harrow, the number of draught animals and wooden

plows has declined, the number of tractors and other machines used in rice

farming has increased remarkably in these basins since the mid-1980s. However,

with the increase of mechanization in these basins in the 1980s, the requirement

of the labor force decreased half in half968 and many households

began a migration to cities. In contrast, the rice growers of Karacadağ had not

weeded these herbs. The use of pesticides began in the 1990s.

Thanks to 25 directorships, 387 branch offices and 1300 dealers of Agricultural

Equipment Institution that was founded in 1944, many farmers had

purchased their fertilizer and agricultural machines.969 The government encouraged

small peasants to buy tractors and combine harvesters. Thus, credit

facilities and purchasing conditions were eased. There were 58 tractor brands

966 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 92-106; Hasan Topçu and Mehmet Topçu, tape-recorded

interview by the author, Akçadam, Meriç, Edirne, Turkey, September 01, 2018.

967 Rasim Ünan and Melih Enginsu, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey,

August 6, 2018.

968 Mustafa Öden, tape-recorded interview by the authors, İpsala, Edirne, Turkey August 20,

2017.

969 “Giderek Küçülen Kurum Zirai Donatım Kurumu,”GAP’ta Diyarbakır, (Adana: Kemal Matbası,

1990), 21-22.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

223

in Thrace in the 1970s such as Ford, Massey Fergusson, and Fiat. However,

in case of breakdown, dealers had difficulty in mending and providing spare

parts with farmers.970 Similarly, the number of tractors was limited since there

was no auto mechanic service in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin.971 Thanks

to Agricultural Equipment Institution, the sale of moto pumps and tractors

increased.972 Thus, the use of tractor became widespread in the mid-1970s in

Diyarbakır. The farmers of Diyarbakır gave up the primitive plough. However,

as these tractors could not be used in stony lands of rice fields in Karacadağ,

700 out of 823 tractors in Diyarbakır were used in transportation and

road haulage in the 1970s.973

5.5. 5 Harvest

The turning yellow of rice stalk means the maturing of rice grain in the harvest

period. The irrigated water of rice fields is cut fifteen days before the harvest

of rice. Peasants had reaped rice with sickles and made rice bunches in all of

the basins similarly until the mid-1980s.Since the anther of rice waited a few

days in the fields, the moisture content of the rice kernel decreased to 14 and

dried. Thus, rice grains were moved to storages or rice factories. For example,

the adults of economically backward villages of Meriç districts were going to

İpsala and Enez plain to work in rice fields by pickup trucks every day.974 Due

to the rice harvest, many guest workers came to İpsala Plain to reap rice and

move rice bunches to trash machines. Since they worked and stayed near rice

970 “Trakya Bölgesinde 58 Marka Traktör Var,” Vatandaş, May 4, 1976.

971 “Zirai Bahislerde Köylü Çiftçimiz Bugünkü Durumu,” Diyarbakır, January 19, 1963.

972 “Gübre Satışları Bu Sene Rekor Düzeyde,” Yeni Zaman, May 01, 1974; “Traktör Almak İçin

210 Kişi Sıra Bekliyor,” Yeni Zaman, June 1, 1974.

973 “Diyarbakır’da 823 Traktörün 700’ü Yük ve Binek İşlerinde Kullanılıyor,” Yeni Zaman, October

4, 1974.

974 “İpsala ve Enez Ovalarındaki Çeltik İşletmelerinde Bini Aşkın gence İş Olanağı Sağlandı,”

Hudut, September 5 1981.

O K A N C E Y L A N

224

fields in the evenings, these lands were enlightened and resembled a townscape.

975 Furthermore, there were the lodgments of rice enterprises in Italy in

this period.976

In addition to intensive and specialized labor, the life conditions of rice

workers had been difficult. Furthermore, they had lived in tents and were exposed

to mosquitos at nights. While the peasants of Çanakkale went to Edirne,

the peasants of Kahramanmaraş went to Diyarbakır as seasonal workers in

the harvest of rice.977 The watermen and workers in the rice harvest have

come from Kahramanmaraş to the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin. The rice

growers of Karacadağ believe that these workers are more practical and specialized.

The people of Kahramanmaraş have also been influential in the development

of cotton and rice farming in Karacadağ.978 However, since the

harvest of rice with sickles requires an intensive laborforce, in general women

have worked on it.979 The labor force requirement of Bafra and Çarşamba in

rice harvest was received from the villages of Samsun. Moreover, big landowners

could hire at least 60 workers a day in the 1970s.980 On the other hand,

they have had difficulty in finding workers in recent years. Thus, some Afghan

and Syrian workers began to work in Samsun.981 The rice growers of the

Meriç Basin receive their labor force requirement with daily wage laborers

most of whom are Gypsy. In addition to their agricultural production and husbandry,

almost 6,000 peasants went to Cilician Plain in Adana as seasonal

workers for the cotton harvest every year in Karacadağ.982

Furthermore, rice growers began to use combine harvesters in rice harvest

in the 1980s successfully. Since these combine harvesters did not have

975 “Çeltik Hasadı Başladı,” İpsala, September 26, 1975.

976 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 67.

977 Şerif Kahraman and Adil Kayapınar, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz village

of Diyarbakır, Turkey, August 09, 2018.

978 Süleyman Kızılkaya, Şerif Kahraman and Adil Kayapınar, tape-recorded interview by the

author, Yalankoz village of Diyarbakır, Turkey, August 09, 2018.

979 Kardaş Ailesi, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yenişehir, Diyarbakır, August 09, 2018.

980 Şükrü Derebey, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra Samsun, Turkey, April 30, 2019.

981 Temel Kaya, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra Samsun, Turkey, April 30, 2019.

982 Ali Sonsuz, “Urfa’nın Şehir Coğrafyası,” Urfa Postası, December 10, 1963.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

225

caterpillar, farmers had reaped rice with sickles and transported their rice

bunches to combine harvesters until the mid-1990s. For example, while 80

percent of the Lower Yeşilırmak basin was harvested with sickles, half of the

Lower Kızılırmak Basins was harvested with sickles in the 1990s.983 On the

other hand, rice could have been harvested through combine harvesters in Europe

and the USA in the 1960s and 1970s.984 However, Firstly, the combine

harvester with rubber tank track in rice harvest was tried in Uzunköprü in

1962. However, they could not get a good result.985 Secondly, Bekir Ünal who

lived in Karahüyük village of Kahramanmaraş made use of the caterpillar

system in his combine harvester in 1965.986 However, they could not be successful.

Besides, until the caterpillar technology of combine harvesters in rice

harvest in the 1990s, rice growers had hired workers.

Figure 5.3 Rice Harvest in Derik (Karacadağ)

SOURCE: Yurthaber October 8, 2019

983 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 23.

984 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 78.

985 Hayati Tuncalı, “Çeltik Ziraatı ve İktisadi Önemi,”14.

986 Ömer Aktürk, “Elbistan’da Çeltik Ziraatı,” 22.

O K A N C E Y L A N

226

With the development of caterpillar technology in combine harvesters in Turkey,

they have harvested rice fields more easily and quickly in the Meriç,

Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins. Since rice grain could not

dry in its anther, peasants needed extra drying. Furthermore, drying is required

for the prevention of the spoiling or heating of moist rice kernels and

the enhancing of rice yield.987 On the other hand, in general rice has been still

harvested with sickles in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin. This harvest

method is called as Pilahi in Karacadağ.988 In the development of the cater

pillar technology of combine harvesters, laser-driven land leveling and also

the use of drying machines, Sami Dubacı pioneered in Turkey in the 1980s

and the 1990s. Furthermore, while he purchased the first caterpillar from

İskenderun, he imported other machines from Italy and Greece.989

While small rice growers sundried their rice, big landowners made use of

drying machines in the 1990s. However, diesel oil or coal-driven rice drying

machines were used in Adana in the 1960s. In the harvest period, all of the

peasants determine a sunny and windy place around the villages and they

move their rice there. In accordance with the gender division of labor, while

women waited and dried rice, men followed combine harvester to harvest

their fields. However, due to the requirement of intensive and expensive labor

of the threshing floor, almost all of the peasants have used drying machines

since 2015. Then to make easy transportation and to conserve properly, rice is

sacked in hemp sacks. Besides, while rice growers who need hard cash sell

their rice in the ,harvest period, those who do not need immediate cash store

their rice.990

987 Hüseyin Gökçora, Bitki Yetiştirme Islahı, 493.

988 “Karacadağ’da Pirinç Hasadı Yüzleri Güldürdü,” Tigris, October 1, 2016

989 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey, August 13, 2018.

990 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 108-120.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

227

Figure 5.4 Rice Drying in Edirne

SOURCE: Hudut, October 4, 2011

While the rice farming culture and the trends of statistical data in the Meriç,

Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak have been similar to each other,

those of the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin have differed. Due to the lack of

special statistics data of Karacadağ, the total statistical indications of Diyarbakır,

Şanlıurfa and Mardin are given. However, although these data are indicated

the number of draught animals or tractors, they have not been used for

ground surface tillage in the rice fields of the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin

where volcanic stones are present. However, oxen were used in the 1950s and

the 1960s to open water channels every four years.991 Similarly, many rice

growers of Karacadağ have never used caterpillar technology to combine harvesters

due to stony lands. Thus, there have been intensive labor force and

high production cost from the cultivation of rice to harvest. Due to the capital

and rice farming culture, in general big landowners have cultivated the fields

of peasants through sharecropping for centuries. Although there have been

drying machines in this region, these machines are used in corn dry. Besides,

since they burn rice, they cannot be used in rice dry.992 The distinct rice farming

cultures and mechanization between the Karacadağ Agriculture Basins

and others indicate different historicity in the same period.

991 Süleman Kızılkaya, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz village of Diyarbakır,

Turkey, August 09, 2018.

992 Şerif Kahraman and Adil Kayapınar, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz village

of Diyarbakır, Turkey, August 09, 2018.

O K A N C E Y L A N

228

Figure 5.5 The Volcanic Stones of Karacadağ in Rice Fields

SOURCE: Doğru Haber, October 10, 2018

Table 5.4 The Numbers of Agricultural Equipment in the Meriç Basin

(Edirne)

Means of

Production

1952 1974 1982 1990 2007 2018

Buffalo 22242 23760 17461 2467 78 265

Horse 14231 4620 341 1780 955 882

Ox - 20889 4258 262 - -

Tractor 950 6680 15670 21005 23483 24024

Trailer - 5696 14649 20265 24932 25725

Wooden

Plow

20239 5737 2052 353 - 5

Plough 30907 37468 26759 28542 33098 36380

Cultivator - 2167 2367 5906 16657 17200

Disk

Harrow

- 1872 5937 7065 5475 6267

Tresher - 375 830 919 481 -

Combine

Harvester

- 210 598 593 707 791

Motopump - 3276 5881 10117 9739 338

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

229

SOURCES T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Tarımsal Yapı ve Üretim

1955-2009; T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) https://biruni.

tuik.gov.tr/medas/?kn=92&locale=tr (2018)

Table 5.5 The Number of Agricultural Equipment in the Lower Kızılırmak

and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins (Samsun)

Electric

Driven

Pump

- - - 479

(2000)

560 290

Pulverizator

- - 1352 16561 23983 25650

Seed

Cleaner

15 49 56 76 185 119

Roller - 891 347 709 1827 2171

Planker -

Dry

Machine

- - - - 238 434

Means of

Production

1952 1974 1982 1990 2007 2018

Buffalo 54809 82869 88112 46424 8581 6956

Horse 25259 26480 20410 10120 3624 1849

Ox - 75029 38073 21696 - -

Tractor 467 518 14166 17845 35326 42499

Trailer - 4625 14316 16668 29264 33321

Wooden

Plow

39076 45753 22975 10075 1617 151

Plough 24955 65750 58713 55675 50988 41235

Cultivator - 628 1268 2069 4719 6834

Disk

Harrow

- 572 815 1167 1635 2363

Tresher - 403 2640 3634 5854 -

Combine

Harvester

- 66 120 133 286 313

Motopump - 1497 9229 8156 11059 9050

Electric

Driv.

- - - 5507

(2000)

- 9356

O K A N C E Y L A N

230

SOURCE T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Tarımsal Yapı ve Üretim 1955-

2009 (Ag-ricultural Structures and Production 1955-2009); T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik

Kurumu (TÜİK) https://biruni.tuik.gov.tr/medas/?kn=92&locale=tr (2018)

Table 5.6 The Number of Agricultural Equipment in the Karacadağ Agriculture

Basin (Diyarbakır, Şanlıurfa and Mardin)

Pump

Pulverizator - - 7222 9071 22156 26119

Seed

Cleaner

7 32 33 98 198 130

Roller - 173 224 359 602 633

Planker - - 2005 - - -

Drying Machine

- - - - 32 87

Means of

Production

1952 1974 1982 1990 2007 2018

Buffalo 14446 26840 28450 9452 1026 6955

Horse 24744 33680 42790 23900 17546 12869

Ox - 135852 159353 27326 - -

Tractor 1689 3816 6690 15964 26671 33180

Trailer - 2665 8160 14517 19819 35671

Wooden

Plow

95750 79380 46311 46199 9020 5064

Plough 972 8838 41269 31253 31961 44613

Cultivator - 31139 4120 9857 21454 27807

Disk

Harrow

- 2522 1988 2991 2609 4975

Tresher - 516 1331 3452 4239 -

Combine

Harvester

- 735 612 432 333 933

Motopump - 12614 5452 6412 6698 7521

Pulverizator - - 3365 5654 14376 26008

Seed

Cleaner

74 131 86 119 462 751

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

231

SOURCE T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Tarımsal Yapı ve

Üretim 1955-2009 T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK)

https://biruni.tuik.gov.tr/medas/?kn=92&locale=tr (2018)

5.6 From A Comparative Perspectives Rice Production, Rice

Cultivation Areas and Rice Yield in Three Basins

When the rice cultivation areas and rice production data of three basins are

regarded, it seems that the extent of rice cultivated areas and the amount of

rice production in the Meriç Basin have been more than other basins since

1949. While the rice cultivation areas of the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin have

remained the same or declined, those of other basins have steadily increased.

This situation is closely related to the marketing of rice, the conditions of

irrigation water, public investments for the physical infrastructures of rice

farming, land structures, the government supports, the use of agricultural inputs

and technology, and also the capitals of rice growers. By the same token,

Sürek thinks that rice has had gross revenue and economic income in Edirne

and Samsun. Thus the rice cultivated lands and rice production has steadily

increased since the 1940s.993 On the other hand, since the people of Southeastern

Anatolia prefer their local paddy varieties that appeal to their taste buds

rather than cheap and imported rice varieties, the rice cultivation areas of Diyarbakır,

Mardin and Şanlıurfa have not changed remarkably. Namely, Karacadağ

paddy has been purchased either by the local community or by those

who migrated to big cities from Southeastern Anatolia.994

993 Halil Sürek Çeltik Tarımı, 41.

994 İlhan Avcı, tape-recorded interview by Author, Diyarbakır, Turkey, August 09, 2018.

Roller - 413 2343 3206 2943 4013

Planker - - 11264 - - -

Dry

Machine

- - - - 14 99

§

O K A N C E Y L A N

232

Table 5.7 Rice Cultivated Land (Ha) in Five Provinces in Three Basin

Year Edirne Samsun Diyarbakır Şanlıurfa Mardin

1949 2591 340 1540 834 280

1954 6828 2056 1950 1187 102

1959 7067 2975 2039 750 2699

1963 9000 5000 1723 789 2400

1968 5435 6411 1484 825 724

1973 10551 7400 3348 650 591

1978 16920 10325 3270 443 540

1983 15976 8962 2010 393 573

1988 16766 6858 1163 425 341

1993 15512 6960 1433 249 118

1998 26299 8279 1597 542 148

2005 33730 10278 1471 470 89

2008 44309 8583 1656 2827 162

2013 43040 14000 1968 1400 120

2018 48593 18056 1687 600 162

SOURCE: T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Tarımsal Yapı ve Üretim

1948-2013 (Agricultural Structure and Production 1948-2013

Table 5.8 Rice Production (Ton) in Five Provinces in Three Basins

Years Edirne Samsun Diyarbakır Şanlıurfa Mardin

1949 7594 366 3555 830 450

1954 21760 2935 4656 1223 255

1959 12664 6736 4078 750 895

1963 11405 14000 3000 1650 5500

1968 18566 16198 4865 815 2972

1973 30722 18300 6096 - 505

1978 50308 25876 7208 330 658

1983 44931 23567 4108 603 1172

1988 56867 20390 2114 660 555

1993 44623 19753 2694 588 163

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

233

SOURCE T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Tarımsal Yapı ve Üretim 1948-

2013 (Agricultural Structure and Production 1948-2013) https://biruni.

tuik.gov.tr/medas/?kn=92&locale=tr

Table 5.9 Rice Yield in Three Basins and Turkey (1948-2018)

(Kg/ Decar)

Years Edirne Samsun Diyarbakır Şanlıurfa Mardin Turkey

1949 293 107 230 100 160 233

1954 318 142 238 103 250 217

1959 179 226 200 100 33 202

1963 126 280 174 209 229 236

1967 201 224 271 90 217 233

1973 177 209 351 46 100 442

1978 297 250 220 74 121 452

1983 281 263 204 153 204 450

1988 339 297 181 155 162 515

1993 287 283 188 224 138 502

1998 312 316 197 108 66 525

2005 469 358 224 290 292 572

2008 839 762 412 412 551 757

2013 841 851 480 480 572 814

2018 845 738 468 468 540 796

SOURCE T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Tarımsal Yapı ve

Üretim 1955-2009 (Agricultural Structures and Production 1955-2009);

T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu(TÜİK) https://bi-

1998 82056 26214 3151 586 98

2005 158194 36797 3306 1366 260

2008 371601 65405 6829 13000 896

2013 361918 122710 9450 6902 686

2018 410681 133221 7421 2252 875

O K A N C E Y L A N

234

runi.tuik.gov.tr/medas/?kn=92&locale=tr (2018) T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı,

Toprak Mahsülleri Ofisi (TMO)

http://www.tmo.gov.tr/Main.aspx?ID=61

5.7 Agricultural Inputs in the Market Oriented Rice

Production Rice Farming and the Oil Crisis in the 1970s

To understand the market- oriented production and the influence of the free

market on rice cultivation, the importance of agricultural inputs should be

considered. First, the electrification of the rural areas in these basins began in

the 1970s. However, rice growers used diesel oil energy to run their moto

pumps in rice irrigation until the 1990s. Furthermore, while electric driven

pumps have been used in the Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak

Basins, some rice growers in Karacadağ have irrigated their rice fields

through a water pressure system in which water pipe is placed in the bottom

of the pond since the 1980s.995 Thus the expenses of rice growers in rice irrigation

decreased. However, due to high electric bills, illegal electric usage is

common in the villages where the electrically driven moto pumps are used.996

The use of diesel oil energy in rice irrigation caused much more expenditure

and the supply of diesel oil problems. For example, due to the oil crisis in the

1970s, many rice growers had financial problems. However, thanks to the

moto pumps driven by electricity, Evren Bulut said that Turkey earned 2 trillion

a year. Furthermore, since the Akdeniz Electricity Distribution Company

made a 36 percent discount in agricultural irrigation, the tender of electricity

in Edirne was given to this company in 1998.997

995 Süleyman Kızılkaya, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz village of Diyarbakır,

Turkey, August 09, 2018.

996 Abdullah Öktem, “Şanlıurfa Koşullarında Karacadağ Çeltiği Yetiştiriciliği Üzerine Anket Çalışması,”

108.

997 “Evren Bulut Elektrikli Sulamadan 2 Trilyon Tasarruf Sağlandı,” Vatandaş, September 28, 1998;

The State of Food and Agriculture, (1974) (Rome: FAO of the USA, 1975), 29 accessed March

15, 2019, http://www.fao.org/3/f3350e/f3350e.pdf

§

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

235

Besides, due to the Oil Crisis on a global scale, the production cost of rice

and retail prices of paddy increased in the 1970s. Hence, Turkey spent 45 percent

of its export revenues on petroleum. In other words, it meant 10 milliards

out of 22,5 milliard USD.998 Furthermore, owing to foreign exchange reserve

of the government, it was thought that Turkey could not import diesel oil.999

While oil-producing countries increased their foreign exchange holdings,

nonoil countries and developing countries had experienced economic stagflation

which both unemployment and inflation increased together.1000 With the

increase in the profits of dealers and the cost of transportation, the government

marked the petroleum up between10 and 12 percent in March 1980. Thus,

the prices of diesel oil increased to 20,10 TL.1001

Since diesel oil went on the black market, rice growers could neither irrigate

adequately nor fertilize their rice on time. For example, 100000 decars of

rice was left for drying in Meriç Plain in 1976.1002 150 tons of diesel oil was

used every day in İpsala and Keşan. Due to these delays, both rice yield and

rice production decreased.1003 For example, since there were only two petrol

stations in Enez and Abdürrahim village, about 150 tractors had been waiting

for a fuel truck that came in every few days. The owners of these stations

bought petroleum from Ambarlı oil storage in İstanbul.1004 Even worse, due

to the scarcity of diesel oil, some frauds and black marketing began to become

widespread in society.1005 Despite the increasing production cost with the Oil

998 “İhracat Gelirinin % 45’i Petrole Gidiyor,” Vatandaş, February 7, 1976;” Çarşamba Ovasındaki

Ekili Araziler Motopomplarla Sulanıyor,” Hürsöz, August 12, 1976.

999 “Keşan ve İpsala İlçelerimizde Binlerce Dönüm Çeltik Kurumaya Terkedildi,” Vatandaş, August

9, 1976.

1000 Mustafa Ernam,” Bir Yılın Ardından,” Medeniyet, January 13, 1975.

1001 “Son Yapılan Zamlardan Sonra Şehrimizde Akaryakıt Fiyatları Belli Oldu,” Vatandaş, March

16, 1980.

1002 “Keşan ve İpsala İlçelerimizde Binlerce Dönüm Çeltik Kurumaya Terkedildi.”

1003 Erdoğan İndelen, “Türkiye’de Ekilen Çeltik Çeşitlerinin Üretimdeki Payları ve Çeltik Tohumluğu

Üretim Programı,” 14; “Akaryakıt Darlığı Yüzünden Çeltik Üreticileri Zor Durumda,”

Vatandaş, April 17, 1976.

1004 “Enezde Mazot Sıkıntısı Traktör Sahiplerini Güç Duruma Soktu,” Vatandaş, April 25, 1977.

1005 “Mazot Verme Vaadiyle 5000 Lirasını Dolandırdılar,” Vatandaş, November 2, 1979.

O K A N C E Y L A N

236

Crisis, the scarcity of labor force, and inadequate irrigation water in the Meriç

River in the sowing time of rice in 1979,1006 many rice growers though that

they had to continue to rice cultivation with an ambition to make money and

to make use of their land.1007

5.7. 1 The Fertilization of Rice

Since there were a lot of oxen, sheep, and cow in the villages, some farmers

used 2 tons of animal manure per each decar of rice field in the 1950s and

1960s.1008 If animal manure was wet, it would be used in winters. If it was dry,

it would have used in spring in the rice fields.1009 Therefore, the use of chemical

fertilizer had not been common until the mid-1960s. The use of chemical

fertilizer had firstly started at the beginning of the 1970s in the Meriç, Lower

Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins.1010 On the other hand, the use of

fertilizer began to become widespread in the rice fields of the Karacadağ Agriculture

Basin in the beginning of the 1990s. Thus rice yield increased from

200 kg to 400 kg.1011 The use of fertilizer was 98 percent in the rice production

of the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin in 2016.1012 The fertilizer that was imported

from Europe was brought to the port of Tekirdağ by ships and distributed

to the agency bureau of Agricultural Equipment İnstitution in Thrace.

There was quite a positive manner for the use of chemical fertilizer. In this

context, it was regarded as the source of wealth of farmers and the productivity

of agriculture in 1965.1013

1006 “İpsala’da Susuzluk Çeltik Üreticisini Güç Duruma Soktu,” Vatandaş, May 23, 1979.

1007 “Enez’de Çeltik Ürününden Beklenen Verim Alınamadı,” Vatandaş, October 19, 1979.

1008 Hayati Tuncalı, “Çeltik Ziraatı ve İktisadi Önemi,” 11.

1009 İzettin Öztunalı, “Tava Usulü Çeltiklerde Gübreleme,” 14.

1010 N. Gücüyener, “Çiftçilikte Suni Gübre,” Edirne Sesi, February 25, 1965.

1011 Süleyman Kızılkaya, , tape-recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz village of Diyarbakır,

Turkey, August 09, 2018.

1012 Abdullah Öktem, “Şanlıurfa Koşullarında Karacadağ Çeltiği Yetiştiriciliği Üzerine Anket

Çalışması,” 102.

1013 N. Gücüyener, “Çiftçilikte Suni Gübre.”

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

237

Since fertilizer is one of the most important agricultural inputs, the government

had determined its factory sale prices every year until 1973.1014 Furthermore,

the prices of fertilizers had been determined by the fertilizer industry

and its marketing agencies based on the accounts of cost and profit. Then,

their prices had entered into force with the official approval of the Ministry

of Agriculture until 1980.1015 However, due to the Oil Crisis, the prices of fertilizers

increased. Therefore, to prevent black marketing in the fertilizer sector

and to subsidize farmers, Agricultural Equipment Institution and Turkish

Sugar Plants Incorporated Company had been tasked with the supply and the

distribution of fertilizer until 1986 when the fertilizer was liberalized. Agricultural

Equipment Institution was also responsible for the imports of fertilizers.

Thus, private dealers have had to right in the marketing of fertilizer and

the government have continued to implement supports from 1986 onward.1016

The Council of Minister decided to give premium to foreign exchange saving

with the production of fertilizer in the domestic market.1017

The increasing demand for fertilizer caused a triple increase in fertilizer

prices. For example, while potassium was sold at 100 USD in 1975, it increased

to 357 USD in 1976. This expensiveness caused a decline in the use

of fertilizer.1018 Due to foreign exchange bottle-neck, the subvention policies

in the importation fertilizer raw materials, instead of one million tons of fertilizer,

only a quarter of required fertilizer raw material imported and fertilizer

production halted. Therefore, the fertilizer industry run in 30 percent capacity.

1019

1014 Leyla Dolun, Kimyasal Gübre Sektör Araştırması, (Ankara: Türkiye Kalkınma Bankası A.Ş,

2002), 38-39.

1015 T.C DPT, Beşinci Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı, Gübre ve Gübre Hammadeleri Özel İhtisas Komisyonu

Raporu, (Nisan 1983), 132.

1016 Leyla Dolun, Kimyasal Gübre Sektör Araştırması, 38-39.

1017 T.C DPT, Beşinci Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı, Gübre ve Gübre Hammadeleri Özel İhtisas Komisyonu

Raporu, 132.

1018 “Gübre Fiyatlarının 2 Yılda 3 Kat Artması Dünya Tarımını Olumsuz Yönde Etkiliyor,” Vatandaş,

March 6, 1976.

1019 “Gelecek Yıl Gübre Sıkıntısı Olmaması İçin Tedbir Alınması İstendi,” Vatandaş, March 6,

1976.

O K A N C E Y L A N

238

Table 5.10 The use of fertilizer in Rice Cultivation Areas(Ha), Usage Ton)

Lands 1976 1980 1982

Cultivtion Areas 54000 80000 77000

Ferlizated Areas 50000 80000 77000

Amonium Nitrate 24433 32500 48558

Phosphor 16-18 22478 30250 38346

Potasium %50KSO 575 100 327

Total Usage 47486 62850 87254

Rate 0.80 1.05 1.2

SOURCE T.C Kalkınma Bakanlığı Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı (DPT), Beşinci Beş

Yıllık Kalkınma Planı, Gübre ve Gübre Hammadeleri Özel İhtisas Komisyonu

Raporu, Ankara: 1983, 123-129

To prevent possible fertilizer problems in 1977 and to determine the used

amount of fertilizer, Keşan district governor Emrullah Zeybek organized a

meeting with the participation of the directors of the Keşan Agricultural

Equipment Institution Agency, Agricultural Bank and Agricultural Credit Cooperative.

1020 Similarly, to prevent the sale of spoilt agricultural pesticides

and black marketing, Edirne Agricultural Pest Control Equips controlled agricultural

pesticide dealers.1021 Furthermore, these dealers were subjected to

a test to get a qualifying certificate.1022 The president of the agricultural chamber

in Samsun demanded immediate intervention of the government as a solution

to the fertilizer, tractor, and credit needs of farmers in the 1970s.1023

1020 “Keşan’da Gelecek Yıl Gübre Sıkıntısı Çekilmemesi için Tedbir Alınmaya Başlandı,” Vatandaş,

May 24, 1976.

1021 “İlaç Bayilerinin Kontrolleri Sıklaştırıldı,” Vatandaş, June 11, 1976.

1022 “Zirai Mücadele İlaçlarıBayilik Belgesi Sınavı 4 Haziranda,” Vatandaş, May 28, 1974.

1023 “Samsun Ziraat Odası Başkanı Şevki Yücel,” Hürsöz, May 6, 1976.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

239

After the decision of January 24,1980, the retail prices of fertilizer increased

between 41 and 67 percent in 1981.1024 Since the subvention of fertilizer

increased from 38 milliards to 83 milliards, the prices of fertilizer increased

between 43 and 66 percent in 1981.1025 In contrast to this price increase

rate of fertilizer, the price increase in agricultural products was 14 percent.1026

In this context, 100,000 milliard TL government support or subvention on

fertilizer was abolished.1027 However, with the privatization of Agricultural

Equipment Institutions at the beginnings of the 2000s, the fertilizer support

declined from 50 to 17 percent and the fertilizer prices increased again.1028

Due to the monopolization in fertilizer production and no government intervention,

the prices of fertilizer increased between 150 and 250 percent.1029

However, the use of fertilizer has been unconscious. Since rice grows in wetlands,

it needs nitrogen three times periodically. While the rice growers of

Lower Yeşilırmak (Çarşamba) used more nitrogen than those of Lower

Kızılırmak (Bafra). However, 55 percent of the rice growers used nitrogen

once, 38 percent of rice growers twice and the rest used it three times in the

vegetation period of rice.1030 Similarly, the rice growers of the Meriç Basin

have used excessive amounts of fertilizer.1031 Therefore, farmers have experienced

both the delays of rice harvest and the decline of rice yield.1032 While

the rice growers of the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins have

mainly used DAP, Urea, and Composed fertilizers, those in the Meriç Basin

1024 “Gübreden de Devlet Desteği Kalktı,” Vatandaş, January 2, 1984.

1025 “Gübre Fiyatlarına Zam Yapıldı,” Hudut, September 3, 1981.

1026 “Gübre Zammı İle Türk Tarımı Dar Boğaza Girecek,” Hudut, September 5, 1981; “250,000

ton Mamul Gübrenin İthaline İzin Verildi,” Hudut, December 26, 1981.

1027 “Gübreden de Devlet Desteği Kalktı,” Vatandaş, January 2, 1984.

1028 “ANAP Edirne Milletvekili Evren Bulut,” Önder, February 14, 2000.

1029 “Köylü Gübresiz Bırakıldı,” Edirne Haber, March 16, 2001.

1030 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 15; K.

Bellitürk, “Edirne İli Uzunköprü İlçesi Topraklarının Beslenme Durumlarının İncelenmesi,”

Tekirdağ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, 8, no. 3 (2011), 8.

1031 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 31.

1032 “Yanlış Gübreleme Verim Kaybına Neden Oluyor,” Vatandaş, July 28, 1986.

O K A N C E Y L A N

240

have used Ammonium Nitrate and Ammonium Sulfate. On the other hand,

the use of fertilizer in Karacadağ has been 10 and 30 kg per decar.1033

Table 5.11 The Changes in the Reel Prices of Fertilizer in Rice Cultivation

1975-2018 TL/Ton (Indexed to the prices of 1975)

Fertilizer 1975 1982 1990 2005 2017

Ammonium

Sulphate

100 67,8 96,3 133,7 131,3

Amonium

Nitrate

100 63,9 92,0 122,9 126,0

DAP 100 88,2 131,0 120,2 128,0

Urea 100 58,2 58,5 89,7 115,3

TSP 100 114,7 164,7 - -

Composed

20-20-0

100 60,8 84,0 89,3 91,2

SOURCE T.C Kalkınma Bakanlığı Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı (DPT),Beşinci Beş

Yıllık Kalkınma Planı, Gübre ve Gübre Hammadeleri Özel İhtisas Komisyonu

Raporu, 139; Vatandaş, January 2, 1984; Vatandaş, March 1, 1984; T.C

Kalkınma Bakanlığı Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı (DPT), Sekizinci Beş Yıllık

Kalkınma Planı, Gübre Sanayi Özel İhtisas Komisyonu Raporu, (Ankara:

DPT, 2000), 50; Dolun (2018), 42; Gübre Sektör Politka Belgesi 2018-2022,

Ankara: TAGEM, 2018, s. 36; TEFE Katsayıları 1994-100

http://www.alomaliye.com/2015/08/05/tefe-katsayilari-1994-100-toptanesya-

fiyatlari-endeksi/

1033 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye’de Çeltikte Uygulanan Üretim, Fiyat ve Pazar Politikalarının

Değerlendirilmesi,” 100.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

241

5.7. 2 The Use of Agricultural Credits

With its 650 branch offices, Agricultural Bank was the only national institution

that gave agricultural credit in the 1960s.1034 However, Agricultural Bank

could cover only 50 percent credit needs of peasants in 1964. Agricultural

Bank decided to give priority to small landholders and Agricultural Credit

Cooperatives.1035 Rice growers need cash during the vegetation period of rice

and its marketing. They received this money either from their income or loan

from Agricultural Bank and Agricultural Credit Cooperatives with a one-year

maturity.

In general, they used retail credit for marketing their rice under the suitable

conditions. These credits were used by the big agricultural enterprises of

Marmara and Mediterranean Regions. However, small agricultural enterprises

got credit from their relatives in the 1960s and 1970s.1036 Almost 40

percent of rice growers in the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins

used credit. 20 percent of them benefited from the credits of Agricultural

Bank, almost 15 percent got credit from merchants and the rest received credits

from Agricultural Credit Cooperatives. While credit use was 60 percent in

Çarşamba and they received it from merchants, this was 27 percent in Bafra

and they received it from banks and cooperatives in the 1970s and the

1980s.1037 The expenses of agricultural inputs, wage labors and license tax of

rice farmers require capital.1038 Thus, rice growers directly experience the influence

of the high cost of living and inflation.1039 While small agricultural

1034 “Ziraat Bankasınca Verilen Zirai Krediler Daha da Arttırılarak Tevzi Olunacaktır,” Vatandaş,

November 29, 1963.

1035 “Ziraat Bankası Kredide Öncelik Tanıyacağı Kuruluşarı Belirledi,” Vatandaş, June 1, 1979.

1036 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 152- 155.

1037 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 23.

1038 “Edirnelinin Endişesi,” Bizim Köy, April 5, 1961.

1039 Çorum Milletvekili Cahit Angın ve 11 arkadaşının, çeltikçiliği geliştirmek, verimi artırmak

ve maliyeti düşürmek yolunda gerekli tedbirleri saptamak amacıyle bir Meclis Araştırması

açılmasına ilişkin önergesinin görüşülmesi

O K A N C E Y L A N

242

enterprises took out a loan to buy seed and fertilizer, big agricultural enterprises

used took out a loan to buy fertilizer and to pay the wage labor of workers

in rice farming in the 1960s and the 1970s.1040

The use of credit has been seen since 1980 in the basin and has become

widespread since the beginning of the 2000s. Many farmers try to get credits

from the banks that have low-interest loans such as Agricultural Bank and

some private banks.1041 While two-thirds of rice growers have bought fertilizer

from Agricultural Credit Cooperatives, the rest of them have bought it

from private firms in the Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak

Basins, this situation has been vice versa in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin.

1042 Furthermore, due to the bureaucratic hardships in the credit extension

of Agricultural Credit Cooperatives and Agricultural Bank and the inadequacies

in price policies, transportation, and marketing, the peasants of Karacadağ

became indebted to usurers in the 1980s.1043 However, the use of credit

is not common among the rice growers of Karacadağ.1044 However, at least

75 percent of rice growers have used credits. Therefore, they specifically prefer

Agricultural Credit Cooperatives in the supply of fertilizer.1045

5.7. 3 Rice Pesticides

While fertilization influence the yield of rice, pesticides protect it from herbs

and diseases. Also, since rice is grown in wetlands, herbs can find adequate

1040 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 80

1041 Ahmet Aydın, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, August 06,

2018.

1042 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye’de Çeltikte Uygulanan Üretim, Fiyat ve Pazar Politikalarının

Değerlendirilmesi,” 99.

1043 Diyarbakır Milletvekili Mahmud Altunakar'ın, Güneydoğu Anadolu'da meydana gelen kuraklık

ile bunun sebep olduğu kıtlık ve yokluk tehlikesi ve alınması gerekli önlemler konusunda

gündem dışı konuşması,

1044 Şerif Kahraman and Adil Kayapınar, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz village

of Diyarbakır, Turkey, August 09, 2018.

1045 Okan Gaytancıoğlu “Türkiye’de Çeltikte Uygulanan Üretim, Fiyat ve Pazar Politikalarının

Değerlendirilmesi,” 99.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

243

temperature, water, and nutrients to develop. These herbs are Echinocloa spp,

the species of Cyperus, Scirpus maritimus L, and Typha latifolia L.1046 While

soft rush grows in salty lands, echinochloa colonum grows in humid soil.

Therefore, rice growers could deal with echinochloa colonum problem by

means of crop rotation and Chemrice. On the other hand, Kuron pest was

suggested in the pest control with soft rush. However, since the use of the

pesticides in other cereals might damage to rice, they were found inconvenient.

1047 In contrast to this suggestion, some rice growers in the Meriç Basin

could clean sedge warbler with the pesticides used for wheat.1048 Chemrice is

a kind of pesticide that has been produced by Koruma Pesticides Company

since 1971. Due to the high demand for rice growers, the company introduced

a sufficient amount of chemrice into the market in 1973. The rice growers of

Koşu village of Bafra and Kara Mustafa village of Çarşamba used these pesticides

in the 1970s.1049 However, with the decline of the purchasing power of

rice growers, the use of pesticides decreased from 623000 tons in 1973 to

51000 tons in 1974.1050

In addition to these, the first pesticides in rice cultivation were Korcide 3-

10, Uviton 3-10, Aldirin, and 50 percent of DDT.1051 These pesticides can be

grouped under three titles. First, the pesticides including monilates are Orlate,

Ordram, and Agro Dram. Second, the pesticide including Thıobencarb is Saturn.

Third, the pesticides including Propanil are Surcopur, Kem-ray, Hepanil

and Agropor. Finally, Basargan, Sindax, Londax have been also used in agricultural

pest control.1052 While there has been intensive agricultural pest control

in the Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak Basin since the

1046 Ibid., 103.

1047 “Kuron: Çeltik Dip Otuna Karşı,” Medeniyet, February 1, 1975.

1048 Hasan Topçu and Mehmet Topçu, tape-recorded interview by the author, Akçadam, Meriç,

Edirne, Turkey, September 01, 2018.

1049 “Çeltik’te Yabancı Otlarla Mücadele,” Medeniyet, November 10, 1973.

1050 “Türkiye’de 1976 Yılı Sonuna Kadar 60000 Ton Tarımsal Mücadele İlacı Kullanılacak,” Vatandaş,

August 23, 1976.

1051 Hayati Tuncalı, “Çeltik Ziraatı ve İktisadi Önemi,”14.

1052 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye’de Çeltikte Uygulanan Üretim, Fiyat ve Pazar Politikalarının

Değerlendirilmesi,”103.

O K A N C E Y L A N

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mid-1960s, the rice growers of Karacadağ has used them since the mid-1990s.

In addition to these chemical methods, while some rice growers in villages

also had weeded these herbs using labor force until the beginning of the 1980s

in the Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins, the rice growers

of Karacadağ had not weeded them. Although these herbs decline rice

yield, they can prevent the flow of rice grain due to surface irrigation.1053

Furthermore, the Ministry of Agriculture made some preparations for the

supply of cheap and domestic pesticides to fight against herbs. In this context,

it was decided on the foundation of the Plant Protection Research Institute.

The taxation of fertilizer and pesticides tried to be kept low.1054 Besides, to

encourage agricultural pest control and to increase the sale of pesticides in

rice farming, the pesticide dealers of Edirne distributed 4,5 tons of pesticides

for free in 1977.1055 According to the data of the General Directorate of Agricultural

Pest Control and Quarantine, there were 35 fungicide and 51 herbicide

pesticides. There were 8 importer companies, 9 formulator companies and 13

agent companies in İstanbul, Ankara, İzmir, Adana and İzmit in the 1970s. As

a pesticide industry, Bayer, Hektaş, Koruma, and BP were founded in the

1950s and 1960s.1056

Monsanto, Du Pont, Bayer, Cargill, and Dow are the companies of the

production and the trade of fertilizer, pesticides, and seed across the world.

Farmers have depended on free-market conditions from seed to fertilizer, pesticide

credit, and mechanization.1057 With the alliance of Turkish governments,

IMF, and the World Bank the law of seed growth was enacted in 2006.

Thus, the links of production and consumption chains changed from the public

sector, farmers, and consumers to company-farmer and company-con-

1053 Hüseyin Gökçora, Bitki Yetiştirme Islahı, 488.

1054 “Zirai Mahsuller,”Edirne Postası, February 2, 1961; “Müstahsile Koruyucu İlaçlar Verilecek,”

Edirne Postası, April 20, 1961.

1055 “Hububat Yabancı Ot İlaçlarının Bayilerde Satışlarına Başlandı,” Vatandaş, February 8,

1977.

1056 T.C DPT, Tarım İlaçları ve Hammadeleri Alt Komisyon Raporu, 4. 5 Yıllık Kalkınma Planı,

no: 1561, (May 1977), 7-22.

1057 Çağlar Keyder and Zafer Yenal, Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu, 33-67.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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sumer. Thus the labor of farmers and the income of consumers has been exploited.

1058 Furthermore, as Tyrone Hayes says, the firms or companies that

produce seeds also produce pesticides and fertilizers. Thus, farmers depend

upon the products of these firms in the agrarian sector. With the bank debts

and high loans, small agricultural enterprises avoided from the agrarian sector.

1059

In general, 50 percent of rice growers have bought these pesticides from

private firms or dealers in the Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak, and Yeşilırmak Basins.

However, while 35 percent of them has bought these pesticides from

Agricultural Credit Cooperatives and 15 percent has bought from Agricultural

Chambers in the Meriç Basin, 50 percent of rice growers has bought their

pesticides from Agricultural Credit Cooperatives in the Lower Kızılırmak and

Lower Yeşilırmak Basins. Due to a lack of adequate capital, at least 85 percent

of these rice growers has used credits in the supply of agricultural inputs. The

excessive and unconscious use of these pesticides caused both the decline of

the profit of farmers and environmental pollution.1060

Furthermore, under the leadership of a directorate of agricultural quarantine

in Edirne, some big landowners began to use crop dusters in their agricultural

spraying in the Meriç Basin in the 1970s.1061 Furthermore, the agricultural

spraying of 6000 decars of rice fields was made quickly by crop

dusters in the 1980s.1062 However, due to environmental pollution, it was

banned in 2006. While the government considered environmental pollution

and public health, the rice growers of İpsala taken into account their rice yield

and profit.1063

1058 Abdullah Aysu, Küreselleşme ve Tarım Politikaları, (İstanbul: Su Yayınevi, 2008), 18.

1059 Jon Betz and Taggart Siegel, Seed: The Untold Story.

1060 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye’de Çeltikte Uygulanan Üretim, Fiyat ve Pazar Politikalarının

Değerlendirilmesi,”102-104.

1061 Edirne’de Ekili 8,500 Dekar Arazi Helikopterle İlaçlandı,” Vatandaş, May 4, 1976.

1062 “İpsala’da Çeltikte Ot Mücadelesi Uçakla Yabancı Ot Mücadelesi Yapıldı,” Vatandaş, August

12, 1987.

1063 “Çeltik Üreticileri Uçakla İlaçlama Yasağının Kalkmasını İstiyor, ”Finans Haberler, July 27,

2011.

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5.8 The Price Formation of Rice: TGB and Commodity

Exchange Market

After the production of rice, rice growers sell their crops in the domestic market

in which the government is influential in the price formations of rice and

the conditions of rice purchase. However, due to the free-market economy

from the 1980s onwards, the government has not given a guarantee of purchase.

To regulate the domestic market of rice, the government imports rice

through TGB. Institutionally, the Ministry of Agriculture quotes a price for

the rice to the Council of Minister. In the formation of rice prices, rice variety,

rice yield, the production cost of rice, the rice prices in domestic and international

markets are taken into account. In contrast to this, rice growers think

that the Ministry of Agriculture does not consider the production cost of

rice.1064

Within the concept of rice prices determined by the government, the purchasing

prices of TGB are regarded as the maximum price. According to the

research of Gaytancıoğlu, while 78 percent of farmers in the Meriç Basin demand

TGB to determine rice prices, this rate is about 40 percent in the Karacadağ,

Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins. On the other hand,

while only 3.6 percent of farmers in the Meriç Basin demand the determination

of rice prices by stock markets, this rate was about 40 percent in the other

basins. The rest of 20 percent of farmers demand cooperatives to be influential

in the price determination of rice.1065 However, due to the increasing paddy

demand of the growing population and the inadequate rice production of Turkey,

in general paddy prices have a tendency to increase.1066 There is an inverse

proportion between the amount of rice production and rice or paddy

1064 Tuncay Sarı, İl Tarım ve Kırsal Kalkınma Master Planının Hazırlanmasına Destek Projesi,

(Edirne: Edirne İl Tarım Müdürlüğü, 2005), 48-49.

1065 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye’de Çeltikte Uygulanan Üretim, Fiyat ve Pazar Politikalarının

Değerlendirilmesi,” 111.

1066 İsmail Sezer and Zeki Mut, “Samsun İlinde Çeltik Tarımının Durumu,” 61.

§

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prices.1067 Therefore, TGB imports rice to equilibrium rice prices in domestic

markets. Based on this statistical data, it can be said that there has been a

parallel price increase in the prices of rice.

Table 5.12 The Changes in the Reel Rice Purchasing Prices of TGB (1975-

2018) Based on the Grain Size of Rice Varieties (TL/Kg)

Years Long

Baldo

Middle

Karacadağ

Short

Akçeltik

Average

Prices

1975 100 100 100 100

1976 - - - 92,3

1977 - - - 51,2

1982 96,9 90,9 89,4 96,9

1987 66,4 58,4 50,4 66,4

1992 89,3 84,2 79,1 89,3

1997 118,8 106,9 101,0 118,8

2002 101,1 79,4 72,2 86,7

2007 72,1 61,2 55,8 67,6

2012 87,1 64,1 59,7 72,5

2016 97,9 69,2 64,7 78,8

2018 122,4 - - -

SOURCE T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, Toprak Mahsülleri Ofisi, (TMO) Çeltik

Alım Fiyatları İstatistiği; T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, Toprak Mahsülleri

Ofisi, (TMO) Yıllar İtibariyle Hububat, Bakliyat ve Haşhaş Alım Fiyatları;

TEFE Katsayıları 1994-100 http://www.alomaliye.

com/2015/08/05/tefe-katsayilari-1994-100-toptan-esya-fiyatlariendeksi

(Indexed to Reel Prices of 1975, 1975=100)

Short Grain rice varieties are not cultivated in Turkey. There is only Karacadağ

variety as medium grain rice varieties but this rice is consumed in

1067 Çorum Milletvekili Cahit Angın ve 11 arkadaşının, çeltikçiliği geliştirmek, verimi artırmak

ve maliyeti düşürmek yolunda gerekli tedbirleri saptamak amacıyle bir Meclis Araştırması

açılmasına ilişkin önergesinin görüşülmesi (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, February 9, 1977).

O K A N C E Y L A N

248

Southeastern Anatolia. Thus TGB did not need to explain their purchasing

prices from 2018 onwards.1068

5.8. 1 Commodity Exchange Market

Commodity exchange markets are institutions where producers and merchants

come together. They buy or sell all kinds of agricultural products that

have economic competition in the free-market economy. Thus when rice

growers sell their products to rice factories, rice yield, rice varieties and rice

quality are also considered in the price formation of rice in commodity exchange

markets. Rice prices are determined within the concept of legal procedures

and supply- demand relations in these institutions. For example, there

are 29 commodity exchange markets that rice marketing has done in Turkey.

Furthermore, there is a salon sale of rice in 5 commodity exchange markets.

Edirne Commodity Exchange Market that was founded in 1884 and commenced

operation in 1924 is the most prominent institution in the sale of rice.

Similarly, the commodity exchange markets of Edirne, Uzunköprü, Keşan,

Çarşamba, Bafra, and Terme have had commercial activities regarding

rice.1069

On the other hand, since there is no commodity exchange market for rice

marketing in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin, rice growers and the owners

of rice factories determine rice prices based on the cost increase of rice farming

and legal procedures.1070 Since the rice fields of Karacadağ are cultivated

in every few years, it is expensive.1071 However, its price has been almost the

same for the last ten years.1072

1068 TMO Genel Müdürlüğü, tape-recorded interview by the authors, Ankara, TMO, September

5, ,2019.

1069 Arzu Özalp“Trakya’da Çeltik Üretiminin Ekonomik ve İstatistiksel Analizi,” 68; Ahmet

Şapaloğlu, “Pirinç Üretim ve Tüketim Zincirinde Pazarlama Kanallarının Yapısı ve Pirinç

Pazarlama Marjları: Edirne İli Örneği,” 85.

1070 İlhan Avcı, tape-recorded interview with the author, Diyarbakır Turkey August 10, 2018.

1071 Süleman Kızılkaya, tape-recorded interview with the author, Yalankoz, Diyarbakır Turkey

August 10, 2018.

1072 İlhan Avcı, tape-recorded interview with the author, Diyarbakır Turkey August 10, 2018.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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Rice had been traded in the stock markets of İstanbul and İzmir until the

1990s. Based on the differences in rice varieties, the production of rice and

market situation, rice prices differentiates by years. Furthermore, it seems that

while the growth of the urban population has increased the demand for rice,

the mechanization of agriculture and the use of agricultural inputs have increased

the supply of rice. In general, these statistical data of stock markets

indicate that rice prices had increased. Bersani, Karoline, Viyolin, Tosya,

Egypt, Maratelli, and Karacadağ varieties had been traded in İstanbul and

İzmir Stock Markets.

Table 5.13 The Changes in the Reel Rice Prices of Stock Market in İstanbul

(kg/ kurus until 1989) (kg/TL from 1990)

Years Bersani Karolina Viyoline

1970 100 100 100

1974 104,9 127,0 104,4

1980 83,8 49,0 71,7

1984 73,7 86,0 -

1990 40,3 - -

1993 763,4 673,9 -

SOURCE T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Yıllık İstatistikler

1964-1994 (Annual Statistics of Turkey 1964-1994) ; TEFE Katsayıları

1994-100 http://www.alomaliye.com/2015/08/05/tefe-katsayilari-1994-100-

toptan-esya-fiyatlari-endeksi/

O K A N C E Y L A N

250

Table 5.14 The Changes in the Reel Rice Prices of Stock Market in İzmir

(kg/kurus 1955-1990) (kg/TL from 1990)

Years Bersani Mısır (Egypt)

1970 100 100

1974 100,4 107,9

1980 74,4 75,5

1984 75,1 -

1990 27,7 -

1993 572,1 -

SOURCE T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Yıllık İstatistikler

1964-1994 (Annual Statistics of Turkey 1964-1994) ; TEFE Katsayıları

1994-100 http://www.alomaliye.com/2015/08/05/tefe-katsayilari-1994-100-

toptan-esya-fiyatlari-endeksi/

5.9 Marketing of Rice: The Rules of TGB in Rice Purchasing

After the production process and the harvest of rice, the rice is sold to TGB

or rice factories. However, the first criterion in rice marketing is the supply of

14 percent of moisture content that is determined by the Turkish Standard Institute

and accepted in the purchasing of TGB. However, some rice growers

may have difficulty in providing the appropriate conditions due to climate

conditions. In addition to the economic reasons, high humidity is also one of

the obstacles for storing rice in the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak

Basins. On the other hand, apart from those who have economic debt, farmers

could store about 5 months in the Meriç Basin. Finally, due to the lack of

adequate storage of farmers in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin, they either

sell their rice after harvest or hire the storehouses of rice mill to store their

rice.1073

1073 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 121.

§

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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Furthermore, in some cases, 14 percent moisture content of rice criteria

was brought before the politicians. For example, due to excessive precipitations,

the moisture content of rice in the Meriç Basin was 16 in 1958. Thus

TGB both lowered the price by 30 kurus and did not want to buy the rice of

the Meriç Basin. In return, Keşan Rice Grower Association sent a petition

about their economic problems and the bureaucratic barriers of TGB to Prime

Minister Adnan Menderes on December 27, 1958.1074

Due to high relative humidity, the drying of rice is more difficult in the

Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins. According to the explanations

of Osman Kiraz, due to 15 moisture content, his father Yusuf Kiraz could

not sell his 2200 tons of rice to TGB. Since there was no drying machine, he

rented a house in Bafra to dry rice in the 1950s. Furthermore, while Osman

Kiraz was drying his rice, his 4 tons of rice was burned. Besides, due to high

moisture content, he dried his 400 tons of rice with a propeller. Thanks to

drying machines, rice growers can deal with rice drying easily.1075 However,

to equilibrate the moisture content in rice grain, rice has to be dried in drying

machines 10 hours after the rice harvest.1076 Although there were drying machines

in the rice factories of big rice growers in the 1980s, they became widespread

in the Meriç Basin in the 2000s.1077 Similarly, the complains of rice

growers about 14 moisture content of rice continued in the 1990s. They demanded

that it had to be 16. Thus Edirne deputy Ümran Akkan held a meeting

in TGB.1078

In addition to the moisture content of the rice kernel, the expert analyses

system of TGB which has considered only fit rice grain declines rice yield.

Thus TGB does not pay for crocked rice grain. However, the Turkish Standards

Institute let the existence of crocked paddy at 5 percent. This analysis

1074 BCA İTV 30 1 0 0 85 537-9.

1075 Osman Kiraz, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, August 6, 2018.

1076 Selim Tarhan and Turan Ekmekçi, “Çeltikte Randımana Etki Eden Faktörler ve Alınabilecek

Tebdirler,” 69.

1077 Hasan Topçu and Mehmet Topçu, tape-recorded interview by the author, Akçadam, Meriç,

Edirne, Turkey, September 01, 2018

1078 “Ümran Akkan Çeltik Üreticileriyle El Ele,” Vatandaş, December 12, 1995.

O K A N C E Y L A N

252

causes an 8 percent difference between the rice factories and TGB.1079 Besides,

this bureaucratic procedure of TGB causes the economic loss of farmers

in the period when the production cost of rice has increased 30 percent every

year.1080

When rice provides the appropriate conditions of sale, the yield of rice is

used as a base in the pricing of rice. The amount of foreign matters, the

amount of crocked rice, precipitations before rice harvest cause the decline of

rice yield.1081 For example, adverse weather conditions and pesticides caused

late spikelets in the Meriç Basin in 1976. Therefore, rice yield declined half

in half in İpsala.1082 In addition to climatic influences, human factors in the

fertilization, pest control and irrigation of rice have influence over rice yield.

For example, the unconscious use of irrigation water in rice farming cause

wastage and the decline of rice yield in the 1990s.1083

In general, while the rice growers of Edirne and Samsun sell their products

as rice rather than paddy, similar to the rice growers of Kargı, Tosya and

Osmancık the rice growers of Karacadağ have processed their rice into paddy

and they sell their paddy in their local markets.1084 However, due to heavy

rains in the harvest period of rice in the Meriç Basins, rice growers experienced

both the decrease of rice yields and the spoil of moist rice grains. The

increase in paddy prices reached 80 percent in two months. Exceptionally,

some rice growers began to sell their own paddy to higher profit by extra

processing price to rice factories. 1085 For example, 1000 tons of rice of Karlı

1079 Dr. Gürsel Şimşek, “Türkiye’de Çeltik Tarımının Ekonomisi,” Önder, August 10, 2000.

1080 “Çeltikte Fiyat Beklentisi Sürüyor,” Son Haber, September 11, 2006.

1081 Selim Tarhan and Turan Ekmekçi, “Çeltikte Randımana Etki Eden Faktörler ve Alınabilecek

Tebdirler,” 67-68; Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik

Analizi, 19

1082 “Çeltik Üreticileri Serin Havalar Yüzünden Zor Durumda Kaldı,” Vatandaş, September 8,

1976; “İpsala Ovasında Bu Yıl Çeltik Hasadı Çok Düştü,” Vatandaş, October 14, 1976.

1083 Haluk Yakan and Halil Sürek, Edirne Yöresinde Çeltik Sulaması, 2.

1084 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, Türkiye Pirinç Piyasasının Sorunları ve Çeltik Üretim Potansiyeli, 111.

1085 “İpsala’da Çeltiğin Kilosu 10 Liradan Satılmaya Başlandı,” Vatandaş, February 4, 1977.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

253

village and Koyuntepe village of Keşan were processed into paddy and sold

by village cooperatives.1086

Rice factories process rice into paddy and sell to retailers or markets. In

the marketing of rice from fields to the dinner table, rice wholesalers (Çerçi,

Allaf and Toplayıcı) and merchants some of whom are fabricators play an important

role. Since they have suitable storing, they have been influential in the

market supply of paddy for markets and retailers. Thus, they have benefited

from price differentials among seasons. However, the rice growers of Karacadağ

sell their products as paddy. After processing the rice into paddy, they

paid their expenses and sell their paddy in their local markets. Farmers sell

their products to fabricators, merchants and TGB.1087

Historically, with the increase of rice production in the 1960s, rice growers

demanded the rice purchasing of TGB due to economic reasons. Since the

stocking of Italian origin rice such as Bersani and Sezya was introduced into

the market in 1962, it caused the decline of rice prices and the economic income

of farmers on the one hand, it caused worry about the heating and spoiling

threat of rice in inadequate storages on the other.1088 Due to low rice

prices in 1964, rice growers neither could sell their rice and pay their debt nor

could cultivate rice. They preferred to cultivate forage and cotton in İpsala.1089

Many rice growers in İpsala who undersold some of their rice could not sell

the rest in 1966.1090 Thus rice growers and the deputies of Edirne demanded

the intervention of TGB. Furthermore, the news about the importation of

10000 tons of paddy from the USA on the radio created a reaction in the Meriç

Basin in 1965. Uzunköprü Agriculture Chamber and Rice Grower Association

1086 “Edirne İli Köylerinde Çeltik Alımına Başlandı,” Vatandaş, October 10, 1977.

1087 Işık Ocaklı, Edirne İli Çeltik Sektörü Raporu, 67-68.

1088 Edirne Milletvekili Fahir Giritlioğlu'nun, 1962 yılında bol miktarda ekilen çeltik malhsulünün

normal bir fiyatla satışlarının sağlanması konusunda ne gibi tedbir düşünüldüğüne dair yazılı

soru önergesi ve Ticaret Bakanı Muhlis Ete’nin yazılı cevabı. (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, October

15, 1962) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/MM__/d01/c008/mm__01008130.pdf

1089 “İpsala’da Bu Yıl Çeltik Ekimi Çok Az,” Vatandaş, March 31, 1964.

1090 “Çeltikçiler Faaliyette,” Edirne Sesi, April 21, 1967.

O K A N C E Y L A N

254

sent a telegraph to the Ministry of Commerce which emphasized that the decision

of the government was untimely.1091 State Planning Organization and

the Ministry of Agriculture invited prominent rice growers such as Osman

Ergene and Mehmet Kabakoğlu to Ankara to discuss rice cultivation in December

1965.1092

TGB had 51 purchasing places in seven regions in the 1960s. Based on the

cabinet decision, TGB firstly began to purchase rice in its 51 purchasing

places in seven regions in 1959.TGB has purchased rice and paddy from 1966

onwards.1093 For the purchase and stock of rice, the required money has been

supplied by the Central Bank of Turkey. Therefore, the Central Bank supplied

450 million TL credit in July 1966.1094

TGB had implemented three types of prices. These are the main purchase

price between 1938 and 1988, support purchase prices in 1988, and 1989 and

intervention purchase prices between 2002 and 2009. Then, TGB began to

implement a purchase model that complied with the standards of the European

Union.1095 In this case, based on rice size and rice yield, TGB has had

price discrimination. The main aim of TGB is the regulation of the domestic

rice market to prevent an unreasonable rise in paddy price to the detriment of

consumers and drop of the rice price to the detriment of producers. Besides,

TGB regulates rice importation and exportation based on the rice marketing

conditions.1096 Since Turkey has been a rice importer country, the price policy

of rice exporter countries influences the domestic rice market of Turkey. Thus,

TGB has tried to stabilize rice prices and has tried to prevent price fluctuations.

1097

1091 “Amerika’dan Pirinç Getirilmesi Trakya’da Tepki Uyandırdı,” Edirne Sesi, July 8, 1965;

“Ofisin Çeltik Mubayaası Başbakanlıkta,” Edirne Sesi, October 20, 1967.

1092 “Çeltikçiler Ankara’dan Döndü,” Edirne Sesi, December 20, 1965.

1093 İpek Atılgan Helvacıoğlu, Tuna Şener, Cem Tokatlı and Alpay Balkan, “Socio-economic

Conditions and Behaviours of Rice Producers in Meriç Plain,” 21.

1094 “TMO’ya Kredi Verildi.”

1095 Işık Ocaklı, Edirne İli Çeltik Sektörü Raporu, 67-68.

1096 Resmi Gazete, August 9, 1969.

1097 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 170- 195.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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While 3.4 percent of rice was sold to TGB, 94,7 was sold to local merchants

and fabricators in the 1960s across Turkey. 10 percent of rice in the

Meriç Basin, 3 percent of rice in the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak

Basins, and 8.6 percent of rice in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin were sold

to TGB in this period.1098 Since fabricators and merchants pay cash in a short

time, small agricultural enterprises prefer them rather than TGB. 1099

Thanks to the purchase contract of TGB about moisture degree, yield and

grain quality, TGB provides the supply of more qualified rice in the domestic

market. TGB used two systems such as degree systems and technical purchasing

wage salary. In the premier system rice is evaluated in twelve degrees

such as moisture, yield, crocked rice and foreign matter. Each of them is

priced separately. The degree system was implemented in 1967 and 1968. In

the second method, the elements that influence rice prices are evaluated separately

such as the rate of red brass, yield, foreign matter, and moisture degree.

The second method provides a higher income for farmers. However, an

important amount of rice was sold to fabricators and merchants rather than

TGB. Thus, they are also influential on paddy prices.1100 Due to strict purchasing

criteria, purchasing procedures, and the late payment system of TGB,

some rice growers prefer rice factories in the Meriç Basin.1101

Thanks to municipal owned lands and foundation lands that have been

hired as thousands of decar, the rate of big rice growers in İpsala is more than

in other districts.1102 While big landowners are more common in İpsala plain,

they are almost 10 percent in Bafra and Çarşamba plains.1103 They sell their

rice for the account. Sometimes, some of them could not obtain their money

1098 Ibid., 172.

1099 İsmail Sezer and Zeki Mut, “Samsun İlinde Çeltik Tarımının Durumu,” 65.

1100 T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, Toprak Mahsülleri Ofisi, Çeltik Alım ve Depolama İşleri

Hakkında Genelge, 033/06-1101, 8. 10. 1966; Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 188-

189.

1101 Ahmet Şapaloğlu, “Pirinç Üretim ve Tüketim Zincirinde Pazarlama Kanallarının Yapısı ve

Pirinç Pazarlama Marjları: Edirne İli Örneği,” 111.

1102 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded Interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey, August 13, 2018.

1103 Rasim Ünan and Melih Enginsu tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey.

August 6, 2018.

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from rice factories.1104 In general, more than two thirds of rice growers have

sold their rice until December.1105 65 percent of paddy produced in the Meriç

Basin, 22 percent of paddy produced in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin, and

also 53 percent of paddy produced in the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower

Yeşilırmak Basins had been consumed in national markets in the 1960s and

the 1970s.1106 The rice of the Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak

Basins have still been bought in national markets. For example, the rice of the

Azad rice factory in Samsun marketed its paddy with the name of Anadolu

Pirinç.1107 Similarly, Ödenay paddy in Edirne is one of the important brands

in the national rice market.

There have not been any cooperatives and unions in rice marketing. All

farmers sell their products separately. Thus, fabricators have been influential

in rice prices. During the marketing of rice, carriage, the prices of weighbridge,

town dues and the share of the retailer have been paid.1108 Although

TGB has declared rice prices in general, some years it has not. Thus, they are

exposed to the initiatives of some fabricators. However, although many rice

factory owners buy the rice of farmer by cash, they sell their paddy into retails

and markets for account. In case of the decline of paddy prices with the rice

importation of TGB, they may lose money.1109

Furthermore, although rice prices increased, rice growers had difficulty in

selling their rice due to inadequate stores of TGB in Meriç district in 1979.

Therefore, although the minimum price of rice was 21 TL, the rice merchants

in Edirne who knew the store conditions of TGB attempted to buy it at 13

1104 Ahmet Aydın, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, August 06,

2018.

1105 Halis Öz, Samsun İlinde Çeltik Üretim Tekniğinin Belirlenmesi ve Ekonomik Analizi, 30-31.

1106 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 173.

1107 Kurtuluş Varol, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, August 6,

2018.

1108 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 175.

1109 Doğan Başaran, “Çeltik Ekimi,” Tarım Makineleri Belgeseli, Çiftçi TV, 2016.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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TL.1110 The same situation appeared in İpsala in 2012. Due to the lack of adequate

storage of TGB, some rice merchants tried to purchase their rice at

lower prices.1111 By the same token, although both the minimum prices and

rice yield were high, the inadequate storage capacity of TGB, rainy weather,

and inadequate capital of farmers forced them to undersell their rice to merchants

in the villages Havsa district in 1979. For example, the rice productivity

of the Baldo variety was 650 kg and the Ribe variety was between 500 and

600 kg.1112

On the other hand, in some years, political developments such as elections

may direct the policy of TGB. For example, due to local elections in 2003,

TGB purchased the highest amount of rice in its history. However, since TGB

had storing problems, it hired the stores of private firms and also applied to

tariff quota in 2004 and 2005.1113 Therefore, The USA said that Turkey does

not comply with the rules of free trade, and the USA resorted to the World

Trade Organization.1114 Similarly, natural disasters, the prices determined by

the government directly influence the domestic market conditions of rice. For

example, 28810 decars of rice fields were exposed to floods in Edirne in 1998.

To prevent the economic loss of rice growers, the government declined the

minimum yield rate from 50 to 40 and the rate of foreign matter was increased

from 5 to 10. Therefore, the rice purchase of TGB increased to 17600 tons in

Edirne. The government paid 6,3 trillion to rice growers in Turkey.1115

Due to uncontrolled rice importation, TGB purchased rice in local markets

to prevent the reduction of rice prices to the detriment of rice growers as

an interventionist public institution. Turkish government implemented both

1110 “Çeltik Depolarının Yetersizliği Sebebiyle Meriç İlçesinde Çeltik Üreticleri Ürününü Satamıyor,”

Vatandaş, October 16, 1979.

1111 “Çeltik Üreticileri Ürünlerini Satamamaktan Dertli,” Gündem October 6, 2012.

1112 “Yağışlı Havalar Havsa’da Çeltik Üreticisine Zor Anlar Yaşattı,” Vatandaş, November 24,

1979

1113 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, Türkiye Pirinç Piyasasının Sorunları ve Çeltik Üretim Potansiyeli, 50.

1114 “ABD ve Türkiye Pirinçte Anlaşma Sağlayamadı,” Hürriyet, February 09, 2006

1115 Edirne Milletvekili Mustafa İlimen'in, Edirne İlinde aşırı yağışların neden olduğu ürün kayıpları

ve çeltik üreticilerinin sorunları ile alınması gerekli önlemlere ilişkin gündemdışı konuşması

ve Turizm Bakanı İbrahim Gürdal'ın cevabı

O K A N C E Y L A N

258

tariff quota and the use of local seed between 2004 and 2006. Thanks to this

system, rice was marketed at its value, the purchasing amount of TGB declined,

rice production was registered, and rice importation was controlled.

However, these implementations were abolished since they were against the

rules of the liberal market economy.1116 In addition to these developments,

the tariff quota that necessitates the purchasing of local rice and restraints

imported rice in 2005 led to the increase of rice production. Thus, together

with the decline of rice importation and the obligation of TGB, rice growers

could sell their products more easily.1117

On the other hand, since the Turkish government cannot form and develop

regular vendors and purchasers’ mechanisms in the agricultural market, imported

rice policy in harvest time led to the decline of rice prices.1118 Due to

paddy importation, the prices of rice decreased in the domestic markets. Thus,

the rice growers in the villages of Meriç district had difficulty in finding rice

merchants to sell their rice and paying their debts.1119 Therefore, the labor of

rice growers was exploited and they could not make a profit. Farmers have

not had a voice either in bank interest or in the determination of rice prices.

Namely, farmers were directly exposed to the strict norms of the free market

economy.1120 These farmers have been obliged to the rice prices that are imposed

by monopoly companies. Their labor is exploited without being a laborer.

1121 The low priced importations from Latin American countries and

Russia, which had financial difficulties influenced the prices of agricultural

products in Turkey. To prevent the economic trouble of farmers, it was expected

that the government had to keep minimum price levels.1122

1116 Ömer Faruk Ekmekçi and Hikmet Özkan, “Türkiye’de Çeltik Üretimi ve Destekler,” 65.

1117 Sibel Şerifoğlu, Çeltik, Üretim, Tüketim ve Destekler, Çiftçi ve Köy Dünyası, no. 370, (2015),

51.

1118 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, Türkiye’de Pirinç Piyasasının Sorunları ve Çeltik Üretim Potansiyeli,

46.

1119 “Meriçli Çeltik Üreticileri Dertli,” Vatandaş, January 4, 1986.

1120 “TZOB Başkanı Özbek Çiftçi Yeni Üretim Arayışları İçindedir,” Vatandaş, April 17, 1986.

1121 Çağlar Keyder and Zafer Yenal, Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu, 34.

1122 “Edirne Milletvekili Evren Bulut Çeltik Fiyatının 165,000 TL Olmasında Israr Ediyor,” Vatandaş,

September 9, 1998.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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To decline tariff and to put the rice in the storage of TGB, some rice companies

increased paddy prices speculatively. Furthermore, rice factories increased

rice prices by at least 80 percent. Through perception operations such

as the low rice supply and the influence of global drought, paddy prices were

increased three times.1123 The owners of restaurants complained about purchasing

expensive paddy and selling cheaper pilaf in cities.1124 Due to the

invoicing process of rice fabricators, lack of adequate storage and finance,

there have been marketing problems of rice growers. Therefore, rice farmers

can use the storage of TGB freely from 2006 onwards. To benefit from this

opportunity, farmers were expected to be registered in the farmer registration

system by the Ministry of Agriculture.1125 There are TGB storages in Edirne,

Samsun, Diyarbakır and Şanlıurfa. Furthermore, to develop rice production,

third five-year development plan was implemented in Edirne, Samsun, İçel,

Diyarbakır, Kahramanmaraş, Çorum, Sinop, Adana and Bursa in1973. However,

while there were wheat silos of the TGB, there were no rice silos. The

rice that was bought by the TGB received only one-tenth need of military.1126

1123 “Pirinç Fiyatı Aldı Başını Gidiyor,” Yenigün, April 11, 2008.

1124 “Pirinç Fiyatı Pilav Satıcılarını da vurdu,” Yenigün, April 26, 2008.

1125 “Çeltikçiler TMO Depolarını Ücretsiz Kullanabilecekler,” Son Haber, October 19, 2006.

1126 Çorum Milletvekili Cahit Angın ve 11 arkadaşının, çeltikçiliği geliştirmek, verimi artırmak

ve maliyeti düşürmek yolunda gerekli tedbirleri saptamak amacıyle bir Meclis Araştırması

açılmasına ilişkin önergesinin görüşülmesi.

O K A N C E Y L A N

260

Table 5.15 Rice Cultivation (Ha), Production (Ton)and TGB Purchasing

(Ton) in Turkey

Years Areas Production Purchasing

Rice

Purchasing

Paddy

Rate

1938 20000 46310 - - -

1948 25656 59709 - 6170 -

1958 59000 119000 15 12246 -

1968 45000 123000 2,154 10512 -

1978 70000 316600 972 - 0.3

1988 51000 262500 - - -

1998 60000 315000 70701 - 22.4

2008 99500 753000 501 - 0.1

2018 118100 940000 432 - 0.05

SOURCE T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, Toprak Mahsülleri Ofisi, TMO Tables

(1938-2018) http://www.tmo.gov.tr/Upload/Document/istatistikler/

tablolar/6celtikeuva.pdf

5.10 The Importance of Industrialization in Paddy Production

The processing of rice into paddy is the first step of consumerization. However,

the quality of rice depends on the grinding, the size, and the characteristics

of its grain. Furthermore, the cooking quality of paddy depends on amylose

content in the endosperm.1127 The quality of rice changes according to

rice growers, fabricators, shopkeepers and consumers. All of these groups try

to get the highest profit in the end. Farmers aim to price out of the market and

therefore they aim to get a higher yield that means the amount of paddy obtained

out of 100 kg rice. Fabricators prefer clean, moisture free and storable

rice and also higher rice yield. Shopkeepers favor market qualified, clean and

standard paddy. Finally, consumers take into account cooking quality and palatal

delight.1128

1127 Emine Aydın, “Pirinçte Kalite Kriterleri ve Alternatif Kullanım Alanları,” Uluslararası Katılımlı

Konuralp Çeltik Çalıştayı, Düzce (2015), 33.

1128 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 145.

§

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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Before the foundation of rice factories, there were milling machines and

grinding machines in Turkey. Since the paddy of the milling machines and

grinding machines were not shiny, they were crocked paddy and floury. There

were 943 grinding machines in Turkey. Two thirds of the total grinding machines

and one-third of milling machines were in Southeast Anatolia. There

were grinding machines in Şanlıurfa, Hakkari, Tekirdağ, Ankara, and Bolu in

the 1970s. Furthermore, while there were 360 milling machines in the 1940s,

their number declined to 297 in the 1970s. For example, the number of milling

machines was 37 in Diyarbakır, 10 in Samsun and 5 in Şanlıurfa in 1947. Furthermore,

there was no fulling mill in the villages where rice was cultivated.

Therefore, peasants used to dig some holes that were one-meter depth to obtain

paddy from rice. They filled these holes with rice grain and they malled

them. Some peasants worked as laborers in the obtaining of paddy and they

got 30 kg paddy instead of cash in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin.1129

The first rice factories were founded in the Tosya district of Kastamonu,

Kahramanaraş, and İstanbul in the 1920s and the 1930s. As the sources of energy,

water vapor, electricity and diesel oil were used in these factories. However,

thanks to the factory assembled system, rice can be processed into paddy

more polished and less crocked.1130 The first rice factory in Turkey was

founded in the Tosya district of Kastamonu in 1928. The capital of this factory

was worth 120,000 TL and it had 24,000 shareholders. This firm was under

the control of Sumer Bank.1131 The building materials and some machines of

the factory were transferred by ships from England to İnebolu port. Then they

were reached to Tosya.1132 The second rice factory was founded in

Kahramanmaraş in the 1930s.1133 While there were 21 rice factories in

1129 Nuri Taner “Urfa İli Çevresinde Çeltik Ziraatı,” Yenilik, June 22, 1949.

1130 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişirme Değerleri Üzerine Araştırmalar, 34-36.

1131 BCA İV, 30 18 1 2 5 43 4.

1132 Emrullah Koyuncuoğlu, tape-recorded interview, by the author, Tosya Kastamonu, April 20,

2018.

1133 BCA BV 030 18 01 02 9 11 9.

O K A N C E Y L A N

262

1940,1134their number increased to 29 in 1947.1135 Thus, rice was transported

from Diyarbakır and Adana to the rice factories of İstanbul and İzmir for processing

into the paddy. On the other hand, the rice factories of the Lower

Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins processed their local rice.1136

Rice grower founded a rice factory as a joint adventure of 22 businessmen

in Keşan on April 25, 1955. The factory could process 25 tons of rice a day.

They produced cargo rice and sold it to TGB.1137 In general, the foundation

of rice factories in the Meriç Basin began to be widespread in the 1970s. Since

there was no rice factory in Edirne, the rice of the Meriç Basin had been transferred

to İstanbul until the mid-1950s.1138 However, Hamdi Buzcu founded

the first rice factory and sunflower seed oil factory in Uzunköprü in 1953.

Thanks to the building of this factory, the market potential of rice growers

increased in the Meriç Basin.1139 The development of the industrial infrastructure

of rice increased its commodification and economic value. This process

is not different from other crops such as wheat and sunflower. However, since

rice has a higher yield, it is more valuable for peasants. Furthermore, as the

first rice factory owner of Uzunköprü, Hamdi Buzcu became the highest tax

payer in Thrace in the 1980s.1140

Similarly, Fuat Abdiş and Faruk Güven who had rice factories in Boyabat,

Terme, and Alaçam attempted to found a rice factory in Bafra in 1957. Fuat

Abdiş said that there was not adequate rice cultivation for a rice factory in

Bafra. However, with the building of a rice factory, rice cultivation areas

would increase in the long run. 1141 On the other hand, the people of Bafra

1134 Rahmi Çeltik,”Türkiye’de Pirinç Ziraatı,” 29.

1135 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişirme Değerleri Üzerine Araştırmalar, 34

1136 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 141- 143.

1137 “Çeltik Müstahsilleri Kargo Birliği İle Bir Mülakat,” Demokrat Keşan, May 14, 1955.

1138 BCA İTV 030 01 85 537 9.

1139 “Hamdi Babayı Kim Batırdı,” Patronlar Dünyası, April 9, 2008; Nazmi Metin, “Hamdi Baba

ve Günümüzün Kıytırık Zenginleri,” Keşan Postası, January 18, 2018.

1140 “Trakya’da Vergi Rekortmeni Fabrikatör Hamdi Buzcu’ya Plaket Verildi,” Adalet, November

15, 1981.

1141 “Bafra’ya Çeltik Fabrikası Kuruluyor,” Bafra, April 4, 1957.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

263

requested and attempted for the building of the Çarşamba Sugar Plant in the

1950s. However, it could only be built 30 years later from this rice factory.1142

Although Azad Rice Factory was founded in Bafra in 1997. The grandfather

of Kurtuluş Varol began to process rice into paddy in diesel oil-driven rice

mill in the 1940s.1143

Süleyman Esen, Hüseyin Özen and Nesim Barakas founded a modern

technological factory with the name of Akar Rice in the Kağıthane district of

İstanbul in 1957. They bought rice from İpsala in the 1950s.1144 According to

the records of the İstanbul Chamber of Industry, there were 5 rice factories

and they had a 35102-ton capacity. 25 percent of Turkish rice could be processed

in İstanbul in the 1970s.1145 There were 120 rice factories in Turkey in

the 1970s. For example, 34 factories were in the Black Sea Region, 17 rice

factories were in Marmara and 7 of them were in Southeast Anatolia in 1970.

The number of rice factories was 5 in Edirne, 14 in Samsun, and 5 in Diyarbakır.

In general, these factories were located in Kastamonu, Samsun, Edirne,

Adana İstanbul, İzmir, and Diyarbakır in three regions.1146

After the attempt of Ahmet Ünalan and his two brothers for the foundation

of a rice factory that had 40 tons of capacity a day in İpsala in 1973,1147 16

village cooperatives of Meriç district of Edirne decided to found a rice factory

in Meriç. Furthermore, their entrepreneurship was pressed on the Trade Registry

Gazette in 1976.1148 However, this project could not be realized. By the

same token, 8 years later, 5 soil water cooperatives and 18 village development

cooperatives in the villages of Meriç district made a joint attempt again to

found a rice factory in Meriç. To consult their agricultural and economic situations,

the board of management of these cooperatives held a meeting in

1142 “Çarşamba Şeker Fabrikasi 1985’te Üretime Geçecek,”; Türk Şeker, Türkiye Şeker Fabrikaları

Tarihçesi, accesed February 13, 2019 https://www.turkseker.gov.tr/tarihce.aspx

1143 Kurtuluş Varol, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, August 6,

1144 “Çeltikçilerin Nazarı Dikkatine,” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, November 30, 1957.

1145 Nafiz Çatak,” Çeltik Fabrikaları,” İstanbul Sanayi Odası Dergisi, no: 84, (February 1973):

33.

1146 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 141-143.

1147 “İlçemizde Bir Fabrika Daha,” İpsala, April 6, 1973.

1148 “Edirne’de 16 Köy Kooperatifi Birleşip Çeltik Fabrikası Kuruyor,” Vatandaş, July 5, 1976.

O K A N C E Y L A N

264

Meriç Municipal on January 3, 1984. Based on their agreement and the size

of their rice cultivation areas, every cooperative would pay 500 TL partnership

interest per decar until March 2, 1984. Also, all the processes would be

controlled by the General Directorate of Cooperatives in Edirne.1149 A fund

account would be opened in Meriç Agricultural Bank and the expenses of the

building of the rice factory would be supplied. However, the cooperatives fell

behind intentionally.1150

In contrast to these unsuccessful attempts, to protect the labor of rice

growers from the undeserved gain of rice merchants, Edirne Village Cooperative

opened a rice factory with 4, 250,000 TL in Keşan in 1979. This factory

could process 20 tons of rice a day.1151 Edirne village cooperative held a meeting

12 years later. The cooperative had 25 percent of rice production in Turkey

and tried to equilibrate rice prices through the rice factory in Keşan.1152

There are 130 rice factories in Turkey. While there are 51 rice factories in

Edirne, 23 of them are in Samsun and 2 of them are in Diyarbakır. Namely,

more than half of the rice factories take place in three basins in 2015. While

the number of rice factories has increased almost by 25 percent in Turkey,

their number has increased by 33 percent in Edirne since 2000. In recent years,

some of the owners of these factories came from the Black Sea region.1153 In

contrast to the increase of rice factories in Edirne, their numbers have decreased

from 3 to 2 in Diyarbakır since the 1960s.1154 The rice growers of

Diyarbakır complain about the indifference of the businesspeople of Diyarbakır.

The rice factories of Edirne are located in Uzunköprü, İpsala, Keşan,

and Meriç districts. In general, they are limited companies and employ 512

1149 Meriç’teki Kooperatifler Meriç İlçesinde Bir Çeltik Fabrikası Yaptıracak,” Vatandaş, January

5, 1984.

1150 “Meriç Çeltik Fabrikasının Bu Yıl Kurulup Çalışması İçin Çaba Saredilecek,” Vatandaş, January

7, 1984.

1151 “Edirne Köy Kooperatifi Keşan’da Bir Çeltik Fabrikası Aldı,” Vatandaş, December 18, 1979.

1152 “Köy Koop Edirne Birliği 12 Yıl Aradan Sonra Genel Kurul Yaptı,” Edirne, May 20, 1992.

1153 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, Türkiye Pirinç Piyasasının Sorunları ve Çeltik Üretim Potansiyeli, 56-

121.

1154 “Bu Yıl Pirinçlerimiz de Bol Olarak İstihsal Edilmiştir.”

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

265

workers. Some of their workers are seasonal.1155 Similarly, there were about

242 workers in the rice factories of Samsun.1156 Although the supervision and

the inquest of these factories are made by the Ministry of Agriculture, there

has still been uninsured employment and undeserved gain.1157

Although these factories have the capacity to process about 3 million tons

of rice, they only process 700000 tons of rice that are produced and imported

in annually the 2000s. However, due to insufficient rice production, and low

demands in domestic and international markets, these factories work under

their potential working capacity. Many of these factories do not have enough

capital and thus the cost of bank credits is high for these factories. They work

in full capacity in six months of a year. For example, rice factories in Edirne

and Samsun work in 34 percent capacity.1158 Furthermore, the Azad Rice factory

has worked for about two months every year. There are 18 workers in the

rice factory.1159

Besides, rice plants worked in a full capacity during the three months following

the harvest. The term of employment was 75 days in the Black Sea,

150 days in Marmara Region and 135 days in Southeast Anatolia. Averagely,

the workers of the rice plant worked 13 hours a day in the 1960s and 1970s. In

this context, while only 1 percent of Turkish rice was processed into paddy

through milling and grading machines, the rest was processed through the

factory system in the 1970s. For example, 203 tons of rice in Marmara, 186

tons of rice in the Black Sea and 751 tons of rice in Southeast Anatolia were

processed through milling or grading machines. On the other hand, 75669

tons of rice in Marmara, 61499 tons of rice in the Black Sea, and 11866 tons

1155 Ahmet Şalapoğlu, “Pirinç Üretim ve Tüketim Zincirinde Pazarlama Kanallarının Yapısı ve

Pirinç Pazarlama Marjları: Edirne İli Örneği,” 84.

1156 Samsun İl Tarım Müdürlüğü, tape-recorded interview, by the author, Samsun, Turkey, August

06, 2018.

1157 Arzu Özalp, “Trakya’da Çeltik Üretiminin Ekonomik ve İstatistiksel Analizi,”80.

1158 Ibid. 81 Işık Ocaklı, Edirne İli Çeltik Sektörü Raporu, 31- 67.

1159 Kurtuluş Varol, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, August 6,

2018.

O K A N C E Y L A N

266

of rice in Southeast Anatolia were processed through the factory system in

1970.1160

In contrast to the Karacadağ, Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak

Basins, the owners of rice factories in the Meriç Basin were rice growers at

the same time.1161 However, some rice factory owners such as Yerebakanlar

cultivate rice in Bafra plain.1162 Since the term of employment in the rice factory

coincided with the rice harvest period, İlhan Avcı has not cultivated rice

for 5 years in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin. His father Ali Avcı had cultivated

rice until 2013. However, they give security for due payment of sharecroppers

in the purchasing of fertilizer.1163

After the processing of rice into paddy, about 50 percent was rice, 15-16

percent was crocked rice, 20 percent was paddy husk and also 10-13 percent

was rice bran. Rice yield means the amount of paddy obtained from 100 kg of

rice. It was averagely 60 percent in the Meriç Basin, 60- 70 percent in the

Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins and 55 percent in the Karacadağ

Agriculture Basin in the 1960s and 1970s.1164 With these rates, the rice

yield of Turkey has been higher than the world average.1165 The rice yield of

these basins change according to climate conditions, fertilization, and cultivation

technics in time. In addition to the obtaining of paddy as the main crop,

rice bran and rice husk are two waste products of rice in factories. Rice bran

has been used in the making of red capsicum, henna, and animal feed. Similarly,

rice husk is used as sub soil fertilizer in the Black Sea region. As a

subsidiary product, rice has more than 300 industrial uses. Since the husk of

rice has a high level of silicon, it is used in the production of synthetic materials

such as fertilizer, rubber, and furfural.1166

1160 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 144-145.

1161 Ibid., 142.

1162 Kurtuluş Varol, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, August 6,

2018.

1163 İlhan Avcı, tape-recorded interview with the author, Diyarbakır Turkey August 10, 2018.

1164 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 146.

1165 Murat Palabıyık, Tahıllar İçinde Buğdaydan Sonra Gelen En Önemli Ürün Çeltik,” Hasad

Tarım Dergisi, no. 301 (2010): 58.

1166 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 4-5.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

267

5.11 The Cost Profit Analysis of Rice Farming: Daily

Socio-economic Lives of Farmers

As a result of rice production and marketing, the production cost and profit

of rice need to be analyzed. In this context, in general, while the economic

income of rice growers had steadily increased until 1984, their earnings began

to decline from 1984 onwards. This situation is closely related to the increasing

production cost of rice and exposure to foreign market prices in the neoliberal

period. While rice farming was commodified, foreign trade and the

capital regime are liberalized and internationalized. Thus, the increase in production

cost causes the deepening of borrowing to banks or usurers. Consequently,

the farmers who experience these producing risk factors have become

addicted to the free-market economy.1167 Although 66 percent of

farmers in all of these basins think that rice provides high income, an averagely

6 percent of them are satisfied with their earnings from rice cultivation.

1168 Furthermore, since many small scale agricultural enterprises have not

had adequate capital, they cannot have stored their rice and undersold their

rice.

First of all, when the economic situation of rice cultivation in the 1960s

and 1970s is considered, it seems that rice farming had been ignored for years

and spent millions of TL did not have any credit facility. Rice farming might

have led to the bankruptcy of many farmers every year. Some of them sold

their tractors, furniture, fields, and houses. Furthermore, the aghas of last year

might have been laborer (amele)or garcon in coffees. Rice growers were

afraid of floods of the Meriç Rivers, low yield, and the work stoppage of

workers. Rice required capital, credit, and specialized labor. Rice farming resembles

gambling. Rice farming is a kind of passion. Although many farmers

went into bankruptcy due to floods or other natural disasters, they could not

give up rice cultivation.1169

1167 Çağlar Keyder and Zafer Yenal, Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu, 154-155.

1168 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye’de Çeltikte Uygulanan Üretim, Fiyat ve Pazar Politikalarının

Değerlendirilmesi,” 110.

1169 Tevfik Işık, “Meriç Nehri Kıyılarında,” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, September 3, 1960.

§

O K A N C E Y L A N

268

Similarly, since rice production reached a new record in the Meriç Basin

in the 1970s, the rice merchants of İstanbul compete with each other in paying

a deposit to rice growers. Since many Farmers did not have capital and needed

cash, they sold their rice at 330 kurus that had been determined as the minimum

price without stocking in their storehouses. Therefore, farmers accused

the government of providing fewer credit facilities with them. However, the

rice merchants who got more capitals and credit facilities stockpiled and

caused rice scarcity in the market. While these merchants got rich, the labor

of rice growers was exploited.1170 Thus, due to the lower price, many rice

growers did not prefer TGB to sell their rice in 1973.1171 Namely, although

rice prices have increased, it has been for the benefit of some speculators rather

than rice growers. While people continue to consume paddy expensively,

rice growers continue to work at lower profits.1172 Farmers are not organized

in the sale cooperatives. Therefore, although farmers produce their products,

they cannot have the right to comment on the determination of their prices.1173

However, Edirne Village Development Cooperatives Union is interested in

rice in the production and marketing process. This institute has two aims. The

first is the production of rice seed, the processing into paddy, and the sale of

rice. The second aim is the purchasing of milk and dairy farming. 43 percent

of rice is produced by the partners of the cooperatives in the 2000s.1174

When the prices of fertilizer and diesel oil in 1980 are regarded, it seems

that the reel prices of fertilizers had increased four times and the reel prices

of diesel oil had increased two times until the beginning of the 2000s. On the

1170 “Keşan İlçemizde Bu Yıl Çeltik Mahsulü Rekor Seviyeye Ulaşmış,” Vatandaş, October 25,

1973.

1171 “Çeltik Üreticisi Malını TMO’ya Vermiyor,” Vatandaş, October 26, 1973.

1172 “Kapının Açılıp Kapanışı,” Edirne Sesi, July 8, 1965.

1173 Edirne Milletvekili Şadan Şimşek'in, tarım kesiminin sorunlarına ve alınması gereken önlemlere

ilişkin gündemdışı konuşması ve Tarım ve Köyişleri Bakanı Hüsnü Yusuf Gökalp'in

cevabı, (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, February 13, 2001) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d21/c054/tbmm21054057.pdf

1174 N. Serinikli and İ. H. İnan, “Edirne Köy Kalkınma Kooperatifleri Birliğinin Ekonomik Analizi,”

Tekirdağ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 4, no. 3 (2007), 239-240.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

269

other hand, the increase in rice prices had been behind these agricultural inputs.

1175 For example, the production cost of rice increased by 120 percent in

the 1980s.1176 In the same way, Gürsel Şimşek emphasized that the production

cost of rice had increased by 183 percent since 2002. Furthermore, while the

production cost of rice was 300 TL in 2002, it increased to 850 TL per decar

in 20111177 and 1,319 TL per decar in 2017.1178 On the other hand, the minimum

prices of rice increased from 60 kurus to 106 per kg in this process.1179 This

directly reflects the economic income of farmers in rice marketing.

The soil structure of plains such as saltiness or stony, flood threat of Meriç

plain and the expectation of gaining money force farmers to cultivate rice. As

a rice grower in Bafra plain said that he could gain more than his father who

worked in Holland in the 1990s. However, as many farmers expressed, a rice

grower pays off his debt with an extra debt in the 2000s.1180 Therefore, they

have used bank credit for 20 years. While the production cost of rice has increased,

the economic income of rice growers has remained the same in the

2000s. To prevent economic loss, rice growers have to get higher yield. Rice

is a more guaranteed crop than vegetables that have daily prices.1181

The level of rice production technology in İpsala equals to that of developed

countries such as the USA, Italy and Australia. Since the production cost

of rice has been high, farmers try to increase rice yield. In this context, although

the development of land leveling system and the breeding of new varieties

has contributed to rice production, rice growers have had difficulties

in selling their products at their value. Gürsel Şimşek who was a local politician

and chairman of the Rice grower association between 1997 and 2007 said

that agrarian policies were a robbery system and farmers could not earn

1175 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye’de Çeltikte Uygulanan Üretim, Fiyat ve Pazar Politikalarının

Değerlendirilmesi,” 76.

1176 “Üreticiler İçin Bu Yılda Kaybolmuş Sayılıyor,” Vatandaş, August 29, 1988.

1177 “2012 Çeltikte Kıyamet Yılı,” Hudut, August 25, 2012.

1178 “Çeltik Üreticisi İçin 2017 Maliyet Raporu Hazırlandı,” Haber Türk, August 16, 2017.

1179 2012 Çeltikte Kıyamet Yılı.”

1180 Yahya Temiz, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, August 06, 2018.

1181 Temel Kaya, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, April 30, 2019.

O K A N C E Y L A N

270

money in this banking system.1182 Therefore, although these agricultural inputs

are regarded as required to increase agricultural yield, they are also the

source of uncertainties and concerns about the economic income of farmers.

Due to the increase of production cost and the price fluctuations of rice cause

the spiral of debt among rice growers.1183

Table 5.16 Cost and Profit Analyses of Rice by Years in Turkey (TL)

Years Nominal

Price of Oil

Amonium

Nitrate

Osmancık

Bersani

1 kg rice for

Fertilizer

1 kg rice for 1

lt Oil

1980 25,3 6,8 6,8 1 2,7

1984 122 24 20,4 8,3 1,6

1990 1,5 393 117,1 2,9 0,7

1995 11,0 52,4 - - -

2001 788,4 0,1 0,3 2,9 1,2

2005 2,2 0,3 0,6 2,0 0,4

2010 2,3 0,4 - - 0,2

2013 3,8 0,8 1,3 1,2 0,2

2017 5,6 0,8 1,4 1,6 0,2

SOURCE Gaytancıoğlu, (199); Özalp (2003); T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu

(TÜİK) Yıllık İstatistik 1960-1996 (Annual Statistics of Turkey; 1960-

1996); T.C Tarım Bakanlığı TMO Çeltik AlımFiyatları(1980-2017https://biruni.

tuik.gov.tr/medas/?kn=84&locale=tr TC Kalkınma Bakanlığı,

(DPT)Beşinci Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı, Gübre ve Gübre Hammadeleri

Özel İhtisas Komisyonu Raporu, 139; Vatandaş, January 2, 1984; Vatandaş

March 1, 1984; TC Kalkınma Bakanlığı, DPT Sekizinci Beş Yıllık Kalkınma

Planı, Gübre Sanayi Özel İhtisas Komisyonu Raporu, Dolun (2018); TC

Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, Gübre Sektör Politika Belgesi .

1182 “2012 Çeltikte Kıyamet Yılı.”

1183 Çağlar Keyder and Zafer Yenal, Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu, 63.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

271

As agricultural inputs fertilizer and diesel oil are two important production

costs in rice farming. However, there is also, the cost of irrigation and pesticides.

These production costs have changed both from region to region and in

time. From the ceteris paribus perspective, there have been causal relations

among these variables. Thus it is quite difficult to account for clear cut production

costs. However, due to the increase of diesel oil and fertilizer prices,

this table indicates more than four times the decline of the income of rice

growers from 1980 onward.

Figure 5.6 The Economic Situation of Rice Farmers

SOURCE: Samsun Haber Gazetesi May 26, 2020

O K A N C E Y L A N

272

Table 5.17 The Production Cost of Rice in 2017 and 2018 (Ton/TL)

The Statement

of Process

Edirne Samsun Diyarbakır

Ploughing 74,3 105 -

Land Levelling 37,5 40 -

Cultivation 126,6 120 171,5

Fertilization 106,4 125 77,6

İrrigation 250 150 180

Agricultural

Control

143,3 95 60,5

Harvest 75,0 150 120

Preparation for market

63,5 - -

Marketing 36 32 15

Other Costs 4 - -

Total 929,7 817 625,1

Trading Capital Interest

46,4 40,8 31,2

Other Costs 976,2 - -

General Administrative

Expense

29,2 25,7 19,7

Rental Expense 300,0 250 200

Total Costs 1,3 833,5 876,0

Yield kg/ decar 900 800 500

The Cost of Crop

TL/Kg

1,4 2,2 1,7

SOURCE Üretim Maliyetleri Edirne, Samsun ve Diyarbakır İl Tarım Müdürlüğü

This table indicates the differences in the production costs of rice among three

basins in 2018. Rice farming culture, water sources, the use of technology, and

agricultural inputs become influential in the emergence of different production

costs. While there are ploughing and land leveling costs in Edirne and

Samsun, these two methods have not been implemented in Diyarbakır where

there is no ground surface tillage in rice cultivation. Furthermore, the costs of

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

273

irrigation and agricultural control in Edirne is one and a half higher than Samsun

and Diyarbakır. This is closely related to excessive and unconscious use

of pesticides and fertilizer, water pollution, and high electric bills in irrigation.

Since irrigation cooperatives hire watermen in the Meriç Basin, their wages

also increase the irrigation costs. For example, their average income is 20,000

TL for five months.1184 On the other hand, apart from big land owners, small

rice growers irrigate their own lands in Samsun and Diyarbakır. While the

daily wages of watermen in Samsun is 100 TL,1185 sharecroppers give ten percent

of rice to them in Diyarbakır.1186 However, thanks to advanced technology,

the cost of the rice harvest in Edirne is two times lower than the other

regions. On the other hand, rice fields have been sickled by workers in Karacadağ.

Although the total production cost of rice in Edirne is higher, rice growers

can have higher income thanks to high rice yields. If the sustainability of rice

farming is counted based on the annual minimum wage, it seems that a rice

grower needs to cultivate at least 18 decar in Edirne, at least 16 decar in Samsun,

and at least 37 decar in Diyarbakır. Furthermore, since sharecroppers give

forty or fifty percent of their rice to land owners and ten percent to watermen,

they need to cultivate at least 74 decar in Diyarbakır.

1184 İlhan Ceylan, , tape -recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey August 20, 2018,

1185 Samsun İl Tarım Müdürlüğü, tape recorded interview by the author, Samsun, Turkey, August

6, 2018.

1186 Şerif Kahraman, tape recorded interview by the author, Diyarbakır, Turkey August 20, 2018.

O K A N C E Y L A N

274

Table 5.18 The Average Production Cost of Rice Industry and Marketing

in 2018 (for 60 rice yield) (The Cost of Rice per Each Ton)

(Rice Price Kg/TL)

The Statement of

Process

Edirne

(Osmancık)

Samsun

(Osmancık)

Diyarbakır

(Karacadağ)

Rice Purchasing 3-3,5 3-3,5 3-3,5

Processing into

paddy

120 170 160

Transportation

Electricity

Labor cost

Office expenses

320

310

315

Total Costs of Rice

Plants Per Ton

440 440-480 475

The Sale of Rice to

Wholesaler

6,2 5,2-5,5 -

Packing cost per Ton 1,0 500 -

Shelf Rent per Kg 150 kurus 150 kurus 150 kurus

1 Kg of Paddy Price 8 8 7

SOURCE These data were obtained through some interviews with three rice factory

owners in three basins.

In the production chain of rice farmers, rice industry owners, wholesalers, and

retailers and markets are seen respectively. As a result of the interviews, it

seems while farmers complain about the increasing prices of agricultural inputs,

energy costs in irrigation, and bank interests, rice factory owners complained

about the economic uncertainties, high energy costs and employment

costs. Also wholesalers and retailers pay taxes, transportation costs and hire

purchase. Actually, when the economic income of these groups is considered,

it seems that every group gain at a limited level. However, farmers or rice

growers are the most suffered group in this production chain. In addition to

increasing production costs, climate factors may influence their income. They

have difficulty in receiving their production cost in some years. On the other

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

275

hand, while farmers spend half of their income as an expense, rice plant owners

spend one of five from their income as an expense. Furthermore, they may

sell rice bran and husk.

In general, the number of workers in the rice industry is between 10 and

20. However, in the harvest period, this number might increase to 50 people.

In general, the costs of rice industries are close to each other. In contrast to

Edirne and Samsun, rice processing into paddy and marketing in Diyarbakır

is different. In this context, rice growers in Karacadağ have not sold their

crops to the rice industry as rice directly. Most of them have their rice processed

into paddy in return 315 TL and market their paddy individually.1187

Therefore, the production cost of farmers increased from 876 to 1100 per ton.

However, since they sell their crop as paddy without any intermediaries, their

income is between 4,90 TL and 5,90 TL per kg. On the other hand, in general

since the rice growers in Edirne and Samsun sell their crops as rice, the income

of rice growers is between 1,50-2 TL in Edirne and between 0,75 and

1,25 in Samsun per kilogram. Therefore, it can be said that high costs of energy,

agricultural inputs and the number of intermediaries increase paddy

prices in markets.

5.11.1 The Reflections of Neoliberal Policies to Socio-economic Lives

of Farmers

However, the increase in paddy price contributes to the earning of intermediaries

rather than that of rice growers. For example, the managers of Yenikarpuzlu

Agricultural Development Cooperatives were requested to be incarcerated

since they could not pay the electric bill used in the rice irrigation in

2008. Fortunately, they paid 1 million debts in 36 months.1188 Some rice growers

have been sent in the bailiffs, since they cannot have paid their irrigation

debt on time in Bafra.1189 The biggest economic problems of rice growers

1187 İlhan Avcı, tape-recorded interview with the author, Diyarbakır Turkey August 10, 2018.

1188 “Üreticiler Borç Batağında,” Yeni Gün, April 19, 2008.

1189 Ahmet Aydın, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, August 06,

2018.

O K A N C E Y L A N

276

have been diesel oil and electricity used in rice irrigation. With the privatization

of electricity, irrigation cooperatives or agricultural development cooperatives

that organize rice cultivation in the Meriç Basin has paid their electric

bill monthly.1190 Therefore, some farmers may delay paying the price of irrigation

water in the Meriç Basin.1191 Similarly, the rice grower who use electricity

in the irrigation of their rice fields complain about the high cost of

electricity and inadequate irrigation water capacity in the Karacadağ Basin.

1192

TGB neither quotes a suitable price nor makes fee description on time in

some years. Therefore, the pricing policy of TGB waste the labor of rice farmers.

Due to the high production cost, high credit interest, and wrong pricing

policy, rice prices were lower than the production cost of rice.1193 This situation

causes a problem in the marketing of rice.1194 Thus, the big landowners

of the Meriç Basin have been to Filibe in Bulgaria to cultivate rice since the

mid-1990s. Thus they decrease the production cost of rice such as land tenure,

labor force, and modern irrigation infrastructure in the 2000s.1195 For example,

Ali Soydan who studied at Boğaziçi University and his brother Cem

Soydan graduated from Portsmouth University in England decided to cultivate

10000 decars of rice in the plains between Pazarcık and Filibe in Bulgaria

in 2001. Since there were only two rice factories, they founded a rice factory

and received 20 percent paddy requirements of Bulgaria. They also expected

to benefit from the EU support projects in rice production. Apart from Turks,

there have been Italian rice farmers in Bulgaria.1196

1190 “Çeltik Üreticisinin En Büyük Sıkıntısı Mazot ve Elektrik,” Uzunköprü, October 05, 2013.

1191 Hasan Topçu and Mehmet Topçu, tape-recorded interview by the author, Akçadam, Meriç,

Edirne, Turkey, September 01, 2018.

1192 Şerif Kahraman, Şeyhmus Atakul and Sevda Kılınç, “Diyarbakır Yöresinde Çeltik Tarımının

Yapısal Durumu,”88.

1193 “Çeltik Üreticisi Sıkıntılı,”Son Haber, October 17, 2006; Doğan Başaran, “Çeltik Ekimi,”

Tarım Makineleri Belgeseli, Çiftçi TV, 2016.

1194 “Çeltik Üreticisi Ürününü Pazarlayamıyor,” Son Haber, October 17, 2006.

1195 “Çiftçimize Tarlalar Dar Geliyor,” Yenigün, May 20, 2008.

1196 “Komşunun Tarlalarını Türk Çiftçiler İşliyor,” Milliyet, April 12, 2004.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

277

The production cost of Turkish rice growers is higher than that of the USA

per each decar. Furthermore, in the determination of agricultural supports, the

government does not take into account the production costs of rice which are

closely related to foreign exchange. Thus, these topics have been discussed

and Opponent Parties made their ideal suggestions in the political ground in

the Turkish Grand National Assembly. In return to these discussions, the governments

pay attention to the statistical data about rice cultivation and technological

transformation rather than the socio-economic situations of rice

growers in their daily lives.1197 More interestingly, there has been no production

planning although rice cultivation has been subject to permission since

1936. Since rice growers have not been organized, the governments have focused

on the consumption of paddy rather than the production of rice since

the 1970s.1198

5.12 The Marketing of Paddy

In general, the marketing of rice from rice growers to consumers is done in

three types. First, farmers sell their rice to TGB, and TGB markets them to

citizens. Second, farmers sell their products to rice factories. These factories

or merchants sell them to supermarkets and wholesalers in Rami in İstanbul,

GIMAT in Ankara, and İzmir. Third, farmers make their rice processed in rice

factories and sell their paddy in district bazaars. Thus they remove many intermediaries.

Furthermore, when the arrival of imported paddy or rice to consumers

is considered, it is realized in three ways such as rice factories, wholesalers

and catering firms.1199

Due to the growing demand for big hospitals in the Aegean and Mediterranean

regions for Osmancık or Calrose paddy, their prices have increased.

1197 Edirne Milletvekili Kemal Değirmendereli’nin, çeltik üreticilerinin sorunlarına ilişkin açıklaması,

(TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, February 8, 2012), https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d24/c013/tbmm24013063.pdf

1198 Çorum Milletvekili Cahit Angın ve 11 arkadaşının, çeltikçiliği geliştirmek, verimi artırmak

ve maliyeti düşürmek yolunda gerekli tedbirleri saptamak amacıyle bir Meclis Araştırması

açılmasına ilişkin önergesinin görüşülmesi

1199 Okan Gaytancıoğlu Türkiye Pirinç Piyasasının Sorunları ve Çeltik Üretim Potansiyeli, 45.

§

O K A N C E Y L A N

278

The advertisements, the promotion and the brands of paddy, the cleanness and

the image of paddy determine the preferences of consumers. Thus, retailers

play the most important role in the paddy market in Turkey. In this context,

retail trade first began with the foundation of Migros firm in Turkey in 1955.

Then the development of retail trade accelerated with the entering of Metro

and Carrefour into the domestic market of Turkey in the 1990s. For example,

the share of retail trade in the paddy market is 60 percent in the 2000s. Furthermore,

almost 80 percent of paddy is marketed in supermarkets as packed

products, the rest is sold in sacks.1200

However, the first problem in the marketing and the consumption of

paddy is tricking in paddy standardization. Osmancık and Baldo paddy varieties

are blended and marketed with the name of luxury Baldo to decrease the

production cost of the fabricator and to get higher income.1201 Similarly, the

smallest grained rice variety of Turkey is Karacadağ.1202 Some imported

paddy varieties were attempted to market in some super markets with the

name of Karacadağ. Some firms blend imported paddy such as Kamolina and

Calrose with local paddy such as Osmancık with each other and market them

as favored paddy varieties such as Baldo and Osmancık 97. Thus, they cause

decrease in paddy quality in pilaf, unfair competition, and undeserved gain.

This situation results from the inadequate controls. The news on Turkish media

and the press about the genetically modified organism in rice led to the

preferences of local paddy. In general, since Calrose paddy and the Egypt

paddy which is called Kamolina appeal to the taste buds of Turkish society,

they are preferred. Therefore, While Calrose variety is demanded by rice factories

who use modern technology, the Egypt variety is preferred due to its

low price.1203 While low income consumers prefer imported and cheap paddy,

middle and upper middle classes prefer qualified and local varieties.1204 In

1200 Ibid., 58-68.

1201 Ibid., 56.

1202 İlhan Avcı, tape-recorded interview with the author, Diyarbakır Turkey August 10, 2018.

1203 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, “Türkiye’de Çeltikte Uygulanan Üretim, Fiyat ve Pazar Politikalarının

Değerlendirilmesi,” 39-46.

1204 Halil Sürek, Çeltik Tarımı, 145.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

279

general, the paddy grown in the Meriç Basin is consumed in the domestic

market. Due to insufficient production, the consumption of the paddy grown

in the Karacadağ, Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins is limited

with the regional level.1205

Besides, Turkey imports rice from Italy within the concept of Custom Union

Agreement with the EU. In general, while Turkey imports rice from the

USA, Turkey imports paddy from Egypt. Due to the standardization and

lower prices of imported paddy such as American, Chinese and Egypt paddy,

retailers can market more easily. However, since Turkish citizens like to consume

coarse grained rice varieties, they prefer Calrose that is like Osmancık

and Baldo. Kamolina is marketed as economic paddy with lower prices.1206

Since local paddy is more qualified, consumers prefer them.

Within the concept of market size, paddy sales, and the basins where rice

has been produced, the retail prices of İstanbul, Ankara, İzmir, Edirne, Samsun,

and Diyarbakır are given. The retail of paddy prices in six different cities

indicates that there has been a steady increase since 1948. However, due to

the free market economy, the increase of agricultural inputs and some economic

crises, the increasing rate of paddy prices during the 1980s and the

1990s were quite remarkable. Although there are little price differences, they

have been to close each other.

1205 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, Türkiye Pirinç Piyasasının Sorunları ve Çeltik Üretim Potansiyeli, 83.

1206 Ibid., 34-39.

O K A N C E Y L A N

280

Table 5.19 The Reel Retail Prices of Paddy in Turkey (1994-2016)

SOURCE Consumer Price Index (1994=100), TÜİK Edirne Bölge Müdürlüğü; TÜFE, Tüketici

Fiyat Genel Endeksi ve Değişim oranları https://www.hakedis.org/endeksler/

tuketici-fiyat-genel-endeksi-ve-degisim-oranlari(1994=100)

5.13 The Influence of Rice Import on Domestic Market

Turkey has imported paddy since the Early Republican Era. However, due to

the Rice Cultivation Law of 1936, both paddy importation and rice production

decreased for a while. However, with the increasing demand for rice, its prices

§

Years January February March April May June July August Sept. Octob. Novemb. Decemb.

1994 13 17 18 27 31 32 31 31 31 32 37 39

1995 27,45367 26,17801 25,04696 23,66864 22,90951 22,89224 22,21018 21,80685 21,21504 20,86168 20,35513 20,45075

1996 22,35067 22,86136 22,34637 21,59686 21,28992 22,59542 23,91629 24,54338 23,66227 22,47475 21,60864 21,59276

1997 21,49123 21,79328 21,66207 20,87181 20,99506 21,09415 20,81988 22,64438 23,79266 23,27102 23,17312 22,97376

1998 22,07962 22,8125 22,87027 22,1374 22,21812 22,50023 22,55312 22,19802 21,42857 21,16794 20,93535 21,29999

1999 21,1106 21,66868 21,80153 21,60494 22,34542 23,94258 24,75065 24,35936 23,50917 22,91929 22,72825 22,10372

2000 21,46822 21,00101 23,86062 20,43936 20,20448 20,06839 20,16824 20,63219 20,91486 21,28189 21,00021 20,75831

2001 20,45072 20,28563 19,99735 20,37783 20,65267 19,95884 20,20529 20,13226 20,06344 23,84913 25,69758 25,43256

2002 24,01689 23,00323 22,17203 21,39583 21,11654 20,82331 21,24633 21,37597 21,12055 21,0087 20,38705 20,05731

2003 19,96894 19,8088 19,38647 19,54769 19,23123 19,18064 19,56454 19,75001 19,73514 19,67856 19,58323 19,5373

2004 28,63656 19,66741 20,64583 21,02089 21,25887 21,65895 21,80962 21,88024 22,28049 22,35545 22,0991 21,93868

2005 28,62231 26,27498 26,27099 26,29355 26,31233 26,29073 26,32774 26,1586 25,9969 25,41545 25,38871 25,27919

2006 27,87886 26,05628 26,0774 25,7334 24,99098 25,17524 25,84894 26,49652 26,16027 26,00582 25,33208 25,18829

2007 27,98125 25,50535 25,77425 25,632 25,50389 25,64815 26,00244 26,32799 26,05932 25,59537 25,10617 25,52371

2008 35,24547 26,1563 27,13014 34,95055 37,39896 38,27519 38,42547 38,22335 36,42917 33,20578 33,64445 33,63969

2009 34,61405 32,15469 32,58277 33,1433 33,35428 33,73928 34,0054 34,38874 34,32452 33,10649 32,48909 32,2508

2010 30,41192 31,66866 31,54968 31,36251 31,28175 30,22606 30,17635 29,47101 28,98562 28,71612 29,02304 29,17398

2011 27,23039 28,96891 28,91032 28,66204 27,86421 28,14655 28,20095 27,9368 27,42606 26,3816 25,53124 25,15636

2012 24,33338 24,30987 24,09715 23,57114 23,56575 23,83476 23,88958 23,70112 23,51435 23,11638 23,13744 23,31881

2013 29,19304 22,92541 22,98445 23,09725 23,42893 23,71749 23,74717 23,82343 23,79641 23,47644 24,12924 25,72348

2014 33,19016 28,44633 29,0496 30,19282 31,02566 31,30905 31,40353 31,56257 31,09453 30,28371 30,8289 31,29029

2015 29,71125 30,77511 30,45958 29,74972 29,49516 29,33771 28,95806 28,79853 28,41258 27,71981 27,53637 27,56436

2016 26,36089 26,82702 26,50283 26,04743 25,97641 25,24165 24,82942 24,86093 24,69397 24,42403 24,49793 24,45511

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have increased from 1939 onwards.1207 Furthermore, there has not been a strategic

plan in rice production and marketing since the foundation of the Republic.

1208 In general, while Turkey had imported rice or paddy from Pakistan,

India and China until 1980. However, with free import policies in the neoliberal

period in the 1980s, rice has been imported from the USA.1209 Thanks to

import policies, rice prices were tried to be declined in the domestic market.

In spite of the growing paddy demand of increasing population and the increase

of rice cultivation areas, Turkey has not been self-sufficient in paddy

production.1210

In contrast to the unplanned agrarian policies of Turkey, there is a technological

and export oriented rice production with the collaboration of public

and private entrepreneurship in the USA. The United States Agricultural Department

(USDA) makes important encouragement for the research, the development

and the export of American rice. Similarly, Rice Federation that is

a rice union make advertisement for American rice abroad. For example,

Promedya which is a public relations firm has made the promotion and advertisement

of American rice in Turkey since 1995. In addition to this institutional

entrepreneurship, due to the ecological characteristics of American rice,

it has low moisture content. Namely, in contrast to local rice, it can be easily

storable.1211 Thus, the rice growers of Turkey have been exposed to the rice

policies of American rice grower unions.1212

To deal with imported rice in the free market, rice growers were aware of

getting high rice yield. Thus, mechanization has steadily increased in rice

1207 Mustafa Uluöz, Türkiye Çeltik Ziraatının Durumu ve Türkiye Pirinçlerinin Fiziki, Kimyevi

Vasıfları ile Pişirme Değerleri Üzerine Araştırmalar, 37.

1208 Edirne Milletvekili Cemaleddin Uslu ve 20 milletvekilinin, çeltik üreticilerinin sorunlarının

araştırılarak alınması gereken önlemlerin belirlenmesi amacıyla Meclis araştırması açılmasına

ilişkin önergesi, (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, June 12, 2009), https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d23/c046/tbmm23046104.pdf

1209 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey, August 13, 2018.

1210 Arzu Özalp, “Trakya’da Çeltik Üretiminin Ekonomik ve İstatistiksel Analizi,”28.

1211 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, Türkiye Pirinç Piyasasının Sorunları ve Çeltik Üretim Potansiyeli, 87.

1212 Necmi Beşer, “Çeltik Tarımının Sorunları ve Çözüm Önerileri,” Edirne Haber, November 9,

2001.

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farming.1213 Therefore, Turkey preferred paddy imports in the 1980s. However,

with the increase of rice production, the developments of rice factories,

high added value features of rice and lower custom tariffs of rice than paddy,

Turkey has imported rice in the 2000s. Turkey has more rice production capacity.

However, the Turkish government has imported Kamolina from Egypt

and Calrose from the USA instead of increasing rice production and developing

the marketing capacity of local rice. It results from the excessive use of

irrigation water and the increasing production cost of rice. Thus, the Ministry

of Agriculture gives more importance to the farming of sunflowers and corn,

and also defends the free-market economy and the importation of rice.1214

However, the rice imports in the harvest time, cause the decline of prices

in domestic markets and the decline of the economic income of rice growers.

Therefore, while many farmers use bank credits as capital to cultivate their

fields in villages, some of them have migrated to cities and are employed as

subcontracted workers. Ali Soydan said that Turkey should have paid 263 billion

USD to Turkish rice farmers rather than the importation of paddy from

the Far East.1215

The production costs of cereals at the international markets are lower than

those of Turkey where the raw materials of agricultural inputs are imported

from abroad. Turkey contracts an agreement with the World Trade Organization

to implement 45 percent of maximum tariff quotas in rice importation.1216

Due to the liberal economic policy, TGB has considered international rice

prices in the determination of price rather than the expenses of Turkish rice

growers since the 1980s. Furthermore, since TGB is late in price making and

imports rice in the harvest period in some years, rice growers are exposed to

the initiatives of some merchants. Although rice is consumed during a year,

its marketing is limited to one or two months. This is the disadvantage of rice

1213 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey, August 13, 2018.

1214 Okan Gaytancıoğlu, Türkiye Pirinç Piyasasının Sorunları ve Çeltik Üretim Potansiyeli, 28-

58.

1215 “Çeltik Fiyatlarına Tepki,” Yenigün, September 6, 2008.

1216 Ömer Faruk Ekmekçi and Hikmet Özkan, “Türkiye’de Çeltik Üretimi ve Destekler,” 65.

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growers.1217 Moreover, due to low agricultural supports, irrigation water

problems, the high prices of agricultural inputs, and low rice prices in domestic

markets, Turkey is not self-sufficient in rice production.1218 Furthermore,

more than 80 percent of farmers think that the agricultural supports of the

government are far from receiving the expenses of agricultural inputs.1219

When the international market of paddy is considered, it seems that Europe

and the Middle East have half of this market.1220 Since rice production

and exportation in Egypt and Australia declined due to the drought, bioenergetics

production export prohibition and storing, rice prices increased in 2008

in international markets.1221 Thus, While the rice prices in Asian markets from

a maximum of 200 USD in 2003 to max 855 USD per ton in March 2008.

Similarly, this price increased was from a maximum of 350 USD to 1000 USD

per ton in the same period. Furthermore, Monsoon rains did not cause an expected

loss in Indian rice production in 2008.1222 The price increase of food

in 2008 has been the highest since 1973. The countries that have the highest

rice production such as China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, and Vietnam implemented

export prohibition to prevent scarcity and black marketing. On the

other hand, rice importer countries such as China, Niger, Indonesia, Iran and

the Philippines levied a tax on rice importation to stabilize their markets.1223

Due to the rice trade with Egypt and the USA, the rice prices of these

countries have been influential in the determination of Turkish rice prices in

the domestic markets. To manage the rice market adequately in the importa-

1217 Murat Palabıyık, “Tahıllar İçinde Buğdaydan Sonra Gelen En Önemli Ürün Çeltik,” 60-61.

1218 Işık Ocaklı, Edirne İli Çeltik Sektörü Raporu, 25.

1219 Ahmet Şapaloğlu, “Pirinç Üretim ve Tüketim Zincirinde Pazarlama Kanallarının Yapısı ve

Pirinç Pazarlama Marjları: Edirne İli Örneği,” 110.

1220 İsmail Sezer and Zeki Mut, “Samsun İlinde Çeltik Tarımının Durumu,” 61.

1221 Halil Sürek, “Dünyada Farklı Ülkelerin Çeltik Ekimi, Hasat Zamanları ve Ülkemiz Pirinç

Piyasasına Etkileri,” Hasad, no: 290 (2009), 79.

1222 Halil Sürek, “Çeltikte Yüksek Fiyat Beklentisi Gerçekleşmedi ve Ürünler Elde Kaldı,” Hasad,

no. 302, (2010), 34.

1223 Ömer Faruk Ekmekçi and Hikmet Özkan, “Türkiye’de Çeltik Üretimi ve Destekler,” 62-63.

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tion and the sales of Turkish rice growers, TGB has to consider licensed warehousing

in Turkey.1224 This warehousing system is implemented to prevent

the sale of rice in the periods when there is excessive rice supply. Historically,

the licensed warehousing system firstly began in Osaka Commodity Exchange

Market in Japan to store and collateralize their rice production in their

trade in 1730.1225 Thanks to deposit purchase from 2005 onward, TGB did not

receive the rent of its store and TGB provided farmers with the opportunity

of low-interest loans. Thus, TGB created an awareness of the storing of rice.

TGB regulated the rice market in 2009 and 2010 without fee description.1226

TGB firstly made a fee description in 2012 as 1,165 TL.1227

In addition, the agricultural policies, the climate conditions and the trade

volume of China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, the USA and Egypt influence

rice prices in the world. These countries take place near the top of rice production,

trade, and consumption. In this context, weather conditions such as

drought, precipitations, and floods, the decline of rice production and the

growing rice demand of importers led to the increase in rice prices from May

2014 onwards. However, due to the new rice harvest in September and the

destocking policies of Thailand and India, rice prices started to decline from

September 2014 onwards around the world.1228

Turkey imported rice from the USA, Portuguese and Russia. Similarly,

Turkey imported paddy from the USA, Italy, Greece, and India. On the other

hand, Turkey exported 21000 tons of paddy to Syria and Iraq and 325 tons of

rice to Russia in 2014.1229 While the rice prices decreased in international markets

in 2013 and 2014, the rice prices in Turkey increased due to the destocking

of rice in domestic markets, the increase in the exchange rate of the dollar and

1224 Halil Sürek, “Çeltikte Yüksek Fiyat Beklentisi Gerçekleşmedi ve Ürünler Elde Kaldı,” 34.

1225 T.C İMKB, Sermaye Piyasası ve Borsa Temel Bilgiler Kılavuzu, (İstanbul: İMKB Yayınlar,

2008), 451; Salih Memiş and H. Dilara Keskin, “Tarımsal Mamüllerde Lisanslı Depoculuk

Sisteminin Rolü,” Yönetim ve Ekonomi 22, no: 2, 2015, 621.

1226 Ömer Faruk Ekmekçi and Hikmet Özkan, “Türkiye’de Çeltik Üretimi ve Destekler,” 66.

1227 “Çeltik Üreticileri Ürünlerini Satamamaktan Dertli.”

1228 Tarımsal Ekonomi ve Politika Geliştirme Enstitüsü (TEPGE), Durum ve Tahmin Pirinç,

(2015/2016), 3-6.

1229 Ibid., 6-7.

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the increasing prices of imported rice at the same time. Therefore, TGB did

not declare an intervention price. In contrast to 2014, heavy rains in the Meriç

Basin in September and droughts in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin in April

decreased rice production in 2015. Rice prices in the domestic market were

higher than those of international markets in 2015. Thus, with the decline of

vat value from 8 percent to 1 percent on February 1, 2015, paddy prices decreased.

1230 While Turkey imported 873 tons of rice in 1969, Turkey imported

165,052 tons of rice in 2017.1231 Although the rice production of Turkey has

increased so far, it is far from receiving the paddy needs of the growing population.

Thus, it seems that the rice import of Turkey has increased since the

1960s.

5.14 Concluding Remarks

Theoretically, all of these ideas prove that rice is an actor in the making of

socio-economic history in these basins. Namely, rather than an anthropocentric

standpoint, this study emphasizes the reciprocal or mutual relations between

the labor of humans and also biological and agricultural characteristics

of rice from the economic point of view. Although people in the rice sector

consider primarily their economic interest and making more profit, actually

they serve the generation of rice genes. Furthermore, thanks to its economic

value, strong adaptability to different soil types, the development of new technologies,

both rice cultivation areas, and production have steadily increased.

Similarly, thanks to its high nutritional value characteristics and status indication,

the growing and urbanized population of Turkey created a higher demand

for paddy consumption per capita.

Historically, the Second World War was an important turning point in the

spread of rice cultivation areas outside of Manson Asia and Far Eastern Asia.

Thanks to the instrument of the Marshall Plan and the Green Revolution such

as the use of agricultural mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides and also the

1230 Ibid., 8-11.

1231 T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Tarımsal Yapı ve Üretim 2000 (Agricultural

Structure and Production 2000); Arzu Özalp, 27; T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı Toprak

Mahsülleri Ofisi (TMO) Hububat Sektör Raporu 2017.

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building of the main road made the market oriented-production possible in

Turkey. Thus, while rice cultivation had been limited to some big landowners

until the mid-1960s, rice farming culture began to settle and spread among

peasants in these basins sweepingly from the 1970s onwards. In this context,

rice cultivation led to the commodification of irrigation water and lands more

and more. Second, in the rice production process, rice farming culture requires

adequate capital, specialized and intensive labor force. Furthermore,

the pesticides, fertilization, and irrigation of rice require an experiment, a responsibility

and a labor discipline. Therefore, the use of these inputs adequately

and on time directly influence rice yield and the economic gain of

farmers. Otherwise, the unconscious use of fertilizer and pesticides increased

the expenses, environmental pollution and declined the profit of rice growers.

In the production process, on the one hand rice cultivation forces farmers

to be in social cooperation, in case of inadequate irrigation water, rice may

cause a conflict of interest among them at the same time. Furthermore, rice

cultivation creates seasonal employment in irrigation such as watermen, enginemen

and chefs. While these people have been employed by irrigation cooperatives

in the Meriç Basin, they have been employed individually in other

basins. In addition, some rice farmers may hire workers in rice cultivation,

fertilization and agricultural pest control. While rice growers could have

found workers more easily until the 1980s, it has been more difficult due to

migrations from villages since the 1990s. However, thanks to the development

of technology, the transition from labor intensive rice production to mechanized

system has been seen since the mid-1980s.

Furthermore, thanks to the breeding of new rice varieties, the innovation

of laser driven land leveling, cater pillar technologies and drying machines in

the 1980s and 1990s, both rice cultivation areas and rice yield have increased.

In other words, this situation indicates that the transformation of rice farming

has been complied with developing technology and the free-market economy

in the Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins. In contrast to

these basins, due to the stony lands structures and land forms of Karacadağ,

the geographical determinism has differentiated rice farming culture and cultivation

technics. Therefore, the use of fertilizer and pesticides began in the

1990s. Besides, sharecropping has continued in the Karacadağ Agriculture

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Basin. Therefore, while the rice farming technics of other basins represent the

modernization, changes and transformation, those of the Karacadağ Agriculture

Basins represent traditionalism, immutableness and continuation.

In addition to labor and technology, the use of energy has been quite an

important input. In this context, while diesel oil had been used in rice irrigation,

electrically driven moto-pumps have been widespread since the 1990s.

Therefore, the economic crises and foreign exchange bottle neck has influenced

rice farming directly. Therefore, rice growers try to decrease expenses

and increase their profits.

Historically, with the political attempts of Edirne deputies, the institutional

entrepreneurship of the Uzunköprü Agriculture Chamber and Rice

Grower Association, TGB has been influential in the marketing of rice since

1967. However, in order to get money in cash, most of the rice growers sell

their products to merchants or rice fabricators. Rice purchasing of TGB depends

upon its storage capacity and the government policies. TGB has some

purchasing criteria, a price mechanism that provides a price equilibrium for

the benefits of producers and consumers, and also the right to import rice. In

addition to TGB, commodity exchange markets and rice factory owners might

be influential in the determination of rice prices in Turkey.

Due to intensive the labor force and a large number of inputs, there has

been the labor exploitation of workers in the production process and rice

growers in the process of marketing in free market economic conditions.

Since there has not been any sale cooperative in rice marketing in Turkey,

many peasants have been still exposed to the conditions of the free-market

economy. Namely, especially small peasants are far from defending their economic

interest and becoming organized. Thus, international agricultural companies

break the production chain among farmers, the public sector and consumers.

They have dominated the market from seed and other agricultural

inputs to the sale of packed foods.

When it comes to paddy, rice factories take part in the processing of rice

into the paddy. The foundation of rice industrialization began in the early periods

of the Turkish Republic. Based on the rice cultivation areas and paddy

market, these factories were seen in Kastamonu, Kahramanmaraş and İstanbul

in the 1930s. Furthermore, these factories began to be established into the

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288

Meriç, Karacadağ, Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins in the

1950s. Especially, they became quite widespread in the 1970s in these basins.

However, while their numbers have increased so far in Edirne and Samsun,

they have decreased in Diyarbakır. Furthermore, there is more than an adequate

number of rice factories in Turkey. Therefore, they only used one-third

of their total capacity.

In cost and profit analyses, although rice cultivation areas have increased

in Turkey, only 6 percent of rice growers are content with their profit. Many

peasants who do not have enough capital regard rice cultivation as a gambling

and robbery system in which dealers make more profit in the neoliberal period.

While some of the small peasants were sent in the bailiffs due to bank

debt, some of the big rice growers of the Meriç Basin went to Bulgaria to

decline the expenses of rice cultivation. When these topics are discussed in

the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, opponents focus on the socio-economic

life experience of rice growers. On the other hand, the deputies of the

ruling party focus on the statistical indications of rice cultivations areas, rice

production and technological innovations.

Finally, most of the paddy has been sold in retails since 1955. However,

due to tricks and the obtaining of undeserved gains, there has been a standardization

problem in paddy. Although Turkey has known the extent of rice

cultivation areas since 1936, there has been no rice production or consumption

strategies. Since Turkey is not self-sufficient in paddy, Turkey has received

its paddy needs through the import of rice. For example, the Calrose paddy of

the USA and the Kamoline paddy of Egypt are the most popular imported

paddy varieties in Turkey. Due to these importations rather than the encouragement

of rice cultivation policies, sometimes the governments are criticized

by some Agricultural Chambers and Rice Grower Association.

289

6

Rice and the Society

rom its cultivation to consumption, rice is a symbol of fruitfulness, organization,

talent, and wealth in different societies. Since it requires a

social, cultural and traditional experience, neither every farmer can grow

qualified rice nor every person can make delicious paddy meals. Since it is a

social commodity, both the cultivation of rice and the consumption of paddy

get people together. However, the togetherness and the organization of human

communities may create some common and controversial social relations

such as a social division of labor, common socio-economic interest, and the

conflict of economic interest in the use of irrigation water, pesticides, fertilizer,

and also in harvest time.

Besides, rice is consumed in some traditional activities such as weddings,

feasts, pilaf days of some institutions and religious ceremonies. The consumption

of pilaf in these ceremonies means the sensation of social solidarity and

the indication of kindness. Furthermore, since pilaf is one of the most indispensable

meals of students, pilaf days of schools also revive the memories of

students during their school years.1232 Namely, rice farming or consumption

culture coexist with human communities.

1232 Güzin Yalın, Mutfaktan Tabaktan Sokaktan, 346.

F

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290

From a biological perspective, this coexistence begins in babyhood. Rice

is such a precious, sociable and anthropic food that thanks to its phytin and

lecithin, human beings firstly taste rice flour after human milk.1233 In addition

to the ceremonies in which pilaf is given, there are rice related social ceremonies

in the Far East. For example, according to the military memories of

Hayati Tuncalı in Korea Wars in the 1950s, rice cultivation means fertility and

it is the most sacred product in Korean. Rice workers who went to rice fields

to cultivate carried a Korean flag within the scope of celebrations. In breaks,

they drank rice wines and ate boiled paddy.1234 By the same token, rice workers

in İpsala Plain had begun to rice cultivation with musical celebrations in

the 1950s and 1960s.

From a cultural perspective, etymologically, paddy or rice that are called

pirinç or çeltik in Turkish came from the Persian language.1235 Similarly, birinç

means yellow in the Persian language due to its husk color. Due to its

yellow color, the copper-zinc alloy is also called pirinç in Turkish. This word

entered into western languages as bronze. Therefore, it is riz in French, rice

in English, and risotto in Italian.1236 Ottomans called paddy dane. Dane came

from dhnya which means human food in the Indian language.1237 Actually,

paddy or rice is called tuturkan in older Turkic groups in Central Asia.1238

Based on these, this chapter claims that rice is one of the most social and

cultural commodities that directs societies in their social organization, folklore,

literature, cinema, cuisine culture and public health. Furthermore, people

desire rice to feed the growing population, increase their wealth and

strengthen their social solidarity. All these desires support the spread of rice

genes and their popularity. Therefore, since cultural and social elements are

the common values of the whole nation, this chapter tries to explain the influence

of rice farming culture in a geographical context and paddy in cuisine

1233 Rahmi Çeltik, “Türkiye’de Pirinç Ziraatı,” 26.

1234 Hayati Tuncalı, “Çeltik Ziraatı, Zirai ve İktisadi Önemi,” 13.

1235 Feridun Mustafa Emecen, "Çeltik," 265-266.

1236 Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, “Şark Soğrasında Pirincin Saltanatı,” Türkiye Gazetesi, April 16, 2014.

1237 Faruk Şüyün, “Hadi Şu Pirinci Ayıklayalım,” Dünya, July 31, 2016.

1238 Feridun Mustafa Emecen, "Çeltik," 265-266.

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culture, folk culture, and public health not only in three basins but also in

Turkey in a historical process.

6. 1 Geography and People

6. 1. 2 Farmer Profile of three Basins

When the profiles of farmers in these basins are analyzed in proportion to the

general farmer population, it seems that Edirne has the highest number of rice

growers. While almost 30 percent of farmers in Edirne cultivate rice, it is

about 5 percent in Samsun. On the other hand, this percentage in Diyarbakır,

Mardin, and Şanlıurfa was lower than 1 percent.1239 Therefore, the socioeconomic

importance of rice farming has changed among these provinces. In

general, while the members of small agricultural enterprises live in villages,

the members of big agricultural enterprises live in cities in the Meriç, Lower

Yeşilırmak, and Lower Kızılırmak Basins. Furthermore, the sharecroppers of

the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin live outside of the villages such as in Siverek,

Ergani, Çermik, or Çınar. Similar to other basins, small peasants who

cultivate rice live in villages.1240

Second, in general, almost 80 percent of rice growers graduate from a primary

school in these basins. Thus, although they used modern agricultural

methods, they have been far from a scientific and academic perspective. Most

of the time, many small rice growers trust what they hear and what they see

from others. Similarly, they consider their experience rather than agricultural

books. Thus they experience the cultivation of new rice varieties by trial and

error. Furthermore, both in the vegetation period of rice and its sale, rice

growers do not get the opinion of experts.1241 They decide according to the

general trend in society. For example, there is a popular view on the decline

of the effects of pesticides in recent years for the protection of natural life.

Consequently, although there are many technological innovations in rice

1239 T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, Farmer Registration System (2017/ 2018)

1240 İpek Atılgan, Tuna Şener, Cem Tokatlı and Alpay Balkan, “Socio-Economic Conditions and

Behaviors of Rice Producers in Meriç Plain,” 22.

1241 Ibid., 23; Michael Polland, Arzunun Botaniği, 162.

§

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fields, rice growers spend extra money, labor and working hours. However,

they are disappointed in low rice yield in some years. On the other hand, many

big rice growers of the Meriç Basin, the Karacadağ Agricultural Basin, the

Lower Kızılırmak and Yeşilırmak Basins consult the opinion of professional

agricultural engineers such as Halil Sürek, Necmi Beşer, Melih Enginsu,

Rasim Ünan, Şerif Kahraman and Adil Kayapınar. However, due to the intensive

agricultural input requirement of rice, rice farmers are more sociable than

others.

Third, the average age of rice producers in these basins is more than 50.

This situation not only indicates high age averages but also leaves the children

of rice growers hopeless about their future in rice cultivation. The unsuccessful

agricultural policies of the government, the increasing production cost of

rice and the declining profit of farmers cause the voluntary migration of these

youths to big cities and difficulties in the continuity of rice farming culture

into the next generation. For example, almost half of the rice growers in the

Meriç Basin says that their sons should not continue to cultivate rice. While

30 percent of them support the cultivation of rice in their next generation, 16

percent of them are indecisive.1242 Therefore, an inadequate human capital

in specialization required crops seems to be felt in the future more and more.

In contrast to small peasants, some big rice growers such as Sami Dubacı

cultivate only rice in the Meriç Basin. On the other hand, to guarantee their

economy, the small peasants in the Meriç Basin cultivate diverse crops such

as wheat, sunflower, rice, corn, legume, kitchen garden, and vegetable. However,

since the rice factory owners process sunflower into oil and wheat into

flour, in addition to rice, they may cultivate sunflower and wheat in Edirne.

Second, in contrast to small rice growers in Siverek and Derik who cultivate

diverse crops such as kitchen garden, cotton, lentil, wheat, and barley, big rice

growers of Karacadağ cultivate only rice through sharecropping. In addition

to rice, rice factories process lentil in Karacadağ.1243 Third, rather than the

cultivation of only rice, there is crop diversity in the Lower Kızılırmak and

1242 Ibid., 22.

1243 İlhan Avcı, tape-recorded interview with the author, Diyarbakır Turkey August 10, 2018.

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Yeşilırmak such as sunflower, kitchen garden, legume, vegetables, and

corn.1244

6. 2 The Geography and the Sociology of Three Basins

Geography is one of the most determinant factors in the distribution of population,

agricultural structures, and water sources. In this context, Due to land

productivity, agricultural production, and transportation facilities, Bafra and

Çarşamba deltas are densely populated areas.1245 On the other hand, the distribution

of population in the Meriç Basin is more regular due to landforms,

suitable climate conditions, and the distribution of water sources. However,

due to floods, in general the settlement of villages along the Meriç River is

situated in piedmonts of a high hill rather than in the middle of Meriç plain.

Besides, the villages of Karacadağ is situated in the large plateau and the foothills

of Karacadağ. This basin is also famous for its hot spring and skiing.

From a geographical point of view, interior Thrace roughly corresponds

to the drainage of Ergene and the Meriç Rivers. It is surrounded by the Rhodope

Mountains in the west, Işıklar Mountain in the south, and the Istranca

Mountains in the north. Thanks to its tectonic structure, there are various water

sources such as rivers, artesian wells and water bores. Since there had been

no effective land reclamation until the 1950s, there were large wetlands in

Meriç and Ergene Plains. Due to severe and snowy winters, the cultivation of

Mediterranean crops is difficult. Although the region had railroad connections

with İstanbul, the domestic trade with İstanbul was limited except the dairy

industry. Due to the continental climate and high latitude of Thrace, agricultural

crops grow mature late. Thus, the markets of İstanbul imports them from

other region. However, the region had more intensive agricultural technics

than other region in the 1950s.1246 With the building of levee along the Meriç

river and land reclamation in Meriç plain, cultivable lands increased. However,

in terms of population, most of the population of Edirne had migrated

1244 İsmail Sezer and Zeki Mut, “Samsun İlinde Çeltik Tarımının Durumu,” 62.

1245 Sırrı Erinç and Necdet Tunçbilek, “The Agricultural Regions of Turkey,” Geographical Review

42, no. 2 (April 1952), 192-193.

1246 Ibid., 203.

§

O K A N C E Y L A N

294

from Rumelia in the last quarter of the nineteenth century and half of the

twentieth century. Thanks to large cultivable lands and crop diversities such

as sugar beet, sesame and rice that had created employment in the agriculture

sector, the peasants of Edirne began to migrate to big cities in the 1970s rather

than in the 1950s.

The Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins can also be called

the Samsun sub region. This region is situated in the western part of the Ünye

mountains which have large plains. Furthermore, Samsun is the least humid

sub region of the Black Sea Region. Furthermore, the Samsun sub-region can

be thought of as a transitory region from Internal Anatolia to the Black Sea

Region in terms of crop diversity. There are two large deltas which have been

formed by Kızılırmak and Yeşilırmak. However, Yeşilırmak Delta has had

higher productivity than Kızılırmak. Cereals, vegetables and especially tobacco

have been famous products in the Samsun sub-region. On the other

hand, on the upper side of Samsun, there are more highlands and there has

been corn cultivation and stock raising.1247

The Lower Kızılırmak Basins had allowed immigrations between 1950

and 1970 from the eastern Black Sea and the mountain villages of Samsun.

Furthermore, due to the geographical position of Samsun, many immigrants

from the eastern Black Sea, Rumalia and Caucasia were settled in Samsun.

Therefore, 16 out of 114 villages of Bafra had migrated from the Balkans in

the last quarter of the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries.1248 Besides,

many peasants had been coming to Bafra Plain from the mountain villages of

Ordu to open some new cultivation areas in winter. However, there had been

a malaria threat in the summer months in the 1940s and 1950s in Bafra. Most

of these lands belonged to some prominent families such as Çizmeliler and

Hacı Ömerler.1249

Southeastern Anatolia is situated in the foreland of Taurus Mountain and

has an average of 500 meters of altitudes. Karacadağ volcanic mountain sep-

1247 Ibid., 192-193.

1248 Ahmet Aydın and Osman Kiraz, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey,

August 6, 2018.

1249 Temel Kaya, tape-recorded interview by the author, Bafra, Samsun, Turkey, April 30, 2019.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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arates the region into two drainage basins such as Dicle and Fırat. Climatically,

it has a transitional climate between the continental climate and Mesopotamia

desert climate. Since precipitation is not adequate, irrigation is required.

In irrigable basins and valleys, there have been rice, viticulture,

vegetables, and fruit growing. Besides, these green valleys have been surrounded

by wheat and barley. Some nomad and semi nomad tribes who had

goat and sheep herds had been to Syria in some periods of the year in the

1950s.1250

Due to climate conditions, the size of cultivable lands, transportation facilities,

and water sources, the mountain villages of the Karacadağ Agriculture

Basin is more densely populated than the villages in the plain. There have

been Turk, Kurd and Zaza populations in this basin. Similarly, mountain villages

have more forestry and there is fruit growth. On the other hand, there

are field crops such as cotton, wheat, barley, rice, and vegetables in the villages

settle in the plain. Thanks to their large meadows, the villages are situated

in the foothills of Karacadağ are famous for livestock raising. On the

other hand, husbandry is more limited in mountain villages.1251

Traditionally, rice cultivation is a culture that requires good craftsmanship

and experience. There are many variables that influence rice yield directly

such as humans, temperature, water, weeds. Rice cultivation requires the use

of time, agricultural inputs and family budget correctly.1252 While rice culture

has been spread among small peasants in the Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak and

Lower Yeşilırmak Basins, it has been more limited with big sharecroppers and

landholders in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin. As Süleyman Kızılkaya says,

his ancestors have cultivated some rice fields of Karacadağ through sharecropping

since the 1960s. Since many peasants of Karacadağ have had water

problems in rice irrigation and do not have rice culture, sharecropping has

spread. Tribal norms and tribal organizations are quite determinant in the socio-

economic and socio-cultural life of the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin.

Since the terrorist attacks of PKK have not appeared in this basin intensively,

1250 Sırrı Erinç and Necdet Tunçbilek., “The Agricultural Regions of Turkey,” 200-201.

1251 Ekrem Sanver, “Ergani Tarihçesi 3”, Ergani Söz, November 11, 2004.

1252 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey, August 13, 2018.

O K A N C E Y L A N

296

migrations to big cities result from tribal conflicts and financial difficulties.

The population of Karacadağ grows through fertility. There are 9 or 10 children

in every household. Some of these children migrate due to business and

education concerns. 1253

Besides, from a socio-cultural perspective, in the transferring of legacy,

there have been differences among these basins. While girls can inherit some

rice fields or their prices in the Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower

Yeşilırmak Basins, it depends on the initiatives of boys in the Karacadağ Agriculture

Basin. However, this share is not equal between boys and girls in

Edirne and Samsun.1254

This table indicates the population of rice growing cities and villages.

While there has been a continuous population increase in the settlements of

Karacadağ, it is more limited in the other basins. This table indicates also the

total population in rural and urban areas in these basins.

1253 Süleyman Kızılkaya, tape-recorded interview with the author, Yalankoz, Diyarbakır, Turkey

August 10, 2018.

1254 Ahmet Aydın and Osman Kiraz, Interview by Author, Bafra, Samsun, August 6, 2018; Şerif

Kahraman and Adil Kayapınar, tape-recorded interview with the author, Yalankoz, Diyarbakır

Turkey August 10, 2018.

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Table 6.1 The Population Change of Rice Cultivation Areas

Settlement 1950 1970 1990 2000 2013

Edirne 221125 316425 404599 402606 398582

Meriç 16342 23212 25896 19052 14782

Uzunköprü 55065 72974 83556 73486 65033

İpsala 21421 32643 36122 33564 29021

Enez - - 12334 12700 11929

Havsa - 22425 27900 24027 20248

Samsun 475953 821183 1158400 1209137 1261810

Bafra 72081 121509 153701 157010 142812

Çarşamba 83371 138399 124270 131194 136184

Terme 48872 87947 81668 82608 73614

19 Mayıs - - 28947 25820 24424

Alaçam 29049 48410 43162 37490 28162

Tekkeköy - - 48730 50476 50124

Salıpazarı - - 29561 25113 19623

Diyarbakır 294618 561208 1094966 721463 1607437

Çınar 15590 28344 50445 58583 50657

Yenişehir - - - - 204930

Bağlar - - - - 357757

Kayapınar - - - - 277489

Kocaköy - - 15408 13069 16371

Çermik 31196 34294 49107 46050 50657

Ergani 27243 50766 78603 87467 121072

Mardin 26980 453092 557727 558275 779738

Derik 19131 36855 45983 45860 61226

Şanlıurfa 295734 538131 1001455 1443422 1801980

Siverek 53037 90027 133832 224102 232290

Viranşehir 19438 64301 100361 187705 177084

SOURCE T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK), Genel Nüfus Sayımı

2000: Nüfusun Sosyal ve Ekonomik Nitelikleri: Edirne, Samsun, Diyarbakır,

Mardin and Şanlıurfa (General Census 2000: The Social and Economic

Characteristics of Population: Edirne, Samsun, Diyarbakır, Şanlıurfa,

Mardin). Ankara: 2002; T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu

O K A N C E Y L A N

298

(TÜİK) Adrese Dayalı Nüfus Kayıt Sistemi Sonuçları 2013 (Addressed

Based Census) Ankara: 2014.

6. 2. 1 The Class Consciousness of Rice Growers

In addition to the socio-economic profile of rice growers and their sociological

structure, rice cultivation directs these men to have common socio- economic

interests and life experiences. Thus, rice cultivation requires the formation

of class, organization or rice grower party as Korkut expresses. While

lots of malaria-infected peasants had difficulty in finding quinine, rice growers

tried to silence the free press through bribes and their political relations.

Although they considered their individual economic interests, they looked

like charitable, philanthropic and emphasizing the economic wellbeing of

Turkey. Furthermore, big rice growers regarded the prohibition of rice cultivation

as an anti- national, discriminatory policy, and the restriction of the

free market in their letters sent to some ministries.1255 Korkut defines rice

cultivation as snatching in which all of the lands were hired by big rice growers

in the plain. He also emphasized the inadequate health services and the

requirement of drainage in wetlands in Turkey in the 1940s.1256

By the same token, the same behaviors and common economic interest of

rice growers can be explicitly seen in the Teneke novel of Yaşar Kemal. In this

context, owing to their socio-economic interest, it seems that the notables who

are rice growers take joint action both in convincing district governor Fikret

Irmaklı and in complaining him to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. They tried

to ignore some articles of the Rice Cultivation Law of 1936. Furthermore, in

accordance with their economic interests, these notables do not consider the

peasants who suffer from malaria and always emphasize the importance of

rice in national economy, their patriotism, and their love for Ataturk.1257 Although

it seems as if they considered national values, actually their main concern

was their profit.

1255 Mehmet Şerif Korkut, Isıtma ve Çeltik, 44-45; Kyle T. Evered and Emine Ö. Evered, “A

Conquest of Rice: Agricultural Expansion, Impoverishment and Malaria in Turkey,”125-130.

1256 Mehmet Şerif Korkut, Isıtma ve Çeltik, 66-70.

1257 Yaşar Kemal, Teneke, (İstanbul: Adam Yayınları, 2002), 1-70.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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The water requirement of rice also directs rice growers to be organized

under some irrigation cooperatives, village development cooperatives and irrigation

unions in Edirne and Samsun. For example, the water level of rivers

or lakes directly influences the economic gain, social union and bureaucratic

attempts of rice growers. For example, due to the low water level of the

Ergene river in rice irrigation, rice growers in the villages of Meriç districts

founded Ergene Irrigation Union in 1976. They aimed at transmitting the water

of the Meriç river to Ergene by moto pumps.1258 In another example, the

special administration of the Diyarbakır tendered contract of rice irrigation

water. The contractors entered into a rivalry with each other to buy this contract

in the 1960s.1259 Thus special administration earned money.

6. 2. 2 As Non-Governmental Organization: Rice Grower

Associations

Theoretically, these associations aim to develop rice farming technically and

economically. Thus they tried to supply agricultural inputs at an affordable

price, protect the interest of rice growers and develop agricultural extension

activities. However, in practice, these associations neither work together with

each other nor are active adequately in the formation of rice prices and policies.

For example, due to the high prices of fertilizer and oil diesel, the production

costs of rice have increased year by year. Thus, the profit of farmers

has declined.1260 First of all, the rice grower association in İpsala was founded

in 1949.1261 This civil organization dealt with the reclamation project of the

Ergene river, the providing of agricultural inputs such as fertilizer, oil diesel,

and pesticides on time, and also the importation of rice seeds. The board manager

of Rice growers has been quite well known people such as business men,

1258 “Çeltikleri Sulamak İçin Meriç’te Çeltik Birliği Kuruldu,” Vatandaş, July 19, 1976.

1259 “Bu Yıl Pirinçlerimiz de Bol Olarak İstihsal Edilmiştir.”

1260 “Çeltikçiler Derneğinin Kongresi Yapıldı,” Adalet, January 3, 1975.

1261 Haluk Kayıcı, Arşiv Belgeleri ve Salnamelere Göre İpsala, (Edirne: Ceren Yayıncılık, 2017),

55.

O K A N C E Y L A N

300

mayor, the president of the Agricultural Chamber and the commodity exchange

market. For example, Rafet Dağlı who was one of the full member of

the association was a hotelkeeper in Uzunköprü.1262

Today, there are 13 rice grower associations in 8 provinces. They were

founded in the 2000s. There are four rice grower associations in the Meriç

Basin such as İpsala, Keşan, Uzunköprü, and Meriç. Similarly, there are associations

in sub-Kızılırmak and sub-Yeşilırmak Basins such as Terme and

Ondokuz Mayıs. Besides, other rice grower associations are located in Karacabey

in Bursa, Manyas and Gönen in Balıkesir, Osmancık in Çorum,

Kızılırmak in Çankırı, Boyabat in Sinop and Düzce.1263 As a civil society,

Rice Grower Associations tried to be a pressure group on the government in

the determination of rice prices and the formation of adequate market conditions.

1264

Figure 6.1 The Parade of Rice Grower Associations in İpsala Independence

Day

SOURCE: İpsala State Hydraulic Works (DSİ)

1262 “Çeltikçiler Derneğinin Kongresi Yapıldı,” Adalet, January 3, 1975.

1263 T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, Toprak Mahsülleri Ofisi (TMO), Temmuz 2013 Çeltik Raporu;

Ahmet Şapaloğlu, “Pirinç Üretim ve Tüketim Zincirinde Pazarlama Kanallarının Yapısı

ve Pirinç Pazarlama Marjları: Edirne İli Örneği,” 86.

1264 “Çeltikçiler Fiyat Bekliyor,” Son Haber, October 3, 2006.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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6. 2. 3 Prominent People in Rice Cultivation in These Basins

The interviews with rice growers, agriculturalists and rice factory owners indicates

that there are close and strong socio-economic relations and friendships

among them in three basins. Besides, these people are quite open

minded to novel ideas, changing market conditions and technological developments.

Almost all of them are aware of the fact that rice cultivation requires

a specialization, intensive labor force and experience. Furthermore, despite

the fact that there are traditional methods to a large extend in the rice cultivation

of Karacadağ, they have used pesticides and fertilizer since the beginning

of the 1990s. To be able to understand the influence of rice in the lives of these

people, their short biographies concerning rice might be an enlightening explanation.

First of all, the attempts of market-oriented rice cultivation and the foundation

of rice factory began in the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak

Basins in the 1950s. In this context, almost 27 rice factories were established

and about 3,400 farmers cultivated rice in 2018.1265 Therefore, it seems that

rice has an important place in the agrarian economy of Samsun. However,

some rice farmers have changed their socio-economic class and thus turn towards

industry and business sectors. In this context, the name of Yusuf Kiraz

has to be emphasized in the introduction and the development of rice in Bafra

plain. For example, Yusuf Kiraz who pioneered in the spread of rice cultivation

in Bafra opened an auto gallery with his earnings from rice farming.1266

Today, Ahmet Aydın who is one of the ex-deputies of Samsun, and Osman

Kiraz who is a son of Yusuf Kiraz are two prominent rice growers of Samsun.

Although the Samsun region is famous for the cultivation of tobacco and

Bafra cigarette, Ahmet Aydın says that tobacco cultivation is the work of

small agricultural enterprises. Thus, these families cannot have capitals and

they have not changed their socio-economic classes.1267 In addition to these

1265 T.C Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, Samsun İli Çiftçi Kayıt Sistemi (2018); Samsun İl Tarım Müdürlüğü,

tape-recorded Interview by the author, Samsun, Turkey, August 06, 2018.

1266 Osman Kiraz, tape-recorded interview by the author, Samsun Turkey August 6, 2018.

1267 Ahmet Aydın, tape-recorded interview by the author, Samsun Turkey August 6, 2018.

O K A N C E Y L A N

302

two prominent rice growers, Rasim Ünan and Melih Enginsu are two young

and successful agriculture engineers who specialize in the development of

rice cultivation in the Black Sea region. In the process of rice into paddy, the

Azad rice factory is one of the oldest factories in the basin. Although their

rice factory was founded in 1997, the grandfather of Kurtuluş Varol had a diesel

oil-driven rice mill in the 1940s.1268

Second, the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin is one of the oldest rice cultivation

areas in Anatolia. Since rice requires specialization and experience, Armenians

had been quite influential in the rice sector until the beginning of the

twentieth century.1269 Especially, as many rice growers and factory owners

explained Haşim Özkahraman who was the most prominent and famous rice

grower of the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin. He also had cultivated rice in

Bismil and the Meriç Basin in 1994. He was also engaged in the real estate

industry and trade in Diyarbakır.1270 As a young business man and an intellectual

entrepreneur, İlhan Avcı also took part in the development of the education

sector and the foundation of some private schools in Diyarbakır. However,

as İlhan Avcı said, rice growers could not get huge capitals. He said that

his father Ali Avcı could found a rice factory or Hacı Haşim Özkahraman had

only a house when he died. However, Emin Karacadağ Paddy company was

the first modern rice factory of Diyarbakır. The factory could process 130 tons

of rice a day and marketed it with the name of Doğu Yıldızı. While the rice

factory owners in the Meriç Basin has also industries to process sunflower,

wheat and forage, those of the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin have plants to

process lentil. However, the lentil of Diyarbakır has been sold in national markets

but Karacadağ paddy is consumed only in Southeast Anatolia.1271

In the development and the introduction of Karacadağ rice, the importance

of Şerif Kahraman at GAP International Agricultural Research and

1268 Kurtuluş Varol, tape-recorded interview by the author, Samsun Turkey August 6, 2018.

1269 İlhan Avcı, tape-recorded interview by Autor, Diyarbakır, Turkey, August 9, 2018.

1270 Süleman Kızılkaya, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz Village of Diyarbakır,

August 09, 2018; Kardaş Ailesi, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yenişehir, Diyarbakır,

August 09, 2018.

1271 İlhan Avcı, tape-recorded interview by Autor, Diyarbakır, Turkey, August 9, 2018.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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Training Center and Adil Kayapınar at Diyarbakır Provincial Agricultural Directorate,

Lale Taş at GAP Agricultural Research Institute in Şanlıurfa, and

also Ferat Önal and Mübarek Kavan at Derik District Directorate of Agriculture

have important roles. While Şerif Kahraman and his equip struggle to

take the geographical indication of Karacadağ rice in Diyarbakır, Lale Taş

tried to increase rice cultivation and organize rice growers to found a rice

factory in her project in the villages of Siverek.1272

Third, in the Meriç Basin Bekir Kara was the first person who took rice

from Filibe to İpsala plain in the mid-1930s. Also, Vizeli Hüseyin Bey, Hasan

Buğdaycı, Hasan Deniz, Mehmet Aytin, Ali Çakırlar and Mustafa Öden are

well known and the most famous rice growers in the Meriç Basin since the

1930s.1273 Besides, Hamdi Buzcu began his business life by taking over the

ice plant that belonged to a Jewish. Therefore, he took Buzcu a surname with

the Surname Law of 1934. He participated in transport business, jewelry, and

ginnery sectors. He firstly founded a rice factory in 1953 and a refined oil plant

in 1967 in Uzunköprü. Furthermore, Hamdi Buzcu donated for the building

of Uzunköprü Public Hospital.1274

Another important person in the rice cultivation of the Meriç Basin is

Mustafa Öden. Since he lives as the oldest rice grower in the Meriç Basin, the

transformation of his life might give an opinion about the influence of rice on

the socio-economic lives of some prominent rice growers. Mustafa Öden had

been a shepherd and a driver before he had cultivated rice. He firstly earned

the required capital for rice farming from these jobs at the end of the 1940s.

Mustafa Öden is one of the oldest and well-known rice growers in the Meriç

Basin. He has cultivated rice for 65 years. He had cultivated the plains of

many villages through land tenure or sharecropping in the 1950s and the

1960s. With the economic income of rice farming, Mustafa Öden founded the

1272 Lale Taş, tape-recorded interview by the author, Şanlıurfa, Turkey, June 18, 2019; Şerif Kahraman

and Adil Kayapınar, tape-recorded interview with the author, Yalankoz, Diyarbakır

Turkey August 10, 2018.

1273 Hasan Topçu and Mehmet Topçu, tape-recorded interview by the author, Akçadam, Meriç,

Edirne, Turkey, September 01, 2018.

1274 “Uzunköprü’de İz Bırakanlar 5: Hamdi Buzcu,” Uzunköprü Sesi, 2009.

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Ödenay rice factory as a family company in the Meriç district of Edirne in

1976. Thanks to their income, they purchased some lands and shops from

Rami dry food site and mega center. Similar to Hamdi Buzcu, Mustafa Öden

had been the tax champion of Edirne for four years.1275

Furthermore, Mustafa Öden was called the grandfather of rice as representative

of both traditional and modern rice cultivation by agriculturalists

that came from Philippines.1276 He has worked actively in his rice fields until

his death on November 10, 2019. These rice factory owners are well known

people in their regions and they are quite influential in local politics. The entrepreneurship

of Hamdi Buzcu and Mustafa Öden represents the transition

to the liberal economic policies of Turkey from etatism at the beginning of

the 1950s.

From a younger generation, Ali Soydan is an older president of the rice

grower association in İpsala. He studied at Political Science and International

in Boğaziçi University. Thanks to rice farming, the Soydans changed their

class and entered into new sectors such as tourism and health at the international

level. For example, as a family company, they have cultivated rice in

Filibe in Bulgaria for the last ten years. Similar to Ali Soydan, other rice factory

owners entered into new sectors such as gas stations, oil factories and

buying hundreds of hectares of cultivable lands. Furthermore, Ali Soydan

says that big rice growers in İpsala changed their socio-economic class. For

example, they go to Dedeağaç province of Greece for dinner with their families

at some weekends.1277

In the first invention of tank caterpillar technology of combine harvester,

mobile drying machines of rice and also the spread of laser-driven land leveling

technologies, Sami Dubacı is one of the most prominent people in Turkey.

1278 Sami Dubacı began to cultivate rice in İpsala in the 1970s. As he says,

in addition to his technological novelties, the academic contribution of Halil

Sürek in Thrace Agricultural Research Institute in Edirne has increased both

1275 Mustafa Öden, tape-recorded interview by the author, İpsala, Edirne, TurkeyAugust 20, 2017.

1276 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey, August 13, 2018.

1277 Ali Soydan, tape-recorded Interview by the author, İpsala, Edirne Turkey, September 12,

2019.

1278 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey, August 13, 2018.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

305

rice varieties and yields since 1979. Rice is not only a livelihood for him but

also an opportunity to open abroad. He went to Sacramento in the USA and

Vercelli Rice Institute in Italy with the reference of Halil Sürek. Sami Dubacı

is a quite open-minded, curious and risk bearer person in rice cultivation. He

is also one of the good examples to indicate how rice has transformed the

socio-economic life of a rice grower.1279

Today, Halil Sürek is one of the most important and prominent agricultural

specialists in rice breeding and cultivation in Turkey. After his graduation

from the Agricultural Faculty of Ege University, he began his work in

Thrace Agricultural Research Institute in Edirne. As he says, there had not

been an adequate number of agricultural engineers who specialized in rice in

1978 when he came to office in Thrace Agricultural Research Institute. As

professional agricultural engineers, Halil Sürek and his team have bred almost

60 rice variety and 18 rice variety that were waiting to be registered.1280 He

had been an eponym of 21 Turkish rice varieties in Thrace Agricultural Research

Institute until 2008.1281 Especially, he is an inventor and breeder of

Osmancık- 97 variety that has increased rice production in Turkey. As Halil

Sürek is called the father of rice, Mustafa Öden is called the grandfather of

rice. In rice studies, Halil Sürek is one of the most prominent and important

agricultural specialists who has strong academic and social links at a national

and an international level. He is also met by the IRRI in the Philippines. Due

to his contribution to the development of rice cultivation, he received an

award from the President of Turkish Republic Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in Ankara

on July 26, 2019.1282 More importantly, as many other precious agricultural

scientists do, Halil Sürek is so willing to share his knowledge with farmers,

academicians, and other agriculturalists.

1279 Mehmet Öztürk, “Sami Dubacı,”Mehmet Abinin Günlüğü Belgeseli, Çiftçi TV, İpsala/

Edirne, 2015.

1280 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey, August 13, 2018.

1281 Meliha Okur, “Çeltik Mücidini Tanıyın,” Sabah, April 19, 2008.

1282 “Kırk Yıllık Yorgunluğu Alan Ödül,” Yenigün, July 30, 2019.

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6. 3 The Influence of Rice on Public Health

Apart from the social and organizational parts of rice, rice cultivation has been

a matter of debate in the healthcare field, climate science, and social science.

Furthermore, in contrast to its benefits on the human body, rice is associated

with a high level of glycemic index and malaria. However, rice water is used

as a remedy for the stomachaches of babies, blood pressure, nephropathy, and

heart condition.1283

Furthermore, while rice cultivation is associated with the spread of malaria

especially by doctors and some social scientists, they do not consider

adequately the increase of cancer, respiratory tract diseases, rheumatic diseases,

and orthopedic disorders result from the environmental pollution, industrial

waste, and intensive labor force in rice cultivation areas. For example,

the relation between malaria and rice cultivation is explained in the novels of

Yaşar Kemal and the book of Mehmet Şerif Korkut in terms of the contradiction

between economic development and public health. Furthermore, from a

political point of view, the Rice Cultivation Law of 1936 tries to evaluate modern

times as the conditions of the 1930s, the 1940s, and the 1950s. Thus, it

cannot respond to the needs of rice cultivation today and it needs to be revised

or repealed. Based on these claims, firstly it focuses on malaria.

6. 3. 1 Malaria: The Legal Regulations and Public Health

As a founder of modern medicine, Hippocrates is the first doctor who defined

malaria as febrile seizures that appear every 72 hours. As a name, malaria is

firstly used by F. Jackquer in 1743. It was firstly found in 1600 that quinine

obtained from Cinchona could be a remedy for malaria by Juan Lopez. Hippocrates

says that the people who drink dirty water experienced the problem

of splenomegaly. First, French doctor Laveron discovered in Algeria in 1880

that plasmodium that lives in the blood causes malaria. Furthermore, Patric

1283 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 4.

§

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Manson found that plasmodium was infected to people by mosquitos. Furthermore,

Italian doctor Giovanni and his team found that the female anopheles

of mosquitos infected malaria. Quinine that had been used as the remedy

for malaria since the eighteenth century was not adequate in the treatment of

malaria. Cinchona firstly came to Anatolia in the eighteenth century and

Risale-i Haysiyet-i Kınakına was written by a doctor Ali in Bursa. Quinine

was known as Sulfato at the beginnings of the nineteenth century.1284

The first legal regulations about quinine were made in 1913. In addition to

the war, there was an anti-malarial campaign during the First World War.1285

Quinine had been imported by the Ministry of Health until 1935, however, it

was imported by the Red Crescent 1935 onwards. Quinine had been used in

the treatment of malaria until the beginning of the 2000s. They were distributed

by Agricultural Bank. However, atabrine produced synthetically was a

remedy in dealing with malaria.1286 Malaria was called as bad air, swamp fever

colloquially.1287

Dirty waters are quite suitable places for the generation of anopheles. The

temperature between 18 and 27 Celsius is suitable for the reproduction and

spread of malaria parasites. Therefore, anopheles highly infect malaria at

nights in the months between September and October. For example, in the

case of adequate precipitation, temperature, and humid air, malaria was seen

in the spring. After the infection of malaria, it shows an indication about two

weeks later. It was founded by Richard Bright in 1832 that malaria parasites

settle in the capillary vessels of the brain, spleen, liver. While arms and legs

of malaria-infected people get thinner, their spleens swell.1288 Furthermore, it

1284 Fatih Tuğluoğlu, “Türkiye’de Sıtma Mücadelesi,” 352- 356; Ümmügülsüm Candeğer, “Cumhuriyetten

Güzünümüze Sıtma İle Savaş,” 411- 413.

1285 Ümit Akagündüz, “II Meşrutiyet Döneminde Toplumsal Bir Sorun Olarak Sıtma ve Sıtmadan

Korunma Çareleri,” Kebikeç 41, 2016, 119.

1286 Fatih Tuğluoğlu, “Türkiye’de Sıtma Mücadelesi,” 352- 356; Ümmügülsüm Candeğer, “Cumhuriyetten

Güzünümüze Sıtma İle Savaş,” 411- 413.

1287 Ümit Akagündüz, “II Meşrutiyet Döneminde Toplumsal Bir Sorun Olarak Sıtma ve Sıtmadan

Korunma Çareleri,” 101.

1288 Fatih Tuğluoğlu, “Türkiye’de Sıtma Mücadelesi,” 352- 356; Ümmügülsüm Candeğer, “Cumhuriyetten

Güzünümüze Sıtma İle Savaş,” 353-354.

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may cause depression and mental disorders one year later. Consequently, malaria

caused the decline of population and labor productivity that provided

agricultural production.1289

From a social point of view, malaria is one of the oldest diseases in the

history of humanity. The emergence of epidemics such as malaria, plague and

typhus are related to the beginning of agriculture and the taming of some animals

in the process when humans dominated nature. Malaria epidemic had

been seen especially in war-time and in the periods when there were population

movements such as the migrations of seasonal workers in summer and

soldiers in wars in the nineteenth century.1290

Michael Foucault said that the politics of health emerged in the course of

the eighteenth century. The subsistence, the growth of the population, and the

adjustment of the population to an economic production were conceptualized

as bio-power. Therefore, the healthy population has been regarded as a labor

force.1291 In this context, the government tried to prevent the spread of the

malaria epidemic to protect public health and to provide the rearing of healthy

generations. The government policies to prevent the spread of epidemics such

as malaria, tuberculosis, plague and lues began in Tanzimat Reform Era in

1839 and had continued until the 1970s. Besides, the geographical explorations,

wars, and commercial relations caused the historical spread of malaria

on a global scale.1292

The Ottoman State enacted a law about the standardization of rice farming

and the increasing malaria threat. The Ottoman State encouraged the drainage

of wetlands and the formation of suitable lands for rice farming. In this case,

there were two wings in the Ottoman parliament about rice and malaria discussions

in 1910. While technocrats defended that rice cultivation had to depend

on strict rules to deal with malaria threat. The liberals who were interested

in rice cultivation and trade defended the economic interest and the

1289 Mehmet Şerif Korkut, Isıtma ve Çeltik, 1-4.

1290 Fatih Tuğluoğlu “Türkiye’de Sıtma Mücadelesi,” 352-354.

1291 Ricchard A. Lynch, “The Politics of Health in the Eighteenth Century,” Foucault Studies, no.

18 (2014), 117.

1292 Fatih Tuğluoğlu, “Türkiye’de Sıtma Mücadelesi,” 351-354.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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liberal economic targets of the empire.1293 Besides, the poverty and the ignorance

of peasants had increased malaria in the 1920s and 1930s.1294 Although

the members of the Committee of Union and Progress and some Armenian

liberals disagreed ideologically, those who were interested in rice cultivation

and trade had the same economic views on both sides.1295

Since it is thought that rice and malaria have been closely related to each

other, a health inspector claimed that there was malaria resulted from rice

cultivation in Bursa Plain in 1909. In contrast, Rıza Pasha who traveled around

the plain refuted this argument. The inspector tried to prevent rice cultivation

in the plain to protect and to develop the famous hot springs of his relatives

in the Çekirge district of Bursa. On the other hand, although rice cultivated

lands were very close to Filibe, Mosul, and Baghdad, malaria was rarely

seen.1296

The ministry of Health tried to map malarial zones and wetlands with the

reports of sanitation departments. In the conference held under the leadership

of Refik Saydam, ten years of the malaria control program and sanitary organization

were talked about.1297 Furthermore, some doctors such as Abdülkadir

Lütfi, Ahmet Fikri, Hüsamettin Şerif, Neşet Ömer and Tevfik Salim discussed

the geographical spread of Malaria, the government policies against

malaria and the treatment of malaria in the first National Medicine Congress

in 1925.1298 Besides, Anti Malaria Law of 1926 and the Public Health Law of

1930 determined the rules of fighting against malaria.

1293 Chris Graten, "Pilavdan Dönen İmparatorluk: Meclis-i Mebusan'da Sıtma ve Çeltik Tartışmaları,"

100-102.

1294 Kyle T. Evered and Emine Ö. Evered, “A Conquest of Rice: Agricultural Expansion, Impoverishment

and Malaria in Turkey,”119.

1295 Chris Graten, "Pilavdan Dönen İmparatorluk: Meclis-i Mebusan'da Sıtma ve Çeltik Tartışmaları,"

116.

1296 Ibid, 110-116.

1297 Eminalp Malkoç, “Erken Cumhuriyet Döneminde Sıtma Mücadelesinin Altyapısı (1923-

1927)” In Osmanlı'dan Cumhuriyet'e Salgın Hastalıklar ve Kamu Sağlığı, edited by Burcu

Kurt and İsmail Yaşayanlar (İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 2018), 173-174.

1298 Ayten Arıkan, “Milli Türk Tıp Kongreleri (1923-1968) ve Türkiye Sağlık Politikalarına Etkileri,”

(PhD Thesis, İstanbul Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, 2005), 16-17.

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Furthermore, Professor Dr. E. Martini and Dr. H. Vagel were invited from

Hamburg Hot Countries Institutes in Germany in 1926 to research the mosquitos

in Turkey. With the suggestion of E. Martini, Adana Malaria Institute

was founded to do some research about malaria.1299 These were health-related

laws, regulations and orders. Thanks to the law of 1926, the treatment of rural

population and farm laborers were aimed.1300 For example, 92 percent of

peasants were malaria infected in the rural areas of Adana. Then 16 Anti Malaria

Centers were founded in the provinces where there was a high percentage

of malaria, crowded population and intensive economic productions in

the 1930s such as Eskişehir, Konya, Bursa, Manisa, Kocaeli, Samsun, Antalya,

and İstanbul. 150 doctors and 400 medical assistants were employed in these

institutions. To fight against malaria, the deepness of backwater was increased

more than 70 cm, the sources of the larva were annihilated through petroleum,

insect control were implemented in rural areas.1301 However, with the spread

of DDT, it has been used in insect control since the 1940s. Furthermore, to

drain wetlands, the planting of eucalyptus, poplar, and willow were encouraged

in the 1930s.1302 Eucalyptus was regarded as an anti-dote of malaria.1303

On the other hand, the cutting of ash trees, the cultivation of rice, and cannabis

far from villages were discussed in the early republican period.1304

Furthermore, within the scope of fighting against malaria and the regulation

of rice farming, the Rice Cultivation Law of 1936 was enacted by the

cooperation between the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Agriculture.

Furthermore, similar to the Rice Cultivation Law of 1936, the relations between

rice production and malaria had been discussed in the First Turkish

1299 Ümmügülsüm Candeğer, “Cumhuriyetten Güzünümüze Sıtma İle Savaş,” 416.

1300 Kyle T. Evered and Emine Ö. Evered, “A Conquest of Rice: Agricultural Expansion, Impoverishment

and Malaria in Turkey,”106.

1301 “Umumi Hıfzısıhha Kanunu,” Resmi Gazete, May 6, 1930.

1302 Fatih Tuğluoğlu, “Türkiye’de Sıtma Mücadelesi,” 357- 358.

1303 Chris Graten, "Pilavdan Dönen İmparatorluk: Meclis-i Mebusan'da Sıtma ve Çeltik Tartışmaları,"

105-106.

1304 Eminalp Malkoç, “Erken Cumhuriyet Döneminde Sıtma Mücadelesinin Altyapısı (1923-

1927),” 176.

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311

Parliament.1305 Besides, since this law charged governors and district governors

in rice cultivation areas, the Ministry of Internal Affairs has been responsible

for the performance of the legal obligation in rice cultivation. In this

context, from water sources and rice cultivation areas to working hours and

sheltering conditions of farm laborers have been determined.

Thanks to these precautions, malaria decreased to 10 percent in 1944. Furthermore,

the war measurements during the Second World War prevented the

influential fight against malaria. Thus, the Anti Malaria Law of 1946 was enacted

to indicate the mutual responsibilities of different public institutions and

Turkish citizens. In this context, 403 doctors and 1663 medical assistances

were employed in 54 provinces.1306 Fighting against malaria was regarded as

a national priority and a humanitarian mission by İsmet İnönü. Thus, the government

tried to bring preventative health care to every village in this period.

1307

Malaria ceased to be threat 1950 onwards. In addition to economic and

technological reasons, as a result of the adequate supply of anti-malarial drugs

such as larvisit and kulisit in 1952 and 1953, the government gave the permission

of rice cultivation in new areas where rice farming had been forbidden

in 1940. Thus rice cultivation areas have increased. Furthermore, rice growers

were obliged to distribute these drugs to rice workers and they were responsible

for the protection of their health.1308 Furthermore, terremisin was developed

at Guadalajara University in Mexico. It was tested in 15 malaria-infected

people and gave positive results. Thanks to terremisin, their body temperature

declined and patients were recovered.1309

Within the scope of the Marshall Plan, as an American malaria specialist,

Dr. Feredrick Kratz came to Turkey to work together with the Ministry of

1305 Ümit Akagündüz, “II Meşrutiyet Döneminde Toplumsal Bir Sorun Olarak Sıtma ve Sıtmadan

Korunma Çareleri,”109.

1306 Sıtma Savaşı Kanunu,” Resmi Gazete, November 21, 1946; Fatih Tuğluoğlu, “Türkiye’de

Sıtma Mücadelesi,” 357-358.

1307 Kyle T. Evered and Emine Ö. Evered, “A Conquest of Rice: Agricultural Expansion, Impoverishment

and Malaria in Turkey,”115.

1308 BCA S.S.Y.B. 26/1108, (March 9, 1953).

1309 “Malaryaya Çok Müessir Bir İlaç: Terramisin,” Urfa, June 23, 1952.

O K A N C E Y L A N

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Health. In this context, 1,600,000 TL was given to Turkey. This money was

used to buy DDT, vaporizator, and other vehicles. On the one hand, the

sources of malaria were prevented, and on the other hand, rice cultivation

lands were increased in different parts of Turkey.1310 Thanks to anti-malaria

drugs such as DDT, both the lives of peasants and crops could be saved. Due

to the deaths resulting from malaria, rice was called bloody agriculture colloquially

in the Antalya region in the 1930s and 1940s. The pulvizator that is

used for DDT was produced in Ankara Machinery and Chemical Corporation

in the 1950s.1311

However, the first article of Yaşar Kemal on Cumhuriyet Newspaper on

July 3, 1951 was about public health, poverty and the financial difficulties of

Rumelia immigrants who settled in the rural areas of Diyarbakır in 1939. As

Yaşar Kemal describes, it seems that there were epidemics such as malaria

due to scorching hot air, dense mosquito population, dirty water and rice fields

around the Ambar river in the 1940s. Furthermore, due to unplanned settlement

policies, the immigrants who came from the Deliorman region (the

north-eastern part) of Bulgaria to Diyarbakır could not adapt to their new

lands and climate. Furthermore, 120 immigrants out of 500 died in the first

month of their settlement. Based on the deaths and the abandonment of Köprübaşı,

the population of the village declined from 500 to 205 in 1951. Besides,

Yaşar Kemal also paid attention to the socio-economic conflicts between

feudal lords and migrants. In this context, these notables objected to

their land leasing.1312

Although there had been serious malaria control in Şanlıurfa until 1956

and the population of sandflies and mosquitos that caused Urfa boil on the

face of people began to extinct, the inadequate supply of antimalarial drug

caused the reappearance of malaria again in 1958.1313 In this period, with the

1310 “Malaryanın Kontrol Altına Alınmasıyla Türkiye’de Pirinç İstihsalinin Artması Temin Ediliyor,”

Demokrat Keşan, April 1, 1953.

1311 “DDT Antalya’da Pirinç Ekimine Yeniden İmkân Verdi.”

1312 “Diyarbakır’ın Göçmen Köylerini Gezerken Neler Gördüm,” Cumhuriyet, July 3, 1951; “Yaşar

Kemal’in Cumhuriyette Çıkan İlk Yazısı,” Cumhuriyet, March 1, 2015.

1313 “İlimizde Trahom ve Sıtma Savaş Mücadelesi,” Yeni Urfa, July 11, 1958.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

313

support of Dr. Faruk Aksüyek, malaria control and pest control against mosquitos

continued in villages. The main sources of malaria in Şanlıurfa were

the Karakoyun stream and sewages.1314 Also, diesel oil was used to disinfect

these lands.1315 DDT disinfection had been carried out in every spring. Otherwise,

the people of Karacadağ could not sleep due to mosquitos and blackflies.

1316 The local press of Diyarbakır indicated that there was some malariainfected

people in rural areas and the supply of influential drugs and pest in

the stores of malaria control organization. Furthermore, it was paid attention

to the importance of malaria control on time.1317 A Law about the Annihilation

of Malaria was enacted in 1960.1318

Due to large wetlands in the Meriç Basin in the 1940s, Edirne Anti Malaria

Organization held an organization in Edirne to determine the sphere of activity.

1319 Within the context of malaria control, the equips disinfected the larva

of mosquitos in backwater, stables, dunghills, and wetlands.1320Within the

scope of malaria and insect control such as mosquito, blackfly, and flea, DDT

had been used in the 1950s.1321 However, the floods of rivers in the region

increased the risk of malaria. Due to large wetlands and immense rice fields,

İpsala had the highest malaria risk in the Meriç Basin. Since two malaria -

infected people were determined, Malaria Control Organization both took

blood and disinfected all of the houses in the 1970s.1322

Furthermore, since anopheles provided immunity to insecticides, these

chemicals started not to kill them. Furthermore, due to the population movement

of seasonal farm laborers in Çukurova, malaria epidemics increased in

the summer months of 1976.1323 Furthermore, malaria was seen again in the

1314 “Sıtma Savaşı,” Yenilik, July 1,1948.

1315 “Sivrisinekle Kim Mücadele Yapacak,” Yeni Urfa, March 26,1959.

1316 “DDT Tatbikatının Zamanı Yaklaşıyor,” Diyarbakır, February 28, 1963.

1317 “Sıtma Mücadele Teşkilatının Faaliyet Zamanı Geldi,” Diyarbakır, May 30, 1963.

1318 Ümmügülsüm Candeğer, “Cumhuriyetten Güzünümüze Sıtma İle Savaş,” 416.

1319 “Sıtma Savaşı Hazırlığı,” Edirne Postası, April 9, 1949.

1320 “Sıtma Savaşı Faaliyetine Hız Verildi,” Edirne Postası, April 23, 1949.

1321 “Sıtma Savaşı,” Edirne Postası, February 28, 1951.

1322 “Sıtma ve Sinekle Mücadele Çalışmaları Olumlu Karşılanıyor,” İpsala, June 18, 1971.

1323 “Sıtma Hastalığı Bütün Yurtta Artış Göstermeye Başladı,” Vatandaş, July 20, 1976.

O K A N C E Y L A N

314

eastern part of the Mediterranean and Southeast Anatolia in 1976 and 1977. In

this context, while there were 3,000 malaria-infected people in Çukurova, the

rest was in Southeastern Anatolia.1324

While the percent of malaria-infected person was one per thousand in

1976, it increased to twenty-two per thousand in 1977. The minister of Health

Cengiz Gökçek held a meeting with Leo A. Kaprio who was the president of

the World Health Organization.1325 Furthermore, due to political reasons,

many officers of the malaria control organization were appointed to other

provinces. Thus, malaria control could not be successful in Çukurova. In conclusion,

there were 65,000 Malaria infected people in Adana, Hatay, and Mersin

in 1980. Therefore, three million USD was needed to buy the anti-malarial

drugs.1326

Therefore, the work of malaria control organization was increased in

Thrace in 1977.1327 However, the increase of mosquito population in the

Havsa district of Edirne resulted from the increase of rice cultivation areas

and the flowing of sewage into the stream that passed through the district.1328

Furthermore, due to the dense mosquito population, the peasants of the Meriç

Basin protected their animals through turf fire in the summer evenings. Furthermore,

due to the high energy cost of the water engine, the people of Pırnar

in Keşan had drunk water from the stream of the village in 1980. Although

village headman Hasan Gayretli wrote a petition that expressed their socioeconomic

conditions and worries about epidemics, there had not been any

answers or solutions.1329

However, malaria made an impression in social memory as a disease that

appeared in the 1930s and 1940s in Edirne. In that period, they remembered

the use of quinine in malaria treatment. However, they say that there has not

1324 “Çukurova ve Güneydoğu İllerinde Sıtma Vakaları Artış Gösterdi,” Hürsöz, May 21, 1976.

1325 “Türkiye’nin Sıtma İle Mücadelesine Uluslararası Destek İsteniyor,” Vatandaş, November

19, 1977.

1326 “Kökü Kazındı Denen Sıtma Yeniden Hortladı,” Vatandaş, April 28, 1980.

1327 “Trakya’da Sıtmaya Karşı Alınacak Tedbirler,” Vatandaş, November 8, 1977.

1328 “Havsa’da Sivrisinekten Geçilmiyor,” Vatandaş, July 24, 1979.

1329 “Mazot Alamayan Keşan Pırnar Halkı Suyu Dereden İçiyor,” Vatandaş, January 12, 1980.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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been malaria since the 1950s and the governments have taken strict measures

through disinfection.1330 According to the memories of İbrahim Tali Bey who

were the General Inspector of Thrace in 1940, small children in Thrace captured

malaria while grazing their animals in Meriç Plain where there were

suitable areas for the reproduction of anopheles such as wet lands, rice fields,

reed fields, and backwaters. Therefore, he mentioned that some children had

swollen abdomens. Involuntary servitude of these children and the malaria

infection seems unfavorable for the population policy of Turkey in the

1930s.1331 Furthermore, these children had been responsible for this economic

activity in the Meriç Basin until the end of the 1980s.

Similarly, mosquitos became the nightmare of people in Samsun. According

to the Çarşamba district governor Faik Kokan, mosquitos resulted from

rice fields. Thus, they determined rice cultivated lands outside of

Çarşamba.1332 On the contrary, similar to many other agriculturalists and rice

growers, Adil Kayapınar and Süleyman Kızılkaya said that there is not a direct

relation between malaria and rice cultivation. Malaria was founded in

the regions where rice had not been cultivated in southeastern Anatolia in the

beginnings of the 2000s.1333 Furthermore, Halil Sürek said that although there

is not rice cultivation, there is the dense mosquito population in the corn fields

of the Ödemiş district of İzmir.1334

Malaria was spread in the areas where there were floods of rivers, wetlands,

and rice fields at the beginning of the twentieth century. Thus, the percent

of malaria-infected people were 72 percent in the Lower Kızılırmak and

Lower Yeşilırmak Basins, 80 percent in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin and

also 30 percent in the Meriç Basin in the 1920s.1335 Rice farming has been

1330 Hasan Topçu and Mehmet Topçu, tape-recorded interview by the author, August 20, 2018,

Akçadam, Meriç Edirne, Turkey

1331 Murat Burgaç, Trakya Raporu (1934), (İstanbul: Kaynak Yayınları, 2017), 103-157.

1332 “Terme’de Sivrisinekle Mücadele Yapılıyor,” Hürsöz, July 19, 1976.

1333 Süleyman Kızılkaya, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz Village of Diyarbakır,

August 09, 2018; Adil Kayapınar, tape-recorded interview with the author, Yalankoz, Diyarbakır

Turkey August 10, 2018.

1334 Halil Sürek, tape-recorded interview by the author, Edirne, Turkey, August 10, 2018.

1335 Fatih Tuğluoğlu, “Türkiye’de Sıtma Mücadelesi,” 354.

O K A N C E Y L A N

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associated with malaria for centuries. Furthermore, the Turkish government

enacted a law about rice cultivation in 1936 to control and regulate irrigation

water of rice. However, rather than the limitation of rice cultivation areas,

mosquito control and sanitary measures could prevent the spread of malaria.

For example, when malaria diseases increased in Southeast Anatolia, there

was no influential mosquito control, and there was a malaria epidemic in Syria

and Iraq in the 1950s and 1960s. On the other hand, while rice cultivation areas

increased in the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins, malaria decreased

in this period.1336

The property taxes paid by rice growers were used to buy jeep rather than

to buy DTT to control mosquitos by some rice cultivation commissions.1337

Malaria was endemic in Southeast Anatolia, it could be activated in Thrace

and also it could not be detected in the Black Sea but it could be infected from

outside of the region in the 1960s. Strict measures against malaria had been

taken until the beginning of 1980. According to the World Malaria Report,

there were only 249 malaria infected people in Turkey in 2014.1338 Furthermore,

Dr. Mithat Süvey published Malaria Control Studies to indicate the success

of the malaria control organization in Turkey in 1952.1339

There is a close relation between rice cultivation and the economic welfare

in Turkey. Also, the development of rice cultivation in developed countries

provided an increase in rice production and the prevention of malaria in

the 1950s.1340 However, these views contradicted with the thesis of Şerif

Korkut on Malaria and Rice (Isıtma ve Çeltik) and Teneke novel of Yaşar Kemal

which integrated public health concerns about malaria and the political

ascendancy of capitalist farmers. They tried to connect among commodity,

impoverishment and agrarian capitalism. Namely, while big landowners

1336 Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 39- 40.

1337 Antalya Milletvekili İhsan Ataöv'ün, Antalya’da sivrisinekle mücadele konusunda ne düşünüldüğüne

dair sorusu ve Sağlık ve Sosyal Yardım Bakanı Yusuf Azizoğlu'nun sözlü cevabı,

(TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, May 29, 1963) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/MM__/d01/c017/mm__01017086.pdf

1338 Ümmügülsüm Candeğer, “Cumhuriyetten Güzünümüze Sıtma İle Savaş,” 417.

1339 “Sıtma Savaşı Çalışmaları,” Edirne Postası, April 28, 1953.

1340 Behçet Hazar, “Çeltik Ziraatı ve Sivrisinek,” 363.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

317

gained money, farm laborers decayed with malaria. 1341 While Maraş plain

brought up some millionaires, millions of Turkish peasants died due to malaria.

1342 Similarly, Korkut pointed out the fact that Turkey is rich in nature

but Turkey lacks an adequate labor force and capital.1343

Historically, rice that was under state controlled and which was a lucrative

commodity for rice growers included the tradition of coercion in the Ottoman

Empire.1344 From the Empire to the Republican Era, there had been both the

encouragement of rice cultivation areas, and the malaria threat on public

health. All these processes were closely related to the enactment of populism

in 1927 and Etatism in 1931. Thus, the government tried to embrace the rural

population who experienced the influences of the Great Depression of 1929.

Moreover, economic self-sufficiency in some key food stables was aimed.1345

In contrast to these, rather than malaria, the main issue of rice cultivated regions

has been water pollution, the desertification of fertile lands, and increasing

diseases such as cancer, rheumatic disorders and respiratory tract disease

in the Meriç Basin since the 1970s. Thus, more concrete and modern solutions

have to be developed for rice cultivation. The water pollution of Ergene, the

decrease in water sources, and the excessive use of pesticides also threaten

the sustainability of rice cultivation in the Meriç Basin. As a measure, the

building of dams and the use of other clean water sources were encouraged

by the state.

6. 3. 2 Environmental Pollution in These Basins

To provide additional value to the industry, the nutrition of society, and foreign

currency inflow through foreign trade, the agricultural sector occupies

1341 Kyle T. Evered and Emine Ö. Evered, “A Conquest of Rice: Agricultural Expansion, Impoverishment

and Malaria in Turkey,”103-113.

1342 Mehmet Şerif Korkut,” Acaba O zaman Pirinci Kaça Yiyeceğiz,” Karınca, no. 150 (June

1949), 14

1343 Mehmet Şerif Korkut, Isıtma ve Çeltik, 1.

1344 Halil İnalcık, “Rice Cultivation and Çeltikçi Reaya,” 69-72.

1345 Kyle T. Evered and Emine Ö. Evered, “A Conquest of Rice: Agricultural Expansion, Impoverishment

and Malaria in Turkey,”105.

O K A N C E Y L A N

318

an important place in the Turkish economy. However, together with the unplanned

industrialization of Çerkezköy, Çorlu, and Lüleburgaz from 1970 onwards,

rice cultivation began to be popular in the Meriç Basin where water

pollution was also faced with in these years. However, the environmental pollution

in the cultivated areas damages public health, economy, and environment.

Furthermore, some academicians and journalists have tried to draw attention

to this topic in journals, articles and newspapers for a half century. For

example, to provide better nutrition to people Professor Osman Tekinel who

was an academician of the Agricultural Faculty at Çukurova University emphasized

the productive use of water and soil sources such as the increase of

irrigable lands, land leveling, drainage, and the building of transportation facilities

and water channels among fields in 1979.1346

As much as the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizer in rice cultivation

cause environmental pollution, the industrial and domestic waste cause soil

and water pollution in rice cultivation areas. Also, greenhouse gasses that

cause global warming result from stubble burning, rice production and livestock

raising and fertilization. Furthermore, the emission of coal gas becomes

a problem in the regions where there is perennial irrigation. These areas cover

20 percent of the cultivated lands in Turkey.1347 Due to the use of chemical

fertilizers and pesticides in rice cultivation, there have been soil and water

pollutions in the Kızılırmak delta in recent years. Furthermore, fish, many

migratory birds that live temporarily in the lakes, and reed fields of the plain

or the water buffalos in the region get poisoned.1348 Similarly, it was claimed

that The industrialization in Çarşamba Plain also damaged to cultivated lands.

The gas emission of copper and nitrogen factories of the Karadeniz Cooper

Industry in this region caused a discussion between the general director of the

industry and local people.1349 However, the environmental pollution in the

Meriç Basin cannot be compared either the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower

1346 “Türkiye’de Sulanabilir Tarım Arazisi Büyüyor,” Vatandaş, January 3, 1979.

1347 Fahri Yavuz, Türkiye’de Tarım, 158-168.

1348 Abdulveli Sirat, İsmail Sezer and Hasan Akay, “Kızılırmak Deltasında Organik Çeltik Tarımı,”

78.

1349 “Çarşamba Ovasına Zarar Verdiği İddia Edilen Fabrikadan Çıkan Gazlar,” Hürsöz, June 22,

1976.

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319

Yeşilırmak or the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin. Furthermore, the water pollution

of the Ergene river is a symbol of environmental pollution in Turkey.

Figure 6.2 The Water Pollution of the Ergene River

SOURCE: “Ergene Nehri Ölüm Saçıyor,” CNN Türk, December 12,

2018

6. 3. 3 The Water and Soil Pollution of Ergene Plain in the Meriç Basin

The Ergene river rises from the water sources of the Istranca (Yıldız) mountains

which has 283 km length. Its surface water potential is 1,83 m3 and its

underground water potential is 376 m3.1350 Furthermore, the Ergene river has

a 10,732 km2 drainage area. The environmental pollution of Ergene plain has

been seen since the foundation of an organized industry of Çerkezköy in

1970.1351 Furthermore, the refining plant for the prevention of industrial waste

1350 Edirne Milletvekili Mehmet Müezzinoğlu’nun, doğal zenginliğe sahip Ergene havzasının

önemine ve havzada meydana gelen çevre kirliliğinin önlenmesi için alınması gereken tedbirlere

ilişkin gündem dışı konuşması ve Orman ve Su İşleri Bakanı Veysel Eroğlu’nun cevabı,

(TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, October 6, 2011) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanalar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d24/c002/tbmm24002004.pdf

1351 Edirne Milletvekili Rasim Çakır ve 33 arkadaşının Ergene Nehrindeki kirliliğin ve çevreye

etkilerinin araştınlarak alınması gereken önlemlerin belirlenmesi amacıyla Meclis araştırması

açılmasına ilişkin önergesi, (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, December 17, 2002)

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/TUTANAK/TBMM/d22/c001/tbmm22001011.pdf

O K A N C E Y L A N

320

of more than 900 business organizations in Çerkezköy and the environmental

pollution in cultivated areas in the plain have been discussed in the parliament

from time to time. Similarly, with the attempts of regional deputies, environmental

pollution parliamentary investigation commission was founded in

1988.1352 As a result of this research, it seems that Çorlu and Çerkezköy have

had the lion’s share in Ergene pollution.1353 Worse still, due to the inadequate

precipitation in the Meriç Basin, rice growers have used the water of Ergene

in rice irrigation. Thus, thousands of decars of rice fields dried and the health

of thousands of people have been influenced negatively.1354

6. 3. 4 The Influence of Bulgaria and Greece in the Pollution of

the Meriç River

Similar to Turkey, Greece and Bulgaria have been quite irresponsible in

water pollution. Due to the industrial waste of Bulgaria, the Meriç river still

being polluted. For example, due to the appearance of dead fish around

Kapıkule in 1988, it was claimed that there were arsenic and quicksilver in the

water. Therefore, a cup of water was sent to the laboratory for analysis.1355

Also, some samples of these fish were sent to the Veterinary School of İstanbul

University for analysis. Similarly, due to the coal washing of Bulgaria

and the industrial wastes of pepper and spinning mills in Edirne, the Meriç

river has been polluted in time. Thus the bottom of the Meriç river became a

marsh. Turkey, Greece and Bulgaria have been responsible for the pollution

of Meriç, Saros Gulf and the extinction of fish since the 1970s.1356

The water pollution of the Meriç river has also worried local people and

rice growers about their health and irrigation water. For example, the chemical

and industrial wastes of Bulgaria alarmed Turkey and Greece in 1992. According

to the laboratory analyses of Thrace University, the pollution resulted

1352 “Çevre Kirliliği İnceleme Komisyonu Trakya’da,” Vatandaş, August 3, 1988.

1353 “Ergene Kirliliğinin Adresi Belli Oldu,” Vatandaş, July 15, 1997.

1354 “Çiftçi Bu Defada Ergene Kirliliğinden Vurgun Yedi,” Vatandaş, June 27, 1996.

1355 “Meriç Nehrinin Tahlil Sonuçları Bekliyor,” Vatandaş, July 1, 1988.

1356 “Meriç Nehri Ölüyor,” Vatandaş, August 19, 1988.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

321

from the lack of refining systems of Bulgarian plants. Turkish farmers could

not use the water of the Meriç river for a while in their rice irrigation.1357

Furthermore, the samples were sent to Ankara. Fortunately, the results of the

analyses were clean. However, during this process, fishery, the irrigation of

animals, and agricultural irrigation were forbidden.1358 According to Nazmi

Sönmez who was the president of Enez water products cooperative, the industrial

wastes and the agricultural pesticides of rice have damaged the fish

population in Gala Lake.1359 Due to inadequate oxygen level in Gala Lake,

the Meriç and Ergene rivers, total fish mortalities have been seen. Worse than

this, the acidic and dirty water of Ergene has leaked underground water. It

threatens the potable water of settlements situated along the Ergene river.1360

6. 3. 5 The Government Projects in the Ergene and the Meriç Rivers

The biggest environmental problem of the Meriç Basin is water pollution in

the Meriç, Ergene and Tunca rivers.1361 While the degree of water pollution

of the Ergene river is 3-4 and that of Meriç 2-3. This situation causes soil

salinity, desertification and the decline of rice yield in the Meriç Basin.1362

This was proved by Mehmet Karpuzcu and 22 academicians at Boğaziçi University

the Institute for Environmental Science. According to this analysis,

the water of Ergene had the first-class pollution between 1982 and 1986, the

1357 “Hıfsıhha Kurumu İkinci Duyuruya Kadar Her Türlü Su Kullanımını Yasakladı,” Edirne,

March 5, 1992.

1358 “Zehir Alarmı Sürüyor,” Edirne Haber, March 9, 1992.

1359 “Kirlilik Balıkçılığı da Etkiledi,” Vatandaş, November 15, 2003.

1360 Edirne Milletvekili Rasim Çakır ve 33 arkadaşının Ergene Nehrindeki kirliliğin ve çevreye

etkilerinin araştınlarak alınması gereken önlemlerin belirlenmesi amacıyla Meclis araştırması

açılmasına ilişkin önergesi

1361 R. Yılmaz, “Edirne’de Çevre Bilincinin Belirlenmesi ve Sosyo-ekonomik Özelliklerin Çevresel

Bilinç Üzerine Etkisi,” Tekirdağ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 6, no.1, (2009), 91.

1362 Edirne Milletvekili Rasim Çakır ve 33 arkadaşının Ergene Nehrindeki kirliliğin ve çevreye

etkilerinin araştınlarak alınması gereken önlemlerin belirlenmesi amacıyla Meclis araştırması

açılmasına ilişkin önergesi, “Akarsulardan Su Değil, Zehir Akıyor,” Vatandaş, January 19,

1994.

O K A N C E Y L A N

322

second class pollution in 1987, the third-class pollution in 1989, and also the

fourth class pollution in 1990.1363

Based on these pieces of academic research, the Governors and the Provincial

Directors of Environment of three provinces such as Edirne,

Kırklareli, and Tekirdağ discussed the increasing water pollution of Ergene

and salinities of cultivated lands as a result of industrial wastes. Water pollution

causes both health problems and the increase in production costs in the

agrarian sector. For example, since the water of the Ergene river could not be

used in Uzunköprü, rice growers took water from Kayalı Dam in 1997.1364

Thus, A Commission for the prevention of environmental pollution in the

Ergene plain was founded in the mid-1990s. The commission determined the

damage and loss report to the Ministry of Environment. Similarly, SHW, State

Planning Organization, Kırklareli Ataturk Research Institute and the General

Directorate of Rural Affairs prepared some reports about the environmental

pollution of Ergene.1365

Although a protocol was signed to be prepared for a master plan for the

Ergene river between Thrace University and the Ministry of Environment on

July 11, 1999. However, it cannot be implemented due to the lack of resources.

Since there is not an active master plan in Çerkezköy, Çorlu and Lüleburgaz,

the cultivated lands of Ergene plain have been a victim of unearned income

and illegal industrial waste of some factories such as paper, textile, and leather

industries. Although factory owners look after their interest, the environmental

pollution of Ergene plain damage both public health and the national economy.

Due to the water and soil pollution, rice cultivated lands have decreased

in recent years.1366

1363 “Akarsulardan Su Değil, Zehir Akıyor,” Vatandaş, January 19, 1994.

1364 “Edirne, Tekirdağ ve Kırklareli Valileri Toplandı,” Vatandaş, February 22, 1997.

1365 “Uzunköprü’de Çeltik Üreticisi Zararın Tanzimi İçin Çevre Bakanlığına Dilekçe Gönderdi,”

Vatandaş, December 18, 1996.

1366 Edirne Milletvekili Rasim Çakır ve 32 arkadaşının, Ergene Nehrindeki kirliliğin ve çevreye

etkilerinin araştırılarak alınması gereken önlemlerin belirlenmesi amacıyla Meclis araştırması

açılmasına ilişkin önergesi, (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, December 3, 2002)

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanalar/TUTANAK/TBMM/d22/c001/tbmm22001006.pdf

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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Due to the pollution of the Meriç Basin, dermatologic disorders, respiratory

tract disease, rheumatic diseases, and cancer has steadily increased since

the 1970s. In the same way, owing to the chemical substance and acidic water

of Ergene water, it cannot be used in the irrigation of crops such as rice, corn

and sunflower and also husbandry. These indicate both the unclear borders

between industrial zones and agricultural areas and the negative influence of

industry on rice cultivation areas.

Similar to the parliamentary investigation commission about environmental

pollution in Meriç and Ergene plains in 1988 and the attempts of 1999, the

parliamentary inquiry about the water pollution of the Ergene river was accepted

with the attempts of opposing deputies of Edirne, Tekirdağ and

Kırklareli in 2002.1367 The Justice and Development Party (AKP) prepared an

environmental action plan about the Ergene river.1368 In detail, this report had

three sub titles such as a waste water action plan, a solid waste action plan,

and a basin protection action plan. It seems that the soil and water pollution

of the Ergene river results from the uncontrolled and unplanned industrialization

in Çerkezköy, Çorlu and Lüleburgaz, and also the domestic wastes of the

68 municipals where 1,5 million of the population live around the Ergene

river.

Only 19 factories out of 436 had refining plant in 1996.1369 As a measure,

the foundation of refining plants for factories was obliged by the Ministry of

Environment in 2000.1370 However, the Çorlu mayor said that the factories

that cause environmental pollution in the Ergene river and underground water

1367 Ibid.

1368 Edirne Milletvekili Mehmet Müezzinoğlu’nun, doğal zenginliğe sahip Ergene havzasının

önemine ve havzada meydana gelen çevre kirliliğinin önlenmesi için alınması gereken tedbirlere

ilişkin gündem dışı konuşması ve Orman ve Su İşleri Bakanı Veysel Eroğlu’nun cevabı.

1369 “Trakya’da Yalnızca 19 Arıtma Tesisi Var,” Vatandaş, June 7, 1996.

1370 Edirne Milletvekili Rasim Çakır ve 33 arkadaşının Ergene Nehrindeki kirliliğin ve çevreye

etkilerinin araştınlarak alınması gereken önlemlerin belirlenmesi amacıyla Meclis araştırması

açılmasına ilişkin önergesi.

O K A N C E Y L A N

324

release their wastes out of working hours.1371 Also, it is claimed that the excessive

use of fertilizers and pesticides in the agrarian sector has increased

this pollution more and more.1372 According to the rector of Thrace University

in 2006, the Ergene river turned into a canalization of industrial waste in

Thrace. The water pollution of Ergene results from Tekirdağ at 56 percent,

Kırklareli at 34 percent, and Edirne at 10 percent in the 2000s.1373

Furthermore, thanks to some new projects of the Ministry of Environment,

the World Bank provided a 300 million USD loan to Ergene. In this

context, the Union of Thrace Municipal would be founded and collaborated

with Thrace University.1374 The Ministry of Environment developed a project

to clean the Ergene river. It required between 285 and 410 million Euro investment

in 2010.1375 In this context, the Minister of Forestry and Water Affairs

attempted to realize another action plan called “the Dawn Movement (Şafak

Harekatı).” On the other hand, the opponent deputies of Thrace provinces

claimed that these legal procedures were not implemented and this pollution

endangered both the health and the socio-economic lives of 300,000 people

and 800000 decars of cultivated lands.1376

After the floods of Ergene, polluted water spread on rice fields and had

stayed for 3 days. Thus, rice dried. Therefore, the Edirne deputies of the Republican

People’s Party (CHP) demanded an investigation commission, but it

was rejected by AKP.1377 As a result of the water pollution of the Ergene river,

1371 “Ergene Nehrini Kirleten Fabrikaların Atık Suları Yeraltı Kaynaklarını Zehirliyor,” Son Haber

September 7, 2006.

1372 Edirne Milletvekili Rasim Çakır ve 33 arkadaşının Ergene Nehrindeki kirliliğin ve çevreye

etkilerinin araştınlarak alınması gereken önlemlerin belirlenmesi amacıyla Meclis araştırması

açılmasına ilişkin önergesi,

1373 “Ergene Nehri Sanayi Kanalizasyonu Oldu,” Son Haber, October 26, 2006.

1374 “Ergene Havzasına 300 Milyon Dolarlık Kredi,” Edirne Haber, March 15, 2001.

1375 “Ergene’yi Kurtaracak Proje Hazır,” Son Haber, December 3, 2010.

1376 Edirne Milletvekili Mehmet Müezzinoğlu’nun, doğal zenginliğe sahip Ergene havzasının

önemine ve havzada meydana gelen çevre kirliliğinin önlenmesi için alınması gereken tedbirlere

ilişkin gündem dışı konuşması ve Orman ve Su İşleri Bakanı Veysel Eroğlu’nun cevabı.

1377 “Çeltikler Kuruyor, Üreticiler Kan Ağlıyor,” Adalet, July 24, 2014

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

325

cancer rate increased in Thrace. Faruk Yorulmaz the head of the Department

of Public Health in Trakya University, Bülent Balcıoğlu a member of Ergene

Platform and Mustafa Yardımcı president of Edirne Commodity Exchange

Market, and Cengiz Yorulmaz a president of Edirne Agricultural Chamber

participated on the Yeşil Ekran program on NTV. They said that the AKP government

did not keep their promise for the cleaning of Ergene. Thus, both rice

cultivated lands and the Saros Gulf are polluted.1378 The cleaning of the

Ergene river has been a subject for populist policies in the periods of elections

and unearned income. Although the AKP government founded a commission

to clean the Ergene river, the government could not succeed it and tried to

hoodwink.1379 Within the scope of the Fanta Youth Festival in Edirne, Tarkan

Tevetoğlu talked about the environmental pollution in the Ergene Plain in his

concert in 2012. For the memory of the water pollution of the Ergene river, he

sang a song.1380

Industrial and domestic waste have threatened not only rivers directly but

also other lakes and ponds indirectly. In this context, Gala Lake in Enez is a

striking example. Gala Lake is a natural habitat of many birds and snakefish.

These fish have been exported abroad.1381 The flow of rice irrigation water

into Gala Lake causes the extinction of fish varieties. Besides, with the enlargement

of rice cultivated lands, the size of Gala Lake has declined from

5630 to 1700 decars since 1960. While 100 tons of snakefish was caught in the

1960s, it declined to 3 tons in the mid-1990s.1382 This situation indicates how

rice cultivation limits fishery in the Meriç Basin.

Due to the flowing of polluted water of Ergene and the industrial and domestic

wastes of three countries, there is water pollution in the Meriç River.

Furthermore, the water pollution of these rivers has continued and increased

1378 Onur Akman,” Ergene Zehir Akıyır,” Hudut, June 21, 2012.

1379 “Ergeneyi Temizlerim,” Hudut, July 10, 2012.

1380 Ergene Kirliliği Tarkan’ın Edirne Konserinde de konu olmuş. Tarkan üzerine düşeni yapmaya

hazır olduğunu söylemiş. Ergene için Uyan Ey Gözlerim Gafletten Uyan adlı eseri okudu.

“Ergene Dostu,” Hudut, July 14, 2012.

1381 Metin Tuncel, “Meriç,” TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi 29, (2004), 189.

1382 “Enez İlçemizdeki Gala Gölü Kuruyor,” Vatandaş, August 9, 1996.

O K A N C E Y L A N

326

due to migrations, unplanned industrialization, and inadequate water

sources.1383 Turkey formed a joint committee with Greece and Bulgaria under

the coordinator of the Ministry of Environment of Turkey to clean the Meriç

River. However, the costs of these projects exceed the budget of the Ministry

of Environment.1384 Thus the water pollution of Ergene has still caused toxicities

in plants and salinity in the soil.1385

The ministry of Environment gave a penalty to 20 factories that polluted

the Ergene River in 2008. The samples taken from these plants proved their

influence on the pollution of Ergene. Furthermore, none of them had refining

plants and drainage licenses. These samples were observed in Ankara Environment

Reference Laboratory. These factory owners were obliged to found

refining plants until May 13, 2009.1386 The Ministry of Forest and Water Affairs

decided to found 5 automatic measure stations in Yulaflı, İnanlı,

Evrensekiz and Yenicegörece to determine the factories that pollute the

Ergene River. These stations would be built by SHW.1387

However, in addition to these pieces of industrial waste, there is 230,000

m3 domestic waste in the Meriç Basin. However, due to the importance of rice

cultivation in the local economy of the sub-district, Yenikarpuzlu municipal

has only a refining plant. Although the building of Hamzadere Dam is indicated

as a solution for the cleaning of Ergene, actually it is vice versa. In the

1383 Edirne Milletvekili Rasim Çakır'ın, Edirne ili Uzunköprü ilçesi Çakmak Barajı 'nm yapımıyla

ilgili yaşanan sorunlara ilişkin gündem dışı konuşması ve Adalet Bakanı Mehmet A li Şahin

'in cevabı, (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, July 17, 2008) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d23/c025/tbmm23025132.pdf

1384 Edirne Milletvekili Rasim Çakır ve 33 arkadaşının Ergene Nehrindeki kirliliğin ve çevreye

etkilerinin araştınlarak alınması gereken önlemlerin belirlenmesi amacıyla Meclis araştırması

açılmasına ilişkin önergesi.

1385 “İllerarası Ergene Nehri Çevre Sorunları Toplantı Gerekçe ve Sonuçları Açıklandı,” Vatandaş,

February 26, 1997.

1386 “Ergeneyi Kirletenlere Ceza Yağdı,” Yeni Gün, April 30, 2008.

1387 “Ergene Nehrini Kirletenler Anında Tespit Edilecek,” Adalet, June 19,2014.

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327

case of pumping irrigation water from Ergene to the Hamzadere dam, the water

of Hamzadere will be polluted. Furthermore, this water pollution will

reach to Keşan plain.1388

On the one hand, due to the malaria threat, rice cultivation has been controlled

legally, the environmental pollution in rice cultivated areas has not

been considered adequately on the other hand. Although there is a dense mosquito’

population in rice cultivated areas, there has not been malaria for a long

time. Thus, the Rice Cultivation Law of 1936 needs to be updated.1389

6. 3. 6 The Academic Studies and the Attempts of Civil Society

Organizations

The lands of Meriç Plain have been used unconsciously since the 1970s

when the industrialization and fertilization have started to be seen. This issue

was supported by some civil societies regarding the environment.1390 Furthermore,

the association of village headmen in Edirne appealed help from the

president of the Turkish Republic Süleyman Demirel about the environmental

pollution of Ergene.1391 Similarly, civil society in Yeniköy sub-district of Uzunköprü

aimed to collect 50,000 signatures with the slogans “the pollution of

the Ergene river have to be prevented immediately” and “Ergene is the lifeblood

of Thrace.”1392

Similarly, an academic symposium was held in Çorlu about the Industrialization

and Environment in Thrace between January 3 and 6, 1996. In this

symposium 64 proceedings were presented. All these proceedings indicated

that the industrialization of Thrace became a sub-region of İstanbul rather

1388 “Kurbağasız Nehir Ergene,” Hudut, June 20, 2012.

1389 Çorum Milletvekili Cahit Angın ve 11 arkadaşının, çeltikçiliği geliştirmek, verimi artırmak

ve maliyeti düşürmek yolunda gerekli tedbirleri saptamak amacıyle bir Meclis Araştırması

açılmasına ilişkin önergesinin görüşülmesi.

1390 “Çevre Gönüllüleri Toplantısında Meriç Nehri Tartışıldı,” Vatandaş, February 13, 1994.

1391 “Muhtarlar Demirel’den Ergene Havzasını Kurtarmasını İstediler,” Vatandaş, July 15, 1997.

1392 “Yeniköylüler Ergene için İmza Kampanyası Başlattı,” Vatandaş, August 13, 1997.

O K A N C E Y L A N

328

than the internal dynamics of Thrace. Second, the agricultural lands and industrial

regions of Thrace intertwined. Third, the agricultural lands of Thrace

could not be destroyed for the unsolvable industrialization of İstanbul.1393

In addition to these, some rice growers of Yenice görece and Adasarhanlı

villages of Meriç opened a case to the detriment of the Ministry of Environment.

1394 Similarly, a case opened about the soil and water pollution of the

Ergene River that caused an economic loss and a decline of rice yield in the

Ergene Plain, and was accepted by the State council in 2008. Although this

case had been rejected in Edirne Administrative Court in 2001, it was taken to

the state council. The pollution of the Ergene River damaged the national

economy and the value of soil in the Ergene and Meriç plains.1395 As a result

of all these cases, the total amount of all indemnity was about 10 million.1396

In the end, Thrace People Committee was founded by a group at the beginning

of 2012. They decided to walk from Uzunköprü to Ankara with the

slogans of “Ergene is Thrace. We will not be a waste of imperialism.” They

said that 88 percent of factories are unlicensed. They are under the monopoly

of imperialism and its domestic collaborators. They traveled 40 villages and

collected 20,000 signatures along the Ergene River. They would be in Ankara

on June 6, 2012.1397 Furthermore, the rice growing villages along the Meriç

River supported the protests of the Thrace People Committee to indicate their

difficult conditions in rice cultivation. Due to the water and soil pollution,

farmers could have difficulty in making a profit and they undersell their rice.

These peasants also do not trust the empty promises or the populist discourses

of politicians.1398

1393 “Trakya’da Sanayileşme ve Çevre Sempozyumunun Sonuç Bildirgesi Yayımlandı,” Vatandaş,

February 8, 1996.

1394 “Uzunköprü’de Çeltik Üreticisi Zararın Tanzimi İçin Çevre Bakanlığına Dilekçe Gönderdi,”

Vatandaş, December 18, 1996.

1395 “Ergene Kirliliğine Mahkemece Tescil,” Yeni Gün, April 10, 2008.

1396 “Ergeneyi Temizlerim,” Hudut, July 10, 2012.

1397 “Ergene İçin Adım Adım Ankara,” Hudut, June 4, 2012.

1398 “Ergene Uğruna,” Hudut, June 20, 2012.

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6. 4 The Flood Threat of the Rivers and Social Anxieties

Labor, nature, and capital are the components of agricultural production. Although

the capital and the labor of farmers are successful, natural factors such

as weather conditions, climate and natural disasters influence agricultural production

directly. To decrease the influences of natural factors, fertilizer, pesticides,

and irrigation methods are implemented. However, these are not the

ultimate solutions in the agricultural sector.1399 In this context, although the

environmental pollution of the Meriç Basin has been seen since the 1970s, the

floods of the Ergene, Meriç and Tunca have had a longer historical past. Since

Ergene and Meriç have not been reclaimed, they have still overflowed and

damaged the plains.1400 Despite the existence of the Ergene, Meriç and Tunca,

the flood disasters of them indicate that water works of Thrace has continued

as the most burning issue. Moreover, this situation was written by the Thrace

reports of İbrahim Tali Bey and Kazım Dirik in the 1930s and the 1940s. They

suggested the development of irrigation plan and projects and the building of

water jumps. Otherwise, due to floods, Ergene and Meriç caused economic

damages and loss rather than profit.1401

The floods of these rivers or a probable drought have worried the peasants

who have lands in the Meriç and Ergene Plains. Most of the time, since they

have cultivated rice, they mainly consider their damage and loss in case of

drought or flood.1402 Namely, both flood and drought have negative influence

on rice cultivation. For example, in some years, due to these floods in spring

months, summer growing plants such as rice, corn, kitchen garden and bean

have been under flood water.1403 However, due to the land structure of the

plains, the flood threat of the rivers and the biological durableness of rice, it

is the most suitable crop for the Meriç and Ergene Plains. Furthermore, as a

1399 “Ziraatta Çevre,” Edirne, November 17, 1986.

1400 İbrahim Görece, Meriç-Ergene,” Bizimköy, September 27, 1960.

1401 Murat Burgaç, Türkiye Umumi Müfettişliklerinin Kurulması ve Trakya Umumi Müfettişliği

(Ankara: Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi, 2013), 245.

1402 “Edirnelinin Endişesi,” Bizim Köy, April 5, 1961.

1403 “Tunca ve Meriç Nehirleri Taştı,” Edirne Postası, May 12, 1948.

§

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result of heavy rainfall in the Balkans and the uncompleted reclamation project

of the Meriç River, the floods of Meriç have been usually seen in the

winter time. Thus, wheat, barley, and rye cannot be cultivated in the plain.

However, in addition to natural disasters, the lack of levees, electric driven

moto-pumps and inadequate capital of peasant households caused rudimentary

technics in rice irrigation. For example, since some farmers who evaded

paying extra diesel oil price opened water slots along the Meriç River, the

increasing water level caused water flow into İpsala plain through these water

slots. In other words, the irresponsible behaviors of these farmers and the

negligence of the rice commission caused the flood of İpsala plain in April

1953.1404 Damage and loss determination was sent to the Ministry of Agriculture.

Due to both the economic damage and the loss of the labor of farmers,

the government delayed their bank and cooperative debts. In such a case, the

government implements the debt relief of farmers, sending new rice seed and

damage and loss determination.1405 According to the views of American specialists,

the levees had to be mended again and the floodwaters in the plain

could be drained through water channels and moto pumps.1406 Similar to the

flood of 1953, the moto pumps of rice growers along the Meriç River again

caused the destruction of the levee and the increase of flood disaster. Thus

SHW regulated water extraction from the Meriç River in 1975.1407

Since the flood of Meriç is a common problem of both Turkey and Greece,

it seems difficult to prevent the floods of the Meriç, Arda, Tunca and Ergene

without making a collaboration with Greece.1408 In contrast to these flood disasters,

since Greece built irrigation facilities and levees around the Kofçalı

region, they tried to obtain more alluvial soil and use more irrigation water.

1404 “İpsala Ovasını Sular Bastı,” Demokrat Keşan, April 21, 1953

1405 Edirne Milletvekili Mustafa İlimen'in, Edirne İlinde aşırı yağışların neden olduğu ürün kayıpları

ve çeltik üreticilerinin sorunları ile alınması gerekli önlemlere ilişkin gündemdışı konuşması

ve Turizm Bakanı İbrahim Gürdal'ın cevabı, (TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, November 5,

1998) https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/TUTANAK/TBMM/d20/c065/tbmm20065015.pdf

1406 “Sel Felaketine Uğrayan İpsala Ovası,” Demokrat Keşan, May 20, 1953.

1407 “Meriç Nehri Kıyılarına Yapılan Tahribatlar Önlenecek,” İpsala, July 17, 1975.

1408 “Yatakları Temizlememiz Gerekiyor,” Son Haber, October 27, 2006.

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Therefore, the rice grower of İpsala had difficulty in the finding of adequate

water.1409

However, since the SHW had built levees along the Meriç River in the

1960s, they prevented big disasters in the Meriç Plain.1410 In addition to natural

disasters, since Greece closed one of the two reaches of the Meriç River,

the rice fields of Karpuzlu Plain were exposed to floods in 1960. 1411 This

flood caused some big economic damage in corn and rice fields.1412 Therefore,

Turkey sent a committee to Athens on October 14, 1960.1413 Besides, due

to the collapse of the Meriç levee, rice growers suffered economic damage in

1961. These farmers applied to the government for the demand that Greece

provided for their economic damages. In this context, Keşan mayor Hüseyin

Yazır had an interview with Süleyman Bilgen and the deputies of the Justice

Party on January 21, 1964. The economic damages of them were solved.1414

1409 Yunanlılar Meriç Nehri’nin Akıntısını Kendi Taraflarına Çekiyorlar.”

1410 “İpsala Ovası Yine Sular Altında,” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, January 16, 1960.

1411 “Karpuzlu Ovası Sular Altında,” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, October 3, 1960.

1412 “İpsala Ovasında Yunanlıların Sebeb Oldğu Su Baskınları,” Trakya, September 19, 1960.

1413 “İpsala Ovası Meselesini Görüşecek Heyet Atinaya Gidiyor,” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, October

14, 1960.

1414 Necmi Gücüyener, “Göz Yaşları,” Edirne Sesi, February 10, 1965.

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Figure 6.3 The Building of Levee Along the Meriç River in in 1960

SOURCE: İpsala State Hydraulic Works (DSİ)

In the flood of the Meriç River in 1963, some villages such as Sarıcaali, Küplü

and Subaşı along the Meriç river were exposed to floods. Some of the houses

were destroyed and many people were disposed.1415 Furthermore, according

to the Edirne deputy İlhami Ertem, the flood disaster of the Meriç River

caused the damage of 100000 decars of lands, the financial difficulty of 10,000

people and the delay of the cultivation summer growing plants.1416 In addition

to the high latitudes and the climate of the Meriç Basin, the floods of rivers

had delayed the cultivation of rice and sugar beet.1417 Furthermore, two

months later, the floods of Meriç damaged rice and sugar beet in the plain.1418

However, they re-experienced the same flood disaster when rice fields were

in the ripening period in September 1969. The peasants of Esetçe, Koyunyeri,

and Kocahıdır said that SHW did not take measures in spite of their warnings

and they felt wretched.1419

Since the excessive precipitation and the floods of the Meriç River damaged

crops such as rice, bean and sunflower, many farmers cultivated their

lands for the second time in Edirne in 1975.1420 Due to the heavy rainfall in

1979, many rice bunches in rice fields were drifted towards the Meriç River.

Furthermore, the rain damaged winter sesame fields and 10 cattle in İpsala.1421

In addition to the loss of many rice bunches, many of them decayed in the

1415 “İpsala Ovasının Muhim Bir Kısmı Sular Altında,” Vatandaş, February, 7, 1963; “Küplü ve

Subaşı Köylerinde Suların Yaptığı Tahribat,” Vatandaş, February 13, 1963.

1416 “Su Taşkınları Yüzünden Edirne’de 10,000 Kişi Geçim Sıkıntısı İçindedir,” Vatandaş, March

25, 1963.

1417 “Ergene Nehri Suları Ovaya Yayıldı,” Vatandaş, February 13, 1965.

1418 “Nehir Suları Yatağına Çekiliyor,” Edirne Sesi, May 22, 1965.

1419 “DSİ’nin İhmali Yüzüden Sular Altında Kalan Binlerce Dekar Arazinin Sahipleri Olan Köylüler

Perişan Oldu, İpsala, September 16, 1969.

1420 “Bazı Çiftçiler Tarlalarını İkinci Defa Ekiyor,” Adalet, June 7, 1975.

1421 “Şiddetli Yağmurlardan İpsala Çeltik Tarlaları Su Altında Kaldı,” Vatandaş, November 14,

1979.

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fields. Thus, the rice growers of İpsala demanded their damage –loss determination

and the delay of bank debts from the Ministry of Agriculture.1422

The damage of rice, the destruction of settlements, and some drowning events

increased social anxiety in the Meriç Basin.

Due to heavy rainfall, the flood disasters in the Meriç River caused 40

million economic damage in rice and sunflower fields in 1972. Due to the

harvest of rice, 37 peasants, 387 sheep, 14 oxen and 200 cattle were exposed

to floodwater and they saved their lives by passing to Greek side. These citizens

were sent to Turkey and Edirne governor visited İpsala.1423 The people

of İpsala accused SHW of being negligent in the building of levees along the

Meriç River. In the flood of Meriç in 1975, they were exposed to 50 million

of economic loss.1424

The social anxiety about the floods of the Meriç River also worried rice

farmers individually. Their main worry was about the economic damage of

flood. The payment of bank or cooperative debts is always an important concern

for small peasants. For example, a woman who lived in Büyükdoğanca

village of Keşan had a heart attack and died in a rice field in the course of the

flooding of Meriç.1425 Besides, as a result of the flood of the Meriç and Ergene

rivers in 1995, 50000 decars of wheat was damaged in Uzunköprü, Meriç and

İpsala. More interestingly, while the rice fields of these regions were exposed

to drought in 1994, they experienced floods in 1995.1426 Due to the flood,

173000 decars of wheat cultivated lands of 91, 174 farmer households in 6

districts and 48 villages were damaged.1427

1422 “Keşan ve İpsalalı Çeltikçiler Zarar Tespiti İstiyor,” Vatandaş, Aralık 18, 1979.

1423 “Vali Kime Geldi,” İpsala, October 26, 1972; Son Yağan Yağmurlar Nedeniyle Taşan Meriç

Nehri 10 Milyonluk Zarara Yol Açtı,” İpsala, October 16, 1972.

1424 “Meriç Nehri Taştı,” İpsala, May 20, 1975.

1425 “Bir Kadın Çeltik Tarlasında Öldü,” Vatandaş, June 14, 1980.

1426 “Yağan Yağmurlardan İpsala Ovasını Su Bastı,” Vatandaş, January 2, 1995; “Ergene Nehri

Zarara Yol Açtı,” Vatandaş, January 2, 1995.

1427 “İpsala ve Enez’de Su Baskını Sorunu Devam Ediyor,” Vatandaş, January 14, 1995.

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6. 4 .1 The Deaths and Injuries of People in Rice Fields

In addition to natural disasters such as floods and drought, rice growers and

rice workers have been exposed to some dangers in these wetlands such as

intoxication, snakebites, and drowning. For example, a snake entered into the

stomach of a rice worker who was asleep in İpsala plain. Due to his stomach

ache, he was taken to the İstanbul Guraba Hospital in 1948. Based on the radioscopy

results of the hospital, the snake had destroyed the internal organs

of the worker.1428

In addition to these serious and fatal accidents in rice cultivation areas,

the drinking of rice pesticides to commit suicide was seen in the Meriç Basin.

Especially, due to bank debts, marital conflicts and psychological disorders,

some people put an end to their lives by drinking rice pesticides. A woman

who was 60 years old in Kurdu village of Uzunköprü committed suicide in

this way. She could not be saved despite all the medical efforts of doctors in

Uzunköprü Public Hospital in 1979.1429

Another social event is related to drowning. In this context, 3 rice growers

and 3 headworkers went boating to control the influence of a flood in the rice

cultivated lands of İpsala plain. However, due to the strong water course, their

boat had an accident. Thus 2 people died.1430 Due to the floods in 1957, rice

growers were exposed to an economic loss.1431 The same drowning case happened

in İpsala in 1970. 2 rice workers from Koyuntepe village of İpsala

drowned in the water channel of SHW as a result of a boat accident.1432 Similarly,

two women from Çiftlik village of Uzunköprü drowned as a result of a

boat accident in the Ergene river in 1974. They had been to rice fields to mow

the grass around water channels. While one of them was saved, the other

died.1433 The drownings of some teenagers in the villages along the Meriç and

1428 “Bir Adamın Midesine Yılan Kaçtı,” Edirne Postası, July 28, 1948.

1429 “Çeltik İlacı İçen Bir Kadın Hayatını Kaybetti,” Vatandaş, February 15, 1979.

1430 “Gölde İki Kişi Boğuldu,” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, June 12, 1957.

1431 “Meriç Nehri Taştı,” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, July 13, 1957.

1432 “10 Metre Genişliğindeki Kanalı Kayıkla Geçerken Boğuldular,” İpsala, June 4, 1970.

1433 “Ergene’de Kayık Battı, 2 Kadın Boğularak Öldü,” Vatandaş, June 8, 1974.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

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Ergene rivers were written in local newspapers.1434 Finally, a coal miner had

an accident while coming from Uzunköprü to Rahmanca village. His vehicle

entered into rice fields and the coal miner drowned.1435

Since agricultural inputs and pieces of machinery have been used intensively

in rice cultivation areas, occupation accidents might be seen. For example,

a rice worker who came from Bursa to Meriç district of Edirne was

broken to piece by trashing machine in 1981.1436 Another desperate situation

was experienced in İpsala. In this context, a crop duster that got off the ground

for agricultural spraying crashed in Karpuzlu village of İpsala in June

1997.1437 Namely, rice cultivation is so labor-intensive crop that it can cost

workers’ lives.

In contrast to the flood disasters in the Meriç Basin, the rice growers of

Karacadağ struggle to have dealt with drought in some years. Therefore, farmers

had difficulty in paying their bank debts.1438 Due to extensive agricultural

methods, precipitation determines crop yield and crop variety in Karacadağ.

For example, thanks to adequate rainfall, wheat, barley, rice and cotton were

cultivated in 1974.1439 There have not been floods in Kızılırmak and

Yeşilırmak for the last 30 years. However, due to the melting of snow in 1961,

Kızılırmak flooded around Koşu village. Thus, some houses were exposed to

flood.1440 Furthermore, since Kızılırmak flooded in 1975 again, rice growers

had a break for rice cultivation for some years.1441

1434 “Nehir Akıntısına Kapıldı, Sürüklenip Gitti,” Vatandaş, August 16, 1963; “Ergene Nehrinde

Bir Genç Boğuldu,” İpsala, August 7, 1971.

1435 “Çeltik Tarlasına Uçan Traktörde Bulunan Kömür Ocağı İşçisi Öldü,” Vatandaş, August 5,

1981.

1436 “Çeltik Batozuna Düşen İşçi Parçalanarak Öldü,” Hudut, October 3, 1981

1437 “Zirai İlaçlama Uçağı Düşerek Parçalandı,” Vatandaş, June 25, 1997

1438 “Çiftçilerimizin Acıklı Hali,” Yeni Urfa, June 5, 1959.

1439 “1974 Yılı Mahsul Yılı Olacak, Yeni Zaman, April 27, 1974.

1440 “Kızılırmak Taştı,” Samsun Postası, April 4, 1961.

1441 Ahmet Aydın, tape-recorded interview by the author, Samsun Turkey August 6, 2018.

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6. 5 Rice in Folk Culture, Literature, and Cinema

Rice is not only a subject of society and health but also a subject of literature,

cinema, art and handicrafts. Therefore, it seems that rice is quite an aesthetic

and artistic commodity. For example, since the people of Edirne believe that

rice is the symbol of fruitfulness, they knit rice comb (çeltik tarağı) to hang

on the wall in their houses. Thus, rice combs decorate the walls of houses,

coffeehouses and work places in the Meriç Basin. Furthermore, rice comb is

also exhibited in Edirne City Museum. Due to the cultural and economic life

concerning rice, it is also uttered in folk music or literature and turned into a

screenplay. Furthermore, to understand the feelings of Anatolian and Rumelia

people about rice, these literary works are quite valuable sources. Since all of

these works become public knowledge, in addition to these three basins, all

of the literary works about rice in Turkey will be explained. In general, since

people consumed rice as paddy or pilaf, these names can be found in folk

music, poems, proverbs and idioms. On the other hand, rice is used in the

novel of Yaşar Kemal to explain the socio-economic lives of peasants in

Çukurova.

Figure: 6.4 Rice Comb, Wheat Comb and Sunflower

SOURCE: Edirne City Museum

§

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6. 5. 1 Rice in Poems and Legends

In Islamic culture, Muslims believe that rice and rose are created out of the

heavenly light of Muhammad. While eating pilaf, elders said salawat and Janissaries

had not made sail without eating pilaf. Pilaf and paddy are also a

subject of Turkish poems. Since pilaf had been mainly consumed in traditional

and social activities such as Ramadan months, festivals, weddings, and

Islamic memorial services, it is seen in Turkish poems about Ramadan as desired

and substantial food.1442

First of all, since Çukurova had been an important rice cultivation areas

and many peasants of this region suffered from malaria, there are plentiful

works about the relation between rice and malaria such as Pirinç Destanı of

Aşık Bayram, and Sivrisinek Destanı of Ali Dinç. These poems criticized the

state due to the inadequacy of bureaucrats and statesmen for the prevention

of malaria and the labor exploitation of peasants.1443 To emphasize the decline

of labor productivity and the increasing infertility rate based on malaria, Aşık

Bayram wrote lines in the Pirinç Destanı in Engizek Newspaper on July 31,

1948.1444 Besides, to explain the economic conflict of interest between the big

rice growers and the peasants that suffered from malaria clearly, Cihangir

Çamurdan wrote these lines in the Ceyhan Newspaper on April 13, 1946.1445

1442 “Ramazan geldi ulaştı

Sofralar doldu taştı

Davette pilav yoktu

Birden İştahım Kaçtı” Soner Yalçın, Saklı Seçilmişler, 62.

1443 Kyle T. Evered and Emine Ö. Evered, “A Conquest of Rice: Agricultural Expansion, Impoverishment

and Malaria in Turkey,”127-128.

1444 “Durdu Saban, İşlemiyor Yabamız

Harap Oldu Hep İlimiz Obamız

Asker Bekler Bizden İsmet Babamız

Doğurmuyor Fatmacıklar Dul Gibi,” Âşık Bayram, “Pirinç Destanı,” Engizek, July 31, 1948;

Mehmet Şerif Korkut, Isıtma ve Çeltik, 50.

1445 “Kaç Mazlumun Etinden Kaç Mazlumun Kanından

Kazananların Şüphe Edilir Vicdanından

Her Adımda Yatıyor Belki Binlerce Mezar

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Furthermore, In the Çeltik Destanı poem, Kozanlı Durmuş mentioned the influences

of mosquitos on the spread of malaria in the Adana region and demand

health services in the 1940s.1446 Similarly, there is also Çukurova’nın

Çeltik Mevlüdü poem of Abdullah Zeki in the 1940s.1447

The Epic of the Thrace Rice (Trakya Çeltik Destanı) written by İsmail

Sirke is composed of 236 lines of words. It gives many important ideas about

the suitable geographical position of İpsala plain in rice cultivation, the transformation

in the rice cultivation methods and technology of some prominent

rice growers, and also the intensive and specialized labor of people. In this

poem, the desperation, the high expense, the flood concern of rice growers

can be seen clearly. Since rice is a food of controversies, both flood and

drought are the most important anxiety resources of rice growers. Besides,

thanks to the poem of İsmail Sirke, it is possible to learn who these rice growers

are and what their other occupations are.1448

6. 5. 2 Rice in Turkish Idioms and Proverbs

Similar to these poems, some proverbs about malaria express dangerous and

secure areas for malaria. For example, malaria is associated with wetlands

Kaza İle Ölmedi Asla Değmedi Nazar,” Cihangir Çamurdan, Ceyhan, April 13, 1946; Mehmet

Şerif Korkut, Isıtma ve Çeltik, 52.

1446 “Açık Söyler Sözü Kozanlı Durmuş

Sinek Yeşil Ovalara Karargâh Kurmuş

Çıkarmış Öncüyü İleri Sürmüş

Milletin Derdine Derman Bul Paşam” Mehmet Şerif Korkut, Isıtma ve Çeltik, 59.

1447 Ibid, 51.

1448 “Başlamadan şu bir parça destana

Suya düşen sarılırken yılana

Allah yardım etsin garip kuluna

Bazen karar olur zaman efendim

İbrahim SAPÇI’lı Ede köyüne erdi

Etrafa yılmadan gergiler gerdi

Hasan BUĞDAYCI’da bu yola döndü

İnsanı döndüren zaman efendim.,” İsmail Sirke, Yeşil İpsala, (Edirne, Ceren Yayıncılık,

2014), 63-70.

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where sedge grows and goose lives in the Çukurova region in the 1940s. Since

the malaria virus cannot live in higher latitudes and low temperatures, it

means thyme grows and partridge that live in high plateaus.1449 Second,

malaria can be found in riddles. In this riddle, it means becoming thin of the

neck and the swelling of the belly of malaria-infected peoples.1450 Namely, it

describes the physical changes in the body of the people who suffered from

malaria.

Paddy is used to express value, difficulties and conceit in Turkish idioms

and proverbs. All of these expressions come to light as a result of deep historical

pasts and social life experiences. For example, an idiom about a merchant

who had been to Damietta to buy paddy but also lost his existing bulgur is

quite well-known in the Turkish idiom today. It indicates that while running

after huge profits, the loss of an existing product. As it is seen, paddy is more

precious, and valuable than boiled and pounded wheat (bulgur). In the history

of this idiom, a rice merchant from Karaman province had been to Damietta

in Egypt to buy paddy. However, while returning his ship was attacked by

pirates. Therefore, all of his paddy sucks and gold were stolen. Worse than

this, since he had sold his wheat to bulgur merchants, his family had found

neither bulgur nor paddy in the winter time.1451

Second, lets shell the stones of paddy indicates the vague and messy issues

in daily social life. The history of this idiom is related to the Yemen uprising

after the conquest of Yemen in the period of Yavuz Sultan Selim. Since

the consumption of pilaf keeps people full for a long time, Ottoman armies

had supplied paddy in their conquest. The soldiers at the command of Sinan

Paşa were exposed to a sandstorm in desert in the course of shelling the stones

of paddy. Namely, they faced a more difficult situation.1452

1449 “Otu Saz Kuşu Kaz Olan Yerde Kalma, Otu Keklik Kuşu Keklik Olan Yerde Otur,” Mehmet

Şerif Korkut, Isıtma ve Çeltik, 51.

1450 “Boynu Çöp Gibi Karnı İp Gibi,” Ibid., 51.

1451 “Dimyata pirince giderken evdeki bulgurdan olmak,” “Atasözleri ve Deyimler Nereden Geliyor,”

Sabah, May 07, 2010.

1452 Hayrettin Karaman, “Kötüyü Ayıklamak (Ayıkla Pirincin Taşını),” Yeni Şafak, June 14, 2019.

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Third, the people who cannot stand and are not self-sacrificing are likened

to the water absorption of paddy.1453 Similarly, the proverbs about pilaf or

paddy are used to mean tenacity, labor, stability, taking lessons, and experience.

1454

Since rice cultivation increases the wealth and economic income of villages,

the people of Edirne think that the villages where there is rice cultivation

are wealthier than Edirne central district. Therefore, an idiom that compares

between the budget of Edirne and Adasarhanlı village of Meriç is

mentioned. In this idiom, it was claimed that Adasarhanlı had a higher budget

and economic income than Edirne. Therefore, being a headman of Adarsarhanlı

village is more promoted rather than being a governor of Edirne colloquially.

1455

6. 5. 3 Rice in Folklore

Furthermore, although their power is underestimated, plants are an indispensable

part of literature, folklore and cinema. They are an inspiration for many

authors and artists.1456 In this context, Paddy is a subject of four Turkish folk

music that belong to Edirne, Balıkesir, Kastamonu, Sinop and one pop music

of Arif Kemal. Respectively, the first folk song Çarşıdan Aldım Pirinci, Turkish

folk music was compiled by Sadi Yaver Ataman. In this folk music, the

word rice is used as an introduction to folk music. It mainly explains a the

love of a woman to a painter in Edirne.1457 Second, Balıkesir içinde körük

1453 Papaz Her Gün Pilav Yemez, Pilav Yiyen Kaşığını Yanında Taşır, Pilavdan Dönenin Kaşığı

Kırılsın, Lafla Pilav Pişerse Deniz Kadar Yağı Benden, Ibid.,

1454 Papaz Her Gün Pilav Yemez, Pilav Yiyen Kaşığını Yanında Taşır, Pilavdan Dönenin Kaşığı

Kırılsın, Lafla Pilav Pişerse Deniz Kadar Yağı Benden, Ibid.,

1455 “Edirne’ye vali olacağına Adasarhanlı’ya muhtar ol” halk deyimi Edirne’de Adasarhanlı köyünün

bütçesinin bağlı bulunduğu Meriç İlçesinden daha yüksek olması dolayısıyla çeltikçilerin

aralarındaki muhabbetlerde yer yer dile getirilen bir deyimdir.

1456 Stefano Moncuso and Alexandra Viola, Bitki Zekâsı, 20.

1457 “Çarşıdan aldım pirinci

Edirne’nin boyacıları birinci

Aman boyacı boyacı

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paytona bindim folk song was compiled by Erkan Sürmen from Muzaffer

Yalıncak in 1970 to explain the importance of pilaf and saffron and rice dessert

in the wedding ceremonies in the Balıkesir region.1458 Third, Tosya’dan geliyor

pirinci, a folk song that belongs to the Tosya district of Kastamonu. This

region has been famous for its rice cultivation since the fifteenth and sixteenth

century.1459 This folk song was compiled by Yıldız Ayhan from Perihan Altuncu.

1460 It explains the wealth, magnificence and beauty of a young daughter

of a rice grower in Tosya. Fourth, there are also two folk songs belong to

the Boyabat district of Sinop such as Boyabat Pirinci and Boyabat’ın Pirinci.

The first one of them took place in the album of Özdemir Erdoğan in 2009.

This folk song emphasizes the value of paddy grown in Boyabat while reproaching

his lover.1461 The second folk music is explained in the book of

Cilana Vurgnum boycı

Fırçana vurgunum boyacı” accessed on March 2, 2019, https://www.turkudostlari.

net/soz.asp?turku=1933 Hakan Kumru, “Edirne Çevresi Halk Ezgilerinin Makam, Ritm

ve Tip İncelemesi,” (Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü,

2012), 144.

1458 “Balıkesir içinde körük paytona bindim

Güzellerin içinden ceylan gözlü yar sevdim

Calsın davullar, önümüzde bahara düğünümüz var

Pilav zerde kaynasın, çalsın davullar” accesed on March 2, 2019 https://www.notaarsivleri.

com/NotaMuzik/balikesir_icinde_koruk_paytona_bindim.pdf

1459 Murat Tanrıkulu, “Tosya’da Pirinç Üretiminin Dünü, Bugünü ve Geleceği,” Akademik Bakış

Dergisi, no. 71, 2019, 244.

1460 “Tosya’dan geliyor pirinci

Köylü kızı köyünde birinci

Ölüyorum onu görünce aman

Ellere gerdan sırası da var

Babasının dolu dolu parası da var

Gerdanında sıra sıra lirası da var”accesed November 2, 2019, http://www.trtnotaarsivi.

com/bak-thm.php; Sıtkı Akarsu, “Kastamonu Yöresine Ait Türkülerin Makamsal ve Ritim

Özellikleri Yönünden İncelenmesi,” V. Uluslararası Halk Kültürü ve Sanatsal Etkinlikleri

Sempozyumu, Ankara, (2017), 21.

1461 “Aşk bağının gülü olsan

Takmam seni başıma

Boyabat pirinci olsan

O K A N C E Y L A N

342

Turan Gökmenoğlu about Sinop. It likens the beauty of his lover to the elegance

of Boyabat paddy.1462 Finally, Pirinç Türküsü that can be evaluated as

Turkish protest music or pop music took place in the album of Arif Kemal in

1987. It explains the difficulties of rice production and emphasizes the intensive

labor of workers in the obtaining of paddy.1463

6. 5. 4 Role of Rice in Social Ceremonies

Harvest period determines both the production of crops and the investments

of farmers such as buying a new machine, paying bank debt, holding wedding

and other religious ceremonies. The harvest of a crop provides the accumulation

of capital and directs the social and economic lifestyle of farmers. In this

case, according to a field study in the Meriç Basin in the 1970s, it seems that

most of the marriages took place in the years when there were high yield and

high production of crops. The youths of Keşan were married at the beginning

Katmam seni aşıma” Özdemir Erdoğan, Boyabat Pirinci Albümü (Türküler), Özdemir Erdoğan

Müzik, 2009

1462 “Boyabat’ın pirinci

Dökülür inci inci

Benim sevdiğim yar

Boyabatta birinci” Turan Gökmenoğlu, Sinop ve İlçeleri Ayancık Rehberi (İstanbul: Usta

Matbaacı Yayınevi, 1989), 94

1463 “Irmağın üstünde şehirde

Geçecek elimize bir avuç pirinç

Irmak Akar Aşağıya

Varacağımız yere zor varacağız.

Bir tekne pirince mal olur bize

Bir köpeğe dar gelen barınak.

Pirinç şehire varınca

Çocuklar soracak kim çekti bu ağır tekneyi…

Çek yedekçi daha sıkı çek açlıktan içimiz ezildi.” Arif Kemal, “Pirinç Türküsü,” Red Türküleri

Albumü 2, Bonus Müzik, 1987.

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343

or in the end of the harvest period. For example, while there were 274 marriages

in 1974, there were only 127 marriages in 1976.1464 Similarly, the percentage

of marriages in Samsun increased after the tobacco harvest in these

years. Therefore, in the last two months, 133 couples were married in Samsun.

1465

To regenerate older Thrace fairs, to introduce rice cultivation and local

paddy at a national level, some festivals were organized in these basins.

Thanks to such organizations, local farmers, rice factory owners and local

governors come together. These festivals were organized by district governors,

municipals and civil societies. Some concerts, collective circumcision

feasts, folk dance performances, and official speeches were made. The first

rice festival began to be organized in Edirne in the 1970s.1466 İpsala rice festivals

and agricultural fairs have been organized since the beginning of the

2000s in İpsala that is called rice land. Within the scope of the festivals, march

in review, stand in silence before the monument of Ataturk, oil wrestling,

competitions, concerts and the speech of prominent persons such as district

governors, mayor and agriculturists talked about rice farming in İpsala.1467

Also, FAO declared that the year of 2004 is the rice year and 21 September is

the world rice day.1468

1464 “Keşan’da Evlenmelerin Çoğu Üürünün İyi Olmasına Bağlı,” Vatandaş, August 1, 1976.

1465 “Samsun’da Son İki Ayda 133 Çift Evlendi,” Hürsöz, April 3,1976.

1466 “Edirne Turizm Derneği Folklor Ekibi Çeltik Festivaline Katıldı,” Vatandaş, November 8,

1979.

1467 “İpsala Çeltik ve Sanat Festivali Bugün Başlıyor,” Önder, September 6, 2000; “20. İpsala

Çeltik Festivali ve Tarım Fuarı 28 Ağustos- 1 Eylülde,” Medya, August 20, 2019.

1468 “İpsala 5. Çeltik Festivali Sona Erdi,” Vatandaş, September 1, 2004.

O K A N C E Y L A N

344

Rice Cultivation festivals have been organized in Samsun by Bafra District

Governorship and Bafra Agricultural Chamber since 2014. While the rice

festival of İpsala is organized in the harvest period, that of Bafra is organized

in the rice cultivation period in May. It is realized with the participation of

Samsun deputies, district governors, farmers and agricultural specialists.

Prominent people of Samsun discussed the importance of rice and other crops

in the regional economy, the encouragement of rice cultivation in the Bafra

plain, and then symbolically Samsun deputies, governor, and district governors

cultivate rice.1469

Figure 6.5 Rice Cultivation Celebration in İpsala in the 1950s

SOURCE: İpsala State Hydraulic Works (DSİ)

1469 “Bafrada Geleneksel 5. Çeltik Ekimi Yapıldı,” Yenigün, May 20, 2019.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

345

Figure 6.6 Rice Cultvation Festivals in Bafra

SOURCE: Yenigün, May 20, 2019

Figure 6.7 İpsala Rice Festival and Agriculture Fair

SOURCE: Edirne Olay, September 4, 2015

6. 5. 5 Rice in Turkish Literature and Cinema

As symbols of the exploitation of human labor, capital accumulation, a struggle

for life and class differences, rice is also a subject of cinema, theatre, and

novels. In this context, Yaşar Kemal, Gülriz Sururi, Engin Cezzar, Zeki

Ökten, Şerif Gören, Sebahat Duru and Yılmaz Duru are prominent authors

and artists.

First of all, Teneke novel that explains rice cultivation in Çukurova was

written by Yaşar Kemal in 1954. Teneke that was one of the first literal works

of Yaşar Kemal and it was firstly published in 1955 and then played in theater

by Gülriz Sururi and Engin Cezzar in Elhamra Theatre in 1965. Furthermore,

it was played to 200 full houses in İstanbul, Ankara and İzmir at that time.

While the theatre performance of Teneke encourages Yaşar Kemal, that of Yer

Demir Gök Bakır novel disappointed him. He thinks that drama should be a

O K A N C E Y L A N

346

work of the theater player.1470 Furthermore, Teneke won İskender Award and

got a championship award at the International Nancy Theatre Festival in

1966.1471

Besides, in the changing life of Yaşar Kemal, rice played an important

role. He marched with thousands of peasants who suffered from floods due to

rice cultivation. Thus, he was accused of being a communist and put in

prison.1472 Then he went to İstanbul. Yaşar Kemal wrote his own life experience

and was a friend of peasants. For example, to prevent the drying of the

rice fields of the peasants in Çukurova, he taught them how to steal irrigation

water at night.1473

In general, Yaşar Kemal explains the socio-economic conflicts between

notables and peasants for land and irrigation in Çukurova. Especially cotton

and rice cultivation are two important crops in the region. While rice is indicated

as the source of malaria, cotton is indicated as a source of livelihood.1474

This novel indicates a conflict of interest, unreliable orders in feudal structures

and the essential power of rice in the making of social classes and socioeconomic

relations. In other words, Teneke explicitly reflects the hypocrisies

of Anatolian notables and peasants based on the changing socio-economic interest.

For example, when these bureaucrats such as district governors or officeholders

make difficulty in rice cultivation, the aghas spread some rumors

about them and they posted a letter which is about their complaints to Ankara.

The delay of the rice cultivation period worries these big landowners for the

decline of rice yield and their economic gain.1475 That is to say, the vegetation

period of rice obliged these men to take some measures.

1470 Engin Cezzar, “İlk Olarak Teneke 1965’te Sergilenmişti. Eserleri Hala Yurtiçi ve Yurtdışında

Sergileniyor: Tiyatro Yaşar Kemal’i Bırakmadı,” Taha Toros Arşivi, no. 35, accessed November

2, 2019, http://earsiv.sehir.edu.tr:8080/xmlui/discover

1471 “Bitmeyen Aşk: Yaşar Kemal,” Taha Toros Arşivi, no: 35; November 7, 2019 http://earsiv.sehir.

edu.tr:8080/xmlui/handle/11498/38958

1472 “Yaşar Kemal,” Başrol, Habertürk TV, accessed 7, 2019, https://www.youtube.

com/watch?v=9EFTlw5fOss

1473 Yaşar Kemal, Yaşar Kemal Kendini Anlatıyor, Alain Bosquet İle Görüşmeler (İstanbul: Yapıkredi

Yayınları, 1993), 108.

1474 Olcay Önertoy, “Yaşar Kemal ve Çukurova,” Türk Dili Dergisi (1983), 151.

1475 Yaşar Kemal, Teneke, 1-24.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

347

Similarly, Teneke novel explains the conflict of interest between an idealist

but an unexperienced bureaucrat and the government-related big agrarian

bourgeoisie. Although district governor Fikret Irmaklı is quite sincere in his

decision, the notables who cultivate rice to make more profit and the peasants

who suffer from the negative influence of rice such as malaria, floods and the

destruction of their houses do not behave honestly. However, as a result of the

attempts of notables, the Ministry of Internal Affairs designated him to Kağızman.

The designation of Fikret Irmaklı from Adana to Kağızman district of

Kars also indicates the alliance between the government and local elites or

notables against the small peasants. While the district governor was met by

the convoys of notables, he was sent from the district in accompany with the

sound of 150 tins. 1476

While the administrative and health bureaucrats consider the natural disasters

and malaria threat as a health issue, big agrarian bourgeoisies or some

agriculturalists only take into account their own economic interests. However,

these aghas such as Murtaza, Kemal Taşan, Okçuoğlu, Mehmet Dalkesen, and

Mustafa Patır tried to legitimize their rice cultivation with nationalistic arguments

such as national, developmental and honorable crop that feed the Turkish

military and nation. Teneke also reflects the different viewpoints of doctors

and agriculturalists about the relation between malaria and rice. While the

agriculturalists are characterized as entrepreneurs and the supporter of the

market-oriented economy, the government doctor is characterized as abstainer

and anxious for the probable outcomes of rice cultivation such as malaria,

the decline of labor force quality and floods threat. 1477

In addition to Teneke, rice cultivation is mentioned in Demirciler Çarşısı

Cinayeti novel of Yaşar Kemal. However, rice is not the main topic of this

novel. This literal work was firstly published in 1973 and it mainly focuses on

the socio-economic transformation of feudal relations into a market-oriented

capitalist economy in the agrarian sector. Yaşar Kemal explains the social

conflicts between two tribes such as Sarılar and Akyollu. Although its story

is about the domain and the economic conflict of interests between nouveau-

1476 Ibid., 70-74.

1477 Ibid., 24-27.

O K A N C E Y L A N

348

rich and older notables in Çukurova with agrarian capitalism, the production

relations and the modes of production in rice cultivation are explained in the

novel.1478

In addition to literary works, rice is also a subject of cinema. For example,

Riso Amaro in Italian. It was made by Giuseppe De Santis in Italy in 1949.

The film explains the life story and livelihood of rice workers who plant rice

in Po Plain from a neo-realistic perspective. Thus, it seems that although

paddy is regarded as a consumption food, it indicates the quite difficult lives

of worker women. Similarly, Riso Amaro came to the big screen in the Turkish

Cinema with the name of Acı Pirinç. While Italians explain the lives of

rice workers in Po Plain, Turks explain those of Çukurova.1479

Acı pirinç was made by Yılmaz Duru and Sebahat Duru in 1971. Erol Taş

played a leading role. In Acı Pirinç, there are feudal conflicts for lands

through illegal bills, the sexual abuse of worker girls, fraudulent relations,

and an ambition to make more money. Actually, in addition to the indication

of different life styles of people, Acı Pirinç reflects both labor exploitation of

women through working in rice fields and satisfying the sexual needs of agha

and his son on their farm. Desperation, love, and fraudulent are prominent

topics. Therefore, at the end of the story, one of these girls was obliged to be

married to agha in return for the saving of her lover. However, as they hear a

gunshot, she runs away from her wedding. However, she commits suicide in

rice field when she sees that his lover is killed. Then one of her friends find

her in the rice field as stabbed. She immediately carries her to wedding. The

girls challenge aghas and one of them shoots the son of aghas dead. Then all

of the women take paddy largely and dust on her wound.1480

Third, Kurbağalar films were made by Zeki Ökten and Şerif Gören in the

Sultaniçe village of Enez district and the Karpuzlu village of İpsala district in

Edirne in 1985. It is about the daily social life, love and livelihood conditions

of a woman whose name is Elmas. Talat Bulut, Hülya Koçyiğit (Elmas), Yaman

Okay, Hikmet Çelik, and Tomris Oğuzalp played a leading role in the

film. From a post-modernist perspective, traditional conservativism and the

1478 Yaşar Kemal, Demirciler Çarşısı Cinayeti, (İstanbul: Cem Yayınevi, 1973).

1479 Giuseppe De Santis, Riso Amoro, Lux Film, Budapest, 1949.

1480 Ünsal Aybek and Yılmaz Duru, Acı Pirinç, Renk Film, 1972.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

349

expressionism of sexual desires in a widow who works in rice fields can be

seen during the film. Although rice cultivation is not seen as a main subject

of the film, actually rice led to the development of frog hunting, the increasing

expenses for fertilizer and pesticides, and also the intensive labor force of

Elmas and other people. These can be discerned when the film is watched in

detail. Thus, it can be claimed that the main actor that directs the story of

Kurbağalar is rice cultivation. For example, a scene about the declaration of

a protested bill to Elmas resulted from the fertilizer debt of her husband reflects

an attachment and garnishment concerns of rice growers. Especially the

struggles of Elmas for growing her rice better and for hunting more frog to

pay the protested bill of her killed husband. Frog hunting is not regarded as

the work of a woman. Therefore, she is the only woman who goes hunting

frogs. Since she is regarded as a weak person, sometimes she is exposed to

the cutting of water flow into her rice. However, the water, fertilizer, and pesticide

requirement of rice increased the life struggle of Elmas. Elmas deals

with all of these difficulties in the film. Therefore, the film explains the intensive

labor force, conflict of interest, and the socio-economic problems of a

rice grower well.1481

6. 6 Cuisine Culture: Its Historical, Social and Cultural

Perspectives

In addition to its literary and social works concerning paddy, it has taken place

in Turkish and World cuisine in the making of various meals. Furthermore, it

symbolizes abundance, wealth and prestige in Middle Eastern Societies and

is consumed as the main food in Far Eastern and Manson Asian societies.

Therefore, paddy is quite a social and cultural food such as pilaf, stuffed grape

leaves, stuffed green pepper, soup, paddy blancmange, rice pudding. Besides,

rice starch or rice flour is used in the making of baby formula, ice cream, and

powder. Likewise, the crocked paddy is used in the making of beer. Rice bran

1481 Şerif Gören and Zeki Ökten, Kurbağalar Filmi, Gülşah Film,1985.

§

O K A N C E Y L A N

350

is used in the making of forage, henna, and cayenne pepper. 1482 More interestingly,

while rice stem is used in the pepper industry, rice husk is used in

the fertilizer industry.1483

Besides, biologically, paddy includes protein, carbon hydrate, phosphor,

calcium, iron, B1, B2, and C vitamins. However, the percent of A vitamin is

low. Thanks to these minerals, our bones and muscles develop, nail and skin

get brighter. Since paddy does not include sodium and oil, it is quite beneficial

for those who have nephrotic and hearth problems. Since cargo rice

makes the regulation of blood sugar and cholesterol easy, cargo rice is healthier

in human nutrition. Since black paddy has higher nutritional value, lower

sugar, and higher anti-oxidant, it is used in diets.1484 While the human body

can benefit from wheat at 69 percent, it benefits from paddy at 88 percent.1485

Paddy is healthful and more easily digestible food. It helps digestion and regulates

intestinal problems.1486

In general, paddy meals are consumed in social, cultural, and religious

ceremonies such as pilaf, saffron, and rice dessert and also stuffed grape

leaves. Namely, since paddy is the product of contradictions, it can be consumed

as both salty and desserts such as pilaf, stuffed green leaves, rice pudding

or saffron, and rice dessert. Furthermore, the consumption method of

pilaf indicates the socio-economic status of people. For example, when it is

consumed with bean, it is a meal for people with low incomes, when it is

consumed with meat, it is the opposite. Furthermore, its consumption has become

widespread in the twentieth century. In addition to social consumption

of paddy, its individual consumption in meals has increased. While it had been

consumed as one of the most remarkable products in the Ottoman palaces, it

has been considered a street meal in recent years.1487

1482 Sait Tahsin Tekeli, Hububat Teknolojisi, (Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi, 1964), 260-261; Turan

Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 157-165.

1483 Hayati Tuncalı, “Çeltik Ziraatı, Zirai ve İktisadi Önemi,” 15.

1484 Faruk Şüyün, “Hadi Şu Pirinci Ayıklayalım.”

1485 Mirza Gökgöl, Çeltik Ziraatı, 4.

1486 “Pirinç Faydalı Bir Besindir,” Samsun Postası, January 12, 1976.

1487 Güzin Yalın, Mutfaktan Tabaktan Sokaktan, 347.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

351

However, in the historical process, the meals that were made with paddy

diversified in Ottoman State from the twentieth century onwards. Paddy pilaf

stopped being a main course after the Tanzimat Reform Era in the nineteenth

century. It had been consumed after the soup and the main course.1488 According

to Seyahatname of Evliya Çelebi, the court kitchen of the Ottoman Empire

had imported rice, especially from Dimyat in Egypt and Filibe in Rumeli.

Also, there was rice production in Maraş, Siirt, Ankara, Tokat, Urfa and Antep.

1489

From a socio-cultural perspective, Pilaf is a meal that is used to indicate

the reactions of people in the traditional life. For example, the boys who

reached the age of marriage stick their spoons in a pilaf plate precipitously to

make their demands for marriage clear. Similarly, Janissaries had brought

pilaf boiler and their spoon in the course of declaring their service pay every

three months. If they like the amount of this payment, they opened the pilaf

boiler and ate pilaf. Otherwise, they toppled the boilers and spilled all of it.1490

In general, boiled and pounded wheat had been consumed in the rural areas

of Turkey and the consumption was 30 kg per capita. On the other hand,

it was only 750 grams per capita in urban areas. In terms of the relationship

between consumption and economic income, although the consumption of

paddy increased with economic income, high-income families consumed both

of them in the 1960s. Since peasants produced as much as they needed, the

trade of boiled and pounded wheat was not developed in this period. While

only 4 percent of boiled and pounded wheat was marketed, almost 98 percent

of paddy was marketed in the domestic markets.1491 While 100 grams of

boiled and pounded wheat has 75-90 calories, 100 gram of paddy has 90-110

1488 Feridun Mustafa Emecen, "Çeltik," 265-266; Sami Zubaida, “Ortadoğu’da Mutfak Kültüründe

Pirinç,” In Ortadoğu’da Mutfak Kültürü, Edited by Richard Tapper and Sami Zubaida

(İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 2000), 92-101.

1489 Faruk Şüyün, “Hadi Şu Pirinci Ayıklayalım.”

1490 Güzin Yalın, Mutfaktan Tabaktan Sokaktan, 346

1491 Refet Seçkin, Bulgurun Terkip ve Yapılışı Üzerinde Araştırma (Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi,

1968), 20; Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi, 164- 167.

O K A N C E Y L A N

352

calories.1492 Furthermore, the demand of local people for some paddy varieties

influences sales. For example, due to drawing 3 kg of water during cooking

and its quality and aroma of Karacadağ variety, it has been preferred by

locals.1493

However, the older Karacadağ paddy and that of today are not the same.

It used to be more natural and organic.1494 In terms of appearance, Karacadağ

paddy does not have an attraction and it is the smallest rice variety of Turkey.

However, it has a delicious taste when it is cooked. In comparison to lentil,

since paddy cannot be consumed three meals a day, paddy cannot be sold as

much as lentil is sold. Although the population has increased, consumption

habits and the amounts of consumption of nuclear families have changed. For

example, although the population of Diyarbakır has increased 4 times, people

prefer to buy 5 kg of Karacadağ paddy sack instead of 50 kg paddy sack.1495

There are similarities among the cuisine cultures of Turks, Persian and

Arabs. While pilaf is cooked according to court kitchen in İzmir, İstanbul and

Bursa, it is cooked with regional folk culture in central and eastern Anatolia.

Nevin Halıcı who knows the ethnography of regional foods says that rice boiling

in water and frying of rice methods belongs to Turks. However, rice boiling

in water and decantation belongs to Iranians.1496 Paddy is the main meal

for the festivals, wedding and feasts of people in the Middle East. However,

while in general Turks consume it separately in meals, Iranians and Arabs

consume paddy with legumes or meat on the same plate.1497

More specifically, stuffed lump ribs is one of the most famous meals of

Diyarbakır. In its making, tomato sauce, garlic, onion, lamp, and paddy are

1492 “Bulgur mu? Pirinç mi? Hangi Pilav Kilo Aldırmaz? Hangisi Daha Sağlıklı,” Korkmaz Haber,

September 01, 2016.

1493 Abdullah Öktem, “Şanlıurfa Koşullarında Karacadağ Çeltiği Yetiştiriciliği Üzerine Anket

Çalışması,” 107.

1494 Kardaş Ailesi, tape- recorded interview by author, Yenişehir, Diyarbakır, August 09, 2018.

1495 İlhan Avcı, tape-recorded interview by Autor, Diyarbakır, Turkey, August 9, 2018.

1496 Nevin Halıcı, Turkish Cookbook (London: Dorling Kindersley, 1989), 119.

1497 Sami Zubaida, “Ortadoğu’da Mutfak Kültüründe Pirinç,”99.

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

353

used. Paddy is consumed with red meat or turkey meat. 1498 Besides, pilaf

covered by crispy pastry and Kibe Mumbar are famous meals of Diyarbakır.

1499 Rice is consumed as mantı in which paddy, bulgur and chicken are

used in Edirne. In addition, rice pudding, Pomak pastry, stuffed cabbage, rice

rabbit meat, saffron, and rice dessert, leek with rice and rice soup are some of

the well-known cooks in Edirne. Paddy is consumed in goose brewis (kaz

tiriti), rice pudding, stuffed vine leaves and stuffed black cabbage, and pilaf

with anchovies are consumed in Samsun.1500 Stuffed meatballs, paddy fig

dessert and also meatballs with rice dipped in egg beater and fried are some

popular tastes of Turkish cuisine in which paddy is used.1501

6. 7 The Relations of Rice with Other Crops and the Rise

of Rice

With the development of irrigation facilities in rice fields, it seems that other

products such as cannabis, sugar beet, cotton, legume, and vegetable can be

grown.1502 On the one hand, thanks to irrigation water, rice cultivation has

supported the development of frog hunting in the Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak

and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins since the end of the 1960s, it has caused the

decline of silkworm breeding with the excessive use of pesticides and the cutting

of mulberry trees. Furthermore, rice limited the cultivation areas of sugar

beet, kitchen garden, and corn because of the use of irrigation water. For example,

as Yaşar Kemal explains in Teneke, the notables who hired the lands

of peasants in Çukurova in the 1950s proposed the annihilation of cotton, ses-

1498 Süleyman Kızılkaya, tape-recorded interview by the author, Yalankoz Village of Diyarbakır,

August 09, 2018.

1499 “Diyarbakır Mutfağını Evinize Getirecek 10 Efsane Tarif,” Radikal, August 26, 2014.

1500 İdil Çimrin, “Geleneksel Samsun Yemekleri,” Sabah, December 3, 2017; “Samsun’un Yöresel

Yemekleri Nelerdir?” Accesed October 10, 2019, https://www.gezgez.net/samsunun-yoreselyemekleri/

1501 Hayrettin Karaman, “Kötüyü Ayıklamak (Ayıkla Pirincin Taşını),”

1502 Behçet Hazar, “Çeltik Ziraatı ve Sivrisinek,” 366.

§

O K A N C E Y L A N

354

ame and kitchen garden cultivated lands to cultivate rice. This anecdote explicitly

indicates that due to the cultivation period of rice and their higher

economic income, these aghas tried to convince the peasants.1503

6. 7. 1 The Karacadağ Agriculture Basin

While rice farming has become more popular than sugar beet and tobacco in

the Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins, it has remained

limited and fell behind of husbandry, cotton and lentil cultivation in the Karacadağ

Agriculture Basin since the 1960s. Due to climate, irrigation water

and pricing, there were special interests for cotton cultivation in the 1970s in

the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin.1504 In addition to the direction of the Silk

Road, since mulberry trees can be grown in 1500 meters of altitudes and – 30

Celsius, silkworm breeding can be developed in Diyarbakır. There were mulberry

trees in Hevsel gardens. Besides, Kulp, Silvan, Lice, Hazro, Dicle, and

Çüngüş were famous for silkworm breeding. The silks of Diyarbakır had been

a subject for folk music.1505

6. 7. 2 The Meriç Basin

Similarly, Edirne Governorship tried to develop a plan for the crop rotation

between sugar beet and rice in the Meriç Basin in 1975.1506 However, in addition

to Alpullu Sugar Plant in Kırklareli, as a result of the intensive agricultural

method, the yield and production of cotton and sugar beet had increased

1503 Yaşar Kemal, Teneke, 27.

1504 “Havalar Böyle Giderse Haftaya Pamuk Ekimine Başlanacak,” Yeni Zaman, April 17, 1974.

1505 “Başındaki Puşu mudur?

Diyarbekir İşimidir

Bugün yârim bize gelmiş

Bu da devlet kuşu mudur” Adlı eser Muzaffer Sarısözen tarafından Diyarbakır yöresinden

derlenip notaya alınmıştır. Bayram Filiz, “İpek Böcekçiliğine Başlarken,” Diyarbakır’da

GAP ve Tarım, (Nisan 1988)

1506 “Pancar ve Çeltik Münavebeyi Sağlamak İçin İşbirliği Yapılacak,” Adalet, February 6, 1975

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between 1950 and 1975.1507 They aimed to solve the irrigation problem and

prevent the decline of sugar beet cultivation areas. Thus rice cultivation areas

were held separate from sugar beet areas.1508 Furthermore, averagely the irrigation

prices of rice had been three or four times higher than those of corn

and sugar beet.1509 Rice growers usually experience some disputes about the

use of water in Dokuzdere and Mercan ponds with other farmers. For example,

due to 18000 decars of unlicensed rice cultivation in İzzetiye village of

Keşan, the sunflowers, corn, and sugar beet fields began to die of thirst in

2000.1510

In addition to the irrigation water problem, due to the vegetation period

of sugar beet, it has been exposed to the flood of the Meriç River. Therefore,

apart from rice, the peasant of the Meriç Basin has cultivated summer growing

plants such as bean, kitchen garden, corn and sunflower in Turkey.1511 As

Diamond says, there has been a compound between rice and bean cultivation

in China and Peru.1512 Furthermore, many rice growers cultivate bean or tomato

on the borders of rice fields in the Meriç Basin. On the other hand, Greek

peasants have cultivated cotton, tobacco, corns and sunflowers rather than

rice, in the western part of the Meriç Basin in Greece.1513 Furthermore, in

these years, some big farmers came from Adana and Hatay to cultivate cotton

in İpsala. However, they gave up cotton farming in İpsala.1514

Thanks to the suitable living space of İpsala plain for frogs, the industrialization

and the marketing opportunities of frog, frog hunting and gathering

began in 1967. Thus, both Turkey earned foreign exchange and many rice

growers lived on through international trade. The frogs that waited in cold

storage were sent to the USA, France, Belgium, and Switzerland by planes in

1507 Kazım Berzeg, “Türk Tarımında Gelişme Ölçüsü,” Medeniyet, November 11, 1972.

1508 “Pancar Ekim Sahalarına Çeltik Ekimi Tahditli Olacak,” Adalet, March 22, 1975.

1509 “Sulama Suyu Tarifesi,” Edirne Sesi, May 15, 1965.

1510 “İzzetiye Köyündeki Ürünler Kuruyor,” Önder, August 7, 2000.

1511 “İlimizde Çeltik Ekim Hazırlıklarına Başlandı,” Vatandaş, April 6, 1976.

1512 Jared Diamond, Tüfek, Mirop ve Çelik, 284.

1513 “Trakya’da Pamuk,” Edirne Sesi, June 1, 1965.

1514 “Trakya’da Pamuk,” Edirne Sesi, July 30, 1965.

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Yeşilköy Airport in İstanbul.1515 Furthermore, it was said that frog hunting

which was a waster product of rice had higher economic income than rice

cultivation in İpsala. However, frogs were hunted at nights in rice fields and

irrigation channels.1516 Thanks to the export, Turkey earned 2,5 milliard TL

every year in the 1980s.1517

Although frog is not consumed in Turkey, the foreign trade of this sector

has continued since the 1970s in İpsala.1518 Therefore, although it seems that

rice cultivation supports the development of fishery, there have been problems

and declines in the fishery sector in the Meriç Basin. There have been

5,000 and 10,000 frog hunters in İpsala and Enez. Their monthly earning was

averagely 2000 TL in 2006. Turkey is in the first three countries in frog export

and Turkey earns 20 million USD. Although a frog makes 10,000 eggs in rice

fields, the pesticides kill lots of them.1519 Furthermore, the moto pumps of

rice irrigation and water pollution have damaged fish in rivers.1520 However,

due to floods of the Meriç river in the sowing time of rice, fish ate germinated

rice seed in the fields in İpsala in 1957.1521 Similarly, frog hunting began in

Çarşamba in the 1970s. These frogs were packed and sent to Europe.1522

Although the historical past of silkworm breeding in the Meriç Basin is

older than rice cultivation, rice replaced this sector in the twentieth century.

However, with the spread of rice cultivation in Meriç Plain, many peasants

cut their mulberry trees in their mulberry gardens and turned those areas into

rice fields. Thus the food sources of silkworms were gone. Furthermore, the

1515 “İpsala’da Çiftliklerde Kurbağa Üretiliyor,” Vatandaş, April 15, 1977.

1516 “İhracat İçin Kurbağa ve Salyangoz Topluyor,” Vatandaş, May 16, 1984.

1517 “İpsala Kurbağa İhracatından Yılda 2,5 Milyar Liralık Döviz Sağlandı,” Vatandaş, June 26,

1986.

1518 Hülya Şereflişan and Ahmet Alkaya,” Türkiye’de Eti Yenebilen Kurbaaların (Ranidae) Biyolojisi,

Ekonomisi, Avcılığı ve İhracatına Yönelik Yasal Mevzuatı,” Türk Tarım Gıda Bilim ve

Teknoloji Dergisi 4, no. 7 (2016); 601.

1519 Yılda 500 ton Kurbağa İhraç Ediyor,” Son Haber, December 19, 2006.

1520 “Çeltik Sulama Motorları Balık Neslini Yok Ediyor,” Vatandaş, August 18, 1995.

1521 “Ovamızı Su Bastı,” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, May 29, 1957.

1522 “Çarşamba İlçesindeki Basiret Gıda ve Kimya Şirketi Kurbağa Bacağı ve Salyangoz İhracatına

Başladı,” Hürsöz, July 29, 1976.

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intensive use of pesticides caused the death of silkworms and the coincidence

and the intersection of the cocoon period, and rice harvest caused the ignorance

of these animals.

The wetlands, reed fields, and lakes of Meriç Plain are important areas for

the accommodation and natural habitat of wild ducks, trumpeter swans and

wild geese. Therefore, the peasants along the Meriç and Ergene rivers have

been hunting them in winters. Rather than red meat, they consume these animals

in different meals. In addition to locals, many hunters from İstanbul visit

Meriç plain during the winters.1523

6. 7. 3 The Lower Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins

Similar to Meriç Plain, the delta plain of Kızılırmak and Yeşilırmak had been

regarded as worthless lands until the 1950s. However, these lands are alluvial

soils. With the agricultural mechanization, these lands began to be cultivated.

Thus the people of Bafra could cultivate their rice, sugar beet, vegetable, fruits

in this plain instead of buying from other cities.1524 Similar to the Meriç Basin,

sunflower, bean and corn cultivation has become widespread in the Lower

Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins in the 1970s and 1980s.1525 In contrast

to the Meriç Basin, there were wheat and vicia sativa cultivation in

Lower Kızılırmak in the 1960s.1526

The development of sugar beet cultivation and the sugar industry were

discussed alternatively in the wetlands of the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower

Yeşilırmak Basins in terms of increasing agricultural production, diversifying

agricultural crop, developing an agrarian industry and market economy and

also creating employment. In this context, the cultivation of vegetable, cotton

and cannabis was discussed in the 1950s.1527 These discussions actually go

1523 “İlçemiz Bayır ve Tarlalarında Ördek Avı Yapılıyor,” İpsala, January 6, 1972.

1524 “Baframızın Toprakları,” Bafra, March 19, 1956.

1525 “Samsun’da Kuru Faulye Ziraatı Hızla Gelişiyor,” Hürsöz, October 16, 1976.

1526 Ahmet Aydın, tape-recorded interview by the author, Samsun Turkey August 6, 2018.

1527 “Şeker Fabrikası,” Bafra, August 11, 1955; “Bafra’da Zirai Reform,” Bafra, February 13,

1956.

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back to the 1930s. After the building of the Turhal Sugar Plant in 1934, sugar

beet cultivation began to become widespread in Samsun. However, the farmers

of Samsun had difficulty in transporting their sugar beet to Turhal. Therefore,

the building of the Sugar Plant in Samsun was regarded as necessary in

the 1950s.1528 Therefore, the notables of Bafra such as Ömer Güriş, Ali Kale,

İsmail İşman, Kemal Kitaplı, Süleyman Türk, Hasan Genç, and Hakkı Yıldız

went to Ankara to meet the government about the building of the sugar plant

in 1957.1529 Despite all these requests and attempts, Çarşamba Sugar Plant

only could be built between 1979 and 1989.1530

In addition to sugar beet farming in the Meriç Basin and the cotton farming

in Karacadağ, the other prominent crop of the Lower Kızılırmak and

Lower Yeşilırmak Basins has been tobacco. Furthermore, thanks to its seed,

climate conditions, growing methods and marketing, Bafra has had a reputation

for tobacco and cigarettes since the beginning of the nineteenth century.

1531 The purchasing companies were Tekel, Di American, Felemenk, Austro

Turk, Spierer, Freres, and Abdi Fuat in the 1950s.1532 To develop tobacco

cultivation and to encourage its producers, Agricultural Bank in Samsun paid

in advance to tobacco producers.1533

Furthermore, to earn a higher profit, some farmers cultivated tobacco in

lean soils. However, the quality of tobacco decreased. Due to the economic

crisis in 1956, both tobacco purchasing and the profit of farmers decreased.1534

Together with the unplanned economy and the increasing demand for consumer

goods in markets, tobacco producers who undersold their products had

difficulty in paying their debts to Agricultural Bank and Agricultural Credit

Cooperatives.1535 Thus, a kilogram of tobacco was between 100 and 500 kurus

1528 “Yine Şeker Fabrikası,” Bafra, January 12, 1956.

1529 “Bafra Şeker Fabrikasının Kurulması İçin Esaslı Bir Teşebbüs,” Bafra, February 7, 1957.

1530 “Çarşamba Şeker Fabrikasi 1985’te Üretime Geçecek,” Mücadele, April 9, 1982; Türk Şeker,

Türkiye Şeker Fabrikaları Tarihçesi.

1531 Adil Acay, “Bafra’da Tütün Dikimi ve Aksak Tarafları,” Bafra, June 2, 1955.

1532 “Tütün Piyasası,” Bafra, February 26, 1953.

1533 “Banka Avans Verecek,” Bafra, July 2, 1953.

1534 “Samsun’da Tütün Mübayası Hazırlık,” Bafra, January 16, 1956.

1535 “Bafra İktisadi Bir Kriz Geçiriyor,” Bafra, February 13, 1956.

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359

in 1956.1536 Besides, 74,754 tobacco producers in Samsun experienced storage

problems in the 1970s. Therefore, TEKEL could not purchase their products

on time.1537 Since the cultivation of tobacco in plains required extra expenses,

farmers had difficulty in making a profit. Thus, thanks to its higher profit, rice

cultivation was suggested to farmers in the suitable lands of the Bafra and

Çarşamba Plains.1538 In contrast, tobacco has been cultivated in the mountain

villages.1539 Furthermore, the needs of the increasing population, the policies

of IMF in 2001 and the declining economic income of farmers necessitated

the cultivation of new agricultural crops rather than tobacco.1540

Finally, the size of cultivated lands has increased three times in Edirne,

five times in Diyarbakır and also one and half time in Samsun since 1946.

Namely, the size of cultivated lands increased from 1,214,550 decar to

3,269,837 in Edirne, from 1,226,720 decar to 6,041,926 in Diyarbakır and also

from 1,519,340 to 2,170,517 in Samsun between 1946 and 2007. Furthermore,

the rate of rice cultivated lands to total cultivated size has changed in these

basins. For example, the rate of rice cultivated lands to the total was 2 percent

in Edirne, 1 percent in Diyarbakır and 0,3 percent in Samsun in 1946. However,

this rate was 16 percent in Edirne, 3 percent in Samsun, and 0,25 percent

in Diyarbakır in 2007. There is 8 times increase in Edirne and Samsun. In

contrast to these, there are 4 times of decrease in Diyarbakır. While the increase

of the size of rice cultivation areas had limited sugar beet cultivation

and mulberry gardens for silk worm breeding in Edirne, the spread of cotton

cultivation limited rice in Diyarbakır. However, rice cultivation areas limited

vegetable gardens and sugar beet cultivation in Samsun to some extent.1541

1536 “Piyasa ve Müstahsilin Durumu,” Bafra, February 23, 1956.

1537 “Çarşamba’da Tütün Üreticisi Depolama Sorunu İle Karşı Karşıya,” Hürsöz, August 25,

1976; “Bafra’da Tütün Ekicilerine 30 Milyon Lira Avans Dağıtıldı,” Hürsöz, December 6,

1976.

1538 “Bafra’da Zeytin Ağacı Yetiştirilmelidir,” Bafra, February 7, 1957.

1539 Ahmet Aydın, Interview by Author, Bafra, Samsun, August 6, 2018.

1540 “Milletvekillerimiz Bafra’da,” Bafra, March 21, 1957.

1541 T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Zirai Bünye ve İstihsal 1946-1954 (Agricultural

Structure and Production 1946-1954). Ankara: 1955; T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatisO

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6.8 Concluding Remarks

All these ideas indicate that rice is one of the most social, cultural and traditional

commodities. Thus, rice is a subject of folklore, literature, cinema, festivals,

different cuisine cultures and public health. From its cultivation to consumption,

rice requires an organization, experience and intensive labor. In

other words, to spread its genes and to increase its popularity, rice collaborates

with society. However, this social organization also accommodates some

common and controversial relations in which there are social divisions of labor,

common socio-economic interest and conflict of interests. Furthermore,

paddy is such a social product that in general people taste rice flour after their

human milk.

From socio-economic and cultural perspectives, thanks to its high production

costs and expensive market prices, rice or paddy is a symbol of social

prestige, wealth, kindness, and solidarity in visits and social ceremonies. Pilaf

is consumed in wedding, celebrations, religious ceremonies such as Islamic

memorial services and funeral rites. Since rice is a crop of controversies, people

consume pilaf both in their joyful and mournful days. Furthermore, paddy

is consumed both as a dessert and as a salty meal.

First of all, this chapter focuses on the geographical and sociological

characteristics of these three basins such as the profile of rice growers, their

living conditions and their socio-economic organization. As mentioned before,

big rice growers have still tried to protect their socio-economic interests

through political relations or some organizations. Furthermore, they are more

tik Kurumu (TÜİK) Tarımsal Yapı ve Üretim 1976-1978 (Agricultural Structure and Production

19—1976-1978). Ankara: 1979; T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK)

Tarımsal Yapı Üretim, Fiyat, Değer (Agricultural Structure Production, Price, Value 2007).

Ankara: 2009.

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361

open minded to the liberal economy. On the other hand, since small rice growers

in villages are exposed to the price levels of the free market and heavy

production cost, they are working poor in the 2000s.

Namely, in contrast to many other academic and literary works, this dissertation

also explains the socio-economic experience of the small peasantry

in rice cultivation. Although big rice growers are characterized as the people

who are profit-seeking and cause the spread of malaria but seem as if they

were patriotic in the 1940s and the 1950s, this dissertation pays attention to the

social and economic transformation of rice growers’ profile. Rice growers

have been exposed to heavy costs and environmental pollution in their production

process. Therefore, this study tries to point out changing socio-economic

conditions in a historical process and thus criticizes the Rice Cultivation

Law of 1936.

Second, this chapter gives ideas about the prominent people who contribute

to the development of rice farming such as Halil Sürek, Sami Dubacı,

Mustafa Öden, Yusuf Kiraz, Hamdi Buzcu, Haşim Özkahraman, and so on.

Actually some of these men are entrepreneurs, some of them are agriculturalists

and some are big farmers. All of them have contributed to the development

of rice distinctly such as production, technology, breeding and marketing.

Therefore, it can be said that rice cultivation and its processing into paddy

requires an organizational and multi-disciplinary contribution.

Second, rice is discussed from a public health point of view. In this context,

rice cultivation is a subject of the healthcare field, social science and

climate science. While there is a contradiction between economic development

and malaria in rice cultivation in the early Republican period, today the

limitation of rice cultivation areas and the increasing health problem due to

environmental pollution and unplanned industrialization are discussed. Since

epidemics such as malaria influences health of the whole society and prevent

their labor force, some legal regulations had been made in the 1920s, 1930s

and 1940s. However, there is not a direct relationship between the rice cultivation

areas and malaria. Similarly, since the main issue of rice cultivation

areas is water and soil pollution that result from industrial and domestic

wastes especially in the Meriç Basin, the governments have tried to make

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362

some legal regulations and establish a parliamentary investigation commission.

Actually, in addition to industrial and domestic wastes, the pesticides

and fertilizer that have been used in rice fields since the 1970s increase environmental

pollution. This situation threatens natural life, public health, and

other living creatures such as frogs, fish and migratory birds. These situations

can be seen explicitly in the Meriç, Lower Kızılırmak ad Lower Yeşilırmak

Basins. On the other hand, these chemicals have been used since the beginning

of the 1990s in the Karacadağ Agriculture Basin.

However, due to the unplanned settlement of growing population, unplanned

industrialization and the intensive use of agricultural inputs with market-

oriented production, there has been the most dangerous environmental

pollution in the Meriç Basin rather than the other basins. Therefore, it can be

said that while rice farming was regarded as a scapegoat for the spread of

malaria in the 1930s and the 1940s, nowadays rice farming is under threat.

However, there has not been concrete political attempts. Thus, rice farmers

regard the utterance of politicians as empty promises and populist discourses.

The water pollution of Ergene is not only an environmental of Thrace but also

Turkey, Greece, and Bulgaria. The Meriç Basin has produced almost half of

the paddy needs of Turkey since the 1960s.

From an academic point of view, as a suggestion, the Environment and

Industrialization, Symposium were held in Çorlu in 1996. They paid attention

to the influence of unplanned industrialization and the increasing population

of Çorlu and Çerkezköy on cultivation areas. Furthermore, with the supports

of municipals, civil society organizations and syndicates, Thrace People

Committee was organized in 2012 to save Ergene and the Meriç River in

Thrace. Furthermore, rice growers in the villages of Edirne supported their

attempts.

In addition to the negative influence of environmental pollution, since rice

grows in wetlands, flood disasters may be seen especially in the Meriç Basin.

Since the reclamation of the Meriç river was not completed in the 1950s, its

floods have continued. Therefore, peasants can only cultivate summer growing

plants such as rice, corn, bean, and kitchen garden in Meriç Plain. However,

the probable floods of the Meriç river in spring months may damage the

crops. In this context, rice is the most durable crop against flood. The flood

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363

of the Meriç river not only damage to their crops but also cause the drowning

of some peasants and the bankruptcy of some rice growers. Furthermore,

drownings, snake bites and some suicides might be seen in these areas.

Third, since rice is a quite social, artistic, and aesthetic commodity, it

takes part in Turkish literature, cinema, and theatre. Thus, from a socio-cultural

point of view, these works indicate the feelings and the life experience

of Turkish people and intellectuals about rice and paddy. As rice is cultivated

in a social organization, it is consumed in social ceremonies such as weeding,

religious rituals, and festivals. Furthermore, the regulation of pilaf days of

schools has become popular in recent years. Thus, the consumption of pilaf

around the same dinner table increases social solidarity and institutional identity

among graduates in these organizations.

Rather than rice, paddy is seen in literary works. The literary works such

as idioms, proverbs, poems, or novels about rice mention the malaria threat,

the facts of life, the valuableness of paddy are explained. As the main topic,

the economic, public health and bureaucratic dimensions of rice cultivation

are explained in the Teneke novel of Yaşar Kemal. Similarly, although it is not

the main topic, rice cultivation is explained in some novels such as Demirciler

Çarşısı Cinayeti written by Yaşar Kemal and Bereketli Topraklar Üstünde

written by Orhan Kemal. In Turkish Cinema, rice is explained in two films

such as Kurbağalar and Acı Pirinç. Although both of them have some common

topics such as the exploitation of labor in rice fields, life struggles and

the sexuality of a woman’s body. While Kurbağalar explains the life struggle

of a widow and the conflict of interest among small peasants in Thrace, Acı

Pirinç explains the production relations and the conflict of interest among

feudal lords for lands in Çukurova. In folklore, there are 4 folk songs that

belong to Edirne, Balıkesir, Sinop, and Kastamonu. In these folk songs, there

are love, wealth, the valuableness of paddy, and the consumption of paddy in

wedding as pilaf and rice dessert and saffron are explained. Besides, Thrace

Rice Legend by İsmail Sirke give ideas about the prominent rice growers of

the Meriç Basin, the technological transformation of rice cultivation and the

life experience of local people.

Fourth, paddy is seen in cuisine culture. Although paddy is regarded as

the essential nutrient of Manson Asia and the Far East, it is consumed in every

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364

continent differently. This situation mainly results from socio-cultural and socio-

economic differences. As paddy can be consumed with legumes such as

bean or chickpea, it can be consumed with meat. Furthermore, the cooking

methods of paddy can differ among societies and cultures. Paddy can be also

used in the making of different dishes such as stuffed vine leaves, lamb stew

with new onions and pilaf, and so on.

Finally, similar to its consumption, due to the biological water needs of

rice promote or limit the cultivation of other crops and husbandry. Thanks to

water sources, rice cultivation promotes the cultivation of bean, kitchen garden,

and some vegetables to some extent. On the other hand, it limits the cultivation

of sugar beet, cotton, sesame. Besides, the pesticides of rice damage

to silkworm breeding and fishery. However, it supports the development of

frog hunting, its industry, and its foreign trade.

365

7

Conclusion

ll in all, while explaining the social history of rice, this dissertation

mainly emphasizes the totality of nature and society rather than the anthropocentric

point of view. In this context, it emphasizes the mutual and reciprocal

interests between humans and plants. Furthermore, it reveals why

and how the plants influence humans and bees in nature and why and how

human being desire the cultivation of plants. In accordance with the intellectuals

who have studied botany and evolutionary theory for centuries provide

a theoretical infrastructure for the dissertation.

From this point of view, it seems that the biological and agricultural characteristics

of rice and the desires of humans make the social history of rice

mutually. Based on these ideas, this dissertation tries to indicate the social

history of rice in spatial and temporal dimensions in Turkey from multi-directional

perspectives. In this context, it regards the emergence of the Green

Revolution as an important breaking point in the development of Turkish Agriculture

from a temporal point of view. By the same token, this dissertation

mainly focuses on three different geographical locations to understand the

different and remarkable characteristics of rice farming culture.

This dissertation makes the inference that rice is a social, bureaucratic and

capitalist commodity. Rather than an anthropocentric point of view, it emphasizes

strongly rice as an actor in the making of history. In this context, it brings

the biological and agricultural properties of rice at the forefront. Furthermore,

in the mutual and reciprocal interests between humans and rice, people desire

A

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366

rice for their food requirement, the indication of their socio-economic status

and the accumulation of higher capital. Although it seems that people serve

rice from cultivation to harvest and marketing for their self-interests, actually

they contribute to the spread of rice genes and the increase of rice production.

In detail, from a biological and agricultural points of view, rice is a cereal

that depends upon biological stability in its water requirement, environmental

conditions and nutrients at an adequate dosage and on time. Furthermore, similar

to fish, it is the only cereal that uses solvable oxygen in the water. These

miraculous characteristics of rice differentiate it from other cereals. Thanks

to the biological characteristics and the agricultural requirements of rice, it

directs the labor force of rice farmers, merchants and factory owners during

its vegetation period, harvest, and marketing.

Also, when the geographical distribution of rice in the world is regarded,

it seems that rice can be grown in every continent except Antarctica. This is

the indication of its strong adaptability to different soil structure, climates and

geographies. Although rice came to Turkey from the east and southeast directions,

the development of rice technology has come from the north west

part of Turkey. Furthermore, the spread of rice is closely related to wars, migrations,

silk road trade and cultural interactions.

From a historical point of view, although rice is one of the oldest crops,

the consumption of paddy in the Ottoman State had been limited with the

Ottoman palace and public institutions. Therefore, its consumption per capita

and rice yield especially increased in the twentieth century. Moreover, paddy

has become an ordinary ingredient of daily meals. This situation mainly results

from population growth, capital accumulation, agricultural mechanization

and the use of agricultural inputs such as fertilizer and pesticides. In this

context, rice cultivation that was supported with statist policies within the

context of economic self-sufficiency has become popular in the 1930s and

widespread with the Green Revolution in the 1950s. Furthermore, thanks to

the increasing credit facility, the modernization of agricultural technics and

the free-market economy, the neoliberal economic policies also have supported

rice cultivation and paddy consumption in Turkey. The biology and

history chapters of the dissertation provide with a macro perspective and infrastructure

for the upcoming chapters.

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367

Thanks to its high nutritional value, its economic value and its strong

adaptability to different soil structures such as marshy and salty soil, rice is

one of the most profitable and required crops in the eyes of the government.

Similar to the voyages of the tulip to Europe, rice has been one of the most

bureaucratic commodities. Similar to the struggles of Lala Şahin Paşa in the

mid-fifteenth century and the struggles of Ataturk in the spread of rice farming

in the Meriç Basin in the 1930s, it has been cultivated with the permissions

of governors or district governors since 1936. Therefore, the government has

had a direct control mechanism on rice cultivation areas and rice farmers. In

contrast to the government’s control of cultivation, in general the sale of rice

is treated in the free-market conditions. The government influenced the determination

of rice prices in the rice purchasing of TGB. Although the average

rice production of Turkey based on rice cultivation areas has been expected

every year, there has not been a comprehensive rice policy in Turkey to receive

the paddy requirement of the growing population.

Furthermore, the governments serve the development of rice farming

from infrastructural investments and institutional research studies to legal

regulations, the intervention of bureaucracy, agricultural supports, and industrialization.

As a result of these policies, rice farming culture has developed

in these basins. However, while the Ministry of Agriculture has supported rice

cultivation for economic reasons, the Ministry of Health has mainly considered

malaria threat in rice cultivation areas. The Ministry of Internal Affairs

has been a control mechanism. Namely, every ministry regards rice from their

own perspectives. Furthermore, they claim that they consider the wellbeing

or the national interests of Turkey.

Since rice requires intensive and specialized labor force and also legal

regulations, rice has collaborated with the state both in the period of the Ottoman

State and Turkey to spread its genes and to increase its production.

Thus, due to governmental enterprises, rice is a quite public crop. However,

while the control of rice cultivation in the Ottoman period mainly results from

the scarcity of labor force, it comes from the malaria threat in the Republican

period.

O K A N C E Y L A N

368

However, rice technology and scientific breeding works have developed

more quickly than the legal regulations for rice. For example, the Rice Cultivation

Law of 1936 is more restrictive, stagnant, nonapplicable, and far from

receiving the needs of today. Although the Rice Cultivation Law has tried to

systematize rice cultivation in every basin, it cannot have been implemented

completely. For example, based on the differences in rice cultivation technics,

production relations and the modes of production in the Meriç Basin, in the

Karacadağ Agriculture Basin and the Lower Kızılırmak and Lower

Yeşilırmak Basins, it is impossible to form a unique rice cultivation system.

Furthermore, the production cost of rice, the existence of water sources, the

use of modern technology, and environmental problems differentiate among

these basins.

Therefore, new legislation that considers the requirements of present conditions

and the geographical characteristics of different basins need to be enacted.

Namely, the Rice Cultivation Law of 1936 is far from the spatial differences

and temporal transformation. For example, while rice cultivation is

associated with malaria in the 1930s and 1940s, rice cultivation areas have

been exposed to water, and soil pollution that results from unplanned industrialization

since the 1970s. However, the law cannot find any solution to this

environmental health problem.

Third, rice leads to the creation of a labor force, the commodification of

lands and irrigation water, technological innovations, industrial enterprises

and marketing networks in these basins. Furthermore, it might be claimed that

rice is the avant-garde crop of both the Green Revolution and the neoliberal

economy. Thanks to technological developments, chemical agricultural inputs

of the Green Revolution, and the market size of the neo-liberal economy,

rice yield and rice production has increased more than two times. However,

while the use of agricultural inputs declines the labor force in the field to some

extent, it increases the production cost of rice growers. Thus, farmers characterize

rice farming as gambling and robbery in the face of increasing production

costs and the decline of their profits. However, in contrast to these complaints

of rice farmers that result from neoliberal economic policies, it seems

that the economic welfare of rich peasants has slowly been increasing. In addition,

the distribution of irrigation water, the land leveling of rice fields and

A S O C I A L H I S T O R Y O F R I C E I N T U R K E Y

369

rice harvest require specialized and seasonal workers despite the technological

developments.

Rice farming has also integrated the Meriç Basin, the Karacadağ Agriculture

Basin, and the Lower Kızılırmak, and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins into market-

oriented production and liberal capitalist economy through the use of agricultural

inputs, petroleum, and bank credits. Rice cultivation had been

limited to big agricultural enterprises until the end of the 1960s. Furthermore,

together with the increase of agricultural mechanization, market-oriented production,

increasing credit facilities, and irrigation cooperation, rice farming

spread into small agricultural enterprises in the 1970s. In this capitalist production

relations, different groups in rice sectors expect different interests

from rice. Similar to farmers, fabricators desire to get higher rice production,

higher yield and higher prices. However, consumers desire to consume more

qualified paddy at lower prices. The economic interests of people contribute

to grow more qualified rice and to produce a higher amount of rice.

Besides, rice is a social commodity that bond rice growers together in the

process of taking rice cultivation decisions, the distribution of irrigation water

and the agricultural spraying and fertilization process of rice. During the vegetation

period of rice, there is a division of labor, collaboration, organization

and conflict of interest. Similarly, the processing of rice into paddy in factories,

its marketing networks, and the consumption of paddy requires well organized

socio-economic relations. Furthermore, since rice is a social, cultural

and aesthetic commodity, it is a subject of folklore, cinema, theatre, and literature.

These literary works also indicate the reflections of rice in the social

lives of people.

In addition to these, rice is a crop of contradictions. Therefore, contradiction

is one of the most suitable concepts to summarize the social history of

rice. Although it seems that there are disciplinary working conditions, organizations,

and specialized experience in rice cultivation, the biological characteristics

of rice lead to the appearance of some contradictions. First, while rice

cultivation requires a traditional and cultural experience, it also makes necessary

the following of modern cultivation methods to get higher yield and

profit. Second, while the Ministry of Health regards rice as a source of malaria,

the Ministry of Agriculture thinks that it is a national crop that feeds the

O K A N C E Y L A N

370

military and nation. Second, rice both leads to collaborations in the cultivation

of rice fields and causes a conflict of interest in the sharing of inadequate

irrigation water. Third, since rice cultivation has been dependent on the law,

its cultivation is controlled by the state. On the other hand, in general, its marketing

is done in the private sector. Namely, while it is a public commodity in

cultivation, it is a capitalist commodity in marketing. Forth, while there is a

collaboration among rice farmers in the rice cultivation process in irrigation

unions or cooperatives, they sell their crop separately in the free-market.

Therefore, they cannot have a voice in the determination of rice prices. Fifth,

rice reflects different historicity in the same history. For example, today the

modes of rice cultivation and rice production relations in the Karacadağ Agricultural

Basin are similar to those of the 1960s in the Meriç Basin. Sixth,

although the first rice factories were established in Kastamonu,

Kahramanmaraş, and İstanbul in the 1930s, rice cultivation has been developed

in Edirne, Samsun, and Balıkesir today. Seventh, people consume paddy

both in deserts and salty meals Finally, paddy is consumed both in sad days

and happy days of people.

This dissertation mainly observes the social history of rice in Turkey from

different perspectives between 1948 and 2018. All of these ideas indicate that

there has not been systemic and unified rice farming culture in Turkey. This

situation mainly results from the differences in geography, human capital, agricultural

structures, and economic capital in a historical process. This situation

also reflects the colorfulness of agricultural history in these basins. For

example, while the rice farming culture of the Meriç Basin, the Lower

Kızılırmak and Lower Yeşilırmak Basins represent modernization, transformation

and changes, that of Karacadağ represent traditionalism, and stability.

In this context, it can be said that the influence and the density of the Green

Revolution began to be seen at different times in these basins. For example,

the use of fertilization began to be widespread in the mid of the 1970s in the

Meriç Basin, it began to be seen in the beginnings of the 1990s in the Karacadağ

Agriculture Basin. Furthermore, it is impossible to systematize the labor

force, the production cost of rice and the profit of rice growers in three

basins.

371

Appendix A Local Press

Figure A.1 Rice Farming in the Meriç Basin

SOURCE İpsala July 4, 1973

372

Figure A.2 Paddy Prices in Diyarbakır

SOURCE: Diyarbakır, March 4, 1963

373

Appendix B TÜİK Statistics

Figure B1. Agricultural Structures of Samsun in the 1970s

SOURCES T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Tarımsal Yapı ve

Üretim 1970-1972 (Agricultural Structure and Prduction 1970-1972)

TÜİK: 1975

374

Figure B2. The Village Inventory of Şanlıurfa in the 1990s

SOURCE T.C Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) Şanlıurfa Köy Envanteri 1997

(ŞanlıurfaVillage Inventory 1997) Ankara. 2002.

375

Appendix C Prime Ministry Archaives

Figure C 1. The Reclaimation of the Meriç River

SOURCE BCA B.M.U. M, 030 18 01 129 42 13, (May 20, 1952)

376

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Gazete Gerçek, June 11, 2018

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“Gübre Fiyatlarının 2 Yılda 3 Kat Artması Dünya Tarımını Olumsuz Yönde

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397

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“Hasan Uğurlu Barajı Yılda 1 milyar 250 milyon kw Saat Enerji Üretecek.”

Hürsöz, August 25, 1976.

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“Hububat Yabancı Ot İlaçlarının Bayilerde Satışlarına Başlandı.” Vatandaş,

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Hudut, September 11, 2015.

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“Vatandaş, June 14, 1988.

“İpsala Ovasını Sular Bastı.” Demokrat Keşan, April 21, 1953.

“İpsala Ovası Yine Sular Altında.” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, January 16, 1960.

“İpsala Ovasında Yunanlıların Sebeb Oldğu Su Baskınları,” Trakya, September

19, 1960.

“İpsala Ovası Meselesini Görüşecek Heyet Atinaya Gidiyor,” İpsala Doğuya

Sesleniş, October 14, 1960.

“İpsala Ovasının Muhim Bir Kısmı Sular Altında.” Vatandaş, February, 7,

1963.

“İpsala’da Bu Yıl Çeltik Ekimi Çok Az.” Vatandaş, March 31, 1964.

“İpsala Çeltik Komisyonu Başkanlığından.” İpsala, March 7, 1968.

“İpsala Çeltik Komisyonu Başkanlığından.” İpsala, March 2, 1970.

“İpsala Çeltik Komisyonu Başkanlığından.” İpsala, February, 26 1971.

“İpsala Ovasında Bu Yıl Çeltik Hasadı Çok Düştü.” Vatandaş, October 14,

1976.

İpsala’da Çeltiğin Kilosu 10 Liradan Satılmaya Başlandı.” Vatandaş, February

4, 1977.

399

“İpsala’da 32,000 Dönümlük Vakıf Arazisi İcara Verilecek.” Vatandaş, February

24, 1979.

“İpsala’da Susuzluk Çeltik Üreticisini Güç Duruma Soktu.” Vatandaş, May

23, 1979.

“İpsala ve Enez Ovalarındaki Çeltik İşletmelerinde Bini Aşkın gence İş

Olanağı Sağlandı.” Hudut, September 5 1981.

“İpsala Kurbağa İhracatından Yılda 2,5 Milyar Liralık Döviz Sağlandı.”

Vatandaş, June 26, 1986.

“İpsala Sultanköy Baraj İhalesi Yapıldı.” Vatandaş, September 11, 1987.

“İpsala’da Çeltikte Ot Mücadelesi Uçakla Yabancı Ot Mücadelesi Yapıldı.”

Vatandaş, August 12, 1987.

“İpsala ve Enez’de Su Baskını Sorunu Devam Ediyor.” Vatandaş, January

14, 1995.

“İpsala Çeltik ve Sanat Festivali Bugün Başlıyor.” Önder, September 6, 2000.

“İpsala 5. Çeltik Festivali Sona Erdi.” Vatandaş, September 1, 2004.

“İpsala’da Çiftliklerde Kurbağa Üretiliyor.” Vatandaş, April 15, 1977.

“İzzetiye Köyündeki Ürünler Kuruyor.” Önder, August 7, 2000.

“Gemlik Azot Fabrikası 1977 Yılında Tamamlanacak.” Adalet, March 25,

1975.

“Gübre Satışları Bu Sene Rekor Düzeyde.” Yeni Zaman, May 01, 1974

“Gübre Fiyatlarına Zam Yapıldı.” Hudut, September 3, 1981.

“Gübre Zammı İle Türk Tarımı Dar Boğaza Girecek.” Hudut, September 5,

1981.

“250,000 ton Mamul Gübrenin İthaline İzin Verildi.” Hudut, December 26,

1981.

“Gübreden de Devlet Desteği Kalktı.” Vatandaş, January 2, 1984.

400

“Gübreden de Devlet Desteği Kalktı.” Vatandaş, January 2, 1984.

“Jandarmaya Ateş Ettiği İddiasıyla Yakalanarak Adliyeye Sevk Edilen ve

Yapılan Sorgusu Sonunda Serbest Bırakılan Uzunköprülü Çeltikçi İsmail

Kocaman (Papçık) Tevkif Edildi.” İpsala, June 29, 1970.

“Kaçak Çeltikler Zararlı Oluyor.” Vatandaş, June 4, 1977.

“Kadıköy Barajı Keşan Ovasına Bereket Getirdi.” Vatandaş, June 21, 1976.

“Kadıköy Barajı Sayesinde Bir Mevsimde Üç Mahsul Alınıyor.” Vatandaş,

August 17, 1976.

“Karacadağ’da Pirinç Hasadı Yüzleri Güldürdü,” Tigris, October 1, 2016

“Karakaya Barajına Bu Yıl 55 Milyon Lira Harcanacak.” Yeni Zaman, June 1,

1974.

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1974.

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1984.

“Karpuzlu Köylüleri ile İsmail Kocman Arasındaki Arazi İhtilafı Gittikçe

Büyüyor.” İpsala, May 5, 1975.

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“Keşan ve İpsala’da Arazi Kadastro Çalışmaları,” Vatandaş, June 7, 1963.

“Keşan İlçemizde Bu Yıl Çeltik Mahsulü Rekor Seviyeye Ulaşmış.”

Vatandaş, October 25, 1973.

401

“Keşan ve İpsala İlçeleri Arasında Doğan Çeltik Anlaşmazlığı Yerinde

İncelendi.” Vatandaş, June 16, 1976

“Keşan ve İpsala İlçelerimizde Binlerce Dönüm Çeltik Kurumaya

Terkedildi.” Vatandaş, August 9, 1976.

“Keşan’da Evlenmelerin Çoğu Üürünün İyi Olmasına Bağlı.” Vatandaş, August

1, 1976.

“Keşan’da Gelecek Yıl Gübre Sıkıntısı Çekilmemesi için Tedbir Alınmaya

Başlandı.” Vatandaş, May 24, 1976.

“Keşan Kızkapan Çeltiklerinin Kurtarılmasına Çalışılıyor.” Vatandaş, July

15, 1976.

“Keşan’daki Çeltiklere Barajdan Su Verilmeye Başlandı.” Vatandaş, May 10,

1976.

“Keşan’da Çeltik Bakıcıları Ayda 6,000 Lira Kazanıyor.” Vatandaş, August

21, 1976.

“Keşan ve İpsalalı Çeltikçiler Zarar Tespiti İstiyor.” Vatandaş, Aralık 18,

1979.

“Keşan ve İpsala’da İzinsiz Ekilen ve Kavrulmaya Başlayan Çeltikler Su

Bekliyor.” Vatandaş, June 22, 1984

“Kırk Yıllık Yorgunluğu Alan Ödül.” Yenigün, July 30, 2019.

“Kızılırmak Taştı.” Samsun Postası, April 4, 1961.

“Kızkapan Ovasında Çeltik Ekenler Zarar Verdikleri Köye Para

Ödeyecekler.” Vatandaş, May 12, 1980.

“Kızkapanı Ovasında Çeltiklere Sıra İle Su Verilecek.” Vatandaş, July 5,

1976.

“Kızkapan Gölünden Kazanılan 2137 dekar Arazi Dağıtıldı.” Edirne Sesi, December

5, 1965.

“Kimyevi Gübrenin Türkiye’de Kullanılmasına Dair.” Urfa, May 6, 1952.

402

“Kirlilik Balıkçılığı da Etkiledi.” Vatandaş, November 15, 2003.

“Komşunun Tarlalarını Türk Çiftçiler İşliyor.” Milliyet, April 12, 2004.

“Kooperatifler İl Müdürlüğü İlimizde Çeltik Kurutma ve Depolama Tesisi ile

Mandıra Yapılacağını Bildirdi.” Vatandaş, July 12, 1980.

“Koyuntepe Tarım Kredi Kooperatifi İlk Traktörü Verdi.” İpsala, June 4,

1975.

“Kökü Kazındı Denen Sıtma Yeniden Hortladı.” Vatandaş, April 28, 1980

“Köy Hizmetleri Müdürlüğü İlimizde Toplam 158,701,389 liralık 4 Baraj Projesini

İhaleye Çıkardı.” Vatandaş, July 28, 1986.

“Köylünün Davaları Öne Alınmalıdır.” Vatandaş, July 29, 1964.

“Köy Koop Edirne Birliği 12 Yıl Aradan Sonra Genel Kurul Yaptı.” Edirne,

May 20, 1992.

“Köylü Gübresiz Bırakıldı,” Edirne Haber, March 16, 2001.

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1949

“Kurbağasız Nehir Ergene.” Hudut, June 20, 2012.

“Kuron: Çeltik Dip Otuna Karşı.” Medeniyet, February 1, 1975.

“Küçük Sulamalar İçin Kooperatifler Kurulacak.” Vatandaş, December 4,

1964.

“Küplü ve Subaşı Köylerinde Suların Yaptığı Tahribat.” Vatandaş, February

13, 1963.

“Kütahya Azot Fabrikası Günde 1320 Ton Kimyevi Gübre Üretiyor.” Adalet,

May 1,1975.

“Malaryaya Çok Müessir Bir İlaç: Terramisin.” Urfa, June 23, 1952.

“Malaryanın Kontrol Altına Alınmasıyla Türkiye’de Pirinç İstihsalinin Artması

Temin Ediliyor.” Demokrat Keşan, April 1, 1953.

403

“Maliye Bakanlığı Cevap Versin.” İpsala, October 31, 1975.

“Mazot Verme Vaadiyle 5000 Lirasını Dolandırdılar.” Vatandaş, November 2,

1979.

“Mazot Alamayan Keşan Pırnar Halkı Suyu Dereden İçiyor.” Vatandaş, January

12, 1980.

Mercan, Mehmet. “Cahit’in Özlediği Memleket.” Tigris, October 12, 2014.

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“Meriç’te Hazine Aleyhine 60 Tarla Tescil Davası Açılmıştır.” Edirne

Postası, November 23, 1952.

“Meriç Mecrasının Islahına Doğru.” Edirne Postası, June 13, 1953.

“Meriç Nehri’nin Temizlenme İşi.” Edirne Postası, June 24, 1953.

“Meriç Nehri Islah Ediliyor.” Demokrat Keşan, February 25, 1955.

“Meriç Ergene Nehri ve Ovamız.” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, November 11,

1956.

“Meriç Nehri Taştı.” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, July 13, 1957.

“Meriç Nehrinin Taşkınlıkları ve Mecra Değişikliği Sebebiyle Yunanistan

Sınırında Düzeltmeler Yapılıyor.” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, July 9, 1959.

“Meriç ve Kollarının Islahı,” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, January 6, 1960.

“Meriç,” Trakya, March 19, 1960.

“Meriç’te DSİ’nin Yersiz Müdahaleleri Vatandaşı Üzüyor.” Vatandaş, October

18, 1964.

“Meriç Nehri Sürekli Yatağını Değiştiriyor.” Vatandaş, June 30, 1976.

“15 Nolu Toprak Komisyonunun 1976 Programı Belli Oldu.” Vatandaş, June

25, 1976.

“Meriç Nehri Kıyılarına Yapılan Tahribatlar Önlenecek.” İpsala, July 17,

1975.

404

“Meriç Nehri Taştı,” İpsala, May 20, 1975.

“Meriç Nehri’nden Altınyazı Barajına Su Pompalanacak.” Vatandaş, June 4,

1977.

“Meriç Nehri Kenarında Bu Yıl 17 km Daha Set Yapılacak.” Vatandaş, January

17, 1984.

“Meriç’teki Kooperatifler Meriç İlçesinde Bir Çeltik Fabrikası Yaptıracak.”

Vatandaş, January 5, 1984.

“Meriç Çeltik Fabrikasının Bu Yıl Kurulup Çalışması İçin Çaba Saredilecek.”

Vatandaş, January 7, 1984.

“Meriçli Çeltik Üreticileri Dertli.” Vatandaş, January 4, 1986.

“Meriç Nehrinin Tahlil Sonuçları Bekliyor.” Vatandaş, July 1, 1988.

“Meriç Nehri Ölüyor.” Vatandaş, August 19, 1988.

“Meriç Nehrine Deniz Suyu Tepmesi için Erken Tedbir Alınmalı.” Edirne,

March 26, 1992.

“Merkez Keşan, Uzunköprü, Meriç İlçelerinde Uygulanan 2. Yıllık Toprak

Sulama Projesi Çalışmaları Başladı.” Vatandaş, April 11, 1977.

Metin, Nazmi. “Hamdi Baba ve Günümüzün Kıytırık Zenginleri,” Keşan

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“Milletvekillerimiz Bafra’da.” Bafra, March 21, 1957.

“Muhtarlar Demirel’den Ergene Havzasını Kurtarmasını İstediler.” Vatandaş,

July 15, 1997.

“Müstahsile Koruyucu İlaçlar Verilecek.” Edirne Postası, April 20, 1961

“Mütehassir Trakya Halkı Çoşkun ve Emsalsiz Tezahuratla Büyük Kurtarıcısını

Bağrına Bastı,” Edirne Postası, December 12, 1930

“Nehir Akıntısına Kapıldı, Sürüklenip Gitti.” Vatandaş, August 16, 1963.

“Nehir Suları Yatağına Çekiliyor.” Edirne Sesi, May 22, 1965.

405

“Ofisin Çeltik Mubayaası Başbakanlıkta.” Edirne Sesi, October 20, 1967.

Okur, Meliha. “Çeltik Mücidini Tanıyın.” Sabah, April 19, 2008.

“Orman Bölge Şefliğince Meriç Nehri’nin Kapıkule’den İpsala’ya Kadar

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“Ovamızı Su Bastı.” İpsala Doğuya Sesleniş, May 29, 1957.

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_____________. “Mithat Paşa ve Ziraat Bankası’nın 100. Yılı.” Vatandaş,

February 21, 1963.

_____________ “Tarım Kredi Kooperatifleri.” Vatandaş, February 5, 1963.

_____________ “Toprak Reformu ve Kooperatifçilik.” Vatandaş, May 8,

1963.

“Paşayenice Göleti İnşaatı Sona Erdi.” Vatandaş, January 10, 1976.

“Pancar ve Çeltik Münavebeyi Sağlamak İçin İşbirliği Yapılacak.” Adalet,

February 6, 1975.

“Pancar Ekim Sahalarına Çeltik Ekimi Tahditli Olacak.” Adalet, March 22,

1975.

“Pirinç Faydalı Bir Besindir.” Samsun Postası, January 12, 1976.

“Pirinç Tohumu İthal Ediliyor.” Bizim Köy, January 24, 1961

“Pirinç Üretiminin Arttırılması Kararlaştırıldı.” Vatandaş, February 13, 1977.

“Pirinç Fiyatı Aldı Başını Gidiyor.” Yenigün, April 11, 2008.

“Pirinç Fiyatı Pilav Satıcılarını da vurdu.” Yenigün, April 26, 2008.

“Piyasa ve Müstahsilin Durumu.” Bafra, February 23, 1956.

“Protokol Çeltik Ekti.” Milliyet, May 10, 2016

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406

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September 22, 1976.

“Samsun Ziraat Odası Başkanı Şevki Yücel.” Hürsöz, May 6, 1976.

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“Samsun’un Yöresel Yemekleri Nelerdir?” October 10, 2019,

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“Seddeler Olmasaydı Edirne’nin Hali Ne Olurdu.” Vatandaş, July 20, 1995.

“Sel Felaketine Uğrayan İpsala Ovası.” Demokrat Keşan, May 20, 1953.

“Selahattin Ayçelik Edirne’ye Tayin Edildi.” İpsala, October 27, 1969.

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“Sıtma Savaşı Faaliyetine Hız Verildi.” Edirne Postası, April 23, 1949.

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18, 1971.

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1976.

“Sıtma Savaşı Çalışmaları.” Edirne Postası, April 28, 1953.

407

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“Son Yapılan Zamlardan Sonra Şehrimizde Akaryakıt Fiyatları Belli Oldu.”

Vatandaş, March 16, 1980.

Son Yağan Yağmurlar Nedeniyle Taşan Meriç Nehri 10 Milyonluk Zarara Yol

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Vatandaş, February 7, 1977.

“Su Taşkınları Yüzünden Edirne’de 10,000 Kişi Geçim Sıkıntısı İçindedir.”

Vatandaş, March 25, 1963.

“Subaşı Köyü Kalkınma Hamlesinde.” Adalet, January 24, 1975.

“Sözleşmeli Çeltik Üretimi Yapılacak İler Belli Oldu.” Vatandaş, February

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“Su Taşmasıyla Her Yıl Zarar Açan Meriç Nehri Mecrasının Temizlenme İşi

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“Sulama Kooperatifleri.” Vatandaş, April 10, 1976.

“Su Tarımın Can Damarı,” Vatandaş, March 19, 1977.

“Şiddetli Yağmurlardan İpsala Çeltik Tarlaları Su Altında Kaldı.” Vatandaş,

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“Sulama Suyu Tarifesi,” Edirne Sesi, May 15, 1965.

Şanlıurfa Olay, May 13, 2015.

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408

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“Şimdi Tam Zamanı.” Vatandaş, April 24, 1963.

“Şimdiye Kadar DSİ Bölgesine Bağlı Bulunan Trakya Mıntıkası Merkezi

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“1995 Tarımda Felaket Yılı Olabilir.” Vatandaş, October 21, 1994.

“Tarım Bakanının Trakya Gezileri.” Edirne Postası, August 20, 1948.

“Tarım Kredi Kooperatifinden Çiftçiye Destek.” Vatandaş, October 21, 1994.

“Tarımsal Sulamada Sıkıntılar Yaşanıyor.” Son Haber, January 17, 2009.

“Tarım Kredi Kooperatifleri Ziraat Bankasından Ayrıldı.” Vatandaş, October

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“Tayakadın ve Sazlıdere Köylerinde Çeltik Ekilmeyecek.” Vatandaş, March

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“TEGESAN Trakya Gübre Sanayi Kuruluyor.” Adalet, January 21, 1975.

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Tidim, Ufuk. "Tosya Pirinci 1929'da Anadolu'nun En İyisi Seçildi." Nasrullah

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409

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“Toprak Kanunu Tatbikatı.” Edirne Postası, April 22, 1948.

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“Toprak Dağıtımı.” Edirne Postası. June 29, 1949.

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“Topraksız Vatandaşlara Dağıtılacak Topraklar İçin Kaymakamımız Orhan

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Edirne Postası, October 3, 1951.

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Edirne Postası, October 3, 1951.

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410

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“Trakya’da Yalnızca 19 Arıtma Tesisi Var,” Vatandaş, June 7, 1996.

“Türkiye’nin 2. Büyük Barajı 20 Kasımda Enerji Üretimine Başlıyor.”

Vatandaş, November 2, 1979.

“Türkiye’de Sulanabilir Tarım Arazisi Büyüyor,” Vatandaş, January 3, 1979.

“Trakya’da Pamuk.” Edirne Sesi, June 1, 1965.

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“Türkiye’de 1976 Yılı Sonuna Kadar 60,000 Ton Tarımsal Mücadele İlacı

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“Türkiye’nin Sıtma İle Mücadelesine Uluslararası Destek İsteniyor.”

Vatandaş, November 19, 1977.

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Edirne Milletvekili Fethi Erimçağ'ın, İpsala İlçesindeki çeltik ekimi hakkındaki

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ekimine müsaade edilmemesi sebebine dair yazılı soru önergesi ve Tarım

Bakanı Cavit Oral'ın yazılı cevabı. (7/120) TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, June

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Edirne Milletvekili Fahir Gtiritlioğlu'nun, Meriç nehri sahillerinde Yunanlılar

tarafından yapılan sedlerin su basmasına sebeholup olmıyacağına dair

sorusuna Bayındırlık Bakanı Emin Paksüt'ün yazılı cevabı. TBMM Tutanak

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Edirne Milletvekili Fahir Giritlioğlu'nun, 1962 yılında bol miktarda ekilen

çeltik malhsulünün normal bir fiyatla satışlarının sağlanması konusunda

ne gibi tedbir düşünüldüğüne dair yazılı soru önergesi ve Ticaret Bakanı

Muhlis Ete’nin yazılı cevabı. TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, October 15, 1962.

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/MM__/d01/c008/mm__01008130.pdf

Edirne, Milletvekili Fahir Giritlioğlu’nun, îpsala, Kesan ve 'Uzunköprü

çeltiknlerine, çeltik ithali için, T.C Ziraat Bankası eliyle verilmesi

kararlaştırılan kredi esaslarında kanunsuz bir işlem yapılıp yapılmadığına

dair yazılı soru önergesi ve Ticaret Bakanı Muhlis Ete’nin yazılı cevabı,

(TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, September 28, 1962)

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/MM__/d01/c007/mm__01007122.pdf

Edirne Milletvekili Fahir Giritlioğlu'nun, Meriç nehri üzerinde yapılmakta

olan seciler sebebiyle Yunanlılarla mübadele edilen Türk topraklarına dair

Dışişleri Bakanından soru önergesi ve Bayındırlık Bakanı Arif Hikmet

Onat'ın sözlü cevabı. TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, January 08, 1964.

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/MM__/d01/c024/mm__01024028.pdf

Edirne Milletvekili Muhittin Yıldırım"in, İpsala ve çevresindeki çeltik üreticileriyle

ilgili alınması gereken acil tedbirler konusunda gündem dışı konuşması.

TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, September 24, 1985.

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d17/c019/tbmm17019007.pdf

Edirne Milletvekili Hasan Basri Eler'in, son günlerde meydana gelen üzücü

olaylara, çiftçilerimizin Bağ-Kur primine ve Edirne'deki çeltik üreticilerinin

sorunlanna ilişkin gündem dışı konuşması ve Devlet Bakanı Necmettin

Cevheri'nin cevabı. TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, July 08, 1993.

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d19/c038/tbmm19038125.pdf

420

Edirne milletvekili Fuat Erçetin’in Edirne, Meriç, İpsala Uzunköprü

ilçelerinde ve bağlı köyleri çeltik ekimi ile uğraşmaktadır. Nehirlerdeki

suyun kurumuş olması, bu yöredeki köylerimizi büyük bir facia ile karşı

karşıya getirmiş, tahmini 170 bin dekar çeltik arazisi kurumuştur. Ayrıca,

Enez ilçesine bağlı köylerde yağış düşmemesi nedeni ile kuraklık, netice

itibarı ile tarlalardan ürün almak mümkün olmamıştır. Bu köylerimizdeki,

çiftçi açlıkla karşı karşıyadır. Bu köylerde yaşayan çifçilerin T.C. Ziraat

Bankası ve öteki Bankalardaki borçları ertelenecek midir? Sorusuna

Tarım Orman ve Köyişleri Bakanı Lütfullah Kayalar’ın cevabı. TBMM

Tutanak Dergisi, September 18, 1990. https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d18/c048/tbmm18048008.pdf

Edirne Milletvekili Erdal Kesebir'in, Trakya çiftçisinin sorunlarına ilişkin

gündem dışı konuşması ve Tarım ve Köyişleri Bakanı Refaiddin Şahin'in

cevabı. TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, June 21, 1994.

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d19/c063/tbmm19063120.pdf

Edirne Milletvekili Erdal Kesebir'in, Trakya Bölgesindeki çiftçilerin sorunlarına

ilişkin gündem dışı konuşması ve Sanayi ve Ticaret Bakanı Mehmet

Tahir Köse'nin cevabı. TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, September 22, 1993.

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d19/c040/tbmm19040006.pdf

Edirne Milletvekili Mustafa İlimen'in, Edirne İlinde aşırı yağışların neden

olduğu ürün kayıpları ve çeltik üreticilerinin sorunları ile alınması gerekli

önlemlere ilişkin gündemdışı konuşması ve Turizm Bakanı İbrahim

Gürdal'ın cevabı. TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, November 5, 1998.

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d20/c065/tbmm20065015.pdf

Edirne Milletvekili Şadan Şimşek'in, tarım kesiminin sorunlarına ve alınması

gereken önlemlere ilişkin gündemdışı konuşması ve Tarım ve Köyişleri

Bakanı Hüsnü Yusuf Gökalp'in cevabı. TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, February

13, 2001. https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d21/c054/tbmm21054057.pdf

421

Edirne Milletvekili Rasim Çakır ve 32 arkadaşının, Ergene Nehrindeki

kirliliğin ve çevreye etkilerinin araştırılarak alınması gereken önlemlerin

belirlenmesi amacıyla Meclis araştırması açılmasına ilişkin önergesi,

TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, December 3, 2002. https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d22/c001/tbmm22001006.pdf

Edirne Milletvekili Cemaleddin Uslu 'nun, Edirneli çiftçilerin bazı sorunlarına

ilişkin sorusu ve Çevre ve Orman Bakanı Veysel Eroğlu 'nun cevabı.

TBMM Tutanak Dergisi, December 16, 2008.

https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/

TUTANAK/TBMM/d23/c034/tbmm23034028.pdf

Edirne Milletvekili Rasim Çakır ve 33 arkadaşının Ergene Nehrindeki

kirliliğin ve çevreye etkilerinin araştınlarak alınması gereken önlemlerin

belirlenmesi amacıyla Meclis araştırması açılmasına ilişkin önergesi,

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