ANADOLU SELÇUKLU DEVLETİ: 313

With 301 causalities, the the May 2014 Soma mine accident constituted the May 2014 Soma mine accident constituted the biggest mining accident in Turkish historybiggest mining accident in Turkish history and the biggest and the biggest worldwideworldwide inin the 21st century. Althoughthe 21st century. Although the underground mining sector has the sec-the underground mining sector has the sec-ondond--highest workplacehighest workplace accident rate, accident rate, mining ismining is a popular job ina popular job in the Soma the Soma region region even after the 2014 accident. even after the 2014 accident. Why do miners continue to work in Why do miners continue to work in the minethe miness even though they lose their friends, sons and fathers working even though they lose their friends, sons and fathers working there? This thesis aims to answer this question there? This thesis aims to answer this question by examiningby examining an inner an inner Aegean peasantAegean peasant--mminer community from a small village near Kütahya. iner community from a small village near Kütahya. ItIt builds on field research with the community along with archival research. builds on field research with the community along with archival research. Based on interviews with three generations of men who worked in the Based on interviews with three generations of men who worked in the Soma mine pits in three different historical periods (1960Soma mine pits in three different historical periods (1960--191980, 198080, 1980--2002 and 20022002 and 2002--2020) and their families, the study traces changing pat-2020) and their families, the study traces changing pat-terns of migration and labor against Turkey’s changing socioterns of migration and labor against Turkey’s changing socio--economic economic context. The thesis argues that the miners’ and their families’context. The thesis argues that the miners’ and their families’ experience experience with with the the generalgeneral sociosocio--economiceconomic cconditions of Turkey have shaped their onditions of Turkey have shaped their perspective towards their occupation.perspective towards their occupation. These experiences have to do with; These experiences have to do with; the labor market defined by the rise of unemployment rates, labor sur-the labor market defined by the rise of unemployment rates, labor sur-plus, the high number of minimum wage workers and informality; inner plus, the high number of minimum wage workers and informality; inner migratimigration; the transformation of agriculture; and the transformation of on; the transformation of agriculture; and the transformation of social policiessocial policies.. Given these Given these dynamics, dynamics, mineworker families consider mineworker families consider un-un-derground mining as a better job derground mining as a better job in terms of income, social securityin terms of income, social security and and retirement age comparretirement age compareded to other unskilled jobs in Turkey. to other unskilled jobs in Turkey.

The study contributes to the literature on miner communities in

vii

than

than ZonguldakZonguldak,, which has mostly been the swhich has mostly been the study site. Secondly, it brings tudy site. Secondly, it brings in in minmineworkers’ familieseworkers’ families and household strategiesand household strategies into the analysis ra-into the analysis ra-ther than just focusther than just focusinging on male workerson male workers.. TThirdlyhirdly,, by covering a wider time by covering a wider time span through its focus on the experience of three generations, span through its focus on the experience of three generations, it it offerofferss a a broad perspective of the miner community fbroad perspective of the miner community from its first formation and rom its first formation and revealrevealss the dynamics that have changed over time.the dynamics that have changed over time.

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viii

Özet

Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Atat

301 ölüme sebep olan Mayıs 2014 Soma maden kazası Türkiye ve dünya tarihinin 21. Yüzyılda ’ki en büyük maden kazası olmuştur. Yeraltı maden-tarihinin 21. Yüzyılda ’ki en büyük maden kazası olmuştur. Yeraltı maden-ciliği sektörü en yüksek ciliği sektörü en yüksek ikinci iş kazası oranına sahip olmasına ve kazaya ikinci iş kazası oranına sahip olmasına ve kazaya rağmen, Soma bölgesindeki madencilik hala popüler olmaya devam et-rağmen, Soma bölgesindeki madencilik hala popüler olmaya devam et-miştir.miştir. Madenciler çalışma arkadaşlarını, oğullarını ve babalarını kaybet-Madenciler çalışma arkadaşlarını, oğullarını ve babalarını kaybet-melerine rağmen neden madende çalışmaya devam ediyorlar? Bu tez, Kü-melerine rağmen neden madende çalışmaya devam ediyorlar? Bu tez, Kü-ttahya yakınlarındaki küçük bir köyden gelen iç Ege köylüahya yakınlarındaki küçük bir köyden gelen iç Ege köylü--madenci madenci topluluğunun incelenmesiyle bu soruya cevap aramaktadır. Bu çalışma, topluluğunun incelenmesiyle bu soruya cevap aramaktadır. Bu çalışma, yapılan saha araştırmasıyla birlikte arşiv araştırmasına dayanmaktadır. yapılan saha araştırmasıyla birlikte arşiv araştırmasına dayanmaktadır. Bu araştırma, Soma maden ocaklarında üç farklı tariBu araştırma, Soma maden ocaklarında üç farklı tarihsel dönemde hsel dönemde (1960(1960--1980, 19801980, 1980--2002 ve 20022002 ve 2002--2020) çalışan üç kuşak erkek ve ailele-2020) çalışan üç kuşak erkek ve ailele-riyle yapılanriyle yapılan mülakatlaramülakatlara dayanarak, Türkiye'nin değişen sosyodayanarak, Türkiye'nin değişen sosyo--ekono-ekono-mik bağlamına karşı değişen göç ve emek kalıplarını incelemektedir.mik bağlamına karşı değişen göç ve emek kalıplarını incelemektedir. Bu Bu araştırma, madencilerin ve ailelerinaraştırma, madencilerin ve ailelerinin in Türkiye’nin zaman içinde değişen Türkiye’nin zaman içinde değişen genel sosyogenel sosyo--ekonomik koşullarekonomik koşulları ileı ile ilgili deneyimlerilgili deneyimlerinininin mesleklerine ba-mesleklerine ba-kış açılarını şekillendirdiğini savunuyor. Bu deneyimler; işsizlik kış açılarını şekillendirdiğini savunuyor. Bu deneyimler; işsizlik oranları-oranları-nın yükselmesi, işgücü fazlası, asgari ücretli sayısının yüksek olması venın yükselmesi, işgücü fazlası, asgari ücretli sayısının yüksek olması ve kayıt dışılık; iç göç, tarımın dönüşümü; Türkiye'de sosyal politika ve kayıt dışılık; iç göç, tarımın dönüşümü; Türkiye'de sosyal politika ve emeklilik kalıplarının dönüşümü ile ilgidir. Bu sosyoemeklilik kalıplarının dönüşümü ile ilgidir. Bu sosyo--ekonomik gerçekler ekonomik gerçekler ve bölgedeki coğrafi şartlar göz önüne alındığında, maden işçisi ailelerve bölgedeki coğrafi şartlar göz önüne alındığında, maden işçisi aileler,, Türkiye'deki diğer vasıfsız işlere kıTürkiye'deki diğer vasıfsız işlere kıyasla madencilik sektöründe çalış-yasla madencilik sektöründe çalış-mayımayı,, gelir, sosyal güvenlik, emeklilik yaşı ve çalışma saatleri açısından gelir, sosyal güvenlik, emeklilik yaşı ve çalışma saatleri açısından nispeten daha iyi koşullara sahip olarak görmektedir.nispeten daha iyi koşullara sahip olarak görmektedir.

Bu çalışma, literatüre üç bakımdan katkıda bulunur; bir, daha çok araş-

Bu çalışma, literatüre üç bakımdan katkıda bulunur; bir, daha çok araş-tırma alanı olan Zonguldak/Karadeniz bölgesi yerine farklı bir coğrafi tırma alanı olan Zonguldak/Karadeniz bölgesi yerine farklı bir coğrafi bölgeye (Ege) odaklanarak Türkiye'deki madenci toplulukları ile ilgili li-bölgeye (Ege) odaklanarak Türkiye'deki madenci toplulukları ile ilgili li-teratüre katkıda bulunmaktadır. İkinci olateratüre katkıda bulunmaktadır. İkinci olarak madenciliği, maden işçileri rak madenciliği, maden işçileri ve aileleri perspektiften analiz haline getirir, sadece erkek madenci işçi-ve aileleri perspektiften analiz haline getirir, sadece erkek madenci işçi-lere odaklanmak yerine tüm aileye odaklanıp, madenciliği aile stratejisi lere odaklanmak yerine tüm aileye odaklanıp, madenciliği aile stratejisi olarak ele alır, olarak ele alır, üçüncüsü daha geniş bir zamanı kapsayarak inceler ve üç üçüncüsü daha geniş bir zamanı kapsayarak inceler ve üç nesinesil madencilere odaklanarak geniş bir bakış açısı sunar ve zamanla de-l madencilere odaklanarak geniş bir bakış açısı sunar ve zamanla de-ğişen dinamikleri vurgulayarak literatüre katkıda bulunur.ğişen dinamikleri vurgulayarak literatüre katkıda bulunur.

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...................................................................................................................................................................... xviiixviii

1 INTRODINTRODUCTIONUCTION .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11

§ 1.11.1 The Soma Mine DisasterThe Soma Mine Disaster .............................................................................................................................................................. 22

1.1.1

1.1.1 Bilal’s HouseBilal’s House .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 55

§ 1.21.2 MMain Arguments of the Thesisain Arguments of the Thesis .................................................................................................................................. 1212

§ 1.31.3 Three Generations: Changing Patterns of Migration and LaborThree Generations: Changing Patterns of Migration and Labor .. 2121

§ 1.41.4 The Scope and Some Notes on Miners and MiningThe Scope and Some Notes on Miners and Mining .................................................... 2828

1.4.1.1

1.4.1.1 Who are the miners working in Soma?Who are the miners working in Soma? ........................................................................ 2828

1.4.2

1.4.2 Surface Miners and Underground MinersSurface Miners and Underground Miners .............................................................................. 3030

1.4.3

1.4.3 The Scope: Underground MinersThe Scope: Underground Miners .............................................................................................................. 3030

1.4.4

1.4.4 The Working Conditions of MinersThe Working Conditions of Miners .......................................................................................................... 3131

§ 1.51.5 Contribution to LiteratureContribution to Literature .................................................................................................................................................. 3232

§ 1.61.6 Literature ReviewLiterature Review .................................................................................................................................................................................. 3636

1.6.1

1.6.1 Global Mining Community LiteratureGlobal Mining Community Literature ................................................................................................ 3636

1.6.2

1.6.2 Turkey Mining Community LiteratureTurkey Mining Community Literature ............................................................................................ 3939

1.6.2.1

1.6.2.1 Inner Aegean Mining CommunityInner Aegean Mining Community-- Soma Local Mining Soma Local Mining Community LiteratureCommunity Literature .......................................................................................................................................................................... 4343

§ 1.71.7 The ResearchThe Research .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5050

1.7.1

1.7.1 Research PeriodResearch Period .................................................................................................................................................................................. 5050

1.7.2

1.7.2 Research MethodsResearch Methods .......................................................................................................................................................................... 5050

1.7.

1.7.33 Expectation and ReciprocityExpectation and Reciprocity .................................................................................................................................. 5252

xiv

1.7.4

1.7.4 Researcher’s CharacterResearcher’s Character ...................................................................................................................................................... 5454

1.7.5

1.7.5 AccessAccess ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5656

1.7.6

1.7.6 EthicsEthics .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5757

§ 1.81.8 Thesis Thesis Outline and OrganizationOutline and Organization ........................................................................................................................ 5858

2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDHISTORICAL BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................................................................ 6060

§ 2.12.1 History of Mining in Turkey and PeriodizationHistory of Mining in Turkey and Periodization .................................................................. 6161

§ 2.22.2 Aegean Lignite and Soma in the Late Ottoman PeriodAegean Lignite and Soma in the Late Ottoman Period ...................................... 6262

2.2.1.1

2.2.1.1 The History of Soma Coal BasinThe History of Soma Coal Basin .................................................................................................... 6262

§ 2.32.3 Early Republican Period: Nationalized PeriodEarly Republican Period: Nationalized Period .................................................................... 6464

2.3.1

2.3.1 Soma and Kütahya Mines Inner Aegean Mines during the Soma and Kütahya Mines Inner Aegean Mines during the Nationalized PeriodNationalized Period .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 6666

2.3.1.1

2.3.1.1 Soma MinesSoma Mines .................................................................................................................................................................................. 6666

2.3.1.2

2.3.1.2 Kütahya MinesKütahya Mines ........................................................................................................................................................................ 6767

§ 2.42.4 PostPost--War Period: Planned PeriodWar Period: Planned Period ...................................................................................................................... 6969

2.4.1

2.4.1 Soma in the PostSoma in the Post--War PeriodWar Period ................................................................................................................................ 7171

2.4.1.1

2.4.1.1 Inner MigrationInner Migration .................................................................................................................................................................. 7272

§ 2.52.5 Neoliberal Period: Privatization PeriodNeoliberal Period: Privatization Period .............................................................................................. 7373

2.5.1

2.5.1 20012001--2020 Period2020 Period .......................................................................................................................................................................... 7575

§ 2.2.66 ConclusionConclusion .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7676

3 THE FIELD: Selimli, Soma and CenkyeriTHE FIELD: Selimli, Soma and Cenkyeri .................................................................................................................. 7979

§ 3.13.1 The Portrait of Selimli: a Village in the PeripheryThe Portrait of Selimli: a Village in the Periphery ...................................................... 7979

3.1.1.1

3.1.1.1 TransportationTransportation ...................................................................................................................................................................... 8080

3.1.1.2

3.1.1.2 SettlementSettlement ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 8181

3.1.1.3

3.1.1.3 The Region: GüzelyurtThe Region: Güzelyurt ........................................................................................................................................ 8181

3.1.1.4

3.1.1.4 Arrival in the VillageArrival in the Village ................................................................................................................................................ 8383

§ 3.23.2 Soma FieldSoma Field .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9595

3.2.1.1

3.2.1.1 The Portrait of Soma; Cenkyeri and Station DistrictThe Portrait of Soma; Cenkyeri and Station District ...................... 9595

3.2.1.2

3.2.1.2 Housing and Mining SettlementHousing and Mining Settlement .................................................................................................... 9797

TRANSFORMATION OF SELIMLI: TRANSFORMATION OF SELIMLI: FROM A PEASANT COMMUNITY TOFROM A PEASANT COMMUNITY TO A A PEASANTPEASANT--MINING COMMUNITYMINING COMMUNITY ................................................................................................................................................ 100100

§ 4.14.1 Social PoliciesSocial Policies ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 100100

4.1.1

4.1.1 The Desire for Inclusion in the Social Security System: Kemal’s The Desire for Inclusion in the Social Security System: Kemal’s StoryStory .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 102102

4.1.2

4.1.2 Aiming for Early RetirementAiming for Early Retirement ............................................................................................................................ 104104

§ 4.24.2 Household Strategy, Family Dynamics, and MarriageHousehold Strategy, Family Dynamics, and Marriage.................................... 108108

4.2.1

4.2.1 The Importance of Marriage and HonorThe Importance of Marriage and Honor .............................................................................. 112112

4.2.2

4.2.2 Family Perception of MigrationFamily Perception of Migration ................................................................................................................ 113113

§ 4.34.3 Three Generations and Changing Patterns of Migration and LaborThree Generations and Changing Patterns of Migration and Labor .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 115115

4.3.1

4.3.1 First GenerationFirst Generation ............................................................................................................................................................................ 115115

4.3.2

4.3.2 The Second GenerationThe Second Generation ................................................................................................................................................ 119119

4.3.3

4.3.3 The Third GenerationThe Third Generation ...................................................................................................................................................... 120120

5 CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 124124

Appendix

Appendix Information of IntervieweesInformation of Interviewees .................................................................................................... 129129

Bibliography

Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 137137

1.1

xvi

List of Figures

Figure

Figure 11..11 Lignite Reserve Map of TurkeyLignite Reserve Map of Turkey p. p. 7474

Figure 4.1 Soma Map

Figure 4.1 Soma Map p.94p.94

List of TablesList of Tables

Table 1.1

Table 1.1 The Generation Table p. 2The Generation Table p. 233

Abbreviations and Acronyms

AKP

AKP Justice and Development PartyJustice and Development Party

ARIP

ARIP Agricultural Reform Implementation ProjectAgricultural Reform Implementation Project

EU European UnionEuropean Union

ILO

ILO International International LaborLabor OrganizationOrganization

KPSS

KPSS Public Personnel Selection ExamPublic Personnel Selection Exam

MTA

MTA General Directorate of Mineral Research and ExplorationGeneral Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration

MA Master of Arts Master of Arts

NGOGO NonNon--Governmental OrganizationGovernmental Organization

SGK

SGK Social Security InstitutionSocial Security Institution

TEKEL

TEKEL Turkish Tobacco and Alcoholic Beverages CompanyTurkish Tobacco and Alcoholic Beverages Company

TKİ

TKİ Turkish Coal EnterpriseTurkish Coal Enterprise

TÜİK

TÜİK Turkish Statistical InstituteTurkish Statistical Institute

xvii

xviii

Acknowledgements

There is a long list that I should thank. Firstly, I want to start with my

There is a long list that I should thank. Firstly, I want to start with my thesis advisor Berna Yazıcı. I am thankful for her comments and contri-thesis advisor Berna Yazıcı. I am thankful for her comments and contri-butions to my thesis. Secondly, I wish to thank the jury members Irmak butions to my thesis. Secondly, I wish to thank the jury members Irmak Ertör and Alpkan Birelma for their commeErtör and Alpkan Birelma for their comments and critics of my research. nts and critics of my research.

I would like to extend my sincere thanks to

I would like to extend my sincere thanks to the Boğaziçi University Ata-the Boğaziçi University Ata-türk Institute memberstürk Institute members and the history department. The courses of Şev-and the history department. The courses of Şev-ket Pamuk, Cengiz Kırlı, Zafer Toprak, Aydın Babuna, and Nadir Özbek, ket Pamuk, Cengiz Kırlı, Zafer Toprak, Aydın Babuna, and Nadir Özbek, Edhem Eldem, Edhem Eldem, Tolga Cora opened new horizons in my mind and played a Tolga Cora opened new horizons in my mind and played a remarkable role in the emergence of these work with their courses. I am remarkable role in the emergence of these work with their courses. I am grateful to the administrative staff of our lovely Institute, namely Tracy grateful to the administrative staff of our lovely Institute, namely Tracy Lord Şen, Leyla Kılıç, Kadriye Tamtekin, and Dilek TecLord Şen, Leyla Kılıç, Kadriye Tamtekin, and Dilek Tecirli.irli.

I received financial support from the

I received financial support from the TÜBİTAK 2210/A program. TÜBİTAK 2210/A program. I owe I owe special thanks to TÜBİTAK for its financial support. It might be very dif-special thanks to TÜBİTAK for its financial support. It might be very dif-ficult to continue my education without its support.ficult to continue my education without its support.

I would like to especially thank my lovely friend

I would like to especially thank my lovely friend;; Emir, Evren, Halim, Emir, Evren, Halim, Metehan, Yunus, and Ahmet; they are special witnesses and supporters Metehan, Yunus, and Ahmet; they are special witnesses and supporters of real life and my academic life. I should mention Metehan and Evren’s of real life and my academic life. I should mention Metehan and Evren’s editorial support.editorial support.

I would also like to thank my friends from the Atatürk Institute, Batıkan,

I would also like to thank my friends from the Atatürk Institute, Batıkan, ÇÇağatay, Muhammed, Eyüp Burak, Batuhan, Hülya and Sena.ağatay, Muhammed, Eyüp Burak, Batuhan, Hülya and Sena.

My deepest gratitude goes to my precious family. I should mention my

My deepest gratitude goes to my precious family. I should mention my wifewife, best friend, best friend Merve,Merve, herher support for the research, giving the ideas, and support for the research, giving the ideas, and her support in life.her support in life. I also would like to thanks to ÇelI also would like to thanks to Çelebi Family.ebi Family. I am also I am also thankful to my son Ali Selim; his smiles made my days joyful while writ-thankful to my son Ali Selim; his smiles made my days joyful while writ-ing the thesis.ing the thesis.

xix

Epigraph(s)

—

— “the death bodies of workers are worthier “the death bodies of workers are worthier than theirs alive.” than theirs alive.”

—

— Mineworker Mahmut (57)Mineworker Mahmut (57)

1INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

ith

ith 301 causalities, the May 2014 Soma mine accident constituted 301 causalities, the May 2014 Soma mine accident constituted the biggest mining accident in Turkish history, and the biggest the biggest mining accident in Turkish history, and the biggest across the world in the 21st century. Despite the fact that the under-across the world in the 21st century. Despite the fact that the under-ground mininground mining sector has the secondg sector has the second--highest workplacehighest workplace--accident rate, accident rate, miners around the Soma region are willing to work in the mine pits and miners around the Soma region are willing to work in the mine pits and miners’ families consider mining an advantageous job even after the sominers’ families consider mining an advantageous job even after the so--called Soma disaster. called Soma disaster.

Why do miners continue to work in the mines even though they

Why do miners continue to work in the mines even though they lose their friends, sons and fathers working there? This thesis aims to an-lose their friends, sons and fathers working there? This thesis aims to an-swer this question through the examination of an inner Aegean peasantswer this question through the examination of an inner Aegean peasant--miner community from a small village near Kütahya. miner community from a small village near Kütahya. This study builds on This study builds on field research with the community along with archival research. Based on field research with the community along with archival research. Based on interviews with three generations of men who worked in the Soma mine interviews with three generations of men who worked in the Soma mine pits in three different historical periods (1960pits in three different historical periods (1960--1980, 19801980, 1980--2002 and 2002 and 20022002--2020) and their fam2020) and their families, the study traces changing patterns of mi-ilies, the study traces changing patterns of mi-gration and labor against Turkey’s changing sociogration and labor against Turkey’s changing socio--economic context. economic context.

The thesis argues that the miners’ and their families’ experience

The thesis argues that the miners’ and their families’ experience with the general sociowith the general socio--economic conditions economic conditions of Turkeyof Turkey have shaped their have shaped their perspective towards their occupation. These experiences have to do with; perspective towards their occupation. These experiences have to do with; the country’s labor market situation defined by the rise of unemployment the country’s labor market situation defined by the rise of unemployment rates, labor surplus, the high number of minimum wage workers and in-rates, labor surplus, the high number of minimum wage workers and in-formality; inner migratformality; inner migration; the transformation of agriculture; and the ion; the transformation of agriculture; and the

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

transformation of social policies and retirement patterns in Turkey. Given

transformation of social policies and retirement patterns in Turkey. Given these sociothese socio--economic realities, mineworker families consider working in economic realities, mineworker families consider working in the mining sector as having relatively better conditions in tthe mining sector as having relatively better conditions in terms of in-erms of in-come, social security, retirement age, and working hours in comparison come, social security, retirement age, and working hours in comparison to other unskilled jobs in Turkey. to other unskilled jobs in Turkey.

The study contributes to the literature on miner communities in

The study contributes to the literature on miner communities in Turkey firstly by focusing on a different geographic area (Aegean) rather Turkey firstly by focusing on a different geographic area (Aegean) rather than the Zonguldak/Black Sea regionthan the Zonguldak/Black Sea region,, which has which has been chieflybeen chiefly the site of the site of study. Secondly, the thesis brings in mineworkers’ familiesstudy. Secondly, the thesis brings in mineworkers’ families'' perspectives perspectives and household strategies into the analysis rather than just focusing on and household strategies into the analysis rather than just focusing on male mine workers. Thirdly, by coverinmale mine workers. Thirdly, by covering a wider time span through its g a wider time span through its focus on the experience of three generations, the study offers a broad per-focus on the experience of three generations, the study offers a broad per-spective of the miner community from its first formation and reveals the spective of the miner community from its first formation and reveals the dynamics that have changed over time.dynamics that have changed over time.

§ 1.11.1 The Soma Mine DisasterThe Soma Mine Disaster

On May

On May 13, 201413, 2014, the biggest mining accident in Turkish history , the biggest mining accident in Turkish history and the biggest and the biggest worldwideworldwide in the 21st centuryin the 21st century led toled to the the disastrous disastrous death death of 301 of 301 miners inminers in Soma. The accident occurred because of the electric Soma. The accident occurred because of the electric transformer explosiontransformer explosion, leading, leading to an underground mine fire. The to an underground mine fire. The fire con-fire con-tinued until May 15, leaving 301 miners dead. The incident was only one tinued until May 15, leaving 301 miners dead. The incident was only one of the many mine and work accidents consistentlyof the many mine and work accidents consistently happeninghappening in Turkey.in Turkey.

A National Day of Mourning was declared after the accident be-

A National Day of Mourning was declared after the accident be-cause of the high number of deaths. The mine cause of the high number of deaths. The mine was operated by the private was operated by the private company, Soma Coal Company Incorporated (Soma Kömür İşletmeleri company, Soma Coal Company Incorporated (Soma Kömür İşletmeleri A.Ş.) in the Eynez Region in the city of Manisa in western Turkey. The op-A.Ş.) in the Eynez Region in the city of Manisa in western Turkey. The op-eration in the underground mine continued noneration in the underground mine continued non--stop with three shifts, stop with three shifts, and the accident happand the accident happened during the shift changeened during the shift change. Th. The lawsuit process e lawsuit process continued untilcontinued until June 2021.June 2021.1 The mineworkers who survived The mineworkers who survived the accident the accident

1 Chairman of Board Director of Soma Coal Company Incorporated was jailed for 20 years Chairman of Board Director of Soma Coal Company Incorporated was jailed for 20 years and engineers Efkan Kurt and Adem Osmanoğlu were jailed for 12 years and 6 months.and engineers Efkan Kurt and Adem Osmanoğlu were jailed for 12 years and 6 months.

A N IN NE R A E G EA N P EAS A N T -MIN E R C OMMU N I T Y IN

T R A N S FORMAT IO N: U NC O V E R IN G MI G R AN T WO R K E R S ’ P E R S P E C T I V E S

IN THE SOMA C OA L BAS IN

continued working in the mine during this process despite the traumatic

continued working in the mine during this process despite the traumatic experience.experience.

After the disaster, many issues were discussed by t

After the disaster, many issues were discussed by the media, the he media, the public, NGOs, public, NGOs, academacademicsics, and politicians in Turkey and globally. The first , and politicians in Turkey and globally. The first issue discussed after the incident was whether the number of deaths was issue discussed after the incident was whether the number of deaths was 301 or not. The 301 or not. The relationrelationship ship betweenbetween the labor unions, business, and pol-the labor unions, business, and pol-itics was interrogated.itics was interrogated. Privatization, Privatization, redevanceredevance system,system,2 and decrease and decrease inin agricultural subsidies were also criticized. In the elections in the same agricultural subsidies were also criticized. In the elections in the same year of the accident, the Justice and Development Party (AKP)year of the accident, the Justice and Development Party (AKP) 3 got the got the majoritmajority’sy’s votevotess in Soma. Political preferences and the support for the in Soma. Political preferences and the support for the AKP in the region wAKP in the region wereere also discussed after the elections. In addition to also discussed after the elections. In addition to these topics, capitalism, unemployment, and poverty were debated. these topics, capitalism, unemployment, and poverty were debated. Lastly, the depiction of the accident in the media was discuLastly, the depiction of the accident in the media was discussed since it ssed since it was shown as a natural disaster by some media organizations. was shown as a natural disaster by some media organizations.

However,

However, as Smith (2006) arguesas Smith (2006) argues,, there is “no such thing as a nat-there is “no such thing as a nat-ural disaster.” In Smith’s view, “naturalness” is a camouflage for the socioural disaster.” In Smith’s view, “naturalness” is a camouflage for the socio--political and economic arrangements whpolitical and economic arrangements which contribute to the prepara-ich contribute to the prepara-tion of disasters in the first place.tion of disasters in the first place.4 With this conceptualization of disas-With this conceptualization of disas-ters, the socioters, the socio--political arrangements which hapolitical arrangements which haveve contributed to the contributed to the Soma catastrophe Soma catastrophe can be linked to the way the mine was operatedcan be linked to the way the mine was operated; by the; by the privateprivate cocompany, mpany, the labour regime in the minesthe labour regime in the mines,, and the state’s failure and the state’s failure

Member of board directors Haluk Eviç

Member of board directors Haluk Eviç was acquitted. It was commented as “the worst de-was acquitted. It was commented as “the worst de-cision” by Hatice Aslan Atabay, one of the lawyers of the miners to VOA Turkish. Soner cision” by Hatice Aslan Atabay, one of the lawyers of the miners to VOA Turkish. Soner Kızılkaya and Oğulcan Bakiler. “Soma Maden Faciası Davasında Karar Çıktı.” Kızılkaya and Oğulcan Bakiler. “Soma Maden Faciası Davasında Karar Çıktı.” Voice of Amer-Voice of Amer-ica Turkishica Turkish. 16 June 2021. . 16 June 2021. https://www.amerikaninsesi.com/a/somahttps://www.amerikaninsesi.com/a/soma--madenmaden--faciasifaciasi--dava-dava-sindasinda--kararkarar--cikti/5930939.htmlcikti/5930939.html

2 Redevance SystemRedevance System: It is a contract, according to which the mining : It is a contract, according to which the mining operation area is left to operation area is left to a private company for a certain period of time. And then the license holder state gives pur-a private company for a certain period of time. And then the license holder state gives pur-chasing guarantee to private companies to buy their production.chasing guarantee to private companies to buy their production.

3 Adalet ve Kalkınma PartisiAdalet ve Kalkınma Partisi

4 Smith, Neil. “There’s No Such Thing as a NatSmith, Neil. “There’s No Such Thing as a Natural Disaster.” Social Science Research Coun-ural Disaster.” Social Science Research Coun-cil. 11 June 2006. cil. 11 June 2006. https://items.ssrc.org/understandinghttps://items.ssrc.org/understanding--katrina/thereskatrina/theres--nono--suchsuch--thingthing--asas--aa--naturalnatural--disaster/disaster/

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

to inspect the mine and impose

to inspect the mine and impose precautionsprecautions to prevent such a deadly ac-to prevent such a deadly ac-cidentcident..

Another catastrophe also

Another catastrophe also occurred in the underground mines in occurred in the underground mines in Ermenek after the Soma accident onErmenek after the Soma accident on October 28, 2014.October 28, 2014. After these two After these two accidents, nearly all mineworkers returned to the coal basins to work im-accidents, nearly all mineworkers returned to the coal basins to work im-mediately. Mineworkers are witnessing, experiencing deaths and acci-mediately. Mineworkers are witnessing, experiencing deaths and acci-dentsdents,, and miners know the high possibility of death and accident risksand miners know the high possibility of death and accident risks,, but they continue to work. but they continue to work. Furthermore, numerous peasants continue to Furthermore, numerous peasants continue to apply to work in underground mines in Soma,apply to work in underground mines in Soma,5 Zonguldak, and various Zonguldak, and various places around Turkey, which can be seen in the news.places around Turkey, which can be seen in the news.6 After the Soma After the Soma accident, miners protested and went to court to accident, miners protested and went to court to returnreturn to their job. In the to their job. In the court, to defend themselves, the lawyers of Soma Holdingcourt, to defend themselves, the lawyers of Soma Holding askedasked, “If con-, “If con-ditions at the mine were so bad, why did workers file reemployment law-ditions at the mine were so bad, why did workers file reemployment law-suits after they were dismissed?”suits after they were dismissed?”7

In my field research in the region

In my field research in the region,, I have also experienced the I have also experienced the strong strong insistence of some miners on working in the underground mine insistence of some miners on working in the underground mine although they had lost their relatives in the mine. Below, I offer a story although they had lost their relatives in the mine. Below, I offer a story from the fieldfrom the field in “Bilal’s House”in “Bilal’s House” which most strwhich most striikingly demonstrates the kingly demonstrates the miners’ and their families’ strong preference fminers’ and their families’ strong preference for having a job in the mine, or having a job in the mine, a suggestion they even extended to me, the researcher, by trying to per-a suggestion they even extended to me, the researcher, by trying to per-suade me to give up my graduate studies to take a job in the mine.suade me to give up my graduate studies to take a job in the mine.

5 “115 Madenci Için Rekor Başvuru!” Mynet, accessed 28 November 2020. “115 Madenci Için Rekor Başvuru!” Mynet, accessed 28 November 2020. https://fi-https://fi-nans.mynet.com/haber/detay/ekonomi/115nans.mynet.com/haber/detay/ekonomi/115--madencimadenci--icinicin--rekorrekor--basvuru/93997/basvuru/93997/; ; ““Maden İşçiliği Için Rekor Başvuru,” Star, accessed 28 November 2020. Maden İşçiliği Için Rekor Başvuru,” Star, accessed 28 November 2020. https://www.star.com.tr/guncel/madenhttps://www.star.com.tr/guncel/maden--isciligiisciligi--icinicin--rekorrekor--basvurubasvuru--haberhaber--884712/884712/

6 “Bin Kişil“Bin Kişilik Madenci Kadrosuna 35 Bin 770 Kişi Başvurdu,” Aydınlık, accessed 28 Novem-ik Madenci Kadrosuna 35 Bin 770 Kişi Başvurdu,” Aydınlık, accessed 28 Novem-ber 2020. ber 2020. https://www.aydinlik.com.tr/binhttps://www.aydinlik.com.tr/bin--kisilikkisilik--madencimadenci--kadrosunkadrosunaa--3535--binbin--770770--kisikisi--basvurdubasvurdu--emekemek--subatsubat--20192019

7 Çelik, Coşku. “Soma’da işçileşme süreçleri.” Evrensel. 13 May 2016. Çelik, Coşku. “Soma’da işçileşme süreçleri.” Evrensel. 13 May 2016. https://www.evren-https://www.evren-sel.net/haber/279977/somadasel.net/haber/279977/somada--iscilesmeiscilesme--sureclsureclerieri

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1.1.1

1.1.1 BilalBilal’s House’s House8

When we went to Bilal’s house, there was a small garden, a tractor,

When we went to Bilal’s house, there was a small garden, a tractor, and a and a car in the yard. Bilal was praying in his house, and his son and car in the yard. Bilal was praying in his house, and his son and daughterdaughter--inin--law welcomed uslaw welcomed us.9

It was winter

It was winter,, and the weather was cold. We gathered around the and the weather was cold. We gathered around the heater in the living roomheater in the living room andand conducted an interview. In the room, there conducted an interview. In the room, there were Bilal (80), his sowere Bilal (80), his son Mahmut (57), Feride (50, Mahmutn Mahmut (57), Feride (50, Mahmut’s’s wifewife), Mel-), Mel-tem (61, previous interviewee), Şefika (32), and me, İsmail (26). tem (61, previous interviewee), Şefika (32), and me, İsmail (26).

I started the interview with Bilal and introduced myself as a re-

I started the interview with Bilal and introduced myself as a re-searcher and son of Ali Osman. He said, “Ah, you are the son of Ali Osmansearcher and son of Ali Osman. He said, “Ah, you are the son of Ali Osman,, and I saw you fifteen years ago.” Then, as he and I saw you fifteen years ago.” Then, as he explainedexplained, the interview was , the interview was interrupted by questions and comments in the room. At the end of the interrupted by questions and comments in the room. At the end of the interview, Bilal asked questions about the details of my life in Istanbulinterview, Bilal asked questions about the details of my life in Istanbul,, and the dialogue was as follows:and the dialogue was as follows:

İsm

İsmail: I am a Master of Arts (MA) student at Boğaziçi University, ail: I am a Master of Arts (MA) student at Boğaziçi University, doing research and planning to be an academic.doing research and planning to be an academic.

Bilal: How long does it take

Bilal: How long does it take,, and how much money will you earn and how much money will you earn after this long process?after this long process?

I tried to explain

I tried to explain it it to him, but it did not make sense.to him, but it did not make sense.

Bilal: You should work in underground mines in Soma. We can

Bilal: You should work in underground mines in Soma. We can contact our network to take you to the mines. Being an academi-contact our network to take you to the mines. Being an academi-cian is a long process. If you work in the underground mine, you cian is a long process. If you work in the underground mine, you can obtain your retirement right, start to take your retirement can obtain your retirement right, start to take your retirement

8 The names of interviewees have been changed for the confidentiality of the research. All The names of interviewees have been changed for the confidentiality of the research. All names used in the thesis are pseudonyms. names used in the thesis are pseudonyms.

9 On the third day of the field research, On the third day of the field research, after interviewing Şefika (32), the wife of a miner after interviewing Şefika (32), the wife of a miner Mevlüt who worked in the Mevlüt who worked in the mine that exploded in 2014 and survived, she took memine that exploded in 2014 and survived, she took me toto Meltem Meltem (61) whose husband(61) whose husband hadhad died in Değirmisaz in 1997died in Değirmisaz in 1997. . After the interview was conducted, After the interview was conducted, since since Meltem could not remember Meltem could not remember much,much, and sheand she suggested I have an interview with Bilal suggested I have an interview with Bilal (80). (80). Bilal’s Bilal’s grandsongrandson died in thedied in the May 2014May 2014 accident of 301. The research was designed for accident of 301. The research was designed for an individual semian individual semi--structured instructured in--depth interview.depth interview.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

pensi

pension while you continue to work, and make more money until on while you continue to work, and make more money until you become a professor.you become a professor.

Mahmut: İsmail has never worked in the mine

Mahmut: İsmail has never worked in the mine andand is 25 years old. is 25 years old. The mines will probably not employ him. When someone’s father The mines will probably not employ him. When someone’s father died in the mine, they guaranteed the job for hidied in the mine, they guaranteed the job for him. Therefore, İs-m. Therefore, İs-mail has a chance to get a job in the mine, but it is still difficult. He mail has a chance to get a job in the mine, but it is still difficult. He cannot work there without references.cannot work there without references.

Bilal: Let us call our contact to ask if you could work in the mine.

They started to check their phones, both Bilal and Mahmut,

They started to check their phones, both Bilal and Mahmut, to ask to ask whether they could get a job for me in the mine.whether they could get a job for me in the mine.

İsmail: Please do not call

İsmail: Please do not call.. I do not want to work in the mine.I do not want to work in the mine.

Meltem: İsmail says he is comfortable in İstanbul. He studies at a

Meltem: İsmail says he is comfortable in İstanbul. He studies at a very prestigious university. But, if you want to work İsmail, you very prestigious university. But, if you want to work İsmail, you shoshould consider this. Miners are like civil uld consider this. Miners are like civil servants,servants, and they earn and they earn a good amount of money. They have two days off. Their insurance a good amount of money. They have two days off. Their insurance is regularly covered. The working hours are short; therefore, you is regularly covered. The working hours are short; therefore, you should should considerconsider this job opportunity. But it is up to you.this job opportunity. But it is up to you.

Feride (The wife of Mahmut): There are many people here from

Feride (The wife of Mahmut): There are many people here from Kütahya.Kütahya. You will be close to our fellow townsmen. Our network You will be close to our fellow townsmen. Our network is here. Instead of living in İstanbul, a metropolitan city, it is better is here. Instead of living in İstanbul, a metropolitan city, it is better to live here.to live here.

Bilal: You should work here. You can continu

Bilal: You should work here. You can continue e studying to com-studying to com-plete your doctorate after your insurance premium is paid and youplete your doctorate after your insurance premium is paid and you attain your pension. When you complete 11 years working in un-attain your pension. When you complete 11 years working in un-derground mines, you are free. You can work in another place after derground mines, you are free. You can work in another place after guaranteeing your future. In a 70guaranteeing your future. In a 70--year life syear life span, 11 years is a short pan, 11 years is a short period. You are twentyperiod. You are twenty--five years old now, and you can continue five years old now, and you can continue your doctorate when you are 36 as you guarantee retirement from your doctorate when you are 36 as you guarantee retirement from the mines.the mines.

Mahmut; How much are the salaries of academicians?

İsmail: It is about 6,000 Turkish Lira fo

İsmail: It is about 6,000 Turkish Lira for a research assistant.r a research assistant.

Mahmut: The miner’s salary is about TL 5,000. But you live in İs-

Mahmut: The miner’s salary is about TL 5,000. But you live in İs-tanbultanbul andand pay a minimum of TL 1,500 for house rent. Here, rent pay a minimum of TL 1,500 for house rent. Here, rent is about TL 250is about TL 250––300. There is no transportation cost. There are 300. There is no transportation cost. There are

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services, and you can go everywhere on f

services, and you can go everywhere on foot. The living cost here oot. The living cost here is less expensive than in metropolitan cities. Therefore, earning TL is less expensive than in metropolitan cities. Therefore, earning TL 5,000 in a small place is more advantageous than the TL 6,0005,000 in a small place is more advantageous than the TL 6,000––7,000 in metropolitan cities. Therefore, miners’ income is better 7,000 in metropolitan cities. Therefore, miners’ income is better than an academician.than an academician.

Şefika (The

Şefika (The wife ofwife of MevlütMevlüt): My big brother): My big brother,, who repairs air con-who repairs air con-ditioners in İzmirditioners in İzmir,, works with minimum wage, andworks with minimum wage, and he allocateshe allocates al-al-most half of the money to his rent. His peers working in the mines most half of the money to his rent. His peers working in the mines started to obtain their retirement pensions, and they take at least started to obtain their retirement pensions, and they take at least threethree minimum wages with their retirement wage if they continue minimum wages with their retirement wage if they continue to work, but my brother must work at least ten years more with to work, but my brother must work at least ten years more with minimum wage to obtain his retirement. minimum wage to obtain his retirement.

Bilal: When you are 43, you can get your retirement bonus. You

Bilal: When you are 43, you can get your retirement bonus. You can buy a house with that moneycan buy a house with that money or open a grocery store. You are or open a grocery store. You are young at 43 years old. You can start a business. You can spend it young at 43 years old. You can start a business. You can spend it with your family.with your family.

İsmail: Miners’ condition is

İsmail: Miners’ condition is challengingchallenging. They have health prob-. They have health prob-lems, and they die earlier.lems, and they die earlier.

Mahmut: What is the average life expectancy ag

Mahmut: What is the average life expectancy age in Turkey? Let us e in Turkey? Let us say 75. If you are retired at 60say 75. If you are retired at 60-- 65 years old, you can only take 1065 years old, you can only take 10--15 years of retirement benefits. Miners are dying earlier. Let us 15 years of retirement benefits. Miners are dying earlier. Let us say miners are dying at say miners are dying at ageage 65, 10 years below average. You are 65, 10 years below average. You are retired at the age of 40s, retired at the age of 40s, take your take your retirement benefit for a mini-retirement benefit for a mini-mum of 20 years, andmum of 20 years, and are still young. You can start a business. You are still young. You can start a business. You can continue working. You can buy a house. If you die, your family can continue working. You can buy a house. If you die, your family can take the money.can take the money.10 You need the money more in the age of 40s You need the money more in the age of 40s or or 50s for your children. You50s for your children. You can support your children in educa-can support your children in educa-tion, in marriage, in military duty at this agetion, in marriage, in military duty at this age,, but after reachingbut after reaching youryour 60s, they have already grown up and built their lives and no 60s, they have already grown up and built their lives and no need for money from their parents.need for money from their parents.

10 This phrase is told often; “if I die, my family’s life will be saved and they will live in a This phrase is told often; “if I die, my family’s life will be saved and they will live in a better condition” and another simibetter condition” and another similar phrase was “the death body of workers is worthier lar phrase was “the death body of workers is worthier than theirs alive.”than theirs alive.”

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

İsmail: I am afraid to work in the mines. There are

İsmail: I am afraid to work in the mines. There are accidents in the accidents in the mines; many people die in mine accidents.mines; many people die in mine accidents.

Bilal: My grandson died in an accident. But my daughter died of

Bilal: My grandson died in an accident. But my daughter died of cancer. I worked, Mahmut worked, my brother worked, and we are cancer. I worked, Mahmut worked, my brother worked, and we are all alive. In our village, five to six people died from work accidentsall alive. In our village, five to six people died from work accidents in the mines. But the same number of people died of cancer and in the mines. But the same number of people died of cancer and traffic accidents. For example, Kader’s son died in the army; he is traffic accidents. For example, Kader’s son died in the army; he is a martyr. Meltem’s husband worked in the mine but died in a traf-a martyr. Meltem’s husband worked in the mine but died in a traf-fic accident. Ali died at a construction site. Hasan died fic accident. Ali died at a construction site. Hasan died afafterter falling falling from a tractor. Süleyman died while working in the forestry sector. from a tractor. Süleyman died while working in the forestry sector. Some of them did not even have insuranceSome of them did not even have insurance;; they just died, and they just died, and their families are in a miserable situation now. They could not take their families are in a miserable situation now. They could not take any benefit from the companies and the state.any benefit from the companies and the state. Is there a riskIs there a risk--free free job?job?

Meltem: Every job has a risk. Death is everywhere. There isn’t a

Meltem: Every job has a risk. Death is everywhere. There isn’t a riskrisk--free job.free job.

Mahmut: In our times, the ceilings of mines were wood which fell

Mahmut: In our times, the ceilings of mines were wood which fell all the time. A lot of people diedall the time. A lot of people died,, but nobody heard about it. Even but nobody heard about it. Even they couldn’t tathey couldn’t take it to court. The working conditions of mines are ke it to court. The working conditions of mines are getting better. The ceilings are not wooden anymore. Now, they getting better. The ceilings are not wooden anymore. Now, they are more mechanized. Companies have other safety problemsare more mechanized. Companies have other safety problems,, but but they are they are better than better than in in our times. In the first year working in the our times. In the first year working in the undergroununderground mine, you might be afraid but then get used to it like d mine, you might be afraid but then get used to it like a a regularregular thing. You will not want to work on the surface jobs for thing. You will not want to work on the surface jobs for such long hours.such long hours.

To complete education needs lots of time

To complete education needs lots of time,, and it is not guaranteed and it is not guaranteed that you will have a job after graduation. You wthat you will have a job after graduation. You will start from ill start from scratch when you graduate.scratch when you graduate.

Feride: University graduates are unemployed. For example, Sibel

Feride: University graduates are unemployed. For example, Sibel is a teacher, but she is not employed. Ali’s situation is similar. He is a teacher, but she is not employed. Ali’s situation is similar. He was assigned at 30 years of agewas assigned at 30 years of age,, and at the same timeand at the same time,, their peers their peers who worked inwho worked in the mine completed their insurance premium days the mine completed their insurance premium days and got paid. He was assigned to a small village where the condi-and got paid. He was assigned to a small village where the condi-tions and facilities tions and facilities wewere not better than herere not better than here,, and and he he was earning was earning

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the same amount of money as miners. Therefore, it is your deci-

the same amount of money as miners. Therefore, it is your deci-sion but workision but working in a mine is better than working as an academi-ng in a mine is better than working as an academi-cian.cian.

İsmail: Isn’t it better to cultivateİsmail: Isn’t it better to cultivate inin the village than comthe village than comee and work and work here?here?

Mahmut: In our villages, lands are not very fertileMahmut: In our villages, lands are not very fertile,, and they are and they are far away from the center. It is cold in winter. Do youfar away from the center. It is cold in winter. Do your research on r research on winter here. Here in Soma, it is better to cultivatewinter here. Here in Soma, it is better to cultivate. Still,. Still, the lands the lands are expensive, and it is better to secure your life and then continue are expensive, and it is better to secure your life and then continue agriculture because, in agriculture, you must cultivate every year. agriculture because, in agriculture, you must cultivate every year. You will spend your whole life cultivatingYou will spend your whole life cultivating;; one yearone year,, you can take you can take more, and another year is less. You mustmore, and another year is less. You must pay your insurancepay your insurance,, and and if you do not, you cannot be retired. Also, marriage is difficult if if you do not, you cannot be retired. Also, marriage is difficult if you only do agriculture. Families do not want to give their girls to you only do agriculture. Families do not want to give their girls to farmers. When you work in the mine, you can take credit, and eve-farmers. When you work in the mine, you can take credit, and eve-rybody is indebted to you; burybody is indebted to you; but in agriculture, you cannot know t in agriculture, you cannot know what will happen.what will happen.

The story of “Bilal’s house” and the conversation in the house shows

The story of “Bilal’s house” and the conversation in the house shows the the perception of the community and popularity of mining in the region.perception of the community and popularity of mining in the region. As As can be seen from the interviewees’ statements, almost all incan be seen from the interviewees’ statements, almost all insisted that I sisted that I take up a job in the mine. They explained what they considered advanta-take up a job in the mine. They explained what they considered advanta-geous about working in the mines including early retirement right and geous about working in the mines including early retirement right and miners’ salaries. In addition, they tried to downplay the risks and the miners’ salaries. In addition, they tried to downplay the risks and the deadly accidents which charactdeadly accidents which characterized mining in the region.erized mining in the region.

The undergrou

The underground mining sector has the secondnd mining sector has the second--highest work-highest work-placeplace--accident rate, following accident rate, following the the agriculture and forestry sectorsagriculture and forestry sectors,,11 and and

11 Ayşe Buğra, “Türkiye’nin Sosyal Politikaları ve Soma Felaketi,” in GeAyşe Buğra, “Türkiye’nin Sosyal Politikaları ve Soma Felaketi,” in Ge--LiLi--YoYo--Rum Diyen Rum Diyen Facia: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Soma Araştırma Grubu Raporu, ed. Ersoy Nuri, (İstanbul: Facia: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Soma Araştırma Grubu Raporu, ed. Ersoy Nuri, (İstanbul: Boğaziçi Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2017), 141.Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2017), 141.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

the highest occupational

the highest occupational--diseases rate in Turkey. Miners know that work-diseases rate in Turkey. Miners know that work-ing in underground mines ing in underground mines is fatefulis fateful..12

Generally, being

Generally, being a a miner in the Soma basin and the other basins miner in the Soma basin and the other basins across Turkey descends from father to sonacross Turkey descends from father to son,, from from generation togeneration to generation generation which which means that mineworkers are already familiar with the working means that mineworkers are already familiar with the working conditions of the mines not only from conditions of the mines not only from their first day at work but also from their first day at work but also from their parents and their relatives. Although miners know that working in their parents and their relatives. Although miners know that working in underground mines is fateful, hard, and risky, how is it possible that min-underground mines is fateful, hard, and risky, how is it possible that min-ers are willing to work thereers are willing to work there,, and how is it possible that the number ofand how is it possible that the number of people seeking a job in the mines people seeking a job in the mines has has increased over the years despite increased over the years despite the May 13, 2014the May 13, 2014,, disaster?disaster?

The story

The story of of ““BilalBilal’s house”’s house” shows shows the the miners’miners’ communitycommunity’s per-’s per-ception of ception of working in the mine. working in the mine. Why doWhy do Bilal and Mahmut Bilal and Mahmut insiinsist on the st on the research authorresearch author to to workwork in thein the mine even though they lost theimine even though they lost their child in r child in the accident? the accident? How is itHow is it possible possible that Şefika persists that her brother that Şefika persists that her brother workworkss in thin the underground mine, although here underground mine, although her husband experienced husband experienced the the 2014 accident? Why do families send their children to the mine 2014 accident? Why do families send their children to the mine alalththough ough they knowthey know aboutabout the the working conditions working conditions in the mine?in the mine? Why are they will-Why are they will-ing to working to work inin underground mine pits? What is their motivation to mi-underground mine pits? What is their motivation to mi-grate and work in underground mines? Why do miners continue to work grate and work in underground mines? Why do miners continue to work in the mine even though they lose their friendin the mine even though they lose their friends, their sons, s, their sons, and and their fa-their fa-thersthers working there?working there? What is the underlying reason for these actions?What is the underlying reason for these actions?

These questions shaped this thesis

These questions shaped this thesis. . Hence, the primary Hence, the primary research research question of this study can be articulated as follows:question of this study can be articulated as follows: “H“How is it possible ow is it possible that that a a peasant farmpeasant farmeerr community acceptcommunity acceptss such risky and heavsuch risky and heavy working y working

12 To give an example from the field, in the first interview, the interviewee, Oğuz (58), To give an example from the field, in the first interview, the interviewee, Oğuz (58), started his sentences by saying that “mining is too dangerous; if you are not careful, you started his sentences by saying that “mining is too dangerous; if you are not careful, you might die immediately. In the first montmight die immediately. In the first month, I was having nightmares because of working in h, I was having nightmares because of working in the underground mine.” Oğuz (58) began to work when he was 18 and retired from the the underground mine.” Oğuz (58) began to work when he was 18 and retired from the mine, his nephew had an accident in the mine, and half of his body burned. However, in the mine, his nephew had an accident in the mine, and half of his body burned. However, in the same interview, he blames his brosame interview, he blames his brother because he escaped working from the mine because ther because he escaped working from the mine because of hardof hard--working conditions. Oğuz says to his brother; that he has a “peasant mind” by un-working conditions. Oğuz says to his brother; that he has a “peasant mind” by un-derestimating him because he did not work in the underground mine and instead contin-derestimating him because he did not work in the underground mine and instead contin-ued in agriculture.ued in agriculture.

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conditions

conditions andand chooses tochooses to migratemigrate to work in the minesto work in the mines??” ” TTo respond to o respond to this question, it is necessary to explore miners’ perspectives and under-this question, it is necessary to explore miners’ perspectives and under-stand how and why they and their families consider working in tstand how and why they and their families consider working in the mine he mine advantageous.advantageous. These questions are the starting point of this thesis. These ques-These questions are the starting point of this thesis. These ques-tions will be answered by focusing on a mining community of a small vil-tions will be answered by focusing on a mining community of a small vil-lagelage, , SelimliSelimli..13 The sample groupThe sample group for the thesisfor the thesis was selected from those was selected from those mineworkermineworkers’s’ communities who emigrated to Soma from communities who emigrated to Soma from SelimliSelimli.. SelimliSelimli is a mountain village is a mountain village located located 110 km far away from Kütahya city center110 km far away from Kütahya city center.. It isIt is where the majority of the retired firstwhere the majority of the retired first--generation pegeneration peasantasant--mine mine workworkers’ers’ communitycommunity studied in this thesisstudied in this thesis isis situsituated. ated.

The main reason for choosing this group is to emphasize labor mi-he main reason for choosing this group is to emphasize labor mi-gration togration to the the Soma mining regionSoma mining region because most research because most research on Soma mines on Soma mines focuses on local workersfocuses on local workers. . Differing from these studies, this thesisDiffering from these studies, this thesis will will highlight the changing patterns of labor migrationhighlight the changing patterns of labor migration to the Soma mine pitsto the Soma mine pits by by concentratconcentrating on the ing on the transformation of the village of transformation of the village of SelimliSelimli and the and the perspectiveperspectivess of the of the migrant miners' communitymigrant miners' community from this villagefrom this village.. In doing In doing so, the thesis also aims to bring in a so, the thesis also aims to bring in a different geographic area (Aegean) different geographic area (Aegean) rather thanrather than thethe Zonguldak/Black Sea regionZonguldak/Black Sea region,, which predominantly has which predominantly has been the focus of studies on mining communities in Turkeybeen the focus of studies on mining communities in Turkey..

Another reason for choosing this village is the history of my own

Another reason for choosing this village is the history of my own family. family. SelimliSelimli was mywas my latelate father’s village.father’s village. The 2014 Soma disaster The 2014 Soma disaster led tled too questions about my life and questions about my life and my family's histormy family's history. The reason for that was y. The reason for that was my father died in a mine accident in 2008my father died in a mine accident in 2008,, and my uncle died in 1998 in and my uncle died in 1998 in a mine accident in Soma. After these events, I have thought about my fam-a mine accident in Soma. After these events, I have thought about my fam-ily ily througthrough different lenses regardinh different lenses regarding the case of poverty, neoliberalism, g the case of poverty, neoliberalism, unemployment, informality, agricultural unemployment, informality, agricultural transformation, workingtransformation, working--class class class consciousness, and migration. My own life experience and class consciousness, and migration. My own life experience and family family history caused me to worryhistory caused me to worry about the future of miners’ children and fam-about the future of miners’ children and fam-ilies wilies who lost their ho lost their loved onesloved ones in the accident. Therefore, the accident of in the accident. Therefore, the accident of 301 miners in 2014 and my family history motivated me to write this MA 301 miners in 2014 and my family history motivated me to write this MA

13 The realThe real name of the village is not used. Selimli is a pseudonym.name of the village is not used. Selimli is a pseudonym.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

thesis. I have not been living in a miner community or village for the last

thesis. I have not been living in a miner community or village for the last fifteen yearsfifteen years;; however, in the however, in the communitycommunity's perception's perception, I was an insider., I was an insider. The community’s insistence that their children (including me) shall work The community’s insistence that their children (including me) shall work in the Soma mine pits shaped the primary question which guides this the-in the Soma mine pits shaped the primary question which guides this the-sis: Why is underground mining such a desirable job for the minersis: Why is underground mining such a desirable job for the miner--peas-peas-ant commuant community of Selimli despite its risks? nity of Selimli despite its risks?

In the thesis, I engage this question by considering the experience

In the thesis, I engage this question by considering the experience of different generations of migrant mineworkers from Selimli.of different generations of migrant mineworkers from Selimli. Histori-Histori-cally, like the history of inner migration in Turkecally, like the history of inner migration in Turkey, there has been migra-y, there has been migra-tion to Soma from nearby tion to Soma from nearby villages via family and fellow townsmvillages via family and fellow townsmeen net-n net-works.works. Following different waves of migration to the mine pits, Following different waves of migration to the mine pits, I divided I divided thethe sample group of the studysample group of the study into three generations.into three generations.

The first generation is

The first generation is thethe workerworkers s whowho migrated to andmigrated to and workedworked in in the mines in Somathe mines in Soma between 1960between 1960 and 19and 198080.. The The second generation issecond generation is the the migrant workers from Selimli whomigrant workers from Selimli who worked in worked in the Soma mines between the Soma mines between 19801980-- andand 22001001.. TThe third generationhe third generation of mineworkers from of mineworkers from Selimli Selimli workedworked inin the minesthe mines betbetween 2001ween 2001 andand 2020. 2020. SomaSoma is the primary site is the primary site of migrationof migration wherewhere the second and third the second and third generationgenerationss are are locatedlocated. The . The other migrated area from the village of other migrated area from the village of SelimliSelimli is Cenkyeriis Cenkyeri, a more urban-, a more urban-ized small town, ten kilometers away from Soma,ized small town, ten kilometers away from Soma, whwhereere minersminers and theiand their r familiesfamilies started to locate because of low house rentstarted to locate because of low house rentss and lower living and lower living costs. costs.

In the thesis, the research

In the thesis, the research questionsquestions mentioned abovementioned above will be dis-will be dis-cussed cussed withwith the the effectseffects of of the peripheral status of Selimli,the peripheral status of Selimli, migration, migration, fam-fam-ilyily--relatedrelated factorsfactors and household strategiesand household strategies,, and Turkey’s changingand Turkey’s changing so-so-ciocio--economic dynamics, particularly its labor market realities and social economic dynamics, particularly its labor market realities and social policiespolicies..

§ 1.21.2 Main Main Arguments of the ThesisArguments of the Thesis

This thesis argues that the miners

This thesis argues that the miners’’ and their families’ experience and their families’ experience of general conditions of of general conditions of the Turkish economy and social conditions over the Turkish economy and social conditions over time have shaped their perspective towards their occupation. These ex-time have shaped their perspective towards their occupation. These ex-periences include the country’s labor market situation defined by the rise periences include the country’s labor market situation defined by the rise

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of unemployment rates, labor surplus, the high number of minimum

of unemployment rates, labor surplus, the high number of minimum wage workers and informality; inner migration; the transformation of ag-wage workers and informality; inner migration; the transformation of ag-riculture; and the transformation of social policies and retirement pat-riculture; and the transformation of social policies and retirement pat-terns in Turkey. Given these socioterns in Turkey. Given these socio--economic realities working in the min-economic realities working in the min-ing sector has relatively better conditioning sector has relatively better conditions than other unskilled labor s than other unskilled labor sectors in Turkey in terms of income, social security, retirement age, and sectors in Turkey in terms of income, social security, retirement age, and working hours.working hours.

LABOR MARKET REALITI

LABOR MARKET REALITIES AND RETIREMENT PAES AND RETIREMENT PATTERNS TTERNS

Turkey’s labor market realities shape the miners’

Turkey’s labor market realities shape the miners’ motivation to-motivation to-ward their occupation. Inward their occupation. In thethe TurkTurkishish labor market, the unemploymentlabor market, the unemployment rate, the informality rate, and the number of minimum wage workers are rate, the informality rate, and the number of minimum wage workers are high.high.14 The high unemployment rate is a crucial socioThe high unemployment rate is a crucial socio--economic problem economic problem for Turkey. The unemployment rate in Turkey has been higher than 10% for Turkey. The unemployment rate in Turkey has been higher than 10% durduring the AKP perioding the AKP period,, even though even though there was a there was a high growth rate in the high growth rate in the beginning years of the AKP government.beginning years of the AKP government.15 High unemployment rates led High unemployment rates led to povertyto poverty,, and that caused migration to industrialized areas. Newcomers and that caused migration to industrialized areas. Newcomers of industrialized areas worked as informal laboof industrialized areas worked as informal laborers. rers.

According to SGK records, the percentage of informal labor in Tur-

According to SGK records, the percentage of informal labor in Tur-key key wawas 30.59% in all sectors in 2020.s 30.59% in all sectors in 2020.16 The mining sector has The mining sector has a a rela-rela-tively ltively lowerower and one of the least informal workers rateand one of the least informal workers rate,, which is 4.51% in which is 4.51% in 20202020,, because of its risks.because of its risks.17 In Turkey, the number of minimum wage In Turkey, the number of minimum wage workers is approximately six million, and underground mine workers’ in-workers is approximately six million, and underground mine workers’ in-come is higher than minimum wage workers. Additionally, the working come is higher than minimum wage workers. Additionally, the working hours in Turkey are long and above the OECD countries. The under-hours in Turkey are long and above the OECD countries. The under-ground mine is ground mine is a labora labor--intensintensive sector where workers work three shifts ive sector where workers work three shifts daildaily. Therefore, miners are not working more than eight hours. y. Therefore, miners are not working more than eight hours. Given the Given the

14 Buğra, “Türkiye’nin Sosyal Politikaları ve Soma Felaketi”.Buğra, “Türkiye’nin Sosyal Politikaları ve Soma Felaketi”.

15 Ibid.Ibid.

16 Sosyal Güvenlik Kurumu. “Kayıtdışı İstihdam Oranları,” accessed 1 September 2020. Sosyal Güvenlik Kurumu. “Kayıtdışı İstihdam Oranları,” accessed 1 September 2020. http://www.sgk.gov.tr/wps/portal/sgk/tr/calisan/kayitdisi_istihdam/kayitdisi_isti-http://www.sgk.gov.tr/wps/portal/sgk/tr/calisan/kayitdisi_istihdam/kayitdisi_isti-hdam_oranlarihdam_oranlari

17 Ibid.Ibid.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

larger realities in the Turkish labor market,

larger realities in the Turkish labor market, the prevalencethe prevalence of rof relatively elatively better incomebetter incomess compared to minimum wage workers, tcompared to minimum wage workers, the smaller num-he smaller num-ber of informal workersber of informal workers,, and and fewer working hours in the mining sector fewer working hours in the mining sector shape the miners’ choice andshape the miners’ choice and motivation to work in the underground motivation to work in the underground mines. mines.

According to my observation in Soma, miners usually come from

According to my observation in Soma, miners usually come from the agriculture sectorthe agriculture sector.. Those who eThose who earn their livelihood from agriculture arn their livelihood from agriculture are mostly selfare mostly self--employed in Turkey and have to pay their premiums employed in Turkey and have to pay their premiums themselves to be covered under the social security system. Historically themselves to be covered under the social security system. Historically under the scheme of BAGunder the scheme of BAG--KUR, most of these peasant families haveKUR, most of these peasant families have notnot been includbeen included in the social security system because ed in the social security system because they are unthey are unable to able to pay premiums pay premiums given their low given their low incomeincome.. Hence Hence one of the one of the primaryprimary reasons reasons why the peasant miners choose to work in the mining sector in Somawhy the peasant miners choose to work in the mining sector in Soma isis because they get themselves and their families covered ubecause they get themselves and their families covered under the social nder the social security system. In addition, the mining community considersecurity system. In addition, the mining community considerss working in working in underground mines as advantageous because of the early retirement age underground mines as advantageous because of the early retirement age granted to the underground mine workersgranted to the underground mine workers..

Working conditions in the mines

Working conditions in the mines areare difficult. Miners wodifficult. Miners work in a rk in a stressful stressful environmentenvironment,, coming homecoming home with black, coaled facewith black, coaled facess. Many . Many workers have pains. workers have pains. These dThese difficult working conditions and occupational ifficult working conditions and occupational illnesses of underground miningillnesses of underground mining decreased thedecreased the retirement ageretirement age for mine for mine workersworkers. . In other words, uIn other words, underground minnderground mines have special rules for social es have special rules for social security and retirement age because of risky and hardsecurity and retirement age because of risky and hard--working condi-working condi-tions.tions. 18 These special rules make mining and mine working attractive.These special rules make mining and mine working attractive.

18 İsa Karakaş, “Yer Altı Yer Üstü Ayrımında 15 Yıla Kadar Erken Emeklilik Avantajı,” Tİsa Karakaş, “Yer Altı Yer Üstü Ayrımında 15 Yıla Kadar Erken Emeklilik Avantajı,” Tü-ü-rkiye, accessed 15 January 2021. rkiye, accessed 15 January 2021. https://www.turkiyegazetesi.com.tr/yazarlar/isahttps://www.turkiyegazetesi.com.tr/yazarlar/isa--kara-kara-kas/607533.aspxkas/607533.aspx; ; Ahmet Kıvanç, “Yer Altı Maden Işçileri Nasıl Emekli Olur?” Habertürk,Ahmet Kıvanç, “Yer Altı Maden Işçileri Nasıl Emekli Olur?” Habertürk, accessed 15 January 2021. accessed 15 January 2021. https://www.haberturk.com/yerhttps://www.haberturk.com/yer--altialti--madenmaden--iscileriiscileri--nasilnasil--emekliemekli--olurolur--24282582428258--ekonomiekonomi. “Mesleklere Göre Emeklilik Günü Fark Ediyor!. “Mesleklere Göre Emeklilik Günü Fark Ediyor!” Sözcü, ac-” Sözcü, ac-cessed 15 January 2021. cessed 15 January 2021. https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2020/sigorta/mesleklerehttps://www.sozcu.com.tr/2020/sigorta/mesleklere--goregore--emeklilikemeklilik--gunugunu--farkfark--ediyorediyor--5681724/5681724/; ; Süleyman Demir, “Torba Süleyman Demir, “Torba Yasa maden işçilerine Yasa maden işçilerine neler getirdi?” Dünya, last modified 16 December 2014. neler getirdi?” Dünya, last modified 16 December 2014. https://www.dunya.com/gun-https://www.dunya.com/gun-dem/torbadem/torba--yasayasa--madenmaden--emekcilerineemekcilerine--neler getirdineler getirdi--hhaberiaberi--265874265874; Vedat İlki, “Madende ; Vedat İlki, “Madende Emeklilik Koşulları.” Ali Tezel. Last modified 11 November 2011. Emeklilik Koşulları.” Ali Tezel. Last modified 11 November 2011.

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The age of retirement is complex in Turkey. Turkey was known as

The age of retirement is complex in Turkey. Turkey was known as the country of young pensioners because of populist policies before the country of young pensioners because of populist policies before 2000. In 1999 and 2008 the general retirement age was increased with 2000. In 1999 and 2008 the general retirement age was increased with the effect of European Union (EU) Integration. The retithe effect of European Union (EU) Integration. The retirement age of un-rement age of un-derground mines derground mines becamebecame more complex because of the changes in the more complex because of the changes in the law after the 2014 accident. After the Soma tragedy, the retirement age law after the 2014 accident. After the Soma tragedy, the retirement age has been decreased with legal regulations in 2014 for the underground has been decreased with legal regulations in 2014 for the underground miners.miners.

Simply, miners were reti

Simply, miners were retired at the age of 38 if they started to work red at the age of 38 if they started to work before 2008. If miners started working after 2008, the retirement age is before 2008. If miners started working after 2008, the retirement age is 50 for them and they needed to50 for them and they needed to completecomplete 4.000 workdays insurance pre-4.000 workdays insurance pre-mium. However, miners can be retired at 43 if they work more than 4.80mium. However, miners can be retired at 43 if they work more than 4.800 0 workdays. workdays. HenceHence, working more , working more daysdays in underground mines decreases in underground mines decreases the retirement age of miners. This rule decreased mine workersthe retirement age of miners. This rule decreased mine workers’ rela-’ rela-tionstions with their landwith their land andand the the agriculturalagricultural activities when it combined activities when it combined withwith thethe labor surplus and with the increase in wlabor surplus and with the increase in wages in the Soma basins.ages in the Soma basins.

For unskilled, uneducated villagers, the early retirement age

For unskilled, uneducated villagers, the early retirement age granted to mine workers has become very attractive after the 1999 and granted to mine workers has become very attractive after the 1999 and 2008 reforms in the social security system which increased 2008 reforms in the social security system which increased the retire-the retire-mentment age for the general populage for the general population. The reason isation. The reason is thatthat unskilled men unskilled men from Selimlifrom Selimli believe that they will live in the poverty in their entire life if believe that they will live in the poverty in their entire life if they retire very latethey retire very late by working in unskilled jobsby working in unskilled jobs but if they retire earlybut if they retire early by working in the minesby working in the mines, they can continue to work, they can continue to work after retafter retirementirement in in another another sectorsector including agriculture, constructionincluding agriculture, construction oror in a foreign in a foreign countrycountry.. In this way, minersIn this way, miners think that theythink that they can can get themselvesget themselves and their families and their families outout of povertyof poverty by retiringby retiring in thein theirir 40s. Miners are counting the ad-40s. Miners are counting the ad-vantages of early retirementvantages of early retirements; buying houses for the family, helping their s; buying houses for the family, helping their children with education and marriage, continuing to cultivate and start a children with education and marriage, continuing to cultivate and start a

https://www.alitezel.com.tr/madende

https://www.alitezel.com.tr/madende--emeklilikemeklilik--kosullarikosullari--4842/4842/; Özgür Tutoğlu, ; Özgür Tutoğlu, “Yeraltı “Yeraltı Emeklilik Hesabı Nasıl Yapılır?” 25 March 2019. Emeklilik Hesabı Nasıl Yapılır?” 25 March 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rexsBlazhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rexsBlaz--FAFA..

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

new business.

new business. Most of these miners plan for some kind of Most of these miners plan for some kind of entrepreneuri-entrepreneuri-alism alism in their retired lives,in their retired lives, which can be linked to the which can be linked to the workingworking--classclass en-en-treneurialismtreneurialism amongamong male manual workersmale manual workers analyzed analyzed by Cihanby Cihan Tuğal’sTuğal’s re-re-search insearch in SultanbeyliSultanbeyli19 and Alpkan Birelmaand Alpkan Birelma’s’s research in the district of research in the district of İkitelli, İstanbulİkitelli, İstanbul..20 In the case of miners, entrepreneurialism is a desire in In the case of miners, entrepreneurialism is a desire in the age of retirement the age of retirement because of early retirement advantagesbecause of early retirement advantages from the from the mining sectormining sector.. All in all,All in all, for these mine workers,for these mine workers, retirement does not retirement does not mean retiringmean retiring from working from working life,life, but it givesbut it gives themthem the possibility of guar-the possibility of guar-anteeing basic needs for their families.anteeing basic needs for their families.

Retirement is vital fo

Retirement is vital for miners who r miners who survive the accidents in the survive the accidents in the mines and mines and succeed to live succeed to live untiluntil receiving theirreceiving their retirement rights. None-retirement rights. None-theless, early retirementtheless, early retirement does not give the does not give the minersminers aa wealthy life. They canwealthy life. They can onlyonly escapeescape poverty by working in another job after retirement. Alspoverty by working in another job after retirement. Also, o, the the miners’miners’ statements about early retirement and social policies tell us more statements about early retirement and social policies tell us more about the general social policies and retirementabout the general social policies and retirement patternspatterns of Turkey. The of Turkey. The retirement salary of many unskilled jobsretirement salary of many unskilled jobs in Turkeyin Turkey is insufficient and un-is insufficient and un-der the poverty line. Also, der the poverty line. Also, the retirement age of thesethe retirement age of these unskilled unskilled jobsjobs such such as construction workers, waiters and so on is higher than in the mining as construction workers, waiters and so on is higher than in the mining sector. sector. Hence, Hence, I argueI argue thatthat givengiven thethe mining sector’smining sector’s early retirement’s early retirement’s advantagadvantageses and and relativelyrelatively higherhigher wages and wages and pensions andpensions and tthe he ability to ability to be included in the social security systembe included in the social security system; peasant miners; peasant miners and their fami-and their fami-lieslies consider aconsider a risky workrisky work such as miningsuch as mining as advantageous and as advantageous and gainful gainful employment.employment.

MINING AND AGRICULTU

MINING AND AGRICULTURERE

The underground mining sector’s flexibility and the possibility of

The underground mining sector’s flexibility and the possibility of ccombining agriculture and mining ombining agriculture and mining has has historicallyhistorically been abeen a majormajor reason reason for thfor thisis villagervillager--mining community to choose the mining sector. mining community to choose the mining sector. MyMy field field

19 Cihan Tuǧal, “‘Serbest Meslek Sahibi’: Neoliberal Subjectivity among Istanbul’s Popular Cihan Tuǧal, “‘Serbest Meslek Sahibi’: Neoliberal Subjectivity among Istanbul’s Popular Sectors,” New Perspectives on Turkey 46, no. May (20Sectors,” New Perspectives on Turkey 46, no. May (2012): 6512): 65––93, 93, doi:10.1017/s0896634600001515.doi:10.1017/s0896634600001515.

20 Alpkan Birelma, “WorkingAlpkan Birelma, “Working--Class Entrepreneurialism: Perceptions, Aspirations, and Class Entrepreneurialism: Perceptions, Aspirations, and Experiences of Petty Entrepreneurship among Male Manual Experiences of Petty Entrepreneurship among Male Manual Workers in Turkey,” New Workers in Turkey,” New Perspectives on Turkey 61 (2019): 45Perspectives on Turkey 61 (2019): 45––70, doi:10.1017/npt.2019.18.70, doi:10.1017/npt.2019.18.

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research show

research showeded thatthat olderolder peasant farmers peasant farmers diddid not not abandonabandon agriculturagriculturalal activities whileactivities while theythey workworked in the Soma med in the Soma mines.ines. Their households con-Their households con-tinuetinuedd to cultivate in the village. to cultivate in the village. This This flexibility flexibility and and thethe possibility of possibility of combining agriculture andcombining agriculture and mining at the same time was one main factor mining at the same time was one main factor forfor the first and secondthe first and second--generation peasantgeneration peasant--minersminers to choose to work as to choose to work as a mineworkea mineworker. r.

Informal flexibility and connection with agriculture caused the

Informal flexibility and connection with agriculture caused the high turnover rates and labor shortages in the factories in the industrial-high turnover rates and labor shortages in the factories in the industrial-ization history of Turkey.ization history of Turkey.21 As Donald Quataert As Donald Quataert explainsexplains,, therethere was an al-was an al-ternate system ternate system (münaveli)(münaveli) for mining historically in Zonguldak. Thefor mining historically in Zonguldak. The Zonguldak mineworkers wereZonguldak mineworkers were peasant workers who hapeasant workers who hadd a connection a connection with their lands.with their lands.22 In Soma and Kütahya, there were no alternate systems In Soma and Kütahya, there were no alternate systems officially officially (münaveli),(münaveli), but but the the mineworkersmineworkers createdcreated the same situation the same situation and fleand flexibility by considering themselves as farmers and quitting their xibility by considering themselves as farmers and quitting their job during the harvesting periodjob during the harvesting period as my research revealed.as my research revealed.

My field field research revealedresearch revealed that that tthe flexibility and connection with he flexibility and connection with agriculture changed according to generations. In the first generagriculture changed according to generations. In the first generation, ation, while women worked on the farms, working for animal stock, doing while women worked on the farms, working for animal stock, doing housework as well as taking care of their children in the village under the housework as well as taking care of their children in the village under the control of their husband’s family, men worked as control of their husband’s family, men worked as seasonalseasonal wage laborers wage laborers in the mine and came back to the vilin the mine and came back to the village in the harvesting periods. lage in the harvesting periods.

In the second generation, this system is similar to the previous gen-

In the second generation, this system is similar to the previous gen-eration but the ties of the rural village area and working site are weakereration but the ties of the rural village area and working site are weaker.. There is an increase in immigration to Soma with the effect of agricultural There is an increase in immigration to Soma with the effect of agricultural tratransformation, the increase of population as well as the effect of retire-nsformation, the increase of population as well as the effect of retire-ment policies. For the secondment policies. For the second--generation, ties with the village are deter-generation, ties with the village are deter-minedmined in relation toin relation to how much they have land in the village. If a miner how much they have land in the village. If a miner

21 Nurşen Gürboğa, “Mine Workers, thNurşen Gürboğa, “Mine Workers, the State and War: The Ereğlie State and War: The Ereğli--Zonguldak Coal Basin as Zonguldak Coal Basin as the Site of Contest, 1920the Site of Contest, 1920--1947” Unpublished Ph.D. Diss., (Boğaziçi University, 2005).1947” Unpublished Ph.D. Diss., (Boğaziçi University, 2005).

22 Donald Quataert, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Madenciler ve Devlet Zonguldak Kömür Donald Quataert, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Madenciler ve Devlet Zonguldak Kömür Havzası 1822Havzası 1822--1920, trans. Azat Za1920, trans. Azat Zana Gündoğan and Nilay Özok Gündoğan, (İstanbul: na Gündoğan and Nilay Özok Gündoğan, (İstanbul: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Yayınevi, 2009), 21; Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Yayınevi, 2009), 21; Donald Quataert, Miners and the State in the Donald Quataert, Miners and the State in the Ottoman Empire: The Zonguldak Coalfield, 1822Ottoman Empire: The Zonguldak Coalfield, 1822--1920 (New York : Berghahn Books, 2006).1920 (New York : Berghahn Books, 2006).

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

family ha

family hadd lands and engagelands and engagedd with agricuwith agriculture in the village, they have lture in the village, they have strong ties with the village. strong ties with the village. IIf they have small lands in the agriculture or f they have small lands in the agriculture or areare landless peasants, landless peasants, the connection to village has become weaker. the connection to village has become weaker.

FAMILY AND HOUSEHOLD

This thesis argues that one needs to consider miners as

This thesis argues that one needs to consider miners as a mining a mining community including their families and their habitus as well as their mi-community including their families and their habitus as well as their mi-gration and family history and experiencesgration and family history and experiences.. This approach is in line with This approach is in line with scholarship that has shown that the working class acts as a household scholarship that has shown that the working class acts as a household unitunit as as Wallerstein ideasWallerstein ideas23 “all members of the household are capable of “all members of the household are capable of obtaining income for the household by their labor inputs, and in most obtaining income for the household by their labor inputs, and in most cases participate in incomecases participate in income--securing activities.”securing activities.”24

In the field research, I experienced that the miners’ families sup-

In the field research, I experienced that the miners’ families sup-port and encourage theiport and encourage their children and the men to work in the under-r children and the men to work in the under-ground mine because it is a household strategy to live in better condi-ground mine because it is a household strategy to live in better condi-tions. This thesis argues that family is an important and leading factor for tions. This thesis argues that family is an important and leading factor for the miners to work in the mine pits. Family the miners to work in the mine pits. Family becomesbecomes one of the prione of the primary mary motivations for minersmotivations for miners to work in the mines in various situations to work in the mines in various situations includ-includ-inging whenwhen getting marriedgetting married and establishing a and establishing a family,family, securing insurance securing insurance and health coverage for family members, giving children better education and health coverage for family members, giving children better education and living opportunities and living opportunities and so on.and so on.

23 “It is indeed the case that, “It is indeed the case that, as late as the late nineteenth century, there were some parts as late as the late nineteenth century, there were some parts of the world in which something near a "subsistence economy" continued to exist. What is of the world in which something near a "subsistence economy" continued to exist. What is important to underline is that, in such areas, it was also the case that When such an area is important to underline is that, in such areas, it was also the case that When such an area is incorporateincorporated into the worldd into the world--system (Hopkins et al., 1987), one of the many consequences system (Hopkins et al., 1987), one of the many consequences is the disappearance, or at least the reduction in the economic role, of such communities is the disappearance, or at least the reduction in the economic role, of such communities and the creation of household structures such as we have been describing in this work. and the creation of household structures such as we have been describing in this work. ImImmanuel Wallerstein, “Coremanuel Wallerstein, “Core--Periphery and Household Structures,” in Creating and Trans-Periphery and Household Structures,” in Creating and Trans-forming Households, eds. Joan Smith and Immanuel Wallerstein (New York: Cambridge forming Households, eds. Joan Smith and Immanuel Wallerstein (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 255.University Press, 1992), 255.

24 Immanuel Wallerstein and Joan Smith, “Introduction,” in CrImmanuel Wallerstein and Joan Smith, “Introduction,” in Creating and Transforming eating and Transforming Households, eds. Joan Smith and Immanuel Wallerstein (New York: Cambridge University Households, eds. Joan Smith and Immanuel Wallerstein (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 12.Press, 1992), 12.

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For the mining community, families have a household strategy and

For the mining community, families have a household strategy and division of labor within the family. division of labor within the family. Within the family, only the male mine Within the family, only the male mine workers are in the formal working sector, workers are in the formal working sector, makingmaking it possible to have it possible to have health coveragehealth coverage for the entire family. for the entire family. TTherefoherefore,re, working in mines is a working in mines is a household strategy for peasants. household strategy for peasants. The wives of miners continue to work The wives of miners continue to work in agriculture without coverage and secure social insurance through their in agriculture without coverage and secure social insurance through their mineworker husbands. The latter phenomenon is explained by mineworker husbands. The latter phenomenon is explained by Coşku Coşku ÇelikÇelik25 asas the feminizthe feminization ofation of agriculture in her study on the Soma Coal agriculture in her study on the Soma Coal BasinBasin..

In the case of

In the case of SelimliSelimli village, when the inner migration started in village, when the inner migration started in Turkey after the 1950s, the villagers of Turkey after the 1950s, the villagers of SelimliSelimli used a similar strategy like used a similar strategy like the feminization of agriculturethe feminization of agriculture. Men. Men earnearneded social ssocial security and retire-ecurity and retire-ment byment by working in the mines in Somaworking in the mines in Soma and and camecame back to the villageback to the village dur-dur-inging the harvesting time. the harvesting time. These These firstfirst and second generationand second generation of of menmen werewere circle migrants. Their circle migrants. Their wives stayedwives stayed under the control of their husband’s under the control of their husband’s family in the village and continued agricultural and livestock activities. family in the village and continued agricultural and livestock activities. However, fHowever, for the third generationor the third generation from Selimlifrom Selimli who workwho workeded inin the minesthe mines after after 2000,2000, the education of children gained more importance and agri-the education of children gained more importance and agri-culcultural activities decreased in the tural activities decreased in the villagevillage.. Since the flexibility of agricul-Since the flexibility of agricul-ture and mining decreased, immigration to Soma as a family has become ture and mining decreased, immigration to Soma as a family has become a phenomenon after the 2000s.a phenomenon after the 2000s.

In most cases, working in the mine is a condition for marriage.

In most cases, working in the mine is a condition for marriage. That’s why this tThat’s why this thesis asserts that not only mineworkers but also their hesis asserts that not only mineworkers but also their families should be included in the research. Most of the current miners’ families should be included in the research. Most of the current miners’ stories, in the case of being mineworkers, start just before they decide to stories, in the case of being mineworkers, start just before they decide to get married. When a man decides to found a family anget married. When a man decides to found a family and talk to the family d talk to the family of the women, the first thing they encounter in the community is “to have of the women, the first thing they encounter in the community is “to have a formal, insured, wella formal, insured, well--paid occupationpaid occupation.”.” WorkingWorking in thein the mine is also part mine is also part of masculinity because young males have to showof masculinity because young males have to show toto the community that the community that they can work inthey can work in the underground mine to get married.the underground mine to get married.

25 Coşku ÇeliCoşku Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means of Rural Livelihood: Patterns of k, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means of Rural Livelihood: Patterns of Proletarianization and Labor Process in Soma Coal Basin” PhD Diss., (METU, 2019).Proletarianization and Labor Process in Soma Coal Basin” PhD Diss., (METU, 2019).

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

For miners, marriage is For miners, marriage is essentialessential and has a crucial role in their and has a crucial role in their liveslives. Working under . Working under toughtough conditions for hours in a stressful environ-conditions for hours in a stressful environ-mentment, miners, miners need care from their familiesneed care from their families, especially, especially their wives. Miners their wives. Miners are deare deprived of many prived of many necessitiesnecessities inin the underground minesthe underground mines,, includingincluding eating, communication, fresh aireating, communication, fresh air and evenand even toiletstoilets.. AAlso, the lso, the migrant min-migrant min-ersers the research focused on stayedthe research focused on stayed in the worksite in miserable condi-in the worksite in miserable condi-tions.tions. Therefore, Therefore, it was important for theseit was important for these minerminerss to have good careto have good care when when theythey arrivearrivedd home.home. Thus, marriage is seen as escaping Thus, marriage is seen as escaping the the misera-misera-ble conditionble conditionss of the worksite.of the worksite.

A PERIPHERAL VILLAGE

One of the main arguments of this thesis is that

One of the main arguments of this thesis is that the peripheral sta-the peripheral sta-tus of tus of Selimli Selimli isis one of the main one of the main factorsfactors for thfor thisis peasant communitypeasant community to to become mine workersbecome mine workers.. In Soma, In Soma, most peasant miners working in the most peasant miners working in the mine usually come from similar disadvantaged peripheral areasmine usually come from similar disadvantaged peripheral areas away away from the central areas, from mountain villages such as from the central areas, from mountain villages such as SelimliSelimli. .

In these peripheral location

In these peripheral locations, ds, distance to city istance to city centers decreasescenters decreases the the chance chance of accessingof accessing the government facilities like hospitals, schools, and the government facilities like hospitals, schools, and public transportation. public transportation. Yet, this inability to access public facilities shall not Yet, this inability to access public facilities shall not be seen as a “natural” constraint merely following from thbe seen as a “natural” constraint merely following from the geographic e geographic status of Selimli as a mountain village. Instead, the peripheral status of status of Selimli as a mountain village. Instead, the peripheral status of Selimli is also linked to political decisions which historically deprived this Selimli is also linked to political decisions which historically deprived this rural area rural area ofof government investment. government investment. In other words, the lack In other words, the lack of publicof public infrastructure iinfrastructure in this region also defines the peripheral status of the vil-n this region also defines the peripheral status of the vil-lage. lage.

Given this lack of infrastructure

Given this lack of infrastructure,, including including roads, roads, Selimli’sSelimli’s relation relation to to the market was limitedthe market was limited andand a a barter economybarter economy was used in the villagewas used in the village until the 2000s. until the 2000s. The village’s peripheral statusThe village’s peripheral status did not allow peasants to did not allow peasants to sell their products to districts and centers. These sell their products to districts and centers. These dynamicsdynamics pushpushed theed the peasant communitypeasant community of Selimliof Selimli to become to become aa mining communitymining community as wellas well. .

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§ 1.31.3 Three Generations: Changing Patterns of Migration and Three Generations: Changing Patterns of Migration and LaborLabor

The thesis will follow histo

The thesis will follow historical developments from the 1960s on-rical developments from the 1960s on-wards by following the themes of wards by following the themes of peripheral locationperipheral location, retirement, , retirement, agri-agri-culturalcultural relations, mining, and migrationrelations, mining, and migration. It will do so. It will do so byby focusing onfocusing on the the experiences of experiences of threethree differentdifferent generations since the research questions generations since the research questions have been answered differently by different generations in the fieldwork. have been answered differently by different generations in the fieldwork. Hence, I divided my sample Hence, I divided my sample into three in terms of age to understand the into three in terms of age to understand the changes and the patterns of labor, inchanges and the patterns of labor, internalternal migration, and the sociamigration, and the social his-l his-tory of Turkey. Changing patterns through these three periods are retire-tory of Turkey. Changing patterns through these three periods are retire-ment, social security, gender roles, relation with agriculture, and the way ment, social security, gender roles, relation with agriculture, and the way of describing identity.of describing identity.

The migration history in Turkey from the countryside to industri-

The migration history in Turkey from the countryside to industri-alized areas stalized areas started in the 1950s. From the 1960s through arted in the 1950s. From the 1960s through the the 1980s, it 1980s, it was the largest migration wave from the village to cities. In the research was the largest migration wave from the village to cities. In the research area, peasants worked area, peasants worked circularly in mining, agriculture, and construction circularly in mining, agriculture, and construction sectors, usually consideredsectors, usually considered partpart--time workers or ptime workers or peasant workerseasant workers are are known in the literature.known in the literature.26

26 Sinan Yıldırmaz, Politics and the Peasantry in PostSinan Yıldırmaz, Politics and the Peasantry in Post--War Turkey: Social History, Culture War Turkey: Social History, Culture andand Modernization (London, New York: I.B. Tauris, 2017); Sema Erder, İstanbul’a Bir Kent Modernization (London, New York: I.B. Tauris, 2017); Sema Erder, İstanbul’a Bir Kent Kondu: Ümraniye (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 1996), 13.Kondu: Ümraniye (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 1996), 13.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

Generations First Generation Second Generation Third Genera-tion Ages over 65 45-65 18-45 Working Years 1960-1980 1980-2002 2002-2020 Employment in the Mining Sector Mining companies have difficulties finding em-ployers High turnover rates Labor shortages in the mines Workers preferred State-operated mines. Labor shortages in private mines. Workers have difficulties in finding jobs in the mines Labour Surplus in the mines Patterns of Migra-tion to Soma Circular and seasonal migration Circular and perma-nent migration Permanent mi-gration as well as reverse migration Working Typol-ogy-Relations With Agriculture Seasonal wage laborer in the mines Intense Relation with Agriculture Seasonal and perma-nent laborers in the mines Still strong ties but de-creased relation with agriculture Semi-Proletarianiza-tion Permanent work-ers in the mines Less agricultural activities, the emergence of in-dustrial agricul-tural activities Proletarianiza-tion Settlement and Accommodation Workplace Apartment and village house Working time in Soma and harvest time in the village. Working Site Soma City Center Working site with their family Soma or Cenkyeri Literacy Men have basic literacy while women have no literacy Primary School High School Family and House-hold Situation Farming and animal husbandry, Feminized agriculture in the village Farming and animal hus-bandry in the village Seasonal agricultural la-bourer in Soma All the family set-tled in Soma or Cenkyeri Self Identification They do not define themselves as workers. Instead, they define themselves as farmers or retirees. They define them-selves as farmers or concerning their job after retiring from mining. There are en-trepreneurs among this group. They define themselves as mine workers. Main Reasons to Work in the Mines The peripheral condi-tion of the village, social security and social policies Social security and social policies, poverty Marriage, social security Relevant macro changes Law of Social Insurance (Sosyal Sigortalar Kanunu) in 1964 24 January 1980 Deci-sions 1999 legal changes in social security 2014 Soma acci-dent, 2001 and 2008 economic crises, 2008 so-cial security re-forms

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Years and Insur-ance Premium Days in Mining and Retirement Age Retirement in any for-mal job after 1800 working days 30 Years-1800 days Retirement Age: 38 20 years-4800 days 50 and 55 Retirement Age: 50 (if they work 4000 days, the retirement age will be 50, and if they work more than 4800 days, the retirement age will be 43) 12 Years-5000 days after 2014 Legal Changes Turkey's General Social-Economic Situation Social Policies Import substitution pe-riod had better working con-ditions and social secu-rity rights. The unem-ployment rate was lower. Mine have difficulty find-ing miners Neo-Liberal Period Globalized Word Decrease of wages Transformation of Ag-riculture Increase in cash de-pendency Privatization and the Redevance sys-tem High Unemploy-ment rates Transformation of Agriculture Increase in cash dependency

Table

Table 11.1: The Generation Table.1: The Generation Table

The migration from The migration from SelimliSelimli fits into this larger trend of inner mi-fits into this larger trend of inner mi-gration in the country. The interviews reveal that migration from gration in the country. The interviews reveal that migration from SelimliSelimli started around 1965s as men migrated to the mines as seasonal wostarted around 1965s as men migrated to the mines as seasonal workers. rkers. During the harvesting timeDuring the harvesting time in summerin summer, these part, these part--time workers time workers returnedreturned to the to the village village andand spent spent fourfour toto five monthsfive months in the village before going in the village before going back to work in the mines in Soma.back to work in the mines in Soma.27 ThThisis first generation worked in the first generation worked in the mines in Soma between the years 1960mines in Soma between the years 1960--80, the historical period between 80, the historical period between

27 For example, Osman (65) from this first generation stated that “We didn't work like this For example, Osman (65) from this first generation stated that “We didn't work like this all the time, like young people now, we used to work for three or four months, we used to all the time, like young people now, we used to work for three or four months, we used to raise the threshing in the village, plough our fields and go back to the minraise the threshing in the village, plough our fields and go back to the mine so that we could e so that we could have our retirement.” “Biz böyle sürekli çalışmazdık şimdiki gençler gibi, üç dört ay çalışır have our retirement.” “Biz böyle sürekli çalışmazdık şimdiki gençler gibi, üç dört ay çalışır gelirdik emekliliğimizde olsun diye, köyde harmanı kaldırır, tarlamızı sürer öyle dönerdik gelirdik emekliliğimizde olsun diye, köyde harmanı kaldırır, tarlamızı sürer öyle dönerdik madene.”madene.”

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

the two coups and the period of import substitution.

the two coups and the period of import substitution.28 The age of these The age of these men is over 65 nowmen is over 65 now,, and they were all born in and they were all born in SelimliSelimli village.village.

The retirement age

The retirement age of this first generation and the number of days of this first generation and the number of days they had to work for retirement were lowerthey had to work for retirement were lower in comparison to those of the in comparison to those of the younger generationyounger generation..29 Also, during this period, the turnover rateAlso, during this period, the turnover rate in the in the minesmines was higherwas higher.. Hence, Hence, it was easyit was easy for these peasantfor these peasant--minersminers tto leave o leave work for harvesting and then return to work at the mine. Therefore, min-work for harvesting and then return to work at the mine. Therefore, min-ers in this period had an intense relationers in this period had an intense relationship with agriculture, and pro-ship with agriculture, and pro-duction levels stayed the samduction levels stayed the same. e.

During

During this period, wthis period, while men moved to cities as circular migrants, hile men moved to cities as circular migrants, theitheir wives stayed under the control of their husband’s familr wives stayed under the control of their husband’s families. Theyies. They cared for farms, animals, and children which cared for farms, animals, and children which wwereere in line with the general in line with the general pattern of ruralpattern of rural--toto--urban migration in Turkey at the time. urban migration in Turkey at the time. This led to This led to feminized agriculture in the village.feminized agriculture in the village.

This

This firstfirst generation did not define themselves as generation did not define themselves as mine mine workerworkerss or or retired retired workerworkers.s. Instead, tInstead, they definehey definedd themselves as themselves as farmers orfarmers or in rela-in rela-tion to the new jobs such astion to the new jobs such as construction construction workworking,ing, theythey started doing af-started doing af-ter retiring from the mines. Men of this first ter retiring from the mines. Men of this first gengenerationeration diddid notnot consider consider themselves as themselves as ““((mine) mine) workers” because they spent only a few years in workers” because they spent only a few years in an underground an underground mine,mine, and they continued and they continued for for many years to do agricul-many years to do agricul-ture and animal husbandryture and animal husbandry

In this period

In this period,, thethe welfare state was viewedwelfare state was viewed globally and in Turkey. globally and in Turkey. The constitution of 1961st wasThe constitution of 1961st was alsoalso influentialinfluential in this period. Thus, the in this period. Thus, the generation of 1960generation of 1960--1980 had better working conditions and social secu-1980 had better working conditions and social secu-rity rights. The unemployment rate wasrity rights. The unemployment rate was alsoalso lower.lower.

28 Şevket Pamuk, Türkiye’nin 200 Yıllık İktisadi Tarihi : Büyüme, Kurumlar ve BöŞevket Pamuk, Türkiye’nin 200 Yıllık İktisadi Tarihi : Büyüme, Kurumlar ve Bölüşüm lüşüm (İstanbul: İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2015).(İstanbul: İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2015).

29 Retirement age and premium days simply, the first generation of miners were retired in Retirement age and premium days simply, the first generation of miners were retired in any age if they work more than 4000 days in 20 years. They were retired mostly at the age any age if they work more than 4000 days in 20 years. They were retired mostly at the age of 38. If miners started working after 2008, the retirement age is 50 for themof 38. If miners started working after 2008, the retirement age is 50 for them and they and they needed to complete 4.000 workdays insurance premium. However, miners can be retired needed to complete 4.000 workdays insurance premium. However, miners can be retired at 43 if they work more than 4.800 workdays. Hence, working more days in underground at 43 if they work more than 4.800 workdays. Hence, working more days in underground mines decreases the retirement age of miners.mines decreases the retirement age of miners.

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The second generation is those who wo

The second generation is those who worked between 198rked between 19800 after after 24 January decisions and 200124 January decisions and 2001. This period corresponds . This period corresponds to to thethe neoliberal neoliberal eraera.. Men from this second generation are currentlyMen from this second generation are currently between 45between 45 and 65and 65 years oldyears old. The majority of them were also born in the village. This group . The majority of them were also born in the village. This group continued agriccontinued agriculture activities at the same timeulture activities at the same time they worked in the they worked in the minesmines. In this. In this neoliberalneoliberal period, period, cash dependency in this rural commu-cash dependency in this rural commu-nity increased with the increase of overall consumption nationwidenity increased with the increase of overall consumption nationwide.. At At the same the same time, time, thethe decrease decrease inin agricultural subsidiesagricultural subsidies and the and the neoliberal neoliberal transformation of agriculturetransformation of agriculture pushed this generation topushed this generation to work inwork in the mine the mine pitspits..30 StillStill, t, the fieldwork findings show that the connection to land andhe fieldwork findings show that the connection to land and agriculture agriculture continued even if to a lessercontinued even if to a lesser extentextent for this second generation.for this second generation.

The second generation

The second generation has the same retirement and social security has the same retirement and social security rights as the first generation. They also continue agriculture. Unlike the rights as the first generation. They also continue agriculture. Unlike the previous generation, this generation took their families with them a few previous generation, this generation took their families with them a few years after they migrated to Somayears after they migrated to Soma.. Hence, Hence, women’swomen’s role in the role in the ffamily amily be-be-gangan to changeto change in this generationin this generation. . Like the previous generation, tLike the previous generation, this gen-his gen-erationeration ofof menmen dodo not define themselves not define themselves as as mineworkersmineworkers.. AlthoughAlthough somesome still still workwork inin the minesthe mines. They consider working in the mine as a “tempo-. They consider working in the mine as a “tempo-rary job” and rary job” and as a as a way of getting reway of getting retirement righttirement rightss. They have other . They have other occu-occu-pations,pations, and they are still farmers and they are still farmers in their in their view.view.

Thus, as argued earlier, the

Thus, as argued earlier, the flexibilityflexibility and possibility of combining and possibility of combining mining and agriculture was a mining and agriculture was a primaryprimary reason for both the first and sec-reason for both the first and sec-ond generation of men from Sond generation of men from Selimli to work in the underground mines in elimli to work in the underground mines in Soma. Soma. However, However, as I discuss below, the as I discuss below, the 20142014 minemine accidentsaccidents in Somain Soma de-de-stroyed thstroyed thisis flexibility of miflexibility of mining with continuing agriculture. ning with continuing agriculture. In addition, In addition, given the overall given the overall agricultural transformation and agricultural transformation and the the labor surplulabor surpluss in the in the mining sector, mining sector, it is difficult toit is difficult to talk about the talk about the flexibilityflexibility and combination and combination of of agriculture and mining after 2014.agriculture and mining after 2014.

30 Çağlar Keyder and Çağlar Keyder and Zafer Yenal, Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, Zafer Yenal, Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2013).2013).

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

The third generation is composed of those who work

The third generation is composed of those who work((eded) in the ) in the Soma minesSoma mines from 2001 to 2020 in the period of the AKP (Justice and De-from 2001 to 2020 in the period of the AKP (Justice and De-vvelopment Party) governmentelopment Party) government. This group of men . This group of men isis youngeryounger than than 4545,, andand the youngest is 18. The majority wthe youngest is 18. The majority wereere not born in their native village but not born in their native village but in the migrated area in Soma. in the migrated area in Soma.

For

For SomaSoma mine workers, this period of mine workers, this period of the the 2000s entailed essential 2000s entailed essential macromacro changes, affecting the lives of changes, affecting the lives of both retiredboth retired miners and those who miners and those who still work. still work. These important macro developments include the 2008 Social These important macro developments include the 2008 Social Security Reform, the 2001 and 2008 economic crisesSecurity Reform, the 2001 and 2008 economic crises,, and and ARIPARIP ((Agricul-Agricul-tural Implementation Reform Projecttural Implementation Reform Project))..

One of t

One of the he mmost significanost significant t macro changes for Soma minesmacro changes for Soma mines in in the the 2000s was privatization and the 2000s was privatization and the rredevance edevance ssystemystem with subcontracting with subcontracting companies. In this period, the production of minecompanies. In this period, the production of miness increaseincreasedd in the re-in the re-gion. This increasegion. This increase in outputin output also also increased theincreased the number of number of minersminers inin the the regionregion..

The younger generation

The younger generation from Selimlifrom Selimli,, whose age is between 25whose age is between 25--3030,, were not working in the were not working in the minesmines atat the time I conducted my research.the time I conducted my research. The The increase increase inin retirement ageretirement age was one major reason for this group of was one major reason for this group of younger men not to choose to work in younger men not to choose to work in the mine.the mine. In 2008In 2008, , the retirement the retirement age was increased with the reform of law number 5510age was increased with the reform of law number 5510. . Before 2008 Before 2008 min-min-ersers could be retired after working 5000 days, with this law, the retire-could be retired after working 5000 days, with this law, the retire-ment age became 50 for those who started to work before 2008 and 55 ment age became 50 for those who started to work before 2008 and 55 for those who started to work after 2008for those who started to work after 2008..31 AlsoAlso,, the retirement age could the retirement age could

31 “One other essential adjustment pertains to the period of premium payment“One other essential adjustment pertains to the period of premium payments.s.

In order to harmonize the three divergent social security institutions and equalize the pe-

In order to harmonize the three divergent social security institutions and equalize the pe-riod of premium payment for all three institutions, Law No. 5510, which was enacted in riod of premium payment for all three institutions, Law No. 5510, which was enacted in 2006, increased 7000 days of premium payments for SSK workers to 9000 days. 2006, increased 7000 days of premium payments for SSK workers to 9000 days. After the After the amendment to the Law No. 5510, Article 27,175 the number of premium payments to be amendment to the Law No. 5510, Article 27,175 the number of premium payments to be paid by SSK insurants was lowered to 7200 dayspaid by SSK insurants was lowered to 7200 days (…) (…) The structural reform of 1999 was the The structural reform of 1999 was the first stage of a planned twofirst stage of a planned two--staged pension reform package. In this first staged pension reform package. In this first phase, shortphase, short--term, term, parametric measures 162 were addressed. The abolition of the minimum retirement age parametric measures 162 were addressed. The abolition of the minimum retirement age limit, introduced by rightlimit, introduced by right-- left coalition government of the DYP and SHP in 1992, was vital left coalition government of the DYP and SHP in 1992, was vital in the discussions as a financial disrupter of the system. Fiin the discussions as a financial disrupter of the system. First, a minimum retirement age rst, a minimum retirement age for all new entrants into the SSK, Bağfor all new entrants into the SSK, Bağ--Kur, and ES schemes were introduced. To continue, Kur, and ES schemes were introduced. To continue,

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change according to

change according to miners’miners’ working time.working time. WhilWhilee miners were able to re-miners were able to re-tire tire at age 38, when they workedat age 38, when they worked 20 years in the mines.20 years in the mines. With With the the 2008 2008 Social Security Reform, underground miners retirement age became 55 Social Security Reform, underground miners retirement age became 55 until the 2014 changes.until the 2014 changes. Given these legal changesGiven these legal changes, m, many young males, any young males, sons of miners, have becosons of miners, have become professional soldiersme professional soldiers,, according to data according to data from the field. from the field. WWith the professionalization of the army in the country, ith the professionalization of the army in the country, miners’ families also started to choose to have their children join the miners’ families also started to choose to have their children join the army as professional soldiers instead of work in the mine.army as professional soldiers instead of work in the mine.

However,

However, the 2014 accident in Soma was a turning point. After the the 2014 accident in Soma was a turning point. After the accident, the retirement pension ageaccident, the retirement pension age for mineworkers for mineworkers decreaseddecreased again.again. With this With this change, change, thethe retirement age for miners became retirement age for miners became 5050 and even 45, and even 45, 43 with 43 with depreciationdepreciation because of it is risks.because of it is risks.32 Also, Also, mineworkers’ mineworkers’ salaries salaries increased with the lawincreased with the law stating that the stating that the papay of miners might not be less y of miners might not be less than two minimum wages.than two minimum wages.33 Miners were also granted two days a week Miners were also granted two days a week

within this transitory period, the law raised the minimum retirement age to 52 for women

within this transitory period, the law raised the minimum retirement age to 52 for women and to 56 for men. Previously, regardless of ageand to 56 for men. Previously, regardless of age, 20 years of full contributions for women, , 20 years of full contributions for women, and 25 years of full contributions for men had been sufficient in order to be eligible for and 25 years of full contributions for men had been sufficient in order to be eligible for retirement. Along with the law, entitlement to the right to receive a pension became harder retirement. Along with the law, entitlement to the right to receive a pension became harder to acquire since it extended to acquire since it extended the processthe process (…) (…) Social Insurance and Universal Health Insur-Social Insurance and Universal Health Insur-ance Law, currently named Law No. 5510, was reance Law, currently named Law No. 5510, was re--enacted on 17 April, 2008 with amend-enacted on 17 April, 2008 with amend-ments titled in Law No. 5754. The law became effective as of October 2008. Thus, the social ments titled in Law No. 5754. The law became effective as of October 2008. Thus, the social security reform processecurity reform process that started in the 1990s ended in 2008, yet it continues to be a s that started in the 1990s ended in 2008, yet it continues to be a hotly disputed topic. Its importance will continue considering mainly two things. First, the hotly disputed topic. Its importance will continue considering mainly two things. First, the reform itself, with its controversial articles, is the source of the waning of retirement con-reform itself, with its controversial articles, is the source of the waning of retirement con-ceceptualization as a moderate life time reward for theptualization as a moderate life time reward for the working population in old age. Second, working population in old age. Second, the incompatibility of the incompatibility of the social security system despite the reform with the prevailing la-the social security system despite the reform with the prevailing la-bor market relations will likely continue.” Asya Saydam, “Changing Retirembor market relations will likely continue.” Asya Saydam, “Changing Retirement Patterns in ent Patterns in Turkey: A Comparative Study of Metal and Municipality Sector Workers” (Boğaziçi Üniver-Turkey: A Comparative Study of Metal and Municipality Sector Workers” (Boğaziçi Üniver-sity, 2015), 50sity, 2015), 50--55.55.

32 Erdoğan Kaya, Soma Maden Kazasından Sonra Sağlanan Haklar Erdoğan Kaya, Soma Maden Kazasından Sonra Sağlanan Haklar https://www.sinerjias.com.tr/pdf/somahttps://www.sinerjias.com.tr/pdf/soma--madenmaden--kazasindankazasindan--sonrasonra--saglanansaglanan--haklhaklar.pdfar.pdf

33 Law No: 6552: There are rigts and changes with this law, accepted date: 10.09.2014Law No: 6552: There are rigts and changes with this law, accepted date: 10.09.2014

MADDE 9

MADDE 9 –– 4/6/1985 tarihli ve 3213 sayılı Maden Kanununa aşağıdaki ek madde 4/6/1985 tarihli ve 3213 sayılı Maden Kanununa aşağıdaki ek madde eklenmiştir.eklenmiştir.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

as a a holiday. These legal changes caused the younger generation to turn holiday. These legal changes caused the younger generation to turn back to mines again. back to mines again.

Duringring this period, the relation with agriculture decreased because this period, the relation with agriculture decreased because the the overall overall unemployment rate haunemployment rate hass been higher and the turnover ratebeen higher and the turnover rate in in the mines the mines decreased. decreased. The mineworkers cannot quit the job and go back The mineworkers cannot quit the job and go back to work in their agriculture to work in their agriculture quickquickly as the first ly as the first generation did. Most of generation did. Most of them still have them still have a a little agricultural area in Soma howeverlittle agricultural area in Soma however,, the production the production is not the same as in the previous generations.is not the same as in the previous generations.

This

This thirdthird generation lives with their family in Soma. Women have generation lives with their family in Soma. Women have a stronger voice in the family compared to a stronger voice in the family compared to previous generationsprevious generations andand are are influential in the decisions about the familyinfluential in the decisions about the family’s’s future. A lot of families and future. A lot of families and women women require menrequire men to work in the mine for marriage. Also, this young to work in the mine for marriage. Also, this young generation defines themselves as mine workergeneration defines themselves as mine workerss They complainThey complain about the about the difficultydifficulty of working in the mine and say, “time does not pass in the un-of working in the mine and say, “time does not pass in the un-derground mine”. The change in these dynamics indicates thatderground mine”. The change in these dynamics indicates that thethe min-min-ersers’’ and and the rural community of the rural community of Selimli’s outlookSelimli’s outlook on mining has changed. on mining has changed. Unlike previous periods, mining is now consideredUnlike previous periods, mining is now considered an an important important occupa-occupa-tiontion, not just a temporary job or merely, not just a temporary job or merely a a meansmeans ofof obtaining retirementobtaining retirement..

§ 1.41.4 The Scope and Some Notes on Miners and MiningThe Scope and Some Notes on Miners and Mining

1.4.1.1

1.4.1.1 Who are the miners working in Soma?Who are the miners working in Soma?

Firstly, it is logical to clarify who the miners are working in Soma

Firstly, it is logical to clarify who the miners are working in Soma for mine extraction and where they originally come from. What was the for mine extraction and where they originally come from. What was the workers’ previous occupation? Soma is a small mining town in western workers’ previous occupation? Soma is a small mining town in western Turkey. It is surrounded by the Yunt Mountains. Turkey. It is surrounded by the Yunt Mountains. The The city's populationcity's population was was

“EK MADDE 9 “EK MADDE 9 –– Bu Kanunun 2Bu Kanunun 2 ncinci maddesinde sayılan 4. Grup madenlerden “Linmaddesinde sayılan 4. Grup madenlerden “Linyit” ve yit” ve “Taşkömürü” çıkarılan işyerlerinde, yer altında çalışan işçilere ödenecek ücret miktarı “Taşkömürü” çıkarılan işyerlerinde, yer altında çalışan işçilere ödenecek ücret miktarı 4857 sayılı Kanunun 39 uncu maddesi uyarınca belirlenen asgari ücretin iki katından az 4857 sayılı Kanunun 39 uncu maddesi uyarınca belirlenen asgari ücretin iki katından az olamaz.” (Kanun No. 6552olamaz.” (Kanun No. 6552 --ana kanun numarası, Kabul tarihi: (10.09.2014)(ana kanun numarası, Kabul tarihi: (10.09.2014)( https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2014/09/20140911M1https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2014/09/20140911M1--1.htm1.htm) )

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109,946

109,94634 in 2020in 2020,, while it was 39,088 in 1985.while it was 39,088 in 1985.35 The city’s population The city’s population has increased with labor immigration. The number of mineworkers in the has increased with labor immigration. The number of mineworkers in the mine pits is approximately 17,000 and only about 7,000 mineworkers mine pits is approximately 17,000 and only about 7,000 mineworkers working in these pits working in these pits come from the surrounding villages of Soma, from come from the surrounding villages of Soma, from the local population.the local population.36 TThe majority of he majority of mineworkers comemineworkers come from Kütahya, from Kütahya, Balıkesir, Zonguldak, and the workers’ suppliers of Zonguldak, such as Balıkesir, Zonguldak, and the workers’ suppliers of Zonguldak, such as Bartın, Ordu, Çorum, Giresun historically.Bartın, Ordu, Çorum, Giresun historically.37

In the relevant

In the relevant literliterature, ature, ÇelikÇelik38, , identifies two main groups identifies two main groups among the among the mine workers in Somamine workers in Soma: the : the migrants and locals. migrants and locals. Based on my Based on my field research, field research, I I identified three identified three main main groupsgroups of of workers workers accordingaccording to to the the place of place of origin origin andand labor typology. labor typology.

The first group is composed of wo

The first group is composed of workers from Soma and neighbor-rkers from Soma and neighbor-ing areas such as Akhisar, Kırkağaç, Savaştepe, Kınık, and the villages of ing areas such as Akhisar, Kırkağaç, Savaştepe, Kınık, and the villages of Soma and these towns. This group started to work in mines lately mainly Soma and these towns. This group started to work in mines lately mainly due to the privatization of TEKEL and due to the privatization of TEKEL and the the decrease decrease inin tobacco production tobacco production in the rin the region. The second groupegion. The second group I identifiedI identified consists of those from the consists of those from the Black Sea region and EastBlack Sea region and Easternern TurkeyTurkey. They. They hahadd worked in the Zonguldak worked in the Zonguldak mines and the eastern minesmines and the eastern mines. . They migrate to Soma They migrate to Soma due to the decrease due to the decrease inin minemine investments in the Zonguldak region after the 1991 strike. The investments in the Zonguldak region after the 1991 strike. The third group includes workers from the east of western Turkey, third group includes workers from the east of western Turkey, the Inner the Inner Aegean, and the South Marmara regionsAegean, and the South Marmara regions. They have come from . They have come from the the pe-pe-ripheries, rural, underdevelopedripheries, rural, underdeveloped areas areas of Balıkesir, Maof Balıkesir, Manisa, Kütahya, and nisa, Kütahya, and BursaBursa.. The mineworkers from the village of Selimli whThe mineworkers from the village of Selimli whoo form the sample form the sample of this thesis belong to this third group.of this thesis belong to this third group.

34 Soma Nüfusu, accessed 30 May 2020. Soma Nüfusu, accessed 30 May 2020. https://https://www.nufusu.com/ilce/soma_manisawww.nufusu.com/ilce/soma_manisa--nufusunufusu

35 Nuran Taşlıgil, “Manisa İlinin Nüfus Gelişimi ve Özellikleri.” Ondokuz Mayis University Nuran Taşlıgil, “Manisa İlinin Nüfus Gelişimi ve Özellikleri.” Ondokuz Mayis University Journal of Education Faculty 7, no. 1 (1992): 231.Journal of Education Faculty 7, no. 1 (1992): 231.

36 Onur Bütün, Yedi Kat Yerin Altından Uğultular Geliyor: Yeni Çeltek’ten Onur Bütün, Yedi Kat Yerin Altından Uğultular Geliyor: Yeni Çeltek’ten Soma’ya Maden Soma’ya Maden İşçileri (Ankara: Dipnot Yayınları, 2015), 247.İşçileri (Ankara: Dipnot Yayınları, 2015), 247.

37 Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means,” 4.Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means,” 4.

38 Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means.”Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means.”

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

1.4.2

1.4.2 Surface Miners and Underground MinersSurface Miners and Underground Miners

Mines and miners are divided into two on a simple level

Mines and miners are divided into two on a simple level depending depending on theon the occupation occupation area: underground minearea: underground minersrs and surface miners. The and surface miners. The number of accidents in underground mines is larger, the deaths are more number of accidents in underground mines is larger, the deaths are more numerous, and the working conditions are more severe. In surface mines, numerous, and the working conditions are more severe. In surface mines, working conditions seem relatively better than underground, butworking conditions seem relatively better than underground, but work-work-ing hours are longer, income is lower, and the retirement age is higher. ing hours are longer, income is lower, and the retirement age is higher. Surface mines offer similar working conditions and economic income as Surface mines offer similar working conditions and economic income as in other industries in Turkey for unskilled workers. in other industries in Turkey for unskilled workers.

The research findings show that the miners likely pref

The research findings show that the miners likely preferer toto or are or are obliged to work in underground mines instead of surface mines because obliged to work in underground mines instead of surface mines because of higher income, lower working hours, and retirement age advantages. of higher income, lower working hours, and retirement age advantages. The miner who cannot descend to the underground mine due to health The miner who cannot descend to the underground mine due to health problems might problems might not be satisfied withnot be satisfied with his job. his job. For For exampleexample, Rasim (42) , Rasim (42) (surface mine worker), (surface mine worker), used toused to work in the underground mines beforework in the underground mines before. . However, However, forfor seven yearsseven years,, he he could could nono longerlonger work in the undergroundwork in the underground minesmines because of his health problems. He was not because of his health problems. He was not comfortable comfortable withwith this this situationsituation because his peers because his peers had had already obtained their retirementalready obtained their retirement. In con-. In con-trast,trast, he had to work longer years in the abovehe had to work longer years in the above--ground mines with longer ground mines with longer working working hours andhours and would receive a lower pension comparedwould receive a lower pension compared to his peers to his peers who retired from the underground mines.who retired from the underground mines.

1.4.3

1.4.3 The The ScopeScope:: Underground MinersUnderground Miners

The thesis is mainly about underground miners and their families

The thesis is mainly about underground miners and their families because the risks of an underground mine are more compared to surface because the risks of an underground mine are more compared to surface mines. In the field research, mines. In the field research, I also madeI also made interviews with surface mine interviews with surface mine workers and with their families, yet it workers and with their families, yet it seems inaccurateseems inaccurate to discuss two to discuss two groups of miners unitedly because there are divergences between sur-groups of miners unitedly because there are divergences between sur-face mine workers and underground miners related to working condi-face mine workers and underground miners related to working condi-tions, retirement conditions, retirement conditions, and the working hours. Therefore, the scope tions, and the working hours. Therefore, the scope of this thesis is largely for underground miners and their families.of this thesis is largely for underground miners and their families.

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1.4.4

1.4.4 The Working Conditions of MinersThe Working Conditions of Miners

Working conditions in the mines are difficult. Miners work in a

Working conditions in the mines are difficult. Miners work in a stressful envirostressful environment. nment. Miners start theMiners start their sentences with, “if you do not ir sentences with, “if you do not know the mining, you mightknow the mining, you might diedie immediately.”immediately.”39

Mining is a

Mining is a laborlabor intensintensivive jobe job. Mining goes on with. Mining goes on with three shiftsthree shifts on on a daya day without any break. Mine workers without any break. Mine workers are are not ablenot able to to enter enter mines withmines with theirtheir phones. phones. Hence, tHence, they have no hey have no informationinformation from their families forfrom their families for eight hours eight hours daildailyy.. There areThere are no toilets in the underground mines. When no toilets in the underground mines. When the the shift endsshift ends, miners , miners come outcome out of the underground mineof the underground mine with aches and with aches and with coal in their with coal in their bodbodiesies.. Another thingAnother thing thatthat many miners mention is that many miners mention is that miners have difficulties miners have difficulties goinggoing out out oon sunnyn sunny days because of working days because of working many years without sun.many years without sun.

When I asked and listened to the working conditions of the miners,

When I asked and listened to the working conditions of the miners, there were three different responses to the question. The responses there were three different responses to the question. The responses changechangedd in in relationrelation toto where I dwhere I didid my interview and with whom. If I my interview and with whom. If I waswas in the miners’ homes and if their families in the miners’ homes and if their families werewere with us while conducting with us while conducting the interviews, miners the interviews, miners diddid not complain about working conditions. They not complain about working conditions. They showshoweded their families how their families how strong andstrong and hhow masculine they are. For exam-ow masculine they are. For exam-ple, Refik (31) explained how it is easy to work in underground mines. ple, Refik (31) explained how it is easy to work in underground mines. He explained worksite areas that allowed him to save money. He explained worksite areas that allowed him to save money. “The “The worksite areas were not good, but we had free food, worksite areas were not good, but we had free food, and and bedding and bedding and could save money.”could save money.”

Onn other occasionsother occasions, , I I askaskeded about working conditions in the coffee about working conditions in the coffee houses houses among maleamong male workers. workers. They responded either with jokes or by They responded either with jokes or by swearing. swearing. For example, Refik was swearing about the worksite accommo-For example, Refik was swearing about the worksite accommo-dation and sadation and saiidd it wasit was the worst part of his life. Also, the worst part of his life. Also, Mahmut said that he Mahmut said that he deleteddeleted thethe worksite accommodation from his memories.worksite accommodation from his memories.

I gained a

I gained anothernother perspective when I conducted oneperspective when I conducted one--toto--one inter-one inter-viewsviews with men in the streets or at home when they were alone. Twith men in the streets or at home when they were alone. They hey explain working conditions with nightmares.explain working conditions with nightmares. İsmail, İsmail, Refik, and Ümit ex-Refik, and Ümit ex-plained how they had many dreams and nightmares when they started plained how they had many dreams and nightmares when they started

39 “Madenciliği bilmiyorsan, hemen ölürsün.”“Madenciliği bilmiyorsan, hemen ölürsün.”

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

working at the age of 18

working at the age of 18 oror 19. They told me that they saw their close 19. They told me that they saw their close friends' deaths and accidentsfriends' deaths and accidents,, andand these moments remained alivethese moments remained alive in their in their memories and memories and appeared in theappeared in their ir dreams repeatedly. dreams repeatedly.

§ 1.51.5 Contribution to LiteratureContribution to Literature

The study contributes to the literature on miner communities in

The study contributes to the literature on miner communities in Turkey firstly by focusing on a different geographic area (Aegean) rather Turkey firstly by focusing on a different geographic area (Aegean) rather thanthan thethe Zonguldak/Black Sea region which has mostly been the site Zonguldak/Black Sea region which has mostly been the site of of studystudy. Secondly, the thesis brings in . Secondly, the thesis brings in mineworkers’ familiesmineworkers’ families'' perspectiveperspectives s and household strategiesand household strategies into the analysis rather than just focusing on into the analysis rather than just focusing on male mine workersmale mine workers.. TThirdlyhirdly,, by covering a wider time span through its by covering a wider time span through its focus on the experience of three genefocus on the experience of three generations, rations, the study the study offerofferss a broad per-a broad per-spective of the miner community from its first formation and revealspective of the miner community from its first formation and revealss the the dynamics that have changed over time.dynamics that have changed over time.

The main geographic area of focus in the literature on mining and The main geographic area of focus in the literature on mining and mining communities in Turkeymining communities in Turkey has been thehas been the Black Sea region, particu-Black Sea region, particu-larlylarly Zonguldak.Zonguldak.40

40 Quataert, Miners and the State in the Ottoman Empire: The Zonguldak Coalfield, 1822Quataert, Miners and the State in the Ottoman Empire: The Zonguldak Coalfield, 1822--1920; 1920; GürboGürboğa, “Mine Workers, the State and War: The Ereğliğa, “Mine Workers, the State and War: The Ereğli--Zonguldak Coal Basin as the Zonguldak Coal Basin as the Site of Contest, 1920Site of Contest, 1920--1947”;1947”; Can Nacar, “Our Lives Were Not as Valuable as an Animal” 1: Can Nacar, “Our Lives Were Not as Valuable as an Animal” 1: Workers in StateWorkers in State--Run Industries in WorldRun Industries in World--WarWar--II Turkey.” International Review of Social II Turkey.” International Review of Social HiHistory 54, Supplement 17 (2009): 143story 54, Supplement 17 (2009): 143––6666; ; Can Nacar, “Working Class in Turkey During Can Nacar, “Working Class in Turkey During the World War II Period: Between Social Policies and Everyday Experiences.” Unpublished the World War II Period: Between Social Policies and Everyday Experiences.” Unpublished MA Thesis, (Boğaziçi University, 2004);MA Thesis, (Boğaziçi University, 2004); İbrahim Sarıkaya, “Work Accidents as the Mostİbrahim Sarıkaya, “Work Accidents as the Most Afflictive Face of Neoliberalism: The Zonguldak Hard Coal Basin Case,” accessed 25 May Afflictive Face of Neoliberalism: The Zonguldak Hard Coal Basin Case,” accessed 25 May 2021, 2021, https://www.ippapublicpolicy.org/file/paper/1433965757.pdfhttps://www.ippapublicpolicy.org/file/paper/1433965757.pdf; İbrahim Sarıkaya, ; İbrahim Sarıkaya, “Work and“Work and Work Accidents in the Flexible Working Regime: The Zonguldak Hard Coal Basin Work Accidents in the Flexible Working Regime: The Zonguldak Hard Coal Basin Case” Unpublished M.A. Thesis, (Boğaziçi Universitesi 2012);Case” Unpublished M.A. Thesis, (Boğaziçi Universitesi 2012); E. Attila Aytekin, E. Attila Aytekin, Tarlalardan Tarlalardan Ocaklara, Sefaletten Mücadeleye: ZonguldakOcaklara, Sefaletten Mücadeleye: Zonguldak--Ereğli Kömür Havzası Işçileri, 1848Ereğli Kömür Havzası Işçileri, 1848--19221922 (İ(İstanbul: Yordam Kitap, 2007); Erol Kahveci, “Review of Life and Death at Work: Industrial stanbul: Yordam Kitap, 2007); Erol Kahveci, “Review of Life and Death at Work: Industrial Accidents as a Case of Socially Produced Error, by T. Dwyer,” Sociology 27, no. 2 (1993): Accidents as a Case of Socially Produced Error, by T. Dwyer,” Sociology 27, no. 2 (1993): 327327––28. 28. http://www.jstor.orghttp://www.jstor.org/stable/42855191/stable/42855191; Theo Nichols and Erol Kahveci. “The ; Theo Nichols and Erol Kahveci. “The condition of mine labor in Turkey: injuries to miners in Zonguldak, 1942condition of mine labor in Turkey: injuries to miners in Zonguldak, 1942––90,” 90,” Middle Middle Eastern StudiesEastern Studies 31, 2 (1995): 19731, 2 (1995): 197--228; Nurşen Gürboğa, 228; Nurşen Gürboğa, “Compulsory Mine Work: The “Compulsory Mine Work: The

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This thesis

This thesis focuses on an understudied region, Aegean which has focuses on an understudied region, Aegean which has not received equal attention until recently. While there has been a grow-not received equal attention until recently. While there has been a grow-ing literature on the Soma mines after the 2014 accidenting literature on the Soma mines after the 2014 accident..41 TThis thesis his thesis

Single

Single--Party Regime and the Zonguldak Coalfield as a Site of Contention, 1940Party Regime and the Zonguldak Coalfield as a Site of Contention, 1940––1947.” 1947.” International Review of Social HistoryInternational Review of Social History 54 (2009): 11554 (2009): 115––42. 42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26405http://www.jstor.org/stable/26405433433; Murat Metinsoy, “Wars Outside the War: The ; Murat Metinsoy, “Wars Outside the War: The Social Impact of the Second World War on Turkey.” MA Thesis. (Boğaziçi University, 2004); Social Impact of the Second World War on Turkey.” MA Thesis. (Boğaziçi University, 2004); Mübeccel Kıray, Mübeccel Kıray, Ereğli : Ağır Sanayiden Önce Bir Sahil KasabasıEreğli : Ağır Sanayiden Önce Bir Sahil Kasabası (Ankara: Devlet Plânlama (Ankara: Devlet Plânlama Teşkilâtı 1964); Figen Uzar ÖTeşkilâtı 1964); Figen Uzar Özdemir and zdemir and Atilla Barutçu eds,Atilla Barutçu eds,"Yüz Karası Değil Kömür "Yüz Karası Değil Kömür Karası": ZonguldakKarası": Zonguldak (İstanbul: İletişim Yayıncılık, 2017).(İstanbul: İletişim Yayıncılık, 2017).

41 Fikret Adaman, Murat Arsel, and Bengi Akbulut, “Neoliberal Developmentalism, Fikret Adaman, Murat Arsel, and Bengi Akbulut, “Neoliberal Developmentalism, Authoritarian Populism, and Extractivism in the Countryside: The Soma Mining Disaster in Authoritarian Populism, and Extractivism in the Countryside: The Soma Mining Disaster in Turkey,” Journal of Peasant Studies 46, no. 3 (April 16, 2019): 514Turkey,” Journal of Peasant Studies 46, no. 3 (April 16, 2019): 514––36, 36, doi:10.1080/030doi:10.1080/03066150.2018.1515737; Sumru Tamer, “State66150.2018.1515737; Sumru Tamer, “State--Making Through Disaster Making Through Disaster Management: The Case of Soma” 2017; Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means of Management: The Case of Soma” 2017; Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means of Rural Livelihood”Rural Livelihood”;; Coşku Çelik, “TCoşku Çelik, “Tarımdan Madenciliğe, Madencilikten İşsizliğe Soma’da arımdan Madenciliğe, Madencilikten İşsizliğe Soma’da Sınıf İlişkilerinin Dönüşümü Sınıf İlişkilerinin Dönüşümü –– Sosyal Demokrat Dergi,” Sosyal Demokrat Dergi,” Sosyal Bilimler DerneğiSosyal Bilimler Derneği, 2018, , 2018, http://www.sosyaldemokratdergi.org/coskuhttp://www.sosyaldemokratdergi.org/cosku--celikcelik--tarimdantarimdan--madenciligemadencilige--madenciliktenmadencilikten--issizligeissizlige--somadasomada--sinifsinif--iliskilerininiliskilerinin--donusumu/.donusumu/. Hatice Çoban Keneş and İnan Özdemir Hatice Çoban Keneş and İnan Özdemir Taştan. “Madencinin Acısına Bakmak: Ulusal Basında Soma Maden "Facia"sının Haber-Taştan. “Madencinin Acısına Bakmak: Ulusal Basında Soma Maden "Facia"sının Haber-leştirileştirilmesi".” lmesi".” Ankara Üniversitesi SBF DergisiAnkara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi 71 (2016): 12571 (2016): 125––60; 60; Elif Türten, “Soma Elif Türten, “Soma Maden Faciası Karikatürlerinin Değerlendirilmesi: Salih Memecan, Mehmet Çağçağ, Osman Maden Faciası Karikatürlerinin Değerlendirilmesi: Salih Memecan, Mehmet Çağçağ, Osman Turhan ve Behiç Ak ÖrnekleTurhan ve Behiç Ak Örnekleri (Evaluation of Mine Disaster Soma Cartoon with ri (Evaluation of Mine Disaster Soma Cartoon with Samples:.........),” Samples:.........),” Gümüşhane Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Elektronik DergisiGümüşhane Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Elektronik Dergisi 3, no. 2 (, 3, no. 2 (, 2015): 1372015): 137--158. doi:10.19145/guifd.29583.158. doi:10.19145/guifd.29583. Çiğdem Yumbul, “Life in Soma, Turkey, After Çiğdem Yumbul, “Life in Soma, Turkey, After the Mining Massacre of the Mining Massacre of 2014: An Autoethnographic Account of Mental Health Relief Efforts 2014: An Autoethnographic Account of Mental Health Relief Efforts to Affected Families,” PhD Diss. (University of Minnesota, 2017)to Affected Families,” PhD Diss. (University of Minnesota, 2017);; Ayşe Buğra, “GeliyoruAyşe Buğra, “Geliyorum m Diyen Facia Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Soma Araştırma Grubu Raporu,” ed. Nuri Ersoy (İstanbul: Diyen Facia Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Soma Araştırma Grubu Raporu,” ed. Nuri Ersoy (İstanbul: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2014), 185Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2014), 185––202.202. Özge Kantaş, “‘Madenin Altı Ölüm; Üstü Özge Kantaş, “‘Madenin Altı Ölüm; Üstü Zulüm…,’” Zulüm…,’” Ankara Üniversitesi SBF DergisiAnkara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi 70(2) (2015): 70(2) (2015): 485485--497;497; Fuat ErcFuat Ercan and Şebnem an and Şebnem Oğuz, “From Gezi Resistance to Soma Massacre: Capital Accumulation and Class Struggle in Oğuz, “From Gezi Resistance to Soma Massacre: Capital Accumulation and Class Struggle in Turkey.” Socialist Register 51 (2015): 114Turkey.” Socialist Register 51 (2015): 114––35; 35; Halil Gürhanlı, “Mass Murder in Soma Mine: Halil Gürhanlı, “Mass Murder in Soma Mine: Crony Capitalism and Fetish of Growth in Turkey,” Politiikasta,Crony Capitalism and Fetish of Growth in Turkey,” Politiikasta, last modified 9 Junelast modified 9 June 2014, 2014, https://politiikasta.fi/masshttps://politiikasta.fi/mass--murdermurder--inin--somasoma--minemine--cronycrony--capitalismcapitalism--andand--fetishfetish--ofof--growthgrowth--inin--turkey/turkey/; Erhan Atay, Hab; Erhan Atay, Habibe Ilhan, and Serkan Bayraktaroglu, “The Turkish ibe Ilhan, and Serkan Bayraktaroglu, “The Turkish Soma Coal Mining Disaster,” Soma Coal Mining Disaster,” Journal of Business Ethics EducationJournal of Business Ethics Education 16 (2019): 23116 (2019): 231––46, 46, doi:10.5840/jbee20191613; doi:10.5840/jbee20191613; Mukaddes Esra Aysan, “Özelleştirmenin Maden Işçilerinin Mukaddes Esra Aysan, “Özelleştirmenin Maden Işçilerinin

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

diff

differs from theseers from these studiesstudies oon Soma as well as other studies on mining in n Soma as well as other studies on mining in TurkeyTurkey in terms of the period onin terms of the period on whichwhich it it focusesfocuses. .

Some research on mining during the Republican

Some research on mining during the Republican eraera focus on the focus on the Second World War period. For Second World War period. For exampleexample,, Can NacarCan Nacar in in ““Our Lives Were Not Our Lives Were Not as Valuable as an Animalas Valuable as an Animal” written in 2009 which focuses” written in 2009 which focuses on the “workers on the “workers inside and outside workplaces during World War II.”inside and outside workplaces during World War II.”42 Studies Studies aboutabout SomaSoma,, including Tamer (2017)including Tamer (2017) 43 and Adaman et al and Adaman et al ((2019)2019) 44 , , mostlymostly fo-fo-cus on cus on the neoliberal era and the privatizationsthe neoliberal era and the privatizations during the AKP period. during the AKP period. However, this However, this thesisthesis tries to make sense of the origin of today's Soma and tries to make sense of the origin of today's Soma and mining debates by looking at a mining debates by looking at a broabroader period. For this purpose, it uses der period. For this purpose, it uses archival documents for the period before 1960 archival documents for the period before 1960 while while mainly mainly buildingbuilding onon field field researchresearch with different generations with different generations of of thethe postpost--191960 period. Thus, 60 period. Thus, it provides a broad perspective of the miner community beginning from it provides a broad perspective of the miner community beginning from its first formation. It reveals changes from generation to generation and its first formation. It reveals changes from generation to generation and highlights the dynamics that have changed ovehighlights the dynamics that have changed over time. r time. This research also This research also

Çalışma ve Sosyal Hayatına Etkisi: Soma

Çalışma ve Sosyal Hayatına Etkisi: Soma Örneği,” Unpublished MA Thesis (Ordu Üniversi-Örneği,” Unpublished MA Thesis (Ordu Üniversi-tesi, 2019); Çağatay Topal, Fatma Umut Beşpınar, and Çağrı Topal, “Soma’da Madencilerin tesi, 2019); Çağatay Topal, Fatma Umut Beşpınar, and Çağrı Topal, “Soma’da Madencilerin Risk Anlamlandırmalarında Kurumsal ve Yerel Bilginin Üretim Dinamikleri,” Risk Anlamlandırmalarında Kurumsal ve Yerel Bilginin Üretim Dinamikleri,” Mülkiye Mülkiye DergisiDergisi, 42 (3), 371, 42 (3), 371--402; 402; Matteo Spada and Peter Burgherr, “An Aftermath Analysis of the Matteo Spada and Peter Burgherr, “An Aftermath Analysis of the 2014 Coal Mine Accident in Soma, Turkey: Use of Risk Performance Indicators Based on 2014 Coal Mine Accident in Soma, Turkey: Use of Risk Performance Indicators Based on Historical Experience,” Historical Experience,” Accident Analysis and PreventionAccident Analysis and Prevention 87 (2016): 13487 (2016): 134––40, 40, doi:10.1016/j.aap.2015.11.020;doi:10.1016/j.aap.2015.11.020; AArife Karadag, “Changing Environment and Urban Identity rife Karadag, “Changing Environment and Urban Identity Following OpenFollowing Open--Cast Mining and Thermic Power Plant in Turkey: Case of Soma,” Cast Mining and Thermic Power Plant in Turkey: Case of Soma,” Environmental Monitoring and AssessmentEnvironmental Monitoring and Assessment 184 (2012) 1617184 (2012) 1617--1632, doi:10.1007/s106611632, doi:10.1007/s10661--011011--20652065--z.z.

42 Can Nacar, “Our Lives Were NCan Nacar, “Our Lives Were Not as Valuable as an Animal” 1: Workers in Stateot as Valuable as an Animal” 1: Workers in State--Run In-Run In-dustries in Worlddustries in World--WarWar--II Turkey.” International Review of Social History 54, Supplement 17 II Turkey.” International Review of Social History 54, Supplement 17 (2009): 143(2009): 143––66. 66.

43 Sumru Tamer, “StateSumru Tamer, “State--Making Through Disaster Management: The Case of Soma.” MA Making Through Disaster Management: The Case of Soma.” MA Thesis, (BoğaThesis, (Boğaziçi University, 2017).ziçi University, 2017).

44 Fikret Adaman, Murat Arsel, and Bengi Akbulut. “Neoliberal Developmentalism, Author-Fikret Adaman, Murat Arsel, and Bengi Akbulut. “Neoliberal Developmentalism, Author-itarian Populism, and Extractivism in the Countryside: The Soma Mining Disaster in Tur-itarian Populism, and Extractivism in the Countryside: The Soma Mining Disaster in Tur-key.” The Journal of Peasant Studies 46, no. 3 (2019): 514key.” The Journal of Peasant Studies 46, no. 3 (2019): 514––3636. . doi:10.1080/03066150.2018.1515737. doi:10.1080/03066150.2018.1515737.

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aims to show ordinary lives and times. In the literature, the mining stud-

aims to show ordinary lives and times. In the literature, the mining stud-ies in Turkey focus on ies in Turkey focus on mükellefiyetmükellefiyet45 during the Second World War during the Second World War or theor the May 13, Soma accidentMay 13, Soma accident as mentioned aboveas mentioned above. These two periods are unu-. These two periods are unu-sual times. sual times. In thIn these unusual circumstances, mese unusual circumstances, miners’ experienceiners’ experiencess,, and and thethe encounteencountersrs between the state between the state and and miningmining communitcommunitiesies differ from usual differ from usual times. In this times. In this thesisthesis, although the starting point is the Soma accident, the , although the starting point is the Soma accident, the main emphasis is main emphasis is on on miners' experience and mentalitieminers' experience and mentalities of the mining s of the mining community in ordinary times. Therefore, community in ordinary times. Therefore, this studythis study examines examines aa longer pe-longer pe-riod and riod and miners’ miners’ obligations obligations ((mecburiyetmecburiyet)) duringduring commoncommon periodsperiods..

The biggest contribution of this thesis is that it testifies the per-

The biggest contribution of this thesis is that it testifies the per-spective of the miners and their famspective of the miners and their families on working in the mining sector. ilies on working in the mining sector. It It examines how examines how miners,miners, and their familiesand their families consider such a risky and consider such a risky and deadly jobdeadly job as underground mining. Bas underground mining. By involving the miners' families, y involving the miners' families, the the study study makemakess visible the other members of households, the children and visible the other members of households, the children and wiveswives,, since mining is not the only individual strategy of the male work-since mining is not the only individual strategy of the male work-ers but rather a family strategy to survive. ers but rather a family strategy to survive. As this thesis aims to show, fAs this thesis aims to show, for or the peasant mining community, families have a hthe peasant mining community, families have a household strategy and ousehold strategy and division of labor within the family. Miningdivision of labor within the family. Mining is is a lifestylea lifestyle experienced by experienced by every family memberevery family member in the mining community. This research contrib-in the mining community. This research contrib-utes utes to to including the family in the research agenda.including the family in the research agenda.

Lastly, this thesis differs from existing

Lastly, this thesis differs from existing studies on mining in the studies on mining in the Soma region in terms of the group of mineworkers it focuses on. Soma region in terms of the group of mineworkers it focuses on. Many Many studiesstudies conducted about Soma focus on local workers in the region.conducted about Soma focus on local workers in the region.46 In In this this thesisthesis, Soma will be investigated through the transformation of , Soma will be investigated through the transformation of SelimliSelimli village and bvillage and by looking at Soma from peasant workers’ perspective. y looking at Soma from peasant workers’ perspective.

45 Mükellefiyet is obligatory work implemented by the state without consent of the citi-Mükellefiyet is obligatory work implemented by the state without consent of the citi-zens. It was implemented in the 19th and 20th centuries in the mines because of labor zens. It was implemented in the 19th and 20th centuries in the mines because of labor shortages in the mines. In the Ottoman Empireshortages in the mines. In the Ottoman Empire period, it started in Zonguldak mines in period, it started in Zonguldak mines in 1867. In terms of Inner Aegean mines, during the Second World War, mükellefiyet was im-1867. In terms of Inner Aegean mines, during the Second World War, mükellefiyet was im-plemented with the National Protection Law.plemented with the National Protection Law.

46 Tamer, “StateTamer, “State--Making Through Disaster Management”; Aysan, “Özelleştirmenin Maden Making Through Disaster Management”; Aysan, “Özelleştirmenin Maden IIşçilerinin Çalışma ve Sosyal Hayatına Etkisi: Soma Örneği.” şçilerinin Çalışma ve Sosyal Hayatına Etkisi: Soma Örneği.”

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

This

This studystudy emphasizes migration by choosing emphasizes migration by choosing SelimliSelimli since it is one of the since it is one of the labor suppliers of the Soma mine pits. labor suppliers of the Soma mine pits.

Another important contribution is

Another important contribution is that itthat it takes takes a different perspec-a different perspec-tive by examining nottive by examining not only the mining region of Soma but also the migrat-only the mining region of Soma but also the migrat-ing village of ing village of SelimliSelimli. Thus, it reveals a picture of both migration and labor . Thus, it reveals a picture of both migration and labor history through the eyes of miners and miners' families who emigrated history through the eyes of miners and miners' families who emigrated and stayed behind. Also, this and stayed behind. Also, this studystudy emphasizes the conneemphasizes the connection of miners ction of miners with land and agriculture.with land and agriculture.

In summary, this

In summary, this thesisthesis becomes distinct from other studies in that becomes distinct from other studies in that it looks at it looks at miningmining from from thethe perspectiveperspective of miners, focuses on a wider time of miners, focuses on a wider time period and period and a a different geographidifferent geographic areac area, addresses those who emigrate , addresses those who emigrate aand remain behind, nd remain behind, and and makes family members part of the research, and makes family members part of the research, and tries to make sense of the changes that occur over time by focusing ontries to make sense of the changes that occur over time by focusing on three differentthree different generations.generations.

§ 1.61.6 Literature ReviewLiterature Review

This section will offer a review of the

This section will offer a review of the mining community literaturemining community literature under three main headings:under three main headings: 1) 1) global mining communityglobal mining community literatureliterature,, 2)2) national mining communitynational mining community studiesstudies, and , and 3) 3) local mining communitylocal mining community (Soma(Soma and Aegeanand Aegean) ) literatureliterature..

1.6.1

1.6.1 Global Global Mining Mining Community Community LiteratureLiterature

There are several research about global mining communit

There are several research about global mining communities. I ies. I want to give only a few examples. I want to start with “Coal is Not Just a want to give only a few examples. I want to start with “Coal is Not Just a Job, It’s a Way of Life”: The Cultural Politics of Coal Production in Central Job, It’s a Way of Life”: The Cultural Politics of Coal Production in Central Appalachia by Philip G. Lewin article.Appalachia by Philip G. Lewin article.47 The article is written in 2019 The article is written in 2019 based on Appalachia fieldbased on Appalachia fieldwork. It is relevant to my study work. It is relevant to my study becausebecause it it showshows thats that despitedespite the the adversadverse effects and health risks to society, thee effects and health risks to society, the mining communitymining community givegivess popular support to mining. popular support to mining.

47 Philip G. Lewin, “‘Coal Is Not Just a Job, It’s a Way of Life’: The Cultural Politics of Coal Philip G. Lewin, “‘Coal Is Not Just a Job, It’s a Way of Life’: The Cultural Politics of Coal Production in Central Appalachia,” Social Problems 66, no. 1 (2017): 1Production in Central Appalachia,” Social Problems 66, no. 1 (2017): 1––18, 18, doi:10.1093/socpro/spx030.doi:10.1093/socpro/spx030.

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Similar to my research field, many people in the

Similar to my research field, many people in the AppalachiaAppalachia region region feel like secondfeel like second--class citizens because theclass citizens because the U.S. U.S. government ignores them. government ignores them. With the high unemployment rates and poverty in the region, the mining With the high unemployment rates and poverty in the region, the mining sector creates easy opportunities for males to find a job. For male work-sector creates easy opportunities for males to find a job. For male work-ers, ers, miningmining creates a dignificreates a dignified and masculine occupation because it’s a ed and masculine occupation because it’s a sector where the number of women workers sector where the number of women workers areare rare. This causes a pos-rare. This causes a pos-itive itive attitude towardsattitude towards mining in the region and makes it a “way of life” mining in the region and makes it a “way of life” instead of only a job as Lewin explains. instead of only a job as Lewin explains.

Lewin

Lewin links links his “way of life” his “way of life” argumentargument to Gramsci’s theory of he-to Gramsci’s theory of he-gemonygemony.. In his words, as In his words, as Antonio GramsciAntonio Gramsci explains “explains “dominant groups dominant groups secure consent for economic exploitation by exercising moral and cul-secure consent for economic exploitation by exercising moral and cul-tural leadership.tural leadership.””48 In this In this GramsciGramscianan theoretical framework, hegemony theoretical framework, hegemony is seen asis seen as esseessential for the mining communities’ consentntial for the mining communities’ consent.. HenceHence it be-it be-comes crucial for comes crucial for mining studies to theorize the cultural and leadership mining studies to theorize the cultural and leadership hegemony. hegemony.

Another essay is Richard York Bell, Shannon Elizabeth, “Commu-

Another essay is Richard York Bell, Shannon Elizabeth, “Commu-nity Economic Identity: The Coal Industry and Ideology Conity Economic Identity: The Coal Industry and Ideology Construction in nstruction in West VirginiaWest Virginia.”.”49 They take theorization fromThey take theorization from aa neoneo--MarxistMarxist paradigmparadigm and emphasize the and emphasize the companies’ companies’ desire for increasdesire for increasinging profitprofits. They also fo-s. They also fo-cus oncus on mechanization in the extractive industriesmechanization in the extractive industries, arguing , arguing how how employ-employ-ment in the mines decreased with ment in the mines decreased with mechanizationmechanization. In the fieldwork of . In the fieldwork of Soma, mechanization was Soma, mechanization was also a relevant also a relevant phenomenon.phenomenon. In the region, In the region, mechanizationmechanization caused thecaused the decreaseddecreased the the flexibility of flexibility of mineworkersmineworkers toto shift between mining and agriculture shift between mining and agriculture because because laborlabor shortage in the shortage in the minesmines is not a is not a phephenomenonnomenon anymore.anymore.

There are differences and similarities among the mining commu-

There are differences and similarities among the mining commu-nitiesnities across the worldacross the world. Another example. Another example of a mining community studyof a mining community study is is Federico M. HelfgottFederico M. Helfgott’s research’s research about Peru minersabout Peru miners,,’ “Transformations in ’ “Transformations in

48 Ibid, 2.Ibid, 2.

49 Shannon Elizabeth Bell and Richard York, Community Economic Identity: The Coal In-Shannon Elizabeth Bell and Richard York, Community Economic Identity: The Coal In-dustry and Ideology Construction in West Virginia, Rural Sociology 75 (1) (2010): 111dustry and Ideology Construction in West Virginia, Rural Sociology 75 (1) (2010): 111--143. 143. doi.org/10.1111/j.doi.org/10.1111/j.15491549--0831.2009.00004.x 0831.2009.00004.x

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

Labor, Land and Community: Mining

Labor, Land and Community: Mining and Society in Pasco, Peru, 20th Cen-and Society in Pasco, Peru, 20th Cen-tury to the Present.”tury to the Present.”50 It It builds on builds on ethnographic research in Peru and ethnographic research in Peru and fo-fo-cuses oncuses on social history, household, and everyday life. social history, household, and everyday life. The study is rele-The study is rele-vant tovant to my my thesis sincethesis since it it takes householdstakes households andand hhousehold strategousehold strategies into ies into coconsideration.nsideration.

These global studies on

These global studies on mining communitiesmining communities show that mining show that mining communitiescommunities have their own culture and have their own culture and local local understanding of the understanding of the world world as well as their own as well as their own rationale rationale andand motivation motivation for workingfor working in mine in mine pitspits. The . The studies mentionedstudies mentioned above above show theseshow these motivationsmotivations and and the min-the min-ing communitiesing communities’ way’ way of life. of life.

Another important essay is Ad Knotter’s “Migration and Ethnicity

Another important essay is Ad Knotter’s “Migration and Ethnicity in Coalfield History: Global Perspectivesin Coalfield History: Global Perspectives””. . It is an overview article that an-It is an overview article that an-alyzes the historical relationship between migration and coalyzes the historical relationship between migration and coalfield glob-alfield glob-ally through the 19ally through the 19thth andand 2020thth centuries. centuries. He emphasizes the labor short-He emphasizes the labor short-ages of mining companies ages of mining companies and and peasant miners’ involvement in the minespeasant miners’ involvement in the mines. . He He also also defines “the concept of the “mining community” itself, as a closed, defines “the concept of the “mining community” itself, as a closed, homogeneous, and often isohomogeneous, and often isolated settlement.lated settlement.51 It is a good picture of It is a good picture of global mining communities and the patterns of mining in the case of eth-global mining communities and the patterns of mining in the case of eth-nicity and migration. Knotternicity and migration. Knotter alsoalso talks about talks about Turkey and Zonguldak in Turkey and Zonguldak in the case of rotational workthe case of rotational work and forced labor. In the 19and forced labor. In the 19thth century, forccentury, forced ed labor was labor was used in the Ottoman Empire, whereused in the Ottoman Empire, where the laborers were supplied the laborers were supplied by migration. Even though there was no forced labor in the 20by migration. Even though there was no forced labor in the 20thth century, century, the Turkish mining community witnessed a brief period of forced labor the Turkish mining community witnessed a brief period of forced labor during the Second World War. However, during the Second World War. However, after this period, the mining oc-after this period, the mining oc-cupation turned into a family tradition in Zonguldak as Knotter dis-cupation turned into a family tradition in Zonguldak as Knotter dis-plays.plays.52 While we do not see any example of forced labor in Soma in the While we do not see any example of forced labor in Soma in the 21st century, I will show that this family tradition in Soma became 21st century, I will show that this family tradition in Soma became invol-invol-untarilyuntarily practiced in the 21st century in Soma because of the economic practiced in the 21st century in Soma because of the economic situation of the country. situation of the country.

50 Federico M Helfgott, “Transformations in Labor, Land and Community: Mining and So-Federico M Helfgott, “Transformations in Labor, Land and Community: Mining and So-ciety in Pasco, Peru, 20th Century to the Present,” PhD Diss. (University of Michigan, 2013).ciety in Pasco, Peru, 20th Century to the Present,” PhD Diss. (University of Michigan, 2013).

51 Ad Knotter, “MigrationAd Knotter, “Migration and Ethnicity in Coalfield History: Global Perspectives,” IRSH 60 and Ethnicity in Coalfield History: Global Perspectives,” IRSH 60 (2015): 13(2015): 13––39, doi:10.1017/S0020859015000413.39, doi:10.1017/S0020859015000413.

52 Ibid.Ibid.

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1.6.2

1.6.2 Turkey Mining Community Turkey Mining Community LiteratureLiterature

The main research area

The main research area forfor academic studies on mining in Turkey academic studies on mining in Turkey is Zonguldak.is Zonguldak. Donald Quataert’s contributions and his works are essDonald Quataert’s contributions and his works are essen-en-tial for the improvement of Turkish labor history. Quataert’s booktial for the improvement of Turkish labor history. Quataert’s book,, ““Min-Min-ers and the State in the Ottoman Empire: The Zonguldak Coalfield, 1822ers and the State in the Ottoman Empire: The Zonguldak Coalfield, 1822--19201920”” was was written based on archival research.written based on archival research.53 His His studystudy covercoverss a lona longg period, period, which which inspired me to look at theinspired me to look at the mining community of Selimli mining community of Selimli from a broader timefrom a broader time perspective. perspective.

Quataert’s

Quataert’s research gives research gives particularparticular importance to the state and its importance to the state and its effect on coalfields. He said that sometimes the local authorities, effect on coalfields. He said that sometimes the local authorities, mukhtars were used to control and discipline the workersmukhtars were used to control and discipline the workers..54 He also ar-He also ar-gues gues that that ZonguldakZonguldak mines differ from Britain, France, and the USA mines mines differ from Britain, France, and the USA mines wherewhere “coal mines come into being through the efforts of private entre-“coal mines come into being through the efforts of private entre-preneurs using their own and investors’ capital to open and operate preneurs using their own and investors’ capital to open and operate minesmines.. BBy contrast, the Zongulday contrast, the Zonguldak mines owed their opening and initial k mines owed their opening and initial exploitation to state efforts.”exploitation to state efforts.”55 Donald Quataert explains that Donald Quataert explains that historically historically there was an alternate system (münaveli) for there was an alternate system (münaveli) for mining inmining in Zonguldak.Zonguldak.56 He He says that workers have a connection with their lands. In other words, says that workers have a connection with their lands. In other words, they are “peasant workers”they are “peasant workers”, similar to African and South America, similar to African and South Americann exam-exam-ples.ples. In In Soma and Kütahya, there were no alternate systems officially, but Soma and Kütahya, there were no alternate systems officially, but the workers were creating the same sithe workers were creating the same situation by considering themselves tuation by considering themselves farmers and quitting their job during the harvesting period in the sum-farmers and quitting their job during the harvesting period in the sum-mer months.mer months. QuataertQuataert’s’s emphasis on local notables and the emphasis on local notables and the the dual sta-the dual sta-tus of tus of peasantpeasant--miners isminers is similar to similar to my my case of studycase of study. .

Another important contribu

Another important contribution to tion to the the workingworking--class and mining class and mining community of Turkey is Ahmet community of Turkey is Ahmet Makal’sMakal’s essays and his book essays and his book Ameleden Ameleden İşçiyeİşçiye.. MakalMakal mentionmentionss working class strikes and movements.working class strikes and movements. The book The book

53 Quataert, “Miners and the State in the Ottoman Empire.”Quataert, “Miners and the State in the Ottoman Empire.”

54 Ibid, 4.Ibid, 4.

55 Ibid, 5.Ibid, 5.

56 Quataert, “Miners and the State in the Ottoman EmpQuataert, “Miners and the State in the Ottoman Empire,” 1ire,” 1--21. 21.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

also

also mentions the Aegean mines and miners.mentions the Aegean mines and miners.57 One of the important con-One of the important con-tributions of tributions of Makal was to include the prisoners inMakal was to include the prisoners in the analysisthe analysis. . Prisoner Prisoner workers were obliged to workworkers were obliged to work in the minesin the mines after the mükellefiyet pe-after the mükellefiyet pe-riod.riod.58 It was interesting to hear the prison workers’ stories from the It was interesting to hear the prison workers’ stories from the ffield ield researchresearch, parallel to Makal’s book, parallel to Makal’s book.. Also, Makal’s eAlso, Makal’s emphasis on poems writ-mphasis on poems writ-ten by the workers and their families in the Inner Aegean which hasten by the workers and their families in the Inner Aegean which has less less culturalcultural poems and songs poems and songs in Zonguldak is in Zonguldak is also also interesting.interesting.

Another classic and first book

Another classic and first book about the Zonguldak areaabout the Zonguldak area is Ereğli: is Ereğli: Ağır Sanayiden Önce Bir Sahil KasabaAğır Sanayiden Önce Bir Sahil Kasabası written in 1964 by Mübeccel sı written in 1964 by Mübeccel KırayKıray which focuses onwhich focuses on the the town oftown of Ereğli before industrialization.Ereğli before industrialization.59 Kıray emphasizes that the modernization of the town is not only related Kıray emphasizes that the modernization of the town is not only related to the opening of factories but also, it is related to the changes and rela-to the opening of factories but also, it is related to the changes and rela-tions intions in the country.the country.60 Mübeccel Kıray’s book is relevant to my Mübeccel Kıray’s book is relevant to my studystudy since since it it emphasemphasizizeses thethe country country general relations general relations as well as as well as the power relations the power relations between between minerminers ands and tradesmentradesmen.. The use of agricultural products for The use of agricultural products for tradetrade which she refers towhich she refers to is relevant is relevant since since the the barter economy was im-barter economy was im-portant for the village of Selimli portant for the village of Selimli as as I discuss later in the thesisI discuss later in the thesis..

Another important piece of research

Another important piece of research aboutabout the miningthe mining community community in Zonguldakin Zonguldak consists ofconsists of Erol Kahveci’s essays. Kahveci Erol Kahveci’s essays. Kahveci focuses on focuses on minemine accidentsaccidents and the division and the division of labor from the 1930s to the 1990s.of labor from the 1930s to the 1990s.61 He He an-an-alyzes the dynamics aroundalyzes the dynamics around migration and ethnicity in the region in his migration and ethnicity in the region in his article Migration, Ethnicity, and Divisions of Labor in the Zonguldak Coal-article Migration, Ethnicity, and Divisions of Labor in the Zonguldak Coal-field, Turkey in 2015.field, Turkey in 2015.62 He shows us that there wasHe shows us that there was aa division division amonamong min-g min-eworkers: Weworkers: While Laz origin migrants were permanent fullhile Laz origin migrants were permanent full--time surface time surface

57 Ahmet Makal, Ameleden İşçiye (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2007), 138.Ahmet Makal, Ameleden İşçiye (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2007), 138.

58 Ibid, 35.Ibid, 35.

59 Kıray, “Ereğli,” 240.Kıray, “Ereğli,” 240.

60 Ibid.Ibid.

61 Erol Kahveci, “Migration, Ethnicity, and Divisions of Labor in the Zonguldak Coalfield, Erol Kahveci, “Migration, Ethnicity, and Divisions of Labor in the Zonguldak Coalfield, Turkey.” International Review of SoTurkey.” International Review of Social History 60, no. S1 (2015): 207cial History 60, no. S1 (2015): 207––26. 26. doi:10.1017/S0020859015000425. doi:10.1017/S0020859015000425.

62 “Systematic mechanization in the mines would necessarily have meant a sharp reduc-“Systematic mechanization in the mines would necessarily have meant a sharp reduc-tion in the number of temporary, unskilled workers. To drive up productivity by mechani-tion in the number of temporary, unskilled workers. To drive up productivity by mechani-zation, the mization, the mines would have had to steer the miners away from the old model of semines would have had to steer the miners away from the old model of semi--

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mine workers, underground workers were rotational workers.

mine workers, underground workers were rotational workers.63 Also, Also, Kahveci emphasizes the Kahveci emphasizes the decrease of decrease of investments investments in in Zonguldak in the Zonguldak in the 1990s. His findings give an idea about the differ1990s. His findings give an idea about the differences between surface ences between surface and underground mine workers.and underground mine workers. InIn mymy case case study,study, the underground the underground mines workers became permanentmines workers became permanent workers in the Soma mine pits be-workers in the Soma mine pits be-cause of the retirement advantages offered to themcause of the retirement advantages offered to them..

Another essay

Another essay from which I benefited for my studyfrom which I benefited for my study is is TamzokTamzok’s’s es-es-say onsay on thethe structural changes instructural changes in thethe mining sector. His writings gmining sector. His writings gaveave me me an idea about the periodization of the mining sector in Turkey.an idea about the periodization of the mining sector in Turkey.64 Espe-Espe-cially, Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçlarıcially, Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları65 is is an important essay to understanan important essay to understand d the the state operated mines and private state operated mines and private companies and the transformationscompanies and the transformations they underwentthey underwent in Turkeyin Turkey. . Tamzok Tamzok separateseparatess mining historymining history into five periods:into five periods:66 1)1)19231923--1935 as the Early 1935 as the Early Republic period, Republic period, 2) 2) 19351935-- 19501950 as theas the Etibank Period, Etibank Period, 3) 19463) 1946--1960 as 1960 as the Second World War and the Second World War and Democrat Party PeriodDemocrat Party Period, , 4)4)19611961--19801980 as the as the Planned PeriodPlanned Period, and , and 5)19815)1981--2000 as The Neo2000 as The Neo--Liberal PeriodLiberal Period. . Tamzok Tamzok

peasant, semi

peasant, semi--industrial worker. However, because the government never provided suffi-industrial worker. However, because the government never provided suffi-cient investment to modernize the Zonguldak mines, the underground mining methods did cient investment to modernize the Zonguldak mines, the underground mining methods did not require a not require a new composition of the labour force. As a consequence, after 1948, under-new composition of the labour force. As a consequence, after 1948, under-ground workers, recruited from the peasantry, continued to work on a monthly basis, di-ground workers, recruited from the peasantry, continued to work on a monthly basis, di-viding their time between mining and agriculture, while surface workers were employed viding their time between mining and agriculture, while surface workers were employed on a permaneon a permanent basis. Even in the 1990s, over 50 per cent of the underground labour force nt basis. Even in the 1990s, over 50 per cent of the underground labour force continued to work rotationally. The policies of the mining company resulted in certain sec-continued to work rotationally. The policies of the mining company resulted in certain sec-tions of the labour force becoming fulltions of the labour force becoming full--time industrial workers, 50 but it was impossibltime industrial workers, 50 but it was impossible to e to overcome the divisions within the labour force. Labour continued to be divided in terms of overcome the divisions within the labour force. Labour continued to be divided in terms of locality, work patterns, and ethnicity, and such divisions were further deepened by the fa-locality, work patterns, and ethnicity, and such divisions were further deepened by the fa-vouritism shown by the company to permanent workers”vouritism shown by the company to permanent workers” Ibid. 222Ibid. 222

63 Ibid.Ibid.

64 Nejat Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları,” Türkiye Nejat Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları,” Türkiye 19. Uluslararası Madencilik Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı, 2014, 519. Uluslararası Madencilik Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı, 2014, 5––20.20.

65 Ibid.Ibid.

66 Ibid.Ibid.

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portrays the transformation of the mining industry and explains the pri-

portrays the transformation of the mining industry and explains the pri-vatizations.vatizations.67

It is important to note that

It is important to note that the casthe case ofe of thethe Soma mineSoma mine differs fromdiffers from the general mining history of Turkeythe general mining history of Turkey offered by Tamzok. The Soma mineoffered by Tamzok. The Soma mine was firstwas first private, then it started toprivate, then it started to bebe operateoperatedd by the stateby the state, TKİ, TKİ in the in the 19719788 and then and then minesmines waswas operated by private companies in 200operated by private companies in 2005 5 by by redevance mechredevance mechanism.anism.68

There is

There is also researchalso research conducted aboutconducted about the Zonguldak coal basin the Zonguldak coal basin and mine workers, mainly during the Second World War.and mine workers, mainly during the Second World War. For For example,example, Can NacarCan Nacar inin Our Lives Were Not as Valuable as an Animal written in 2009 Our Lives Were Not as Valuable as an Animal written in 2009 focusefocusess on the “workers inside and outside workplaces during World War on the “workers inside and outside workplaces during World War II.” II.” Nacar focuses, the recruitment of miners, their lower income and mis-Nacar focuses, the recruitment of miners, their lower income and mis-erable working conditions and theirerable working conditions and their reaction to reaction to these situationsthese situations.. He He em-em-phasizphasizeses the turnover rates and social policiesthe turnover rates and social policies..69 Nurşen Gürboğa focusNurşen Gürboğa focuseses on the relationon the relationships amongships among the the peoplepeople of Zonguldakof Zonguldak, mining companies, , mining companies, and the state in and the state in the the Early Republic in the article Mine Workers, the State Early Republic in the article Mine Workers, the State and War The and War The EreğliEreğli--Zonguldak Coal BasiZonguldak Coal Basinn as the Site of Contest, 1920as the Site of Contest, 1920--19471947, the essay, the essay is written from her this written from her thesisesis..70 Murat Metinsoy in his MA Murat Metinsoy in his MA thesis Wars Outside the War: The Social Impact of the Second World War thesis Wars Outside the War: The Social Impact of the Second World War

67 Ibid. Ibid.

68 Nejat Tamzok, “Soma: Bir Facianın Tarihçesi,” Enerji Günlüğü, 30 June 2014Nejat Tamzok, “Soma: Bir Facianın Tarihçesi,” Enerji Günlüğü, 30 June 2014. . https://www.enerjigunlugu.net/osmanlidahttps://www.enerjigunlugu.net/osmanlida--komurunkomurun--devreyedevreye--girisigirisi--veve--somaninsomanin--kesfikesfi--9188yy.htm9188yy.htm Ercan, Fuat, and ŞebnemErcan, Fuat, and Şebnem Oğuz. “From Gezi Resistance to Soma Massacre: Cap-Oğuz. “From Gezi Resistance to Soma Massacre: Cap-ital Accumulation and Class Struggle in Turkey.” Socialist Register 51 (2015): 114ital Accumulation and Class Struggle in Turkey.” Socialist Register 51 (2015): 114––35.11735.117

69 Nacar, “Our Lives Were Not as Valuable as an Animal.”Nacar, “Our Lives Were Not as Valuable as an Animal.”

70 Gürboğa, Mine Workers, the State and War.Gürboğa, Mine Workers, the State and War.”; Nurşen Gürboğa”; Nurşen Gürboğa,“Mine Workers, the State ,“Mine Workers, the State and War: The Ereğliand War: The Ereğli--Zonguldak Coal Basin as the Site of Contest, 1920Zonguldak Coal Basin as the Site of Contest, 1920--1947.” 1947.” P.h.DP.h.D Thesis, Thesis, (Boğaziçi Universitesi 2015(Boğaziçi Universitesi 2015); Reşat); Reşat Kasaba, “Donald Quataert. Miners and Their State in Kasaba, “Donald Quataert. Miners and Their State in the Ottoman Empire: The Zonguldak Coalfield, 1822the Ottoman Empire: The Zonguldak Coalfield, 1822––11920. Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2006. 920. Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2006. 288 Pages, Illustrations, Map, Bibliography, Index. Cloth US$80.00 ISBN 1288 Pages, Illustrations, Map, Bibliography, Index. Cloth US$80.00 ISBN 1--8454584545--133133--3.” 3.” Review of Middle East Studies 43, no. 1 (2009): 122Review of Middle East Studies 43, no. 1 (2009): 122––23. 23. doi:10.1017/S2151348100000422; Donald Quataert and Nadir Özbek, “Ereğli Kömürdoi:10.1017/S2151348100000422; Donald Quataert and Nadir Özbek, “Ereğli Kömür Madenleri.” Tarih ve Toplum 181, (1999): 11Madenleri.” Tarih ve Toplum 181, (1999): 11--18; Donald Quataert and Yüksel Duman. “A 18; Donald Quataert and Yüksel Duman. “A Coal Miner's Life During the Late Ottoman Empire.” International Labor and WorkingCoal Miner's Life During the Late Ottoman Empire.” International Labor and Working--Class Class History 60 (2001): 153History 60 (2001): 153––79. doi:10.1017/S0147547901004501.79. doi:10.1017/S0147547901004501.

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on Turkey also focuses on the social impact of the war outside the war.

on Turkey also focuses on the social impact of the war outside the war.71 His thesis focuses on peasants, poor people, children, and womenHis thesis focuses on peasants, poor people, children, and women, the , the daily life outside of the war.daily life outside of the war. AnAnotherother researchresearch72 is İbrahim Sarıkayais İbrahim Sarıkaya’s’s the-the-sis which focusesis which focusess on working accidents by emphasizon working accidents by emphasizinging subcontracted subcontracted firms. This research is relevant because thfirms. This research is relevant because the redevance system is also e redevance system is also studied. studied. He explainHe explains thes the Zonguldak Coal Basin in the 1980s period. Zonguldak Coal Basin in the 1980s period. He He argues thatargues that “the redevance system offers important possibilities for un-“the redevance system offers important possibilities for un-derstanding the contradictory and tense relation between the labor, the derstanding the contradictory and tense relation between the labor, the capital, and thecapital, and the state.”state.”73

1.6.2.1

1.6.2.1 Inner Aegean Mining CommunityInner Aegean Mining Community-- Soma Local Mining Commu-Soma Local Mining Commu-nity Literaturenity Literature

The mining communities of the lignite coal basin of Inner Aegean he mining communities of the lignite coal basin of Inner Aegean hahaveve received less attracreceived less attractiontion in the literature. in the literature. As discussed above, tAs discussed above, the he mainmain geographic geographic areaarea ofof focus infocus in academic studies academic studies on miningon mining communi-communi-ttiesies in Turkeyin Turkey has beenhas been ZonguldakZonguldak.. Especially bEspecially before the 2014 Soma ac-efore the 2014 Soma ac-cident, there were cident, there were very few studiesvery few studies about miners and the mining commu-about miners and the mining commu-nitnitiesies inin thethe Inner AegeanInner Aegean regionregion. .

One of the first

One of the first studies conducted on the Innerstudies conducted on the Inner Aegean Aegean mines mines be-be-forefore thethe 2014 Soma2014 Soma accidentaccident is by is by Kalaycıoğlu and Kezban ÇelikKalaycıoğlu and Kezban Çelik..74 Their Their study is based on fieldwork conducted in study is based on fieldwork conducted in Tunçbilek, KütahyaTunçbilek, Kütahya in 2011. in 2011. The Tunçbilek Coal Mine was state operated The Tunçbilek Coal Mine was state operated mines mines between the 1940s between the 1940s and 2000, and then it was privatand 2000, and then it was privatized during the 2000s.ized during the 2000s. KalaycıoğluKalaycıoğlu and and ÇelikÇelik analyze privatization’sanalyze privatization’s and and neoliberalneoliberal policiespolicies’’ effecteffectss on on minersminers’’ lives lives and experiencesand experiences..75 They point to the differences between the state They point to the differences between the state

71 Murat Metinsoy, “WarsMurat Metinsoy, “Wars Outside the War: The Social Impact of the Second World War on Outside the War: The Social Impact of the Second World War on Turkey.” MA Thesis. (Boğaziçi University, 2004).Turkey.” MA Thesis. (Boğaziçi University, 2004).

72 Sarıkaya, “Work Accidents as the Most Afflictive Face of Neoliberalism”Sarıkaya, “Work Accidents as the Most Afflictive Face of Neoliberalism”..

73 Ibid.Ibid.

74 Sibel Kalaycıoğlu and Kezban Çelik, “Tunçbilek Kömür İşletmSibel Kalaycıoğlu and Kezban Çelik, “Tunçbilek Kömür İşletmelerinde Özelleştirmenin elerinde Özelleştirmenin Madencilik, İşçilik ve Tunçbilek Üzerine Etkileri,” ISGUC The Journal of Industrial Relations Madencilik, İşçilik ve Tunçbilek Üzerine Etkileri,” ISGUC The Journal of Industrial Relations and Human Resources 16, no. 1 (January 1, 2014): 01and Human Resources 16, no. 1 (January 1, 2014): 01––19, doi:10.4026/130319, doi:10.4026/1303--2860.2014.0243.x.2860.2014.0243.x.

75 Ibid.Ibid.

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operated

operated and privatizedand privatized mines: According to mines: According to them, thethem, the working condi-working condi-tions are deteriorating, job security is tions are deteriorating, job security is decreasing,decreasing, and poverty is increas-and poverty is increas-ing among mineworkers in the privatized mines.ing among mineworkers in the privatized mines. They argue that They argue that mining mining which which waswas a permanent joba permanent job in statein state--operated minesoperated mines has become a sea-has become a sea-sonal job with the privatizatiosonal job with the privatizations in the 2000s. ns in the 2000s.

This studyhis study on on TunçbilekTunçbilek minesmines is relevant to my is relevant to my researchresearch as it ex-as it ex-plores the differences between the stateplores the differences between the state--operated and privatized mines operated and privatized mines in the Aegean region.in the Aegean region. However, I should first note that However, I should first note that the the Soma mines’ Soma mines’ historical trajectory differs historical trajectory differs from the general historical trend of mining in from the general historical trend of mining in TurkeyTurkey,, which is defined by the transition from a statist to a privatized which is defined by the transition from a statist to a privatized period as also seen inperiod as also seen in the case ofthe case of Tunçbilek. Tunçbilek. However, the However, the Soma mines Soma mines were first private, then they were first private, then they started tostarted to bebe operateoperatedd by the staby the statete in the in the 1970s, and then1970s, and then in 200in 20055 they werethey were subcontracted with subcontracted with a a redevance sys-redevance sys-tem under TKI by giving purchasing guaranteetem under TKI by giving purchasing guarantee76 as I discuss more in de-as I discuss more in de-tail tail in in Chapter 2Chapter 2.. Also, the findings from my field researchAlso, the findings from my field research in Soma differin Soma differ from Kalaycıoğlu and Çelik’s argumefrom Kalaycıoğlu and Çelik’s argument on the increase nt on the increase of of seasonalseasonal jobjobss inin private mines inprivate mines in TunçbilekTunçbilek in in recentrecent years. My years. My field research field research has has shownshown that seasonal jobthat seasonal jobs in the mine pitss in the mine pits areare nono longer longer a possibilitya possibility after after the the 20142014 Soma accident. With legislative changes after the accidentSoma accident. With legislative changes after the accident, under-, under-ground mining jobs have been linked to relatively higher incomes and re-ground mining jobs have been linked to relatively higher incomes and re-tirement advantages tirement advantages comparedcompared to other unskilled jobs in Turkey.to other unskilled jobs in Turkey. Given Given the generalthe general high unemploymenthigh unemployment rates in the country and the difficulty of rates in the country and the difficulty of finding jobs in the minesfinding jobs in the mines which arewhich are no longer defined by labor shortages, no longer defined by labor shortages, the underground miners are more likely to keep their jobs on a perma-the underground miners are more likely to keep their jobs on a perma-nent basis until retirement.nent basis until retirement.

While t

While the Soma coal basin only attracted the attention of a few he Soma coal basin only attracted the attention of a few social scientistssocial scientists such as Kalaycıoğlu and such as Kalaycıoğlu and ÇelikÇelik beforebefore tthe incident of he incident of 20142014,, several important studies on Soma emerged aseveral important studies on Soma emerged after the catastrophe of fter the catastrophe of

76 N Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları,” in Türkiye N Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları,” in Türkiye 19. Uluslararası Madencilik Kongresi ve Fuarı, IMCET2005, İzmir, Türkiye, 0919. Uluslararası Madencilik Kongresi ve Fuarı, IMCET2005, İzmir, Türkiye, 09--12 Haziran 12 Haziran 2005 Türk2005 Türkiye, 2005.iye, 2005.; ; Ercan, Fuat, and Şebnem Oğuz. “From Gezi Resistance to Soma Mas-Ercan, Fuat, and Şebnem Oğuz. “From Gezi Resistance to Soma Mas-sacre: Capital Accumulation and Class Struggle in Turkey.” Socialist Register 51 (2015): sacre: Capital Accumulation and Class Struggle in Turkey.” Socialist Register 51 (2015): 114114––35.35.117117

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2014

2014. O. One of the most important research projects wasne of the most important research projects was conductedconducted by by UniversityUniversity SomaSoma ResearchResearch GroupGroup ((Boğaziçi Soma Araştırma GrubuBoğaziçi Soma Araştırma Grubu).).77 This reportThis report isis prepared by the academicsprepared by the academics ofof Boğaziçi University from var-Boğaziçi University from var-ious disciplinesious disciplines..78 TheThe scholarsscholars offer a offer a general general analysis of analysis of the Somathe Soma mine mine pitspits, , highlighting the failurehighlighting the failure to implementto implement precautionsprecautions that could preventthat could prevent the accidentthe accident. The . The report alsoreport also provideprovidess practical solutionpractical solutionss to decrease to decrease work accidentswork accidents by by emphasizing emphasizing the importancethe importance ofof occupational health occupational health and safety.and safety.

Buğra’s

Buğra’s analysis in the Boğaziçi Report on Soma is significant for analysis in the Boğaziçi Report on Soma is significant for my thesis.my thesis.79 Buğra contextualizes Buğra contextualizes the Somathe Soma case and miners’ situation case and miners’ situation within within Turkey’s general employment situation and itsTurkey’s general employment situation and its social policies.social policies. She She compares unemployment rates among the OECD countries from 2007 to compares unemployment rates among the OECD countries from 2007 to 20132013 and shows thatand shows that Turkey has a higher unemployment rate compared Turkey has a higher unemployment rate compared to the average unemployment rate in OECD countries.to the average unemployment rate in OECD countries.80 LasLastly, she as-tly, she as-serts that it is difficult toserts that it is difficult to talk about the existence oftalk about the existence of egalitarian social aidegalitarian social aid mechanisms in Turkey.mechanisms in Turkey. She argues for the need to implementShe argues for the need to implement European European minimum income support policies minimum income support policies to to alleviatealleviate thethe uncertainty of life aris-uncertainty of life aris-ing from poverty.ing from poverty. 81 Buğra’s Buğra’s article article isis relevant for my study as it inspired relevant for my study as it inspired meme to think to think about Somaabout Soma miners in the context of the national employment miners in the context of the national employment patternspatterns..

77 Nuri Ersoy, ed., GeNuri Ersoy, ed., Ge--LiLi--YoYo--Rum Diyen Facia: Boğaziçi ÜniversitesiRum Diyen Facia: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Soma Araştırma Grubu Soma Araştırma Grubu Raporu, (İstanbul: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2015).Raporu, (İstanbul: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2015).

78Lale Akarun, Nuri Ersoy, Ali Kerem Saysel, Fikret Adaman, Ayşe Buğra, Ferhan Çeçen, Lale Akarun, Nuri Ersoy, Ali Kerem Saysel, Fikret Adaman, Ayşe Buğra, Ferhan Çeçen, Mahmut Ekşioğlu, Günay Kocasoy, Ayşın Baytan Ertüzün, H. Işıl Bozma and H. Levent AkınMahmut Ekşioğlu, Günay Kocasoy, Ayşın Baytan Ertüzün, H. Işıl Bozma and H. Levent Akın

79 Ayşe Buğra, “Türkiye’nin Sosyal Politikaları ve Soma Felaketi,” in Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Ayşe Buğra, “Türkiye’nin Sosyal Politikaları ve Soma Felaketi,” in Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Soma Araştırma Grubu Raporu, ed. Ersoy Nuri, (Istanbul: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Yayınları., Soma Araştırma Grubu Raporu, ed. Ersoy Nuri, (Istanbul: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Yayınları., 2017), 1852017), 185––202.202.

80 Ayşe Buğra, “TürkAyşe Buğra, “Türkiye’nin Sosyal Politikaları ve Soma Felaketi,” 6. Also, she shows that iye’nin Sosyal Politikaları ve Soma Felaketi,” 6. Also, she shows that miners’ employment rate is 4,4 percent among all employment rates in Turkey.miners’ employment rate is 4,4 percent among all employment rates in Turkey.

81 Ibid.Ibid.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

Adaman et al.’s contribution to the

Adaman et al.’s contribution to the BoğaziçiBoğaziçi ReportReport on Somaon Soma82 as as well as well as Adaman et al.Adaman et al.83 areare also relevant also relevant toto my thesis in certain aspects. my thesis in certain aspects. They use a Gramscian theoretical framework, They use a Gramscian theoretical framework, emphasizing emphasizing authoritari-authoritari-anism, hegemony, and consent.anism, hegemony, and consent. Similar to this thesis, they also Similar to this thesis, they also question question whywhy workers seek and continueworkers seek and continue to work in a hto work in a hazardousazardous job such as job such as min-min-ing. They consideing. They consider ther the deathsdeaths in mine accidentsin mine accidents as the stras the structural outcomeuctural outcome of theof the prevalent economic model and highlightprevalent economic model and highlight informality, populism, and informality, populism, and growth fetishism in Turkey mainly during the AKP period.growth fetishism in Turkey mainly during the AKP period. My research My research findings are similar to Adaman et al.’s findings regardinfindings are similar to Adaman et al.’s findings regardingg highhigh informalityinformality in the labor marketin the labor market and social securityand social security.. HenceHence, t, their focus on heir focus on informality informality wwas beneficial for building my analysis. as beneficial for building my analysis.

Adaman et al. also consider

Adaman et al. also consider the impacts of neoliberal developmen-the impacts of neoliberal developmen-talism on the agricultural sector in Turkeytalism on the agricultural sector in Turkey. They highl. They highlight that ight that many min-many min-ersers in Somain Soma were owere of rural and agricultural origin, mostly involved inf rural and agricultural origin, mostly involved in to-to-bacco and oil productionbacco and oil production in the regionin the region..84 Tobacco production decreased Tobacco production decreased after liberalization politics and ARIP and this caused deafter liberalization politics and ARIP and this caused de--peasantisation peasantisation of Soma rural areas. of Soma rural areas. Yet, Yet, these analysesthese analyses focus on local workers and tfocus on local workers and their heir contribution to understanding local Soma mine workers is very essentialcontribution to understanding local Soma mine workers is very essential.. HoweverHowever, , my research differentiatesmy research differentiates itself from these analyses itself from these analyses by by focus-focus-inging on migrant workers and familieson migrant workers and families in Soma the regionin Soma the region. .

Similar to Adaman et.al other research conducted on the Soma milar to Adaman et.al other research conducted on the Soma mines anmines and mineworkersd mineworkers which I discuss which I discuss below (Tamerbelow (Tamer 2017, Çelik 2019)2017, Çelik 2019)

82 Fikret Adaman, Çiğdem Artık, Önsel Gürel Bayrali, Banu Can, Nur Sultan, Fethiye Erbil, Fikret Adaman, Çiğdem Artık, Önsel Gürel Bayrali, Banu Can, Nur Sultan, Fethiye Erbil, and others,and others, “Türkiye’de Büyüme ve Kalkınma Sorunsalı Üzerine Bazı Gözlemler,” in Ge“Türkiye’de Büyüme ve Kalkınma Sorunsalı Üzerine Bazı Gözlemler,” in Ge--LiLi--YoYo--Rum Diyen Facia: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Soma Araştırma Grubu Raporu, ed. Ersoy Nuri, Rum Diyen Facia: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Soma Araştırma Grubu Raporu, ed. Ersoy Nuri, 147147––71.71.

83 Fikret Adaman, Murat Arsel, and Bengi Akbulut. “Neoliberal Developmentalism, Author-Fikret Adaman, Murat Arsel, and Bengi Akbulut. “Neoliberal Developmentalism, Author-itarian Populism, and Extractivism in the Countryside: The Soma Mining Disaster in Tur-itarian Populism, and Extractivism in the Countryside: The Soma Mining Disaster in Tur-key.” The Journal of Peasant Studies 46, no. 3 (2019): 514key.” The Journal of Peasant Studies 46, no. 3 (2019): 514––36. 36. doi:10.1080/03066150.2018.1515737.doi:10.1080/03066150.2018.1515737.

84 Ibid, 523.Ibid, 523.

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also emphasize that

also emphasize that the transformation of agriculturethe transformation of agriculture..85 For the For the major el-major el-ements of the transformation in agriculture ements of the transformation in agriculture ((seesee KKeyder and eyder and YYenal enal 2013)2013)86 is essential to understand Soma mining communities and theis essential to understand Soma mining communities and the sit-sit-uation of theuation of the working classworking class in the regionin the region.. In my study, In my study, the the agricultural agricultural transformation was also effective, but it was not as effective as in the case transformation was also effective, but it was not as effective as in the case of Soma local population analyzed in the literature. This has to do with of Soma local population analyzed in the literature. This has to do with the fact that the village of Selimli was not integrated with the market and the fact that the village of Selimli was not integrated with the market and did not sell agrdid not sell agricultural products to the market. In other words, icultural products to the market. In other words, selfself--suf-suf-ficient agriculture wasficient agriculture was carried outcarried out in in Selimli,Selimli, and no toand no tobacco or commer-bacco or commer-cial products werecial products were producedproduced This was a point often brought up by my This was a point often brought up by my informants in the fieldinformants in the field87 as I discuss in Chapter 3. as I discuss in Chapter 3.

Amon

Among studies on Soma mines that flourished after the 2014 acci-g studies on Soma mines that flourished after the 2014 acci-dent, dent, Tamer’sTamer’s88 MA thesisMA thesis is worth mentioning. It examines the state is worth mentioning. It examines the state making after the disaster and explains making after the disaster and explains changes in energy and agriculture changes in energy and agriculture policies in Turkey and how the “state’s hegemony is disrpolicies in Turkey and how the “state’s hegemony is disrupted through upted through people’s everyday encounters with it.”people’s everyday encounters with it.”89 It shows thatIt shows that aagricultural and gricultural and energy policies affect the miner’s obligation to work in mines.energy policies affect the miner’s obligation to work in mines. TheThe second second chapter of the thesischapter of the thesis begins with begins with a a quotationquotation from tobacco agricultural from tobacco agricultural workers and explainsworkers and explains ththeireir descending to the mine.descending to the mine.90

Tamer’s thesis was useful for me to understand local miners and

Tamer’s thesis was useful for me to understand local miners and farmers during the AKP period. farmers during the AKP period. However,However, like most research on like most research on Soma Soma

85 Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means of Rural Livelihood”Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means of Rural Livelihood”, , Tamer, “StateTamer, “State--Making Through Disaster Management: The Case of Soma.”Making Through Disaster Management: The Case of Soma.”

86 Keyder and Yenal, “BiKeyder and Yenal, “Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu.”ldiğimiz Tarımın Sonu.”

87 For example, as Ferah (66) commented for the village “We do not have an industrial For example, as Ferah (66) commented for the village “We do not have an industrial product such as hazelnuts, tea, tobacco. Also, our land is not fertile.” product such as hazelnuts, tea, tobacco. Also, our land is not fertile.” 87 Another example is Another example is the village headman who said that “in the village, wethe village headman who said that “in the village, we use the traditional method to cultivate. use the traditional method to cultivate. When I go to İzmir, Bursa, they have the technology, they have machines. Here people do When I go to İzmir, Bursa, they have the technology, they have machines. Here people do not use technology and cannot buy these machines.” The village headman also described not use technology and cannot buy these machines.” The village headman also described the use of the barter economy.the use of the barter economy.

88 Ibid. Ibid.

89 Tamer, “StateTamer, “State--Making Through Disaster Management,"Making Through Disaster Management," 3.3.

90 Ibid, 8.Ibid, 8.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

mines

mines, , Tamer’sTamer’s studystudy also focuses on local workers. also focuses on local workers. My studyMy study would like would like to contribute to the understanding that Somato contribute to the understanding that Soma mining communitiesmining communities do not do not only consist of existing locals because only consist of existing locals because there has there has been immigrationbeen immigration to thto thisis area. My thesis argues that many miners were miners from their parents area. My thesis argues that many miners were miners from their parents already before thesealready before these neolibneoliberaleral policiespolicies were were implementedimplemented and that one and that one needs to look at thneeds to look at the mining communities of Somae mining communities of Soma from a broader per-from a broader per-spective. spective.

Another important research

Another important research is ais a Ph.D.Ph.D. thesis written by Coşku thesis written by Coşku ÇelikÇelik based on based on a a fieldwork studyfieldwork study in Soma Coal basin after the 2014 accidein Soma Coal basin after the 2014 accidentnt, , “Extractive Industries and Changing Means of Rural Livelihood: Patterns “Extractive Industries and Changing Means of Rural Livelihood: Patterns of Proletarianization and Labor Processes in Soma Coal Basin.”of Proletarianization and Labor Processes in Soma Coal Basin.”91 Çelik’s Çelik’s research is very comprehensive. She emphasizesresearch is very comprehensive. She emphasizes thethe local labor supply local labor supply by mentioning the decrease in tobacco production andby mentioning the decrease in tobacco production and thethe proletariani-proletariani-zation and emphasizes immigration tozation and emphasizes immigration to the the SomaSoma mine pits from other cit-mine pits from other cit-ies. Çelik’s thesis focusies. Çelik’s thesis focuseses on invisible female labor and the feminization on invisible female labor and the feminization of agriculture in the of agriculture in the area.area.92 Her thesis contribution is important since Her thesis contribution is important since sheshe emphasizes the other members of the household. Çelik’s emphasizes the other members of the household. Çelik’s studystudy has been has been inspiring inspiring toto meme in my own researchin my own research andand our studies haveour studies have similar findingssimilar findings such as feminization of agriculture and immigrant workers asuch as feminization of agriculture and immigrant workers and local nd local workers differences. workers differences.

In addition

In addition toto these theses, there is the study by Oğuz and Ercan these theses, there is the study by Oğuz and Ercan which analyzes the Soma accident by considering three main dynamics: which analyzes the Soma accident by considering three main dynamics: Privatization, redevance system and subtracted labor, and the hegemony Privatization, redevance system and subtracted labor, and the hegemony of the state. of the state. 93 ApaApart from these studies that focus on the political and rt from these studies that focus on the political and sociosocio--economic dynamics that led to the Soma disaster, there are some economic dynamics that led to the Soma disaster, there are some

91 Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means of Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means of Rural Livelihood.”Rural Livelihood.”

92 Ibid.Ibid.

93 Ercan, Fuat, and Şebnem Oğuz. “From Gezi Resistance to Soma Massacre: Capital Accu-Ercan, Fuat, and Şebnem Oğuz. “From Gezi Resistance to Soma Massacre: Capital Accu-mulation and Class Struggle in Turkey.” Socialist Register 51 (2015): 114mulation and Class Struggle in Turkey.” Socialist Register 51 (2015): 114––35.35.

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studies which have investigated the representation of Soma miners in the

studies which have investigated the representation of Soma miners in the national medianational media such as İnan Özdemir Taştan and Hatice Çobansuch as İnan Özdemir Taştan and Hatice Çoban KeneşKeneş. . 94

Overall, i

Overall, in the literature n the literature onon the Soma coal basin regionthe Soma coal basin region discussed discussed aboveabove, migrations to the Soma mine pits are less emphasized. , migrations to the Soma mine pits are less emphasized. As men-As men-tioned earlier, ttioned earlier, the number of miners in the Soma coal basinhe number of miners in the Soma coal basin isis approxi-approxi-matelymately 17,000 and about 17,000 and about 10,00010,000 of these wof these workers are migrant workers.orkers are migrant workers.95 These migrant workersThese migrant workers comcomee from the Inner Aegean regionfrom the Inner Aegean region and mainly and mainly fromfrom Kütahya. Kütahya coal basinKütahya. Kütahya coal basin96 waswas alsoalso the second miners’ supplier the second miners’ supplier duringduring the World War II,the World War II,97 but still the relation between Kütahya and but still the relation between Kütahya and Soma did not receiveSoma did not receive much attention in the literature.much attention in the literature. Thus, this thesis Thus, this thesis contributes to the specific literature on the Soma coal basin by particu-contributes to the specific literature on the Soma coal basin by particu-larly bringing migrant mineworkers and their families into the center of larly bringing migrant mineworkers and their families into the center of analysis.analysis.

In sum, in the literature on mining and mining c

In sum, in the literature on mining and mining communities in Tur-ommunities in Tur-key, until recently, the main geographic area of focus has been the Black key, until recently, the main geographic area of focus has been the Black Sea region, and particularlySea region, and particularly Zonguldak.Zonguldak. The study contributes to the lit-The study contributes to the lit-erature on miner communities in Turkey firstly by focusing on a different erature on miner communities in Turkey firstly by focusing on a different geographic area (Aegeographic area (Aegean)gean).. It contributes to the emerging literature on It contributes to the emerging literature on the Soma coal basin by bringing migrant mineworkers into the focus of the Soma coal basin by bringing migrant mineworkers into the focus of analysis. Secondly, the thesis brings in analysis. Secondly, the thesis brings in mineworkers’ families perspec-mineworkers’ families perspec-tivetives and household strategiess and household strategies into the analysis rather than jusinto the analysis rather than just focusing t focusing on male mine workerson male mine workers.. TThirdlyhirdly,, by covering a wider time span through its by covering a wider time span through its focus on the experience of three generations, focus on the experience of three generations, the study the study offerofferss a broad per-a broad per-spective of the miner community from its first formation and revealspective of the miner community from its first formation and revealss the the dynamics that have changedynamics that have changed over time.d over time.

94 Hatice Çoban Keneş and İnan Özdemir Taştan. “Madencinin AcısınHatice Çoban Keneş and İnan Özdemir Taştan. “Madencinin Acısına Bakmak: Ulusal a Bakmak: Ulusal Basında Soma Maden "Facia"sının Haberleştirilmesi".” Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi 71 Basında Soma Maden "Facia"sının Haberleştirilmesi".” Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi 71 (2016): 125(2016): 125––60.60.

95 Onur Bütün, Yedi Kat Yerin Altından Uğultular Geliyor : Yeni Çeltek’ten Soma’ya Maden Onur Bütün, Yedi Kat Yerin Altından Uğultular Geliyor : Yeni Çeltek’ten Soma’ya Maden Işçileri (Ankara : Dipnot YayıIşçileri (Ankara : Dipnot Yayınları, 2015).nları, 2015).

96 Significant part of miners in Soma are from Kütahya and its surrounding districts and Significant part of miners in Soma are from Kütahya and its surrounding districts and villages. Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means,” 122. villages. Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means,” 122.

97 Makal, “Ameleden İşçiye,” 175.Makal, “Ameleden İşçiye,” 175.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

§ 1.71.7 The ResearchThe Research

This research is interdisciplinary. A variety of methods have been

This research is interdisciplinary. A variety of methods have been used provided by social sciences, mainly history and anthropology, while used provided by social sciences, mainly history and anthropology, while conducting the fieldwork. The data is based on oral historyconducting the fieldwork. The data is based on oral history:: I I listenlisteneded toto thethe life stories of the communitylife stories of the community members.members. I also conducted I also conducted ethno-ethno-graphic graphic researchresearch, , employingemploying a a multimulti--sitedsited ethnographyethnography98 introduced by introduced by Marcus E. George. Marcus E. George. Finally,Finally, for the archival research, the Archive of Na-for the archival research, the Archive of Na-tional Library of Turkey in Ankara and T.C. The Presidtional Library of Turkey in Ankara and T.C. The Presidency State Archives ency State Archives in Istanbul were used in Istanbul were used to collectto collect data aboutdata about the history ofthe history of mining in themining in the regionregion..

1.7.1

1.7.1 Research PeriodResearch Period

The research was conducted with the miners’ community in Soma

The research was conducted with the miners’ community in Soma starting from theirstarting from their villagevillage, Selimli and then extending to Soma and , Selimli and then extending to Soma and CenkyeriCenkyeri on different expeditions between June 2019 and August 2020. on different expeditions between June 2019 and August 2020. Five visits have been done to conduct the fieldwork on the dates of Octo-Five visits have been done to conduct the fieldwork on the dates of Octo-ber 26ber 26--30, October 1130, October 11--13, December 413, December 4--11, February 611, February 6--13, and June 413, and June 4--7. 7. The research plan was to stay a longer period in 2020,The research plan was to stay a longer period in 2020, however, Covidhowever, Covid--19 pandemic hindered me to conduct a longer visit after March 2020. 19 pandemic hindered me to conduct a longer visit after March 2020. Therefore, phone calls were also made to contact miners and their fami-Therefore, phone calls were also made to contact miners and their fami-lies for the research.lies for the research.

1.7.2

1.7.2 Research MethodsResearch Methods

This research benefits from oral history and ethnographic r

This research benefits from oral history and ethnographic research esearch methods as well as from archival research. The fieldwork started with methods as well as from archival research. The fieldwork started with grounded theorygrounded theory..99 The research followed snowball sampling and started The research followed snowball sampling and started

98 George E. Marcus, “Ethnography In/of the World SyGeorge E. Marcus, “Ethnography In/of the World System: The Emergence of Multistem: The Emergence of Multi--Sited Sited Ethnography.” Annual Review of Anthropology 24, no. 1 (1995): 95Ethnography.” Annual Review of Anthropology 24, no. 1 (1995): 95––117. doi:10.1146/an-117. doi:10.1146/an-nurev.an.24.100195.000523.nurev.an.24.100195.000523.

99 Grounded Theory was used. Grounded Theory was used. Grounded Theory is developed in the USA by two social Grounded Theory is developed in the USA by two social scientists Barney Glaser andscientists Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss. Grounded theory posits that theory is Anselm Strauss. Grounded theory posits that theory is grounded in or emanates from data analysis. Barney G. Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss, The grounded in or emanates from data analysis. Barney G. Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss, The

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with focusing only on male mineworkers. However, the findings from the

with focusing only on male mineworkers. However, the findings from the field indicated that it seems also nefield indicated that it seems also necessary and important to hear min-cessary and important to hear min-eworkers’ families regarding eworkers’ families regarding men’smen’s decision to work in the minedecision to work in the mine. . Men Men often used the termoften used the term ““the boss”the boss”--toto refer to their wivesrefer to their wives in explaining about in explaining about theirtheir decdecision toision to migratemigrate to Soma toto Soma to work in the mines,work in the mines, pointing topointing to the the influence of women and families influence of women and families inin migrationmigration decisionsdecisions. Therefore, the . Therefore, the interviews were not only conducted with male mine workers but also interviews were not only conducted with male mine workers but also with the householdswith the households, also considering, also considering the lack of research focusing on the lack of research focusing on minerminers’s’ families in the literature.families in the literature.

I star

I started the research with unstructured interviews at the begin-ted the research with unstructured interviews at the begin-ning to include miners in the research agenda and to understand the field. ning to include miners in the research agenda and to understand the field. The aim was to include peasant miners into the research agenda because The aim was to include peasant miners into the research agenda because the history of popular mass is written by elite peopthe history of popular mass is written by elite people,le,100 therefore, I have therefore, I have done my best to include done my best to include minersminers in the research agenda and to hear their in the research agenda and to hear their voicevoicess. However, after familiarity with the field, the research was carried . However, after familiarity with the field, the research was carried out with semiout with semi--structured interviewsstructured interviews..

At the beginning of the research, the interviews were recorded.

At the beginning of the research, the interviews were recorded. However, I realized that However, I realized that the the intervieweintervieweeses werewere not comfortable when not comfortable when I I started recordingstarted recording from thefrom the veryvery beginningbeginning of the interviewof the interview. Therefore, I . Therefore, I started to talk first andstarted to talk first and began thebegan the interviews whinterviews when they en they started feelingstarted feeling comfortable. The research was conducted by taking permission to take comfortable. The research was conducted by taking permission to take jotted notes and record them.jotted notes and record them.101

The research

The research planplan waswas to conductto conduct only only inin--depth interviewdepth interviews.s. HHow-ow-ever, the village headman’s desire to talk publicly and the weather cever, the village headman’s desire to talk publicly and the weather condi-ondi-tions caused some of the tions caused some of the discussiondiscussions to be conducted as a focus group. s to be conducted as a focus group.

Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research (Chicago: Aldine Pub.

Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research (Chicago: Aldine Pub. Co., 1967), 93.Co., 1967), 93. Also, thAlso, the theoreticale theoretical backgroundbackground was taken from the Annaleswas taken from the Annales EcolesEcoles which which was affected historiography. Thewas affected historiography. The AAnnnalesnnnales EcolesEcoles affected the research in two ways. The affected the research in two ways. The first one is the categorization offirst one is the categorization of Braudel;Braudel; event, conjecture, and structure. The second one event, conjecture, and structure. The second one is geograpis geography.hy.

100 Edward Hallett Carr, What Is History? (London: Penguin, 1991), 93.Edward Hallett Carr, What Is History? (London: Penguin, 1991), 93.

101 The Ethnographic Methods course in the Ataturk Institute for Modern Turkish History The Ethnographic Methods course in the Ataturk Institute for Modern Turkish History helped me to improve my interviewing skills.helped me to improve my interviewing skills.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

The participant observation method was also used by joining

The participant observation method was also used by joining hayırs,hayırs, which which are lunchare lunch givengiven as charity to thas charity to thee community community as well as byas well as by going to going to coffee houses and joining coffee houses and joining the minersthe miners’ pr’ protestsotests..

22 interviews were made with 12 households with a total of 41 in-

22 interviews were made with 12 households with a total of 41 in-terviewees. Seven of them were focus group terviewees. Seven of them were focus group interviewsinterviews.. 24 of my inter-24 of my inter-viewees are men and 17 are women. viewees are men and 17 are women. I used snowball sampling to reach I used snowball sampling to reach interviewees. interviewees. I introduced myself as a I introduced myself as a historian, which led me to inter-historian, which led me to inter-view many retired minersview many retired miners.. The oldestThe oldest miner I interviewedminer I interviewed was 80 years was 80 years old and the youngest one was 18. Many miners interviewed are older old and the youngest one was 18. Many miners interviewed are older than 30than 30 because there arebecause there are fewer miners between the agefewer miners between the ages of 25 and 30. s of 25 and 30. This has to do This has to do wiwithth thethe increase ofincrease of thethe retirement age and professionali-retirement age and professionali-zation of the military after 2008. zation of the military after 2008. This group is more educated and aftThis group is more educated and after er working a short period; manyworking a short period; many of them became professional soldiers.of them became professional soldiers. However, aHowever, after the accident of 2014,fter the accident of 2014, there were legislative cthere were legislative changes which hanges which again decreased the retirement age of mineworkers and granted them again decreased the retirement age of mineworkers and granted them advantageous salaries. Hence,advantageous salaries. Hence, there wasthere was againagain an incan increase of miners from rease of miners from Selim when young men betweenSelim when young men between the agethe ages of 20s of 20--25 started to work in the 25 started to work in the mine pitsmine pits.. This latter group of yThis latter group of young men is also included oung men is also included in in my sample.my sample.

1.7.3

1.7.3 Expectation and ReciprocityExpectation and Reciprocity

At the beginning of the research, I stayed in hotels. However, later,

At the beginning of the research, I stayed in hotels. However, later, I was not able to stay in hotels because mineworkers’ families insisted I was not able to stay in hotels because mineworkers’ families insisted too much that I stay with them. There were fritoo much that I stay with them. There were friends of my mother and my ends of my mother and my father that I have never seen in my life, and they did not allow me to leave father that I have never seen in my life, and they did not allow me to leave their home in order to stay in hotels. My parent’s familiarity with the field their home in order to stay in hotels. My parent’s familiarity with the field made it easy as well as difficult to move around for conducting other in-made it easy as well as difficult to move around for conducting other in-tervterviews. For instance, although iews. For instance, although mymy research planresearch plan waswas to to conductconduct inin--depth interviews, I had to do focusdepth interviews, I had to do focus--group interviewsgroup interviews in some casesin some cases. The . The reason was that reason was that peoplepeople wanted to host me in their house, and when I in-wanted to host me in their house, and when I in-sisted sisted onon gogoinging to other houses toto other houses to conductconduct interviinterviews, ews, they suggestedthey suggested in-in-viting theseviting these people to theirpeople to their ownown house for house for me to me to conduct conduct interviewsinterviews..

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There was also

There was also the the expectationexpectation102 by interviewees because of by interviewees because of their their rela-rela-tion to my field.tion to my field.

My hosts’

My hosts’ invitations of neighborsinvitations of neighbors to their house for interviewsto their house for interviews and and their their accompaccompanying anying meme onon my visits to other my visits to other househousess mademade itit difficult to difficult to conduct inconduct in--depth interviews. But thedepth interviews. But these situationsse situations made it possible for me made it possible for me to conduct focusto conduct focus--group interviews and collect more data about group interviews and collect more data about villagers’villagers’ perceptionperception of miningof mining throughthrough the participanthe participant observation method. Also, t observation method. Also, in November, because of weather conditions, the houses were equipped in November, because of weather conditions, the houses were equipped with heaters with heaters (soba)(soba) in one room which led me to do my research through in one room which led me to do my research through focus group interviews. focus group interviews.

On the one hand, the familiarity of my parents made the intervi

On the one hand, the familiarity of my parents made the interviews ews slower, but on the other hand, the familiarity of my parents earned the slower, but on the other hand, the familiarity of my parents earned the trust of the community quickly and allowed me to tatrust of the community quickly and allowed me to tackleckle the “right per-the “right per-sonsonss” to make interviews. For example, ” to make interviews. For example, when when I asked a question about I asked a question about the barter economy and how it workedthe barter economy and how it worked,, vilvillagerslagers told me that “there was told me that “there was a grocery store owner a grocery store owner (bakkal)(bakkal) in the 1980s” and “he can explain to you in the 1980s” and “he can explain to you better,” they added. They accompanied me better,” they added. They accompanied me onon a home a home visit,visit, and and they also they also asked questionsasked questions to the grocery store ownerto the grocery store owner whilewhile I wasI was interviewing, interviewing, which contriwhich contributebutedd to my researchto my research..

When villagers hosted

When villagers hosted me in their me in their houses, theyhouses, they had had anan expectation expectation and and keptkept saying that “we will come to İstanbul and you must saying that “we will come to İstanbul and you must hosthost and and show show us us arounaroundd in İstanbul.”in İstanbul.”103 Except aExcept a few families, no one has ever few families, no one has ever been to İstanbul in their entire been to İstanbul in their entire life life andand in their perception, in their perception, İstanbul is a İstanbul is a

102 ““Ethnographic research can take place, and has takEthnographic research can take place, and has taken place, in a wide variety of types en place, in a wide variety of types of setting: villages, towns, innerof setting: villages, towns, inner--city neighbourhoods, factory shop floors, deepcity neighbourhoods, factory shop floors, deep--shaft shaft mines, ships, farms, retail stores, business offices of various kinds, hospital wards, operat-mines, ships, farms, retail stores, business offices of various kinds, hospital wards, operat-ing theatres, prisons, public bars, ching theatres, prisons, public bars, churches, schools, colleges, universities, welfare agencies, urches, schools, colleges, universities, welfare agencies, courts, morgues, funeral parlours, etc. These settings vary from one another in all manner courts, morgues, funeral parlours, etc. These settings vary from one another in all manner of respects that are relevant to the nature of the relationships that are possible and desira-of respects that are relevant to the nature of the relationships that are possible and desira-ble with the ble with the people who live and/or work in them.people who live and/or work in them.”” Martyn Hammersley and Paul Atkinson, Martyn Hammersley and Paul Atkinson, Ethnography: Principles in PracEthnography: Principles in Practice (London ; New York : Routledge, 2007).tice (London ; New York : Routledge, 2007). 6363

103 Şefika, Refik, Celil, Safa.Şefika, Refik, Celil, Safa.

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very huge, prestigious, and expensive city.

very huge, prestigious, and expensive city. Hence, aHence, after finishing the in-fter finishing the in-terviews, I have usually been terviews, I have usually been asked questionsasked questions about İstanbulabout İstanbul as well as as well as quequestions regardingstions regarding the education of their children, the education of their children, national national politics, and politics, and so on. so on.

The second

The second expectation minersexpectation miners’ families’ families had from mehad from me waswas to call to call them and ask about their health. They were trying to include me in their them and ask about their health. They were trying to include me in their social capital by taking my phone numbsocial capital by taking my phone number. Theer. Theirir third expectation was third expectation was for me tofor me to settle in Somasettle in Soma. Considering me as an insider and as Ali Osman’s . Considering me as an insider and as Ali Osman’s son, the miners and particularly the elderly generation kept insisting that son, the miners and particularly the elderly generation kept insisting that I should settle down in Soma and work in the mine.I should settle down in Soma and work in the mine.104 Moreover, theMoreover, theirir comparcompared minersed miners’ ’ incomeincome and those and those of academicsof academics as seen in the story of as seen in the story of Bilal’s House.Bilal’s House.

Their insistence caused me to think of Meeker’s argument and hi

Their insistence caused me to think of Meeker’s argument and his s research. In Meeker’s study onresearch. In Meeker’s study on Of,Of, he developshe develops hishis mainmain arguargument based ment based on locals’ insistence that he shall on locals’ insistence that he shall convert to Islam and settle in Of, sug-convert to Islam and settle in Of, sug-gesting that interpersonal relations based on Islamic sociality is what gesting that interpersonal relations based on Islamic sociality is what constitutes the communityconstitutes the community..105 Similarly, I have used my informantsSimilarly, I have used my informants’’ per-per-sistence on me tosistence on me to work in the mineswork in the mines to formulate and answer the main to formulate and answer the main questionquestionss which hawhich haveve shaped this thesis:shaped this thesis: How How is it possible that is it possible that a a peas-peas-ant farmeant farmerr community acceptcommunity acceptss such risky and heavsuch risky and heavy working conditions y working conditions such as underground mining such as underground mining andand chooses tochooses to migratemigrate to work in the to work in the minesmines?? Why is underground minding such a desirable job inWhy is underground minding such a desirable job in the eyes of the eyes of this community? this community?

1.7.4

1.7.4 ResearcherResearcher’s’s CharacterCharacter

As a researcher, I was a little bit shy at the beginning to start my

As a researcher, I was a little bit shy at the beginning to start my interviewinterviewss. I had difficulty convincing . I had difficulty convincing people people to conductto conduct interviewsinterviews. . Ini-Ini-tially, people often refused my request for antially, people often refused my request for an interviewinterview,, kikindly suggesting ndly suggesting that I interview other people. Also, I am not a talkative personthat I interview other people. Also, I am not a talkative person whichwhich caused difficulty to start my research. However, not being very talkative caused difficulty to start my research. However, not being very talkative

104 Whereas the younger generation suggested that I work at the university in ManisaWhereas the younger generation suggested that I work at the university in Manisa

105 Michael E. Meeker, A Nation of Empire: The Ottoman Legacy of Turkish Modernity (Cal-Michael E. Meeker, A Nation of Empire: The Ottoman Legacy of Turkish Modernity (Cal-ifornia: University of California Press, 2002).ifornia: University of California Press, 2002).

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also helped me with listening carefully, and further helped me

also helped me with listening carefully, and further helped me in the later in the later stages of fieldworkstages of fieldwork by collecting more data andby collecting more data and storiesstories..

In the community, people who were not willing to do interviews

In the community, people who were not willing to do interviews with me at the beginning, afterwards listened towith me at the beginning, afterwards listened to mymy questions in the fo-questions in the fo-cus group and gained familiaritycus group and gained familiarity with me. with me. They They werewere more willing to talk more willing to talk in the focin the focus group and us group and later later asked me to interview themasked me to interview them,, invitinvitinging me to me to their home in order to be interviewed. In my opinion, I was able to con-their home in order to be interviewed. In my opinion, I was able to con-vince people that what they vince people that what they werewere saying is important and worthy. For ex-saying is important and worthy. For ex-ample, Fadime (32), Aysel (67), and Hasan (50) told ample, Fadime (32), Aysel (67), and Hasan (50) told me at the end of fo-me at the end of fo-cus groups that “come to my home and I can tell you more stories and my cus groups that “come to my home and I can tell you more stories and my husband also have many stories and historical knowledge that he can ex-husband also have many stories and historical knowledge that he can ex-plain to you.” Therefore, my character made my job difficult at the begin-plain to you.” Therefore, my character made my job difficult at the begin-ning but then providedning but then provided me with more data because of being a good lis-me with more data because of being a good lis-tener in the eyes of the tener in the eyes of the communitycommunity..

The fieldwork is an essential journey

The fieldwork is an essential journey for afor a social scientist. While social scientist. While conducting the research, I have listened to many stories about miners conducting the research, I have listened to many stories about miners and their families as well asand their families as well as aboutabout my family and my childhood. Never-my family and my childhood. Never-theless, during the research, feeling helpless was inevitable since the re-theless, during the research, feeling helpless was inevitable since the re-search group is a miner’s community and workingsearch group is a miner’s community and working--class which is one of class which is one of the lowest strata in a capitalist world. It was especially difficult when I the lowest strata in a capitalist world. It was especially difficult when I lilistened to some of the heartbreaking stories and could not know what stened to some of the heartbreaking stories and could not know what to do and how to help. In every house, there was a tragic story to listen to do and how to help. In every house, there was a tragic story to listen to, although to, although I did not elicit it on purposeI did not elicit it on purpose. After listening to tragic stories, . After listening to tragic stories, I only could make small comments oI only could make small comments or often chose to be silent. The main r often chose to be silent. The main comments by women aboutcomments by women about miners’miners’ deaths weredeaths were thatthat “their life was lim-“their life was lim-ited”ited”106 oror thatthat “everybody has a different exam.”“everybody has a different exam.”107 During theDuring thesese conver-conver-sations, sations, men chosemen chose to be silent and mato be silent and madede jokes to ignore tragedies. If this jokes to ignore tragedies. If this researresearch ch waswas directly about thedirectly about the 20142014 accident, it seems that silence accident, it seems that silence would be one of the main themes.would be one of the main themes.

106 Duygu (46).Duygu (46).

107 Ayşe (51).Ayşe (51).

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What

What II wonderwondereded mostmost aboutabout while I was doing my research was while I was doing my research was whether I whether I waswas an outsider or an insider. In their eyes, I was one of them an outsider or an insider. In their eyes, I was one of them because of my parent’s hibecause of my parent’s history.story. However, However, I kept asking myself:I kept asking myself: SSpendingpending only a few yearsonly a few years of my lifeof my life with them with them andand visitingvisiting the villagethe village only a few only a few days in a year and being away the rest of the timedays in a year and being away the rest of the time-- does it makes me an does it makes me an insider? insider?

1.7.5

1.7.5 AccessAccess

I was successful

I was successful in accessing the community anin accessing the community and finding interview-d finding interview-eesees with the help of two of my relativeswith the help of two of my relatives who acted as sponsors of my re-who acted as sponsors of my re-searchsearch. I . I strengthened strengthened mymy relationrelations s in in thethe field through field through joining meetingsjoining meetings, , going to coffee houses, and going to coffee houses, and visiting homesvisiting homes. Also, I man. Also, I manaaged to find and ged to find and interview women interview women thanks to the help of my wife and my female cousin.thanks to the help of my wife and my female cousin.

However, I was not very successful in making However, I was not very successful in making intervieweesinterviewees talk at talk at the beginning when my questionthe beginning when my questionss wwere ere formulatedformulated asas too too intellectual for intellectual for them. them. Also, given tAlso, given the low literacy ratehe low literacy rate in the in the community,community, mymy reseresearcharch was was not not seenseen asas importantimportant. . Instead, Instead, keptkept asking asking meme “are you going to earn “are you going to earn money from this?” money from this?” Most people wereMost people were not not aware ofaware of what what aa master’smaster’s de-de-greegree and thesis are, and they have and thesis are, and they have regarded regarded mymy research just research just as home-as home-workwork, something just to be completed, something just to be completed likelike their children’s homeworktheir children’s homework.. For For example, example, when when I asked Kamile (48) I asked Kamile (48) about about the times’ electricity was first the times’ electricity was first used in the village afterused in the village after listening to herlistening to her stories about electricity, she said stories about electricity, she said that “just write 1983that “just write 1983;; the teachers cannot understand and prove when it the teachers cannot understand and prove when it was.”was.”

I was receiving answers such as “never mind”, “you tell me”, and

I was receiving answers such as “never mind”, “you tell me”, and only one sentence explanationonly one sentence explanationss whenever whenever peoplepeople did not want to explaindid not want to explain something. something. At the beginning of the research, I had experienced these At the beginning of the research, I had experienced these kinds of responseskinds of responses moremore because because of myof my lack olack of f prior prior fieldwork experi-fieldwork experi-ence. Afterwards, I have taken the Ethnographic Methods classence. Afterwards, I have taken the Ethnographic Methods class at the at the Ataturk InstituteAtaturk Institute and learnedand learned aboutabout the importance of introducing myself the importance of introducing myself to the field. After going to the field for the third and fourth time, I learned to the field. After going to the field for the third and fourth time, I learned more aboutmore about the field, and this changed thethe field, and this changed the way Iway I introducintroduceded myselfmyself andand mymy researchresearch to the community.to the community. I told them, I told them, “I came to listen to your ideas “I came to listen to your ideas

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and your stories for my research” and then I explained my research

and your stories for my research” and then I explained my research to to themthem. .

While using snowball sampling, people were

While using snowball sampling, people were explaining to me his-explaining to me his-torical stories because they knew that I had graduated from the history torical stories because they knew that I had graduated from the history department. Therefore, I was more successful in collecting data from the department. Therefore, I was more successful in collecting data from the interviews with elderly because of beinginterviews with elderly because of being considered asconsidered as an insider an insider and aand a historianhistorian in the coin the community.mmunity. WWhereashereas snowball sampling worked well snowball sampling worked well with the elderly with the elderly generation, generation, II struggled tostruggled to conductconduct interviews with the interviews with the younger generation with the snowball sampling method. younger generation with the snowball sampling method. PParticipant ob-articipant ob-servation method a provided me more data for the younger generation servation method a provided me more data for the younger generation in in the field.the field.

1.7.6

1.7.6 EthicsEthics

From the beginning of the research, I used a recorder

From the beginning of the research, I used a recorder as well as as well as takingtaking notes. In every interview, I notes. In every interview, I asked for the interviewees’asked for the interviewees’ consent to consent to use the recorder and take notes, which the majority of interviewees al-use the recorder and take notes, which the majority of interviewees al-lowed. I could do coverlowed. I could do covert research because of my relation to the field but t research because of my relation to the field but for ethical considerationfor ethical considerationss and not to exploit them, I tried to tell why I was and not to exploit them, I tried to tell why I was there, i.e., because of research, from the beginning. However, people were there, i.e., because of research, from the beginning. However, people were often not that interested in often not that interested in how Ihow I was was goinggoing to use to use the researchthe research, because , because it was just homework for them, and they were not aware of what the mas-it was just homework for them, and they were not aware of what the mas-ter thesis is. ter thesis is.

I had one very emotional moment and felt awful after doing the

I had one very emotional moment and felt awful after doing the in-in-terview terview inin whichwhich I hadI had askaskeded aa man about his wife, which caused his eyes man about his wife, which caused his eyes to tear upto tear up. Then, I learned that he. Then, I learned that he hadhad lost his wife three months ago. lost his wife three months ago. While conducting my ethnographic research, it is likely to be said that the While conducting my ethnographic research, it is likely to be said that the older generation was in a more powerful position than older generation was in a more powerful position than me me while while conduct-conduct-ing the interviewsing the interviews. Nevertheless, for the young . Nevertheless, for the young generation, generation, I, as I, as the re-the re-searcher was in a more powerful position to direct the interviews. There searcher was in a more powerful position to direct the interviews. There

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

was an invisible hierarchy

was an invisible hierarchy between the researcher and the researched as between the researcher and the researched as suggested bysuggested by Portelli’sPortelli’s reflections on oral history.reflections on oral history.108

§ 1.81.8 Thesis Thesis Outline and OrganizationOutline and Organization

The first chapter is the introduction to the thesis. In this chapter, I

The first chapter is the introduction to the thesis. In this chapter, I explain the researchexplain the research problems, the methodology, the main arguments, problems, the methodology, the main arguments, and the field. Also, I discuss the three generations which constitute the and the field. Also, I discuss the three generations which constitute the sample for this study. In addition, I highsample for this study. In addition, I highlight the thesis’ contribution to light the thesis’ contribution to the literature, and provide a review of the relevant literature. the literature, and provide a review of the relevant literature.

In the second chapter, I discuss the historical background of the

In the second chapter, I discuss the historical background of the mining industry by the local, national, and global developments based on mining industry by the local, national, and global developments based on archival materialarchival materials and field research by trying to connect it to the litera-s and field research by trying to connect it to the litera-ture. In this chapter, the history of mining in Turkey is periodized.ture. In this chapter, the history of mining in Turkey is periodized.

In the third chapter, I will explain the field notes and findings under

In the third chapter, I will explain the field notes and findings under the headings and fields of Selimli and Soma. This chaptethe headings and fields of Selimli and Soma. This chapter describes the r describes the transportation, the settlement, the region, housing, and settlement.transportation, the settlement, the region, housing, and settlement.

In the fourth chapter, the transformation of the peasant farmer

In the fourth chapter, the transformation of the peasant farmer community is explained in the changing patterns of migration and labor, community is explained in the changing patterns of migration and labor, social policies, and family dynamicsocial policies, and family dynamics.s.

In the fifth chapter, the research will be summarized shortly and

In the fifth chapter, the research will be summarized shortly and concluded.concluded.

108 Alessandro Portelli, “What Makes Oral History Different?” “On the Peculiarities of His-Alessandro Portelli, “What Makes Oral History Different?” “On the Peculiarities of His-tory,” intory,” in History Workshop Journal, 54History Workshop Journal, 54--60, (Oxford, England, 1981), 57.60, (Oxford, England, 1981), 57.

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2HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDHISTORICAL BACKGROUND

his chapter will provide a brief overview of the historical back-

his chapter will provide a brief overview of the historical back-ground of the mining sector in Turkey. ground of the mining sector in Turkey. Using academic studies and Using academic studies and archival documents, I will discuss the historical development of mines in archival documents, I will discuss the historical development of mines in Turkey, taking into local, national and global developments. The chapter Turkey, taking into local, national and global developments. The chapter will offer a general periodization of the development of mining in history will offer a general periodization of the development of mining in history as wellas well as discuss the local history of Inner Aegean lignites, mainly Soma as discuss the local history of Inner Aegean lignites, mainly Soma and Kütahya mines within this periodization. The chapter discusses four and Kütahya mines within this periodization. The chapter discusses four main periods in the history of miningmain periods in the history of mining..

Within this general periodization, I will also highlight the specific

Within this general periodization, I will also highlight the specific trajecttrajectory of mining in the Soma region: Soma mines’ historical trajectory ory of mining in the Soma region: Soma mines’ historical trajectory differs from the general historical trend of mining in Turkey which is de-differs from the general historical trend of mining in Turkey which is de-fined by the transition from a statist to a privatized period. The Soma fined by the transition from a statist to a privatized period. The Soma mines were first private, then they startedmines were first private, then they started to be operated by the state in to be operated by the state in the 1970s, and then in 200the 1970s, and then in 20055 they were subcontracted with the redevance they were subcontracted with the redevance system under TKI by granting purchasing guaranteesystem under TKI by granting purchasing guarantee..1

1 “In the case of Soma, the lignite mines were formerly a state“In the case of Soma, the lignite mines were formerly a state--owned property in the hands owned property in the hands of Turkish Coal Enterprises (TKİ), and were privatized in 2005 in line with the ‘redevance’ of Turkish Coal Enterprises (TKİ), and were privatized in 2005 in line with the ‘redevance’ system” ;system” ;Ercan, Fuat, and Şebnem Oğuz. “From Gezi Resistance to Soma Massacre: Capital Ercan, Fuat, and Şebnem Oğuz. “From Gezi Resistance to Soma Massacre: Capital Accumulation and Class Struggle in Turkey.” Socialist Register 51 (2015): 114Accumulation and Class Struggle in Turkey.” Socialist Register 51 (2015): 114––35.117.; 35.117.; Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları.”Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları.”

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§ 2.12.1 History of Mining in Turkey and Periodization History of Mining in Turkey and Periodization

Making periodization is

Making periodization is problematicproblematic, but it makes , but it makes the issue at stake eas-the issue at stake eas-ier to understand.ier to understand.2 ThereThere are different periodizationare different periodizationss of of the the mining sec-mining sec-tor tor in Turkeyin Turkey..3 For example, Tamzok divides the history of mining into For example, Tamzok divides the history of mining into sixsix periods:periods: 11--Late Period of the Ottoman Empire 2Late Period of the Ottoman Empire 2--The First Period of the The First Period of the Republic, (1923 Republic, (1923 –– 1935), 31935), 3--Etibank Period, (1935 Etibank Period, (1935 –– 1950), 41950), 4-- PostPost--WWII WWII and Democratic Party Period (1946and Democratic Party Period (1946--1960), 51960), 5--Planned Development Pe-Planned Development Pe-riod (1961riod (1961--1980), 61980), 6-- “Neo“Neo--Liberal” Transformation Period, (1981Liberal” Transformation Period, (1981--1998).1998).4 Differing fromDiffering from himhim, I discuss the history of mining in four , I discuss the history of mining in four periods periods becaubecause I try to periodize more se I try to periodize more in tune within tune with globalglobal dynamicsdynamics andand include include upup to dateto date developments.developments.

The first period

The first period I I discussdiscuss is the Late Ottoman Empire Period, cor-is the Late Ottoman Empire Period, cor-responding to the years between 1829, the foundation of Zonguldak mine responding to the years between 1829, the foundation of Zonguldak mine reserves and 1reserves and 1923, the proclamation of the Republic. In this period, for-923, the proclamation of the Republic. In this period, for-eign eign capital dominatedcapital dominated the market. The second period is the Early Repub-the market. The second period is the Early Repub-lican Period, which started with the foundation of the Turkish Republic. lican Period, which started with the foundation of the Turkish Republic. This period might be called as the Nationalized PeriodThis period might be called as the Nationalized Period because the mines because the mines were nationalized and operated by the state with the effect of the 1929 were nationalized and operated by the state with the effect of the 1929 crisis and statist ideology. The third period is the Postcrisis and statist ideology. The third period is the Post--War Period; a War Period; a planned period which started with the end of the Second World War. planned period which started with the end of the Second World War. There were both private anThere were both private and state mines in this period. Also, in this pe-d state mines in this period. Also, in this pe-riod, inner migration and turnover rates in the mines were high. The last riod, inner migration and turnover rates in the mines were high. The last period of Turkish mining history is the Neoliberal Period, the privatiza-period of Turkish mining history is the Neoliberal Period, the privatiza-tion period which will be examined under two parts: (i) 1980tion period which will be examined under two parts: (i) 1980--2002000 pe-0 pe-riod and (ii) 2000riod and (ii) 2000--2020 period. Privatization increased and redevance 2020 period. Privatization increased and redevance

2 Eric Jan Zürcher, Modernleşen Türkiye’nin Tarihi, trans. Yasemin SanEric Jan Zürcher, Modernleşen Türkiye’nin Tarihi, trans. Yasemin Saner Gönen, (İstanbul: er Gönen, (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2004).İletişim Yayınları, 2004).

3 Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları,” Kalaycıoğlu and Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları,” Kalaycıoğlu and Çelik, “Tunçbilek Kömür İşletmelerinde Özelleştirmenin,”Çelik, “Tunçbilek Kömür İşletmelerinde Özelleştirmenin,”

4 Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları,”Sonuçları,”

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system was used intensely in these years. Late Ottoman Period: The For-

system was used intensely in these years. Late Ottoman Period: The For-eign Capital Period eign Capital Period

The foreign and non

The foreign and non--Muslim capital was dominant in this period Muslim capital was dominant in this period and foreign capital benefiteand foreign capital benefited from this situation.d from this situation.5 The major capital The major capital in thein the mining mining sector wassector was German, French, and English.German, French, and English.6 The main mine extrac-The main mine extrac-tion area was tion area was Zonguldak.Zonguldak. The discovery of coal by Uzun Mehmet in The discovery of coal by Uzun Mehmet in Zonguldak dates back to 1829 and the first Mining Regulation in the Ot-Zonguldak dates back to 1829 and the first Mining Regulation in the Ot-tomatoman Empire was issued in 1861.n Empire was issued in 1861.7 Mining production increased signifi-Mining production increased signifi-cantly in this period. Between the years 1902 and 1911cantly in this period. Between the years 1902 and 19118 many mines many mines were exported, so, foreign capital managed and used the mines. The for-were exported, so, foreign capital managed and used the mines. The for-eign capital periodeign capital period was interrupted in 1914 when the Fwas interrupted in 1914 when the First Worldirst World War War started started and endedand ended in the Early Republican era when the capitulations in the Early Republican era when the capitulations were abolished after the Lausanne Peace Treaty.were abolished after the Lausanne Peace Treaty.

§ 2.22.2 Aegean Lignite and Soma in the Late Ottoman PeriodAegean Lignite and Soma in the Late Ottoman Period

2.2.1.1

2.2.1.1 The History of Soma Coal BasinThe History of Soma Coal Basin

The

The history of the mine in Soma has a history of more than a cen-history of the mine in Soma has a history of more than a cen-tury, which goes back to the 1860s.tury, which goes back to the 1860s.9 The discovery of lignite mines in The discovery of lignite mines in Soma was thus before the Republican Soma was thus before the Republican period.period.10 In 1863In 1863--1864, a research 1864, a research group was sent to Somagroup was sent to Soma11, and the findings of the resea, and the findings of the research group was rch group was compared with the mine of Zonguldak. compared with the mine of Zonguldak. 12 In the first year, the mine was In the first year, the mine was

5 Kalaycıoğlu and Çelik, “Tunçbilek Kömür İşletmelerinde Özelleştirmenin,” 5.Kalaycıoğlu and Çelik, “Tunçbilek Kömür İşletmelerinde Özelleştirmenin,” 5.

6 Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları,” 5.Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları,” 5.

7 Şerife Yorulmaz, “Türkiye’de Kömürün Keşfi ve Kömür İşletme İmtiyazları (1829Şerife Yorulmaz, “Türkiye’de Kömürün Keşfi ve Kömür İşletme İmtiyazları (1829-- 1937),” 1937),” Türkiye 11. Kömür Kongresi 10Türkiye 11. Kömür Kongresi 10--12 Haziran 1998 Bartın12 Haziran 1998 Bartın--Amasra, 283Amasra, 283––98.98.

8 “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları,” 5.“Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları,” 5.

9 Mustafa Küçükkayapalı, “Soma kömür tarihinden bir yaprak,” Evrensel, 13 May 2016. Mustafa Küçükkayapalı, “Soma kömür tarihinden bir yaprak,” Evrensel, 13 May 2016. https://www.evrensel.net/haber/279978/somahttps://www.evrensel.net/haber/279978/soma--komurkomur--tarihindentarihinden--birbir--yaprakyaprak

10 According to İsmail Ergün, it is the first lignite mine in the history of Turkey. İsmail According to İsmail Ergün, it is the first lignite mine in the history of Turkey. İsmail Ergün, Soma Maden ve Enerji Tarihi, (KütahErgün, Soma Maden ve Enerji Tarihi, (Kütahya: Soma Belediyesi Kültür Yayınları, 2018), 98.ya: Soma Belediyesi Kültür Yayınları, 2018), 98.

11 Şerife Yorulmaz, “Aydın Vilayetinde Madenler (1850Şerife Yorulmaz, “Aydın Vilayetinde Madenler (1850--1908),” PhD Diss. (Dokuz Eylül Uni-1908),” PhD Diss. (Dokuz Eylül Uni-versity, 1994), 220; BOA, MV, 51versity, 1994), 220; BOA, MV, 51--16, 27 Cemaziyelahir 1307 (13 February 1890).16, 27 Cemaziyelahir 1307 (13 February 1890).

12 Çelik, “Extractive Industries and ChangÇelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means,” 102.ing Means,” 102.

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sold to the owner of the cotton factories.

sold to the owner of the cotton factories.13 According to the archival doc-According to the archival doc-uments, there were not many candidates to operate the mines at the be-uments, there were not many candidates to operate the mines at the be-ginning, but it was clear thaginning, but it was clear that in the future the number of candidates to t in the future the number of candidates to operate the mines wouldoperate the mines would increase.increase.

According to “Maaddin

According to “Maaddin--I Hümayuna Nizamına”I Hümayuna Nizamına”14 this one year this one year would be a trial period. Another important issue about the Soma Lignite would be a trial period. Another important issue about the Soma Lignite mine is the “Meclismine is the “Meclis--I Vükela” decision.I Vükela” decision.15 We learWe learn from this decision that n from this decision that the right to operate the mine was given to Yanoko Efendi. In 1890, the the right to operate the mine was given to Yanoko Efendi. In 1890, the tender was transferred to families from İzmir. tender was transferred to families from İzmir. 16 It was for 99 It was for 99 years,years, and and the state promised two thousand tons of production annually. the state promised two thousand tons of production annually. However, However, the death of Rethe death of Reşit Efendi in 1891 led to the split of the heritage between şit Efendi in 1891 led to the split of the heritage between shareholders and several of them were sold as understood from the Ot-shareholders and several of them were sold as understood from the Ot-toman archive document.toman archive document.17

In 1913, the pits of Soma were opened.

In 1913, the pits of Soma were opened.18 During the First World During the First World War, Soma lignite was important, and it was operated by Germans. After War, Soma lignite was important, and it was operated by Germans. After the Armistice of Mudros, the French companiesthe Armistice of Mudros, the French companies19 operated these minesoperated these mines..20 Thus, at the local level, Soma mines were operated by the European Great Thus, at the local level, Soma mines were operated by the European Great Powers. Also, in Powers. Also, in 1914 in Tırhala, Soma the lignite was discovered and the 1914 in Tırhala, Soma the lignite was discovered and the right to operate was given to Osman Efendi and his shareholders.right to operate was given to Osman Efendi and his shareholders.21

13 Yorulmaz, “Aydın Vilayetinde Madenler (1850Yorulmaz, “Aydın Vilayetinde Madenler (1850--1908), 221.1908), 221.

14 Ibid.Ibid.

15 Ibid., MV, 51Ibid., MV, 51--16.16.

16 Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means,” 102.Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means,” 102.

17 BOA. A.} DVN. MKL. 33BOA. A.} DVN. MKL. 33--4, 10 Muharrem 1309 (16 August 1891).4, 10 Muharrem 1309 (16 August 1891).

18 BOA. DH.EUM.VRK. 18BOA. DH.EUM.VRK. 18--27, 27 Cema27, 27 Cemaziyelahir 1336 (9 April 1918).ziyelahir 1336 (9 April 1918).

19 BOA. DH. İ. UM. EK. 50BOA. DH. İ. UM. EK. 50--28, 11 Receb 1337 (12 April 1919).28, 11 Receb 1337 (12 April 1919).

20 Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means,” 123.Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means,” 123.

21 BOA. İ. MMS. 192BOA. İ. MMS. 192--40, 26 Muharrem 1333 (14 December 1914); BOA. BEO, 432740, 26 Muharrem 1333 (14 December 1914); BOA. BEO, 4327--324464, 1 Safer 1333 (19 324464, 1 Safer 1333 (19 December 1914).December 1914).

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

§ 2.32.3 Early Republican Period: Nationalized PeriodEarly Republican Period: Nationalized Period

The second period is the Early Republican Period, which mightThe second period is the Early Republican Period, which might alsoalso be called as thebe called as the “n“nationalization of mines period.” In this period, the ationalization of mines period.” In this period, the enterprises were important, but the enterprises were important, but the essentialessential idea was nationalization. idea was nationalization. The mines were vital for the Early Republic of Turkey. However, there The mines were vital for the Early Republic of Turkey. However, there were not enough entrepreneurs and capital in the country aftewere not enough entrepreneurs and capital in the country after the long r the long ten years of wars, including the Balkan Wars, Great Wars, The First World ten years of wars, including the Balkan Wars, Great Wars, The First World War, and War, and the the Turkish War of Independence. Therefore, the state took over Turkish War of Independence. Therefore, the state took over the industrialization and development activities.the industrialization and development activities.22 As Tamzok statesAs Tamzok states,, the the idea was “The people of Tidea was “The people of Turkey, for its national production and operating urkey, for its national production and operating mines, will attempt to recognize the wealth than anyone else.”mines, will attempt to recognize the wealth than anyone else.”23 After the After the 1929 economic crisis, this situation became an ideology which was called 1929 economic crisis, this situation became an ideology which was called “statism“statism.”.”24 Statist and protectionist policies took place inStatist and protectionist policies took place in Turkey after Turkey after the 1929 crisis Great Depression as it has beenthe 1929 crisis Great Depression as it has been the casethe case in the entire in the entire world. Also, this period affected the mine workers around the world.world. Also, this period affected the mine workers around the world.25 Turkey’s coal potential in this troubled periodTurkey’s coal potential in this troubled period, especially in the Zongul-, especially in the Zongul-dak Basin and Soma, gained mdak Basin and Soma, gained more importance. Therefore, the govern-ore importance. Therefore, the govern-ment tried to increase the production in Zonguldak coal basin and Soma, ment tried to increase the production in Zonguldak coal basin and Soma, whichwhich was successful. The production, around 900 thousand tons before, was successful. The production, around 900 thousand tons before, exceeded 2 million tons in 1936.exceeded 2 million tons in 1936.26

The risks of the mining sector made

The risks of the mining sector made private companies doubtful to private companies doubtful to invest in the mines’ operations. Hence, stateinvest in the mines’ operations. Hence, state--run enterprises were run enterprises were foundfoundeded during this period.during this period.27 Sümerbank was founded in 1933. In 1935, Sümerbank was founded in 1933. In 1935,

22 Zafer Toprak, “Türkiye’nin Ekonomik Gelişimi 1923Zafer Toprak, “Türkiye’nin Ekonomik Gelişimi 1923--2018.” In Modern Türkiye Tarihi. 2018.” In Modern Türkiye Tarihi. Edited by Ahmet Şimşek, 240Edited by Ahmet Şimşek, 240––58. Ankara: Pegem Akademi, 2019.58. Ankara: Pegem Akademi, 2019.

23 Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları.”Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları.”

24 Zafer Toprak, Türkiye’nin Ekonomik Zafer Toprak, Türkiye’nin Ekonomik Gelişimi 1923Gelişimi 1923--2018.” In Modern Türkiye Tarihi. Ed-2018.” In Modern Türkiye Tarihi. Ed-ited by Ahmet Şimşek, 240ited by Ahmet Şimşek, 240––58. Ankara: Pegem Akademi, 2019.58. Ankara: Pegem Akademi, 2019.

25 For example, a coal mine strike of 500,000 workers in the UK in 1926 has had a crucial For example, a coal mine strike of 500,000 workers in the UK in 1926 has had a crucial impact on Turkey.impact on Turkey.

26 Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları.”Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları.”

27 Nacar, “Our Lives Were Not as Valuable as an Animal,” 143.Nacar, “Our Lives Were Not as Valuable as an Animal,” 143.

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MTA

MTA28 (General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration) and (General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration) and Etibank were established to operate the mines. Etibank were established to operate the mines. While While MTA explorMTA exploreded the the mines, Etibank providmines, Etibank provideded the capital.the capital.29 After the foundation of MTA and After the foundation of MTA and Etibank, mines were nationalized rapidly by taking frEtibank, mines were nationalized rapidly by taking from German and om German and French shareholders one by one.French shareholders one by one.30

The fundamental problem in the industry in this period was the

The fundamental problem in the industry in this period was the turnover ratesturnover rates. Workers had stronger ties with their village and agricul-. Workers had stronger ties with their village and agricul-ture andture and wworkedorked as temporal in the mining sector.as temporal in the mining sector.31 As Nacar showAs Nacar showeded ""Garp LGarp Linyit İsletmeleri might work 9.000 workersinyit İsletmeleri might work 9.000 workers,, but they can employ but they can employ only 4.500 workers.”only 4.500 workers.”32 In the case of social policies, labor law was enacted In the case of social policies, labor law was enacted in 1936.in 1936. 33 With the law, With the law, the working hours could not the working hours could not exceed exceed more than more than eight hours for the miners.eight hours for the miners.34 Labor codeLabor code of 193of 19366 wawass the outcome of the the outcome of the foundation of Etibank and Sümerbank because the number of workers foundation of Etibank and Sümerbank because the number of workers under the state had increased.under the state had increased.35 Also, the same year Also, the same year the the new Penal Code new Penal Code was was enactenacted after the labor code.ed after the labor code.36

28 Maden Tetkik Arama Enstitüsü Maden Tetkik Arama Enstitüsü

29 Makal, “Ameleden İşçiye,” 241.Makal, “Ameleden İşçiye,” 241.

30 Kalaycıoğlu and Çelik, “Tunçbilek Kömür İşletmelerinde Özelleştirmenin,” 6.Kalaycıoğlu and Çelik, “Tunçbilek Kömür İşletmelerinde Özelleştirmenin,” 6.

31 Nadir Özbek, CumhuNadir Özbek, Cumhuriyet Türkiyesi’nde Sosyal Güvenlik ve Sosyal Politikalar (İstanbul: riyet Türkiyesi’nde Sosyal Güvenlik ve Sosyal Politikalar (İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı: Emeklilik Gözetim Merkezi, 2006), 130.Tarih Vakfı: Emeklilik Gözetim Merkezi, 2006), 130.

32 Nacar, “Our Lives Were Not as Valuable as an Animal.”Nacar, “Our Lives Were Not as Valuable as an Animal.”

33 Zafer Toprak, “Modernite ve Türkiye’de İşçi Sınıfının Doğuşu.” Toplumsal TariZafer Toprak, “Modernite ve Türkiye’de İşçi Sınıfının Doğuşu.” Toplumsal Tarih 275 h 275 (2016): 50(2016): 50––53.53.

34 Makal, “Ameleden İşçiye,” 61.Makal, “Ameleden İşçiye,” 61.

35 Ali Sipahi, “Convict Labor in Turkey, 1936Ali Sipahi, “Convict Labor in Turkey, 1936––1953: A Capitalist Corporation in the State?” 1953: A Capitalist Corporation in the State?” International Labor and WorkingInternational Labor and Working--Class History 90 (2016): 245.Class History 90 (2016): 245.

36 Ibid, 246. Ibid, 246.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

2.3.1

2.3.1 Soma and Kütahya Mines Inner Aegean Mines during the Soma and Kütahya Mines Inner Aegean Mines during the Na-Na-tionalized Periodtionalized Period

2.3.1.1

2.3.1.1 Soma Mines Soma Mines

After the proclamation of the Republic,

After the proclamation of the Republic, the the mining sector obtained mining sector obtained positive results from the investigations carried out in the coal mines of positive results from the investigations carried out in the coal mines of SomaSoma. . In 1926, Soma lignite commenceIn 1926, Soma lignite commences weres were operatoperateded by local firms. by local firms. According to ŞeAccording to Şerife Yorulmaz, Soma coal could surife Yorulmaz, Soma coal could sufficiently supply the coal fficiently supply the coal requirement of İzmirrequirement of İzmir in this period.in this period.37 After the foundation of Etibank in After the foundation of Etibank in 1935, new1935, new national mines were opened.national mines were opened. Tavşanlı, Değirmisaz, Yerköy, and Tavşanlı, Değirmisaz, Yerköy, and Gerenez lignite mines which were opened by the privGerenez lignite mines which were opened by the private sectorate sector andand were were taken to state operation by Etibank in this period just before the Second taken to state operation by Etibank in this period just before the Second World War. Also, in 1939 Soma mine started to be operated byWorld War. Also, in 1939 Soma mine started to be operated by Etibank.Etibank.38 Under the state, the production of lignite rose dramatically in Soma. Lig-Under the state, the production of lignite rose dramatically in Soma. Lig-nite production nite production rorosese to 100 thousand tons in 1937to 100 thousand tons in 193739 and 1 million tons and 1 million tons in 1948 after the Second World War. Statein 1948 after the Second World War. State--owned mines increaseowned mines increasedd to 81 to 81 percent at the end of the Second World War.percent at the end of the Second World War.40

During the Second World War era,

During the Second World War era, 41 the dominant theme of this the dominant theme of this periodperiod waswas mükellefiyet under the National Protection Law. The workers mükellefiyet under the National Protection Law. The workers of mineof miness during this period were “stable and experienced laborers, vil-during this period were “stable and experienced laborers, vil-

37 Şerife Yorulmaz, “Aydın VilayetindŞerife Yorulmaz, “Aydın Vilayetinde Madenler (1850e Madenler (1850--1908),” 293.1908),” 293.

38 Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means,” 103.Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means,” 103.

39 Ibid.Ibid.

40 Ibid.Ibid.

41 Madenlerde ücretli çalışma yükümlülüğünün kaldırılması bir uyum sürecinin ardından Madenlerde ücretli çalışma yükümlülüğünün kaldırılması bir uyum sürecinin ardından Ereğli Kömür Havzası’nda K/654 ile 19 Ağustos 1946 tarihinde Garp LEreğli Kömür Havzası’nda K/654 ile 19 Ağustos 1946 tarihinde Garp Linyitleri İşlet-inyitleri İşlet-mesi’nde K/707 ile 17 Ekim 1947 tarihinde gerçekleştirilmiştir.mesi’nde K/707 ile 17 Ekim 1947 tarihinde gerçekleştirilmiştir.

Savaş döneminde görev yapan T.C. Hükümetleri bir yandan halkın kömür gereksinimini

Savaş döneminde görev yapan T.C. Hükümetleri bir yandan halkın kömür gereksinimini karşılamaya çalışırken, aynı zamanda diğer alanlarda artış gösteren kömür talebini de karşılamaya çalışırken, aynı zamanda diğer alanlarda artış gösteren kömür talebini de karşılamkarşılamak zorunda kalmıştır. Bu nedenle kömür tüketiminin kontrol altına alınması ak zorunda kalmıştır. Bu nedenle kömür tüketiminin kontrol altına alınması kaçınılmaz olmuş ve Koordinasyon Heyeti Milli Korunma Kanunu’na dayanarak bazı ted-kaçınılmaz olmuş ve Koordinasyon Heyeti Milli Korunma Kanunu’na dayanarak bazı ted-birler almıştır.birler almıştır. Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means,” 103.Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means,” 103.

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lagers commuting between

lagers commuting between industrial enterprise and their villages, com-industrial enterprise and their villages, com-pulsory workers, and prisoners.”pulsory workers, and prisoners.”42 Soma mining operationSoma mining operation waswas trans-trans-ferred to TKİ from Etibank in 1957.ferred to TKİ from Etibank in 1957.43 After the end of the war, the oblig-After the end of the war, the oblig-atory workforce was not immediately terminated because the workers atory workforce was not immediately terminated because the workers were were ununwilling to work.willing to work.44

2.3.1.2

2.3.1.2 Kütahya MinesKütahya Mines

Kütahya is a city where miners

Kütahya is a city where miners have historically lived extensively. have historically lived extensively. Tunçbilek, Değirmisaz and Seyitömer mines have been operated sinceTunçbilek, Değirmisaz and Seyitömer mines have been operated since the Republican periodthe Republican period..45 It is the second miner's city after Zonguldak, It is the second miner's city after Zonguldak, where obligatory labor was used the most during the Second Worldwhere obligatory labor was used the most during the Second World War.War.46 The history of Kütahya mine pits is not older tThe history of Kütahya mine pits is not older than Soma lignite coal han Soma lignite coal pits. The beginning of pits. The beginning of the the coal minecoal mine isis inin the Early Republican Area after the Early Republican Area after the foundation of Etibank and MTA in 1935. Firstly, Seyitömer was the foundation of Etibank and MTA in 1935. Firstly, Seyitömer was opened. Then, Tunçbilek and Değirmisaz mines were opened opened. Then, Tunçbilek and Değirmisaz mines were opened inin 1939 and 1939 and 19371937,, respectively,respectively, justjust before the Second World War.before the Second World War. 47

Kütahya mines started in the period of the Second World War and

Kütahya mines started in the period of the Second World War and with obligatory work with obligatory work (mükellefiyet)(mükellefiyet) with the National Protection Law. with the National Protection Law.

42 Nacar, “Our Lives Were NNacar, “Our Lives Were Not as Valuable as an Animal,”147.ot as Valuable as an Animal,”147.

43 Tuğrul Erkin, “Türkiye Kömür Madenciliği ve Geleceği.” Bilimsel Madencilik Dergisi 8, Tuğrul Erkin, “Türkiye Kömür Madenciliği ve Geleceği.” Bilimsel Madencilik Dergisi 8, no. 1 (Şubat 1969):31.no. 1 (Şubat 1969):31.

44 Madenlerde ücretli çalışma yükümlülüğünün kaldırılması bir uyum sürecinin ardından Madenlerde ücretli çalışma yükümlülüğünün kaldırılması bir uyum sürecinin ardından Ereğli Kömür Havzası’nda KEreğli Kömür Havzası’nda K/654 ile 19 Ağustos 1946 tarihinde Garp Linyitleri İşlet-/654 ile 19 Ağustos 1946 tarihinde Garp Linyitleri İşlet-mesi’nde K/707 ile 17 Ekim 1947 tarihinde gerçekleştirilmiştir.112mesi’nde K/707 ile 17 Ekim 1947 tarihinde gerçekleştirilmiştir.112

Savaş döneminde görev yapan T.C. Hükümetleri bir yandan halkın kömür gereksinimini

Savaş döneminde görev yapan T.C. Hükümetleri bir yandan halkın kömür gereksinimini karşılamaya çalışırken, aynı zamanda diğer alanlakarşılamaya çalışırken, aynı zamanda diğer alanlarda artış gösteren kömür talebini de rda artış gösteren kömür talebini de karşılamak zorunda kalmıştır. Bu nedenle kömür tüketiminin kontrol altına alınması karşılamak zorunda kalmıştır. Bu nedenle kömür tüketiminin kontrol altına alınması kaçınılmaz olmuş ve Koordinasyon Heyeti Milli Korunma Kanunu’na dayanarak bazı ted-kaçınılmaz olmuş ve Koordinasyon Heyeti Milli Korunma Kanunu’na dayanarak bazı ted-birler almıştır.birler almıştır.

45 BCA, Kararlar Daire Başkanlığı, 30BCA, Kararlar Daire Başkanlığı, 30--1818--11--2 / 982 / 98--4444--18, 25 May 1942.18, 25 May 1942.

46 Makal, “Ameleden İşçiye,” 175. During the Mükellefiyet period, coal mines in Ereğli with Makal, “Ameleden İşçiye,” 175. During the Mükellefiyet period, coal mines in Ereğli with approximately 25 thousand employees and Kütahya with a workforce of 4 thousand were approximately 25 thousand employees and Kütahya with a workforce of 4 thousand were the most. the most.

47 Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları,” 6. Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları,” 6.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

The coal

The coal produced was 10000 tons in 1941. But a very short time after, produced was 10000 tons in 1941. But a very short time after, in 1949, it increased to 225000 tones, and in 1944, produced lignite rose in 1949, it increased to 225000 tones, and in 1944, produced lignite rose to 534000 tonesto 534000 tones..48

During this period, it was understood that those who did not want

During this period, it was understood that those who did not want to work because of the heavy workinto work because of the heavy working conditions in the mines were pun-g conditions in the mines were pun-ished with exileished with exile by by “politics“politics.”.” According to a study, in 1944, an average of According to a study, in 1944, an average of 4,552 people w4,552 people workedorked in Soma, Değirmisaz, and Tunçbilek mines in Soma, Değirmisaz, and Tunçbilek mines daildaily. y. 58.2 percent were permanent and alternate taxpayers subjected to 58.2 percent were permanent and alternate taxpayers subjected to forced laboforced labor, 27 percent were voluntary workersr, 27 percent were voluntary workers,, and 14.81 percent were and 14.81 percent were prisoners.prisoners.49

From the beginning of the coal operation in Turkey in 1829, the

From the beginning of the coal operation in Turkey in 1829, the shortage of workers was always a problem. Therefore, obligatory work shortage of workers was always a problem. Therefore, obligatory work was seen as a solutionwas seen as a solution,, and in the long run, it waand in the long run, it was thought to be successful. s thought to be successful. In the 19In the 19thth century, it was implied in Zonguldak with century, it was implied in Zonguldak with Dilaver Pasha Ni-Dilaver Pasha Ni-zamnamesizamnamesi and implied the second time during the Second World War, and implied the second time during the Second World War, which which labor historians mostly studiedlabor historians mostly studied..50 Also, in the Aegean Lignite dur-Also, in the Aegean Lignite dur-ing the war, soldiering the war, soldiers and prisoners were forced to work as a workforce in s and prisoners were forced to work as a workforce in the region and had special rules.the region and had special rules.51 Ali Sipahi also mentionAli Sipahi also mentionss prisoners prisoners workers in the mines in his article Convict Labor in Turkey, 1936workers in the mines in his article Convict Labor in Turkey, 1936--1953: 1953: A Capitalist Corporation in the State.A Capitalist Corporation in the State.52

48 Reşat İzbırak, “Türkiye'de Madencilik.” Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve TarihReşat İzbırak, “Türkiye'de Madencilik.” Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih--Coğrafya Coğrafya Fakültesi Dergisi 3, no. 2 (1945): 222.Fakültesi Dergisi 3, no. 2 (1945): 222.

49 Alev Özbil, “Türkiye'de Savaş Ekonomisi Uygulaması Olarak Milli Korunma Kanunu Alev Özbil, “Türkiye'de Savaş Ekonomisi Uygulaması Olarak Milli Korunma Kanunu (1940(1940--1946),” PhD Diss. (İstanbul Üniversitesi, 2015), 225.1946),” PhD Diss. (İstanbul Üniversitesi, 2015), 225.

50 Nacar, “Our Lives Were Not as Valuable as an Animal”; Gürboğa, “Mine Workers, the State Nacar, “Our Lives Were Not as Valuable as an Animal”; Gürboğa, “Mine Workers, the State and War.”and War.”

51 Erol Çatma, Asker İşçiler, (İstanbul, Ceylan Yayıncılık, 1998).Erol Çatma, Asker İşçiler, (İstanbul, Ceylan Yayıncılık, 1998).

52 Sipahi, “Convict Labor in TurkeSipahi, “Convict Labor in Turkey, 1936y, 1936––1953,” 246.1953,” 246.

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§ 2.42.4 PostPost--War Period: PlaWar Period: Planned Periodnned Period

After the Second World War, with Bretton Woods system, Keynes-

After the Second World War, with Bretton Woods system, Keynes-ian policies were implemented.ian policies were implemented.53 This period in the postThis period in the post--war era was war era was called a golden age by French scholars.called a golden age by French scholars. 54 In this period, the population In this period, the population increased, and inner migration increased, and inner migration started instarted in Turkey.Turkey.

What we see in this period is that the mines belong to the state with

What we see in this period is that the mines belong to the state with social facilities. Although the mining areas had good facilities and work-social facilities. Although the mining areas had good facilities and work-ers’ rights were more established as a result of the new constitution, it ers’ rights were more established as a result of the new constitution, it was still challenging to find was still challenging to find workers. The biggest problem in this period workers. The biggest problem in this period was the turnover rates were too high. The reason for that was that immi-was the turnover rates were too high. The reason for that was that immi-grants were coming to coal pits by leaving their families in their villages, grants were coming to coal pits by leaving their families in their villages, and in the period of harvesting, they were going back to their vand in the period of harvesting, they were going back to their villages.illages.55 Keyder highlights that;Keyder highlights that;

Semi

Semi--proletarianization rather than full proletarianization was proletarianization rather than full proletarianization was the norm in Turkey in the postthe norm in Turkey in the post--war period. Both in the develop-war period. Both in the develop-mental era and its aftermath during globalization, agrarian trans-mental era and its aftermath during globalization, agrarian trans-formations have brought about tformations have brought about the formation of semihe formation of semi--proletarianproletarian-- ized households with significant ties to the rural areas. The nature ized households with significant ties to the rural areas. The nature of the commodity markets (particularly land) in urban areas and of the commodity markets (particularly land) in urban areas and the predominance of informal work relations contributed to this the predominance of informal work relations contributed to this outcome.outcome.56

53 Zafer Toprak, Türkiye’nin Ekonomik Gelişimi 1923Zafer Toprak, Türkiye’nin Ekonomik Gelişimi 1923--2018,” in Modern Türkiye Tarihi, ed. 2018,” in Modern Türkiye Tarihi, ed. Ahmet Şimşek, 240Ahmet Şimşek, 240--258, (Ankara: Pegem Akademi, 2019), 246.258, (Ankara: Pegem Akademi, 2019), 246.

54 Zafer Toprak, “Modernite ve Türkiye’de İşçi Sınıfının Doğuşu.” Toplumsal TarihZafer Toprak, “Modernite ve Türkiye’de İşçi Sınıfının Doğuşu.” Toplumsal Tarih 275 275 (2016): 50(2016): 50––53.53. 53.53.

55 Erol Çatma were saying it for Black Sea Region miners. Çatma, “Asker İşçiler.”Erol Çatma were saying it for Black Sea Region miners. Çatma, “Asker İşçiler.”

56 Çağlar Keyder, and Zafer Yenal. “Agrarian Transformation, Labor Supplies, and Proletari-Çağlar Keyder, and Zafer Yenal. “Agrarian Transformation, Labor Supplies, and Proletari-anization Processes in Turkey: A Historical Overview.” Journalanization Processes in Turkey: A Historical Overview.” Journal für Entwicklungspolitik 27 für Entwicklungspolitik 27 (2011): 44(2011): 44––71.71.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

In the field of

In the field of Soma, it was the same. The most prominent solution for Soma, it was the same. The most prominent solution for decreasing turnover was social policies and social facilities among the decreasing turnover was social policies and social facilities among the mines.mines.

In the case of mining, the state wanted to keep mine workers in the

In the case of mining, the state wanted to keep mine workers in the mines. Therefore, many social services were implementmines. Therefore, many social services were implemented after the war, ed after the war, and mining companies provided accommodation facilities for miners. and mining companies provided accommodation facilities for miners. Also, flexible working was established between labor wage and subsist-Also, flexible working was established between labor wage and subsist-ence agriculture.ence agriculture.57 For instance, “300 personnel houses, a hospital with For instance, “300 personnel houses, a hospital with 30 beds, a library, cinema, cl30 beds, a library, cinema, clubhouse, guesthouse with 24 rooms, sports ubhouse, guesthouse with 24 rooms, sports courts, and a primary school was built in Soma.”courts, and a primary school was built in Soma.”58 These were the facili-These were the facili-ties which the miner’s community in these districts still knows about.ties which the miner’s community in these districts still knows about.

Similar to Soma, the state

Similar to Soma, the state--operated mine Değirmisaz was built as operated mine Değirmisaz was built as modern modern inin a very modern way to convince people to work in the mines.a very modern way to convince people to work in the mines.59 There were facilities such as houses, a There were facilities such as houses, a cinema, andcinema, and sports places, etc..sports places, etc.... Social policies were an affective component in this Keynesian period.Social policies were an affective component in this Keynesian period.

During

During this period in Soma, the this period in Soma, the criticalcritical part ofpart of the lignite mine was the lignite mine was produced by underground mining. However, surface mining became produced by underground mining. However, surface mining became sig-sig-nificnificant by the effect of the Marshall Planant by the effect of the Marshall Plan60 duringduring the period of the Dem-the period of the Dem-ocrat Party. In 1957, the state established TKİ (Turkish Coal Enterprise) ocrat Party. In 1957, the state established TKİ (Turkish Coal Enterprise) to operate lignite pits. Therefore, Soma mines shifted to TKİ from Etibank to operate lignite pits. Therefore, Soma mines shifted to TKİ from Etibank in 1957. After 1957, the increase in 1957. After 1957, the increase inin lignite extraction activities resultlignite extraction activities resulteded in rapid in rapid migration flowmigration flow61 and settlement in Somaand settlement in Soma,, like Turkey’s general like Turkey’s general migration trend that started in the 1950s. migration trend that started in the 1950s. Migration from Selimli to the Migration from Selimli to the area started in the 1960s as the elderly generation explained in my field area started in the 1960s as the elderly generation explained in my field research.research.

In the planned period, after the 1960

In the planned period, after the 1960s coup, mining was s coup, mining was anan essen-essen-tial part of the natural resources in Turkey. It gained more importance tial part of the natural resources in Turkey. It gained more importance

57 Gürboğa, “Mine Workers, the State and War.”Gürboğa, “Mine Workers, the State and War.”

58 Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları.”Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları.”

59 Biray Anıl Birer, “Türk Modernleşmesinin Erken Döneminde Oluşturulmuş bir Maden Biray Anıl Birer, “Türk Modernleşmesinin Erken Döneminde Oluşturulmuş bir Maden Kenti: DeğirmKenti: Değirmisaz.” Toplum ve Bilim 149 (2019): 77.isaz.” Toplum ve Bilim 149 (2019): 77.

60 Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means.”Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means.”

61 Arife Karadag, “Changing Environment and Urban Identity”Arife Karadag, “Changing Environment and Urban Identity”

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after the energy crisis in 1973

after the energy crisis in 1973--74. These years the production of mine 74. These years the production of mine was stable. was stable. But, after the 1980s, the mine production in Turkey increased But, after the 1980s, the mine production in Turkey increased drastically.drastically. In the following years, the production remained stable In the following years, the production remained stable again.again.62 Before the 1980s, there was a discussion about the owner of the Before the 1980s, there was a discussion about the owner of the natural resources and mines in this periodnatural resources and mines in this period. These debates were tried to . These debates were tried to be determined by laws. In 1978, during the Bülent Ecevitbe determined by laws. In 1978, during the Bülent Ecevit government pe-government pe-riod, some of the mine operations were nationalized,riod, some of the mine operations were nationalized, makingmaking him popu-him popu-lar among the mineworkers. lar among the mineworkers.

2.4.1

2.4.1 Soma in the PostSoma in the Post--War PeriodWar Period

In this period, “Turkish Coal Enterprise (TKİ) and operation of the

In this period, “Turkish Coal Enterprise (TKİ) and operation of the lignite pits of Soma was transferred from Etibank lignite pits of Soma was transferred from Etibank to TKİ.”to TKİ.”63 In this period, In this period, with with surface mining operated by the TKİsurface mining operated by the TKİ,, the production the production increased,increased, and and the deadly mine the deadly mine accidentsaccidents were were fewerfewer..64

In this period, although there were In this period, although there were mines mines were privatized in were privatized in Soma.Soma.65 Also, in Soma, miners, and locals emphasize that Also, in Soma, miners, and locals emphasize that smallsmall--scale pri-scale pri-vate companies were repeatedly opened and closed during this period.vate companies were repeatedly opened and closed during this period. The majority of mines in Soma were operated by TKİThe majority of mines in Soma were operated by TKİ in this period. At in this period. At the end of this period, because of energy crisis, the mines operated by the end of this period, because of energy crisis, the mines operated by private companies were tried tprivate companies were tried to be operated by the stateo be operated by the state. . ““In 1978, in ac-In 1978, in ac-cordance with the Law no 2172 on Mines Operated by the State, all coal cordance with the Law no 2172 on Mines Operated by the State, all coal

62 Kalaycıoğlu and Çelik, “Tunçbilek Kömür İşletmelerinde Özelleştirmenin,” 6.Kalaycıoğlu and Çelik, “Tunçbilek Kömür İşletmelerinde Özelleştirmenin,” 6.

63 Under TKİ, the first unitUnder TKİ, the first unit of the coalof the coal--fired power plant was installed, and, in a decade, it fired power plant was installed, and, in a decade, it arrived at the production of a tone in 1966. Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing arrived at the production of a tone in 1966. Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means.” 103.Means.” 103.

64 Ibid.Ibid.

65 BCA, Başbakanlık Kararlar Daire Başkanlığı 30BCA, Başbakanlık Kararlar Daire Başkanlığı 30--1818--11--2/1932/193--1919--5, 14 March 1966. 5, 14 March 1966. İşletme imtiyazı Ege Madencilik AŞ'ye verilmiş olan Manisa ilinin Dere, Arapseki ve Çam-İşletme imtiyazı Ege Madencilik AŞ'ye verilmiş olan Manisa ilinin Dere, Arapseki ve Çam-lıcadağılıcadağı--Eynez köylerinde bulunan maden kömürü sahalarının birleştirilerek aynı şirkete Eynez köylerinde bulunan maden kömürü sahalarının birleştirilerek aynı şirkete verilmesiverilmesi

BCA, Başbakanlık Kararlar Daire Başkanlığı 30

BCA, Başbakanlık Kararlar Daire Başkanlığı 30--1818--11--2/1792/179--4141--5, 14 July 5, 14 July 1964. (40 yıl 1964. (40 yıl işletme imtiyazı ege madenciliğe verilmiş. 1964 de. Manisa'nın Eynez köyünde bulunan işletme imtiyazı ege madenciliğe verilmiş. 1964 de. Manisa'nın Eynez köyünde bulunan maden kömürü işletme imtiyazının Ege Madencilik AŞ'ye verilmesi.maden kömürü işletme imtiyazının Ege Madencilik AŞ'ye verilmesi.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

pits operated by the private firms were transferred to TKİ in order to in-

pits operated by the private firms were transferred to TKİ in order to in-crease the production of domestic coal and solve the problem of supplcrease the production of domestic coal and solve the problem of supply y securitysecurity.”.” 66 TheThe mining of history of mining of history of Soma Soma has similarity and differences has similarity and differences to to the general the general mining sector development in Turkey. The produced coal mining sector development in Turkey. The produced coal is used in electricity production, industry, and housesis used in electricity production, industry, and houses,, as İsmail Ergün as İsmail Ergün emphasizes.emphasizes.67

2.4.1.1

2.4.1.1 Inner MigrationInner Migration

When

When one looks from a broader perspective, agriculture, migra-one looks from a broader perspective, agriculture, migra-tion, and mining shaped the region in this period since, in Soma most tion, and mining shaped the region in this period since, in Soma most miners were peasants coming from the countryside. Also, the labor sur-miners were peasants coming from the countryside. Also, the labor sur-plus was emerging in the country in this period. “The expandiplus was emerging in the country in this period. “The expanding use of ng use of tractors and other agricultural implements, as well as the even more tractors and other agricultural implements, as well as the even more rapid introduction of trucks for transporting people and crops, brought rapid introduction of trucks for transporting people and crops, brought about a situation of surplus labor.”about a situation of surplus labor.”68 In the general industry of Turkey, In the general industry of Turkey, the labor surplus was emerging the labor surplus was emerging and for mining sectors, the turnover and for mining sectors, the turnover rates were still the problem.rates were still the problem.

SOCIAL SECURITY, SOC

SOCIAL SECURITY, SOCIAL POLICIES, RETIREIAL POLICIES, RETIREMENTMENT

In this period

In this period, social , social policies shapedpolicies shaped miners’ motivationminers’ motivation. . After After 19461946 with the beginning of multiwith the beginning of multi--party systemparty system,, receiving the political receiving the political support support of of the masses gained importance the masses gained importance in Turkish politicsin Turkish politics. Therefore, . Therefore, populist laws were implementedpopulist laws were implemented, including those in the field of social , including those in the field of social pol-pol-icy. Firsticy. First, “, “İİhtiyarlik htiyarlik SSigortası was accepted in June 2, 1949 and it was igortası was accepted in June 2, 1949 and it was shifted to 6900 no Maluliyet, Ihtiyarlik ve shifted to 6900 no Maluliyet, Ihtiyarlik ve Olum Sigortalari Kanunu in Olum Sigortalari Kanunu in 1957. 1957. Retirement laws were also an important part of the legal changes. Retirement laws were also an important part of the legal changes.

66 Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means.”Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means.”104.104.

67 İsmail Ergün, Soma, (İzmir: NEŞAİsmail Ergün, Soma, (İzmir: NEŞA Ofset ve Ambalaj Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş., 1997), 98Ofset ve Ambalaj Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş., 1997), 98--99.99.

68 Ahmet İçduygu, İbrahim Sirkeci and İsmail Aydıngün, eds. Türkiye'de İçgöç: Türkiye'de Ahmet İçduygu, İbrahim Sirkeci and İsmail Aydıngün, eds. Türkiye'de İçgöç: Türkiye'de İçgöç, Sorunsal Alanları ve Araştırma Yöntemleri Konferansı 6İçgöç, Sorunsal Alanları ve Araştırma Yöntemleri Konferansı 6--8 Haziran 1997 Bolu8 Haziran 1997 Bolu--Gerede; Türkiye'de İçgöç ve İçGerede; Türkiye'de İçgöç ve İçgöçün İşçi Hareketine Etkisi. (İstanbul: Türkiye Ekonomik ve göçün İşçi Hareketine Etkisi. (İstanbul: Türkiye Ekonomik ve Toplumsal Tarih Vakfı, 1998).Toplumsal Tarih Vakfı, 1998).

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The retirement age was 60

The retirement age was 60,, but for hard jobs, the age would be de-but for hard jobs, the age would be de-creased.”creased.”69 After this law, the number of workers in the After this law, the number of workers in the insurance in-insurance in-creased significantly creased significantly bbetweenetween 19501950 and and 19641964..70 Law of Social Insurance Law of Social Insurance (Sosyal Sigortalar Kanunu) was accepted (Sosyal Sigortalar Kanunu) was accepted on July 17, on July 17, 1964,1964, and imple-and imple-mented in 1965,mented in 1965, the same period as the elderly generation in the field the same period as the elderly generation in the field stated that their motivation to work in the mine was the development ofstated that their motivation to work in the mine was the development of social policies. After the Second World War, the welfare state gained im-social policies. After the Second World War, the welfare state gained im-portance. For portance. For workers, socialworkers, social policiespolicies and legal changes regarding retire-and legal changes regarding retire-mentment were were significantsignificant factorsfactors shaping their decision toshaping their decision to migrate tomigrate to start start workingworking in the mine pitsin the mine pits..

§ 2.52.5 Neoliberal Neoliberal Period: Privatization PeriodPeriod: Privatization Period

The fourth period is the privatization period. This period is called

The fourth period is the privatization period. This period is called the neoliberal period. It started with Margaret Thatcher in Britain and the neoliberal period. It started with Margaret Thatcher in Britain and Reagan in the USA and with Turgut Özal in Turkey in 1980. In this period, Reagan in the USA and with Turgut Özal in Turkey in 1980. In this period, mine extractmine extraction industry was privatized, parallel to global developments. ion industry was privatized, parallel to global developments. After the 1980s, the state investment decreased, and the publicAfter the 1980s, the state investment decreased, and the public--private private or mixed structure of enterprises increased.or mixed structure of enterprises increased.

The

The “Redevance System”“Redevance System” was used in this period frequently. was used in this period frequently. “Rede-“Rede-vance vance Mechanism”Mechanism” means that the state was giving a purchasing guaran-means that the state was giving a purchasing guaran-tee to buy produced coal.tee to buy produced coal.71 The reason for that, in the 1990s, The reason for that, in the 1990s, there there was a was a sharp decrease in the investments made in the mining sector in the public sharp decrease in the investments made in the mining sector in the public sector. The crisis in the 2000s caused a decsector. The crisis in the 2000s caused a declilinne in mining production. e in mining production. Hence, in 2003, numerous mines were taken in the prHence, in 2003, numerous mines were taken in the privatization pro-ivatization pro-gramgram..72 These processes areThese processes are similar tosimilar to the developmentthe developments ins in the world, the world, which is called which is called the the “neoliberalism” period after the end of the 1970s. “neoliberalism” period after the end of the 1970s.

69 Özbek, “Cumhuriyet Türkiyesi’nde Sosyal Güvenlik,” 238.Özbek, “Cumhuriyet Türkiyesi’nde Sosyal Güvenlik,” 238.

70 Ibid, 244.Ibid, 244.

71 Adaman, Arsel, and Akbulut. “Neoliberal Developmentalism, Authoritarian Populism,” Adaman, Arsel, and Akbulut. “Neoliberal Developmentalism, Authoritarian Populism,” 525.525.

72 Kalaycıoğlu and Çelik, “Tunçbilek Kömür İşletmelerinde Özelleştirmenin,” 7.Kalaycıoğlu and Çelik, “Tunçbilek Kömür İşletmelerinde Özelleştirmenin,” 7.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

This period was

This period was alsoalso thethe period of rural transformation, which led period of rural transformation, which led to the flow of the peasants to urbanized areas. Hobsbawm remarked to the flow of the peasants to urbanized areas. Hobsbawm remarked on on this period in his book; “this period in his book; “Age of extremes: the short twentieth century, Age of extremes: the short twentieth century, 19141914--19911991” in 1995 as the following: “Only one peasant stronghold re-” in 1995 as the following: “Only one peasant stronghold re-mainmained in or around the neighborhood of Europe and the Middle East ed in or around the neighborhood of Europe and the Middle East ––Turkey where the peasantry declined, but in the 1980s, remained Turkey where the peasantry declined, but in the 1980s, remained the the ab-ab-solute majority.”solute majority.”73 However,However, today, in 2020today, in 2020,, it is difficult to say that Tur-it is difficult to say that Tur-key is a peasant countrykey is a peasant country.. Turkey has urbanized Turkey has urbanized and depeasantized after and depeasantized after he published the book. The reason for losing the validity of this sentence he published the book. The reason for losing the validity of this sentence is inner migration in Turkey. When it is regarded as the trend of rural and is inner migration in Turkey. When it is regarded as the trend of rural and urban populationsurban populations,, in the 1950s, 75% of the population in the 1950s, 75% of the population livedlived in the coun-in the coun-tryside. tryside. In the 1970s, the rural population constituted 62%In the 1970s, the rural population constituted 62%74 of the total of the total populationpopulation,, and in the 2000s, the rural population declined to 38.5%.and in the 2000s, the rural population declined to 38.5%.75 There are conflicts about the rural population after 2007 because the vil-There are conflicts about the rural population after 2007 because the vil-lages were made as quarter of the metropolitan lages were made as quarter of the metropolitan municipalities. In this municipalities. In this way, way, iin 2020, the rural population n 2020, the rural population seemed seemed remainremaineded only 7.7% of the to-only 7.7% of the to-taltal 76 as well as TÜİK records, the rural population declined from 22,72% as well as TÜİK records, the rural population declined from 22,72% to 8,65%to 8,65% in 2013.in 2013.77 Although the municipality laws, the migration from Although the municipality laws, the migration from rural to urban in Turkey is the reality.rural to urban in Turkey is the reality. This population trend shows that This population trend shows that the rapid inner migration flow to the urbanized areas started in Turkey the rapid inner migration flow to the urbanized areas started in Turkey after 1950, the latest urbanization in the European regionafter 1950, the latest urbanization in the European region since the peas-since the peas-antry discourse of Early Republicans.antry discourse of Early Republicans.78

73 Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914--1991 (London: 1991 (London: Abacus, 1995), 338Abacus, 1995), 338--339.339.

74 Okan Ceylan, “The Transformation of Agricultural Structures through GovOkan Ceylan, “The Transformation of Agricultural Structures through Government Poli-ernment Poli-cies in Edirne Province between 1939 and 1960.” Unpublished MA Thesis. (Boğaziçi Uni-cies in Edirne Province between 1939 and 1960.” Unpublished MA Thesis. (Boğaziçi Uni-versity, 2015), 140.versity, 2015), 140.

75 Ibid.Ibid.

76 It is also related to Metropolitan Municipalities that villages in the metropolitan munic-It is also related to Metropolitan Municipalities that villages in the metropolitan munic-ipalities accepted as District no a villipalities accepted as District no a village after 2012, but still, villages are less than 20 %.age after 2012, but still, villages are less than 20 %.

77 TÜİKTÜİK

78 M. Asım Karaömerlioğlu, “Agrarian Populism as an Ideological Discourse of Interwar Eu-M. Asım Karaömerlioğlu, “Agrarian Populism as an Ideological Discourse of Interwar Eu-rope,” New Perspectives on Turkey 26 (2002): 59rope,” New Perspectives on Turkey 26 (2002): 59––93, doi:10.1017/s089663460093, doi:10.1017/s089663460000371x.00371x.

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2.5.1

2.5.1 20012001--2020 Period2020 Period

After the 2001 economic crisis, the mines started to be liberalized

After the 2001 economic crisis, the mines started to be liberalized, , which continued excessively in the AKP government periodwhich continued excessively in the AKP government period,, similar to the similar to the world's neoliberal trenworld's neoliberal trend. Tamzok explains d. Tamzok explains this period in the following this period in the following sentences:sentences:

TKİ was quite limited given that the budget necessary for new in-

TKİ was quite limited given that the budget necessary for new in-vestment capacity could not be allocated, there was no available vestment capacity could not be allocated, there was no available external credit, and external credit, and the the employment of new personnel was not al-employment of new personnel was not al-lowed. Therefore, TKİ’s lowed. Therefore, TKİ’s cost of production rose dramaticallycost of production rose dramatically,, and and TKİ started to transfer TKİ started to transfer specificspecific tasks to the private sector. In 2001, tasks to the private sector. In 2001, according to the development plan prepared by TKİ, the expected according to the development plan prepared by TKİ, the expected amount of marketable coal production from amount of marketable coal production from the the Soma basin was Soma basin was determined as 10.6determined as 10.6 million tons.million tons.79

During the AKP period, in Soma, the number of miners and imm

During the AKP period, in Soma, the number of miners and immiigration gration to the area increased. Çelik stated in her thesis that into the area increased. Çelik stated in her thesis that in SomaSoma,, “as under-“as under-ground mining has quite a laborground mining has quite a labor--intensive production process, from 2004 intensive production process, from 2004 onwards the number of mineonwards the number of miners has increased significantly.”rs has increased significantly.”80

For Soma mine workers, this period became essential to change

For Soma mine workers, this period became essential to change their lives for retired miners and those who still work. This period was their lives for retired miners and those who still work. This period was shaped by the economic crisis in 2001 and then shaped by the economic crisis in 2001 and then inin the AKP period, which the AKP period, which was the effect was the effect of EU integration and ARIP, of EU integration and ARIP, the the Agricultural Reform Imple-Agricultural Reform Imple-mentation Project. Then, it was affected by the 2008 economic crisis and mentation Project. Then, it was affected by the 2008 economic crisis and 2008 Retirement Laws. 2008 Retirement Laws.

In the local Soma case, the biggest issue was privatization and the

In the local Soma case, the biggest issue was privatization and the Redevance System, and the increase Redevance System, and the increase of miners in the region and of miners in the region and economic economic crisis. crisis. Also, withAlso, with the professionalization of the the professionalization of the army, minersarmy, miners’ families be-’ families be-gan to choose to have their gan to choose to have their children joinchildren join the army instead of becoming the army instead of becoming mineworkers. mineworkers.

79 Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları.”Tamzok, “Türkiye Madencilik Sektöründe Yapısal Dönüşüm ve Sonuçları.”

80 Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means.”Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means.”

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

Another most effective issue in this period and the reason for this

Another most effective issue in this period and the reason for this thesis writing was the 2014 accident that thesis writing was the 2014 accident that ledled to the deaths of 301 miners. to the deaths of 301 miners. The accident affected not only the life of 301 miners and their families The accident affected not only the life of 301 miners and their families but also the society and remaining mine but also the society and remaining mine workers especially in Soma, workers especially in Soma, which made the Parliament and ILO (International Labor Organization) which made the Parliament and ILO (International Labor Organization) to make a new law. The laws changed miners’ lives on paper and theory, to make a new law. The laws changed miners’ lives on paper and theory, however, it is still ambiguous whether their working conditions im-however, it is still ambiguous whether their working conditions im-proved in terms of worproved in terms of work safety. But what is sure is that the income of min-k safety. But what is sure is that the income of min-ers increased as a result of the law that “their salary might not be less ers increased as a result of the law that “their salary might not be less than two minimum wages” and their weekly holiday increased to two than two minimum wages” and their weekly holiday increased to two days and the retirement age was reduced to 50 from 55 and it is days and the retirement age was reduced to 50 from 55 and it is possible possible to retired at the age of 43, for those who have 7.200 days working days. to retired at the age of 43, for those who have 7.200 days working days. As I observed in my research, these changes constituted the principal rea-As I observed in my research, these changes constituted the principal rea-sons for considering working in the mines as advantageous sons for considering working in the mines as advantageous and in-and in-creasedcreased the desire to work in mining.the desire to work in mining.

§ 2.62.6 ConclusionConclusion

This chapter provided a brief overview of the historical back-

This chapter provided a brief overview of the historical back-ground of mining. This chapter argued that the mining development in ground of mining. This chapter argued that the mining development in Turkey might be summarized and categorized into four periods: foreign Turkey might be summarized and categorized into four periods: foreign capital, nationalized, planned and privaticapital, nationalized, planned and privatization periods. In this chapter, I zation periods. In this chapter, I tried to explain the similarities of the national mining history in Turkey tried to explain the similarities of the national mining history in Turkey in relation to global developments. In addition, I discussed how the local in relation to global developments. In addition, I discussed how the local mines in Soma and Kütahya fit in this general periodization of mining imines in Soma and Kütahya fit in this general periodization of mining in n Turkey. Turkey.

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Figuigurre e 11..11 Lignite Reserve Map of TurkeyLignite Reserve Map of Turkey81

81 http://www.mta.gov.tr/v2.0/dairehttp://www.mta.gov.tr/v2.0/daire--baskanliklari/enerji/images/siteharitalar/4.jpgbaskanliklari/enerji/images/siteharitalar/4.jpg

3THE FIELD:THE FIELD: Selimli, Soma and CenkyeriSelimli, Soma and Cenkyeri

n chapter two, the historical background of the mining sector has been

n chapter two, the historical background of the mining sector has been explained based on academic explained based on academic researches and archival resources. In researches and archival resources. In this chapter, I will be explainingthis chapter, I will be explaining thethe researchresearcheded fieldfield sites.sites.

§ 3.13.1 The Portrait of Selimli: a Village in the PeripheryThe Portrait of Selimli: a Village in the Periphery

One of the main arguments of this thesis is that the peripheral sta-

One of the main arguments of this thesis is that the peripheral sta-tus of Selimli is a major factor fortus of Selimli is a major factor for the peasant farmers’ community to mi-the peasant farmers’ community to mi-grate to Soma mine pits and become mine workers. This peripheral sta-grate to Soma mine pits and become mine workers. This peripheral sta-tus shapestus shapes the the mining community’s perception mining community’s perception of of their work. Selimli’s their work. Selimli’s peripheral status is defined by geographyperipheral status is defined by geography1, including natural environ-, including natural environ-ment, climatment, climate, e, location,location, and distance to city centers but also political pref-and distance to city centers but also political pref-erences which historically deprived the region of infrastructure. erences which historically deprived the region of infrastructure.

In other words, distance to city centers decreases the chance to ac-

In other words, distance to city centers decreases the chance to ac-cess the government facilities like hospitals, schools, acess the government facilities like hospitals, schools, and public transpor-nd public transpor-tation. Yet, this inability to access public facilities shall not be seen as a tation. Yet, this inability to access public facilities shall not be seen as a “natural” constraint merely following from the geographic status of “natural” constraint merely following from the geographic status of Selimli as a mountain village. Instead, the peripheral status of Selimli is Selimli as a mountain village. Instead, the peripheral status of Selimli is also linked toalso linked to political decisions which historically deprived this rural political decisions which historically deprived this rural

1 These ideas were inspired by Ibn Khaldun and inspired by the Annales School ideas and These ideas were inspired by Ibn Khaldun and inspired by the Annales School ideas and their highlight on geography for historiography. One of the key figures of Annales Schotheir highlight on geography for historiography. One of the key figures of Annales School, ol, Fernand Braudel emphasizes the importance of geography to shape the lives of humans. Fernand Braudel emphasizes the importance of geography to shape the lives of humans.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

area from government investment. In other words, the lack of public in-

area from government investment. In other words, the lack of public in-frastructure in this region also defines the peripheral status of the village. frastructure in this region also defines the peripheral status of the village.

Given this lack of infrastructure including ro

Given this lack of infrastructure including roads, Selimli’s relation ads, Selimli’s relation to the market was limited and barter economy was used in the village to the market was limited and barter economy was used in the village until the 2000s. The village’s peripheral status did not allow peasants to until the 2000s. The village’s peripheral status did not allow peasants to sell their products to districts and centers. These dynamics pushed the sell their products to districts and centers. These dynamics pushed the peasant communpeasant community of Selimli to become a mining community as well.ity of Selimli to become a mining community as well. Research on villages has shown that every village is different from each Research on villages has shown that every village is different from each other.other.2 For villages, it is difficult to generalize because of their unique sit-For villages, it is difficult to generalize because of their unique sit-uations. In what follows, I outline the village of uations. In what follows, I outline the village of Selimli’s specific charac-Selimli’s specific charac-teristics. teristics.

Selimli is a mountain village where most first

Selimli is a mountain village where most first--generation and sec-generation and sec-ondond--generation mine workers and their families are located. It has re-generation mine workers and their families are located. It has re-mained in the periphery and far away from city centers. Selimli is in the mained in the periphery and far away from city centers. Selimli is in the midmid--zone ofzone of Bursa, Balıkesir, and Kütahya. The village administratively Bursa, Balıkesir, and Kütahya. The village administratively belongs to Kütahya and the distance to the city center of Kütahya is 110 belongs to Kütahya and the distance to the city center of Kütahya is 110 km, while it is 210 km away from Soma. The village is on the border of km, while it is 210 km away from Soma. The village is on the border of Balıkesir, but the natural environment, Balıkesir, but the natural environment, and and mountaimountainsns3 cause poor trans-cause poor trans-portation to Balıkesir.portation to Balıkesir.

3.1.1.1

3.1.1.1 TransportationTransportation

Braudel says “distance is the first enemy”

Braudel says “distance is the first enemy”4 in his famous book the in his famous book the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip IIMediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Distance affect villagers’ life . Distance affect villagers’ life in Selimli and their connection to the world. In addition, the poor public in Selimli and their connection to the world. In addition, the poor public transportation system hinders their lives further. transportation system hinders their lives further.

There is only three times public transportation in a week from the

There is only three times public transportation in a week from the village to the districts. Ovillage to the districts. On Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, n Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, minibusesminibuses go to Simav or Tavşanlı, which are two districts of Kütahya, at 7:00 in the go to Simav or Tavşanlı, which are two districts of Kütahya, at 7:00 in the morning and return to the village at 5:00 p.m. Apart from these times, it morning and return to the village at 5:00 p.m. Apart from these times, it

2 Keyder and Yenal, “Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu,” 53.Keyder and Yenal, “Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu,” 53.

3 The mountains of the area reminded me of Stirling’s sentence; “Turkey is almost all moun-The mountains of the area reminded me of Stirling’s sentence; “Turkey is almost all moun-tains.” Paul Stirling, Tutains.” Paul Stirling, Turkish Village (New York: John Willey and Sons, Inc., 1966), 14.rkish Village (New York: John Willey and Sons, Inc., 1966), 14.

4 Braudel, “The Mediterranean,” 355.Braudel, “The Mediterranean,” 355.

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is not possible to find public transport to the village. Dis

is not possible to find public transport to the village. Distance and trans-tance and trans-portation also posed troubles in my field research. It was difficult to go to portation also posed troubles in my field research. It was difficult to go to the village whenever it was needed due to lack of public transportation.the village whenever it was needed due to lack of public transportation.5

3.1.1.2

3.1.1.2 SettlementSettlement

The settlement in the village is a collective settlement.

The settlement in the village is a collective settlement. The houses The houses have mainhave mainly two floors. On the ground floor, there is a place for animals ly two floors. On the ground floor, there is a place for animals and machines such as tractors, cars, and harvesters. The first floor is the and machines such as tractors, cars, and harvesters. The first floor is the living area for the household. Houses have heaters, TV satellites, and so-living area for the household. Houses have heaters, TV satellites, and so-lar energy systems. There are also a few llar energy systems. There are also a few long apartmentong apartment--style houses that style houses that are colorful, but they were constructed by mine workers who went to are colorful, but they were constructed by mine workers who went to Germany to work in the late 1960s.Germany to work in the late 1960s.

The number of houses in the village is about 70 and the population

The number of houses in the village is about 70 and the population of the village was 107 in 2020. The population that miof the village was 107 in 2020. The population that migrated to Soma is grated to Soma is over 500, as headman and peasants declared. There are no newborn ba-over 500, as headman and peasants declared. There are no newborn ba-bies and there are no children younger than ten years old except those bies and there are no children younger than ten years old except those women who come back to the village with their children after divorce. women who come back to the village with their children after divorce. The following quotation from HThe following quotation from Hatice (55) shows the village’s situation: atice (55) shows the village’s situation: “Two years ago a baby was born, and the baby was “Two years ago a baby was born, and the baby was crying,crying, and we said to and we said to the baby’s mother, do not stop your child crying, the village misses the the baby’s mother, do not stop your child crying, the village misses the baby voice.” Many of the peasant farmers in the village are elderly, baby voice.” Many of the peasant farmers in the village are elderly, the the only exception is young widow women and disabled people. Most of the only exception is young widow women and disabled people. Most of the people in the village live alone in their home. The village seems like a der-people in the village live alone in their home. The village seems like a der-elict village.elict village.

3.1.1.3

3.1.1.3 The Region: GüzelyurtThe Region: Güzelyurt

In the surrounding region, Selimli is not the only derelict village

In the surrounding region, Selimli is not the only derelict village chcharacterized by its peripheral status.aracterized by its peripheral status. The region is named Güzelyurt, The region is named Güzelyurt, while itwhile it was called Dağardıwas called Dağardı (behind the mountain in Turkish) (behind the mountain in Turkish) in the past. in the past.

5 İbrahim Yasa in his book of Hasanoğlan Köyü written in 1955 says that villages change İbrahim Yasa in his book of Hasanoğlan Köyü written in 1955 says that villages change with the improvement of transportation. However, for the Selimli viwith the improvement of transportation. However, for the Selimli village, the change is llage, the change is slower, and the transportation system has not developed, and it is like it was in 1955. slower, and the transportation system has not developed, and it is like it was in 1955. İbrahim Yasa, Hasanoğlan Köyü (Ankara: Doğuş Matbaası, 1955).İbrahim Yasa, Hasanoğlan Köyü (Ankara: Doğuş Matbaası, 1955).

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

It is claimed that the name of Dağardı has been changed because the civil

It is claimed that the name of Dağardı has been changed because the civil servants, teachers, and doctors have noservants, teachers, and doctors have not preferred when they saw the t preferred when they saw the name Dağardı Güzelyurt region is composed of a minimum of 30 villages name Dağardı Güzelyurt region is composed of a minimum of 30 villages that have similar characteristics to Selimli. The region provides the labor that have similar characteristics to Selimli. The region provides the labor suppliers of mines in Soma, Kütahya, Balıkesir, Bursa, the Black Sea re-suppliers of mines in Soma, Kütahya, Balıkesir, Bursa, the Black Sea re-gion, andgion, and overseas Germany. overseas Germany.

The Güzelyurt region is located among the Bursa, Selimli, and

The Güzelyurt region is located among the Bursa, Selimli, and BalBalııkesir, close to the mine pits of Odaköy, Tunçbilek, Seyitömer, kesir, close to the mine pits of Odaköy, Tunçbilek, Seyitömer, Değirmisaz and Balya. Every village in the region has about 60 Değirmisaz and Balya. Every village in the region has about 60 --70 houses 70 houses and many elderly men in the villaand many elderly men in the villages are mostly retired from the mining ges are mostly retired from the mining sector. Apart from them, the villages are inhabited deceased miners’ sector. Apart from them, the villages are inhabited deceased miners’ wives, widow women as in Selimli. The population of the villages contin-wives, widow women as in Selimli. The population of the villages contin-ues to decline drastically. The houses are similar to Selimli’s homes. They ues to decline drastically. The houses are similar to Selimli’s homes. They hhave two flats. On the ground floor, animals and machines are located and ave two flats. On the ground floor, animals and machines are located and the first floor is the living area for the people. Colorful apartmentthe first floor is the living area for the people. Colorful apartment--style style houses were made by Turkishhouses were made by Turkish--German mine workers. Hence, in the Güze-German mine workers. Hence, in the Güze-lyurt region, the settlement, populationlyurt region, the settlement, population, culture and homes are similar to , culture and homes are similar to each other in different villages.each other in different villages.

Güzelyurt is

Güzelyurt is a a center villagcenter village e surrounded by 30 small villagessurrounded by 30 small villages in this in this regionregion. Güzelyurt was one of the . Güzelyurt was one of the nahiyenahiye centers in the past until the centers in the past until the 1970s. 1970s. Cevdet YılmazCevdet Yılmaz defined nahiye as the administrative unit where a defined nahiye as the administrative unit where a village at approximately equal distance to those villages is selected to en-village at approximately equal distance to those villages is selected to en-sure the safety and respond to the needs of the regionsure the safety and respond to the needs of the region. . AAll nahiyell nahiyess had had about ten soldiers for safety.about ten soldiers for safety.6 Some of nahiye lost their Some of nahiye lost their importance in importance in time and finally, they were removed from the administrative chain and time and finally, they were removed from the administrative chain and their existence ended.their existence ended.7 Hence, in the region, while the nahiye administra-Hence, in the region, while the nahiye administra-tive ended, public facilities including the health center, military and the tive ended, public facilities including the health center, military and the school have been locateschool have been located in Güzelyurt because of it is role in the past. In d in Güzelyurt because of it is role in the past. In every village, there are only fiveevery village, there are only five--six six children,children, and they attend the Güze-and they attend the Güze-lyurt Primary School by commuting to school by minibuses. Many mini-lyurt Primary School by commuting to school by minibuses. Many mini-bus drivers also retired mineworkers.bus drivers also retired mineworkers.

6 Cevdet Yılmaz, “Türkiye Kırsal Yerleşme Coğrafyası Literatürü’.” Türkiye AraştırmalCevdet Yılmaz, “Türkiye Kırsal Yerleşme Coğrafyası Literatürü’.” Türkiye Araştırmaları Lit-arı Lit-eratür Dergisi 17 (2019): 526.eratür Dergisi 17 (2019): 526.

7 Ibid., 527.Ibid., 527.

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3.1.1.4

3.1.1.4 Arrival in Arrival in the Villagethe Village

In the first part of field research, I went to Selimli with my wife and the first part of field research, I went to Selimli with my wife and my cousin by renting a car. Since I have relations through my parents, my my cousin by renting a car. Since I have relations through my parents, my access to the village and interviewees was easy. My cousin had come to access to the village and interviewees was easy. My cousin had come to the village fifteen years ago, and I had the village fifteen years ago, and I had visited Selimli two years ago, while visited Selimli two years ago, while my wife was coming for the first time.my wife was coming for the first time.8 The people of the village remem-The people of the village remem-bered me because of my family background, and I remembered some of bered me because of my family background, and I remembered some of them as well. My cousin did not remember anybody from the village, but them as well. My cousin did not remember anybody from the village, but villagers villagers remembered him although it had been 15 years since they had remembered him although it had been 15 years since they had seen him. This surprised us. Their remembrance shows us the power of seen him. This surprised us. Their remembrance shows us the power of the local knowledge and local memory in a village. the local knowledge and local memory in a village.

My first gatekeeper and sponsorMy first gatekeeper and sponsor9 was one imam who had worked was one imam who had worked in this villain this village and told the peasants about my plans to conduct research ge and told the peasants about my plans to conduct research in the village. in the village. Gatekeeper and sponsor is “the person who act as hosts Gatekeeper and sponsor is “the person who act as hosts the research” and provides access points for the research.the research” and provides access points for the research.10 Also, I talked Also, I talked to the village headman and with an elderly councito the village headman and with an elderly council member called as aza, l member called as aza, who also told the villagers about my research. I chose these people as my who also told the villagers about my research. I chose these people as my gatekeepers and sponsors because they have authority in the village.gatekeepers and sponsors because they have authority in the village.

When we entered the village, we found ourselves by the mosque,

When we entered the village, we found ourselves by the mosque, and the office of the and the office of the village headman,village headman, which are in the center of the vil-which are in the center of the vil-lage. The villagers welcomed us. lage. The villagers welcomed us. When we arrived at the village and the When we arrived at the village and the villagers were building a wall in the village square under the control ofvillagers were building a wall in the village square under the control of

8 In the case of my wife, I had thought that her presence would make my job easier since In the case of my wife, I had thought that her presence would make my job easier since she could more easily conduct interviews with women. However, because of their Aegean she could more easily conduct interviews with women. However, because of their Aegean accents, my wife could not coaccents, my wife could not communicate well enough with villager women to conduct in-mmunicate well enough with villager women to conduct in-terviews. This has shown us how challenging it is to make rural study research. terviews. This has shown us how challenging it is to make rural study research.

9 “Seeking the permission of gatekeepers or the support of sponsors is often an unavoida-“Seeking the permission of gatekeepers or the support of sponsors is often an unavoida-ble first step in gaining accessble first step in gaining access to the data. Furthermore, the relationships established with to the data. Furthermore, the relationships established with such people can have important consequences for the subsequent course of the research.” such people can have important consequences for the subsequent course of the research.” Martyn Hammersley and Paul Atkinson, Ethnography: Principles in Practice.Martyn Hammersley and Paul Atkinson, Ethnography: Principles in Practice. 5858..

10 Ibid.Ibid.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

village headmanvillage headman which reminded mewhich reminded me corvéecorvée of 19of 19thth centurycentury..11 Mübeccel Mübeccel Kıray mentions in her book on Ereğli that the traders and the headman Kıray mentions in her book on Ereğli that the traders and the headman have power over the peasanthave power over the peasant--minersminers. . In Selimli, the headman and trader In Selimli, the headman and trader are the same people, which increases even further the authority they are the same people, which increases even further the authority they have on villagers. Also, the imams anhave on villagers. Also, the imams and teachers as more educated people d teachers as more educated people have authority over the villagers and they represent religious and, state have authority over the villagers and they represent religious and, state authority in Selimli. The buildings that welcomed us upon our arrival in authority in Selimli. The buildings that welcomed us upon our arrival in the village, the mosque, and the office of the headman which was used as the village, the mosque, and the office of the headman which was used as aa school in the past symbolize these power relations in the village.school in the past symbolize these power relations in the village.

As already stated, the peripheral status of Selimli hindered the vil-

As already stated, the peripheral status of Selimli hindered the vil-lage’s sociolage’s socio--economic relations with the outside world. This situation economic relations with the outside world. This situation was also reflected in a story which villagers oftwas also reflected in a story which villagers often told to me throughout en told to me throughout my field research. Through this story which I shall call “Neslihan’s Burn-my field research. Through this story which I shall call “Neslihan’s Burn-ing Little Papers” story, villagers persistently expressed that they did not ing Little Papers” story, villagers persistently expressed that they did not use money in the village until recently and that the increase of cash de-use money in the village until recently and that the increase of cash de-pendencypendency recently forced them to migrate. The story of Neslihan is one of recently forced them to migrate. The story of Neslihan is one of the best examples that shows the village’s condition, its relation with the the best examples that shows the village’s condition, its relation with the world, and the life of peasants in the 1960s.world, and the life of peasants in the 1960s.

Neslihan was born in 1936. She lost her family at a very young age.

Neslihan was born in 1936. She lost her family at a very young age. When she married Süleyman, When she married Süleyman, sshe looked after her fatherhe looked after her father--inin--law and did law and did not have a mothernot have a mother--inin--law. She weaved carpets. Neslihan lost her first law. She weaved carpets. Neslihan lost her first child in 1996 in the Soma mine. In 1997, she lost her sonchild in 1996 in the Soma mine. In 1997, she lost her son--inin--law in law in Değirmisaz in an underground mine. In 2008, her Değirmisaz in an underground mine. In 2008, her son died in the Soma son died in the Soma mine. In 2014, her oldest grandchild survived by chance the mine acci-mine. In 2014, her oldest grandchild survived by chance the mine acci-dent in Soma. Despite the loss of her two sons in the mines, she got angry dent in Soma. Despite the loss of her two sons in the mines, she got angry with her little grandchild because he did not accept to work in the under-with her little grandchild because he did not accept to work in the under-ground mines. In ground mines. In 2015, she moved to Soma because of her illness, and 2015, she moved to Soma because of her illness, and she died there in 2016. The story told below is from 1969.she died there in 2016. The story told below is from 1969.

11 Corvée is obliged to people to work, it was banned in the 19th centuryCorvée is obliged to people to work, it was banned in the 19th century by The Constitu-by The Constitu-tion of the Ottoman Empire (Kanuntion of the Ottoman Empire (Kanun--ı Esasi). However, in 2019, it reminds me corvée of the ı Esasi). However, in 2019, it reminds me corvée of the 19th century in the village which made me think about the power of state authority in the 19th century in the village which made me think about the power of state authority in the village.village.

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THE PORTRAIT OF THE

THE PORTRAIT OF THE VILLAGE IN THE 1960SVILLAGE IN THE 1960S: NESLIHAN’S STORY F: NESLIHAN’S STORY FROM ROM 1969: BURNING LITTLE1969: BURNING LITTLE PAPERSPAPERS

Neslihan woke up early in the morning.

Neslihan woke up early in the morning. She firstly took care of She firstly took care of their animals; two cows, and five sheep. She and her husband their animals; two cows, and five sheep. She and her husband Süleyman did animal husbandry for themselves. She milked the Süleyman did animal husbandry for themselves. She milked the cows and fed the animals. Then, she prepared breakfast for her cows and fed the animals. Then, she prepared breakfast for her husband, children and her fatherhusband, children and her father--inin--law. Afterlaw. Afterwards, she went to wards, she went to the farm with the animals and children. the farm with the animals and children. TheyThey were doing subsist-were doing subsist-ence agriculture. After ence agriculture. After spending timespending time on the farm, she came back on the farm, she came back home to prepare dinner for the family. Husbandry and farming home to prepare dinner for the family. Husbandry and farming took most of the day since agriculture and animatook most of the day since agriculture and animal husbandry were l husbandry were the main source of their livelihood. Also, they used the main source of their livelihood. Also, they used the animalthe animal products and what they got from the harvest for barter.products and what they got from the harvest for barter.

When Neslihan came back home from the farm, she was tired. But

When Neslihan came back home from the farm, she was tired. But Neslihan needed to milk the cows and prepare dinner for Neslihan needed to milk the cows and prepare dinner for her hus-her hus-band and children. To cook, she needed to light the stove. Neslihan band and children. To cook, she needed to light the stove. Neslihan used the old newspaper pieces in the cupboard to light the stove. used the old newspaper pieces in the cupboard to light the stove. She saw little papers in the newspaper which burned very well She saw little papers in the newspaper which burned very well but she could not understand what they were. Then, sbut she could not understand what they were. Then, she prepared he prepared their family dinner and waited for her husband to come back from their family dinner and waited for her husband to come back from the mill.the mill. In the evening, Neslihan’s husband Süleyman came In the evening, Neslihan’s husband Süleyman came home,home, and they had dinner together. After the dinner, Süleyman asked and they had dinner together. After the dinner, Süleyman asked where the money was… Neslihan responded she did notwhere the money was… Neslihan responded she did not see the see the money. Then, Süleyman asked where the newspaper was, and he money. Then, Süleyman asked where the newspaper was, and he got very angry when Neslihan told him that she burned them in got very angry when Neslihan told him that she burned them in the stove.the stove. Then, Süleyman beat his wife Neslihan because she did Then, Süleyman beat his wife Neslihan because she did not understand that those little papers were money.not understand that those little papers were money.

Neslihan

Neslihan did not know about money that much since in the village did not know about money that much since in the village she gave eggs to the grocery store to buy what she needed. She she gave eggs to the grocery store to buy what she needed. She gave wheat to get gave wheat to get flour, sunflowerflour, sunflower to to get oilget oil, and milk to , and milk to get otherget other stuff. Money usage was not common in the village those days.stuff. Money usage was not common in the village those days.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

Neslih

Neslihan did not have literacy; she could read the numbers and an did not have literacy; she could read the numbers and notes on the money. She could not read and compare the prices of notes on the money. She could not read and compare the prices of goods in the grocery store which was the only one in the village. goods in the grocery store which was the only one in the village. But she knew how much wheat she should give for one sack of But she knew how much wheat she should give for one sack of flour.flour.

Neslihan’s story tells many things about the life of peasants of Selimli eslihan’s story tells many things about the life of peasants of Selimli in the 1960s: subsistence agriculture and animal husbandry, barter in the 1960s: subsistence agriculture and animal husbandry, barter economy, illiteracy, gender roles, and the daily lives of peasants in a economy, illiteracy, gender roles, and the daily lives of peasants in a village which was not integrated into regionavillage which was not integrated into regional and world markets.l and world markets. As As Keyder and Yenal state for Ottoman Anatolia:Keyder and Yenal state for Ottoman Anatolia:

Anatolia was one part of the Ottoman Empire which had not been

Anatolia was one part of the Ottoman Empire which had not been deeply integrated into world markets. When compared with the deeply integrated into world markets. When compared with the fertile areas of the Balkans, the share of marketfertile areas of the Balkans, the share of market--oriented oriented produc-produc-tion in agriculture was meagre. The yield of the land was not high tion in agriculture was meagre. The yield of the land was not high and most producers operated within the technological constraints and most producers operated within the technological constraints of traditional family farming. Small ownership was the rule…of traditional family farming. Small ownership was the rule…12

Stories told in my field research suggested that similar

Stories told in my field research suggested that similar sociosocio--economic economic conditions were prevalent in Selimli in the 1960s and these continued conditions were prevalent in Selimli in the 1960s and these continued until the 2000s. In order to understand these sociountil the 2000s. In order to understand these socio--economic conditions economic conditions better, we need to examine more closely how agricultural production and better, we need to examine more closely how agricultural production and the barter economy worked the barter economy worked in the village.in the village.

AGRICULTURE AND

AGRICULTURE AND BARTER ECONOMYBARTER ECONOMY

The common agriculture in the region is subsistence

The common agriculture in the region is subsistence--agriculture agriculture like the majority of Central Anatolia. According to field research, the com-like the majority of Central Anatolia. According to field research, the com-mon economy transaction was barter economy in the village until the mon economy transaction was barter economy in the village until the 202010s. How did the barter economy work? I listened 10s. How did the barter economy work? I listened to intervieweesto interviewees from different generations explain to me numerous times the barter sys-from different generations explain to me numerous times the barter sys-tem. They tried to explain how the barter system worked in the village tem. They tried to explain how the barter system worked in the village with less use of money. Using snowball sampling, Iwith less use of money. Using snowball sampling, I reached three people reached three people who were from the family of the grocery store and trader of the village. who were from the family of the grocery store and trader of the village.

12 Keyder and Yenal, “Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu.”Keyder and Yenal, “Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu.”

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One of them was Bilal who was a grocery store owner in the 1970s and

One of them was Bilal who was a grocery store owner in the 1970s and he explained to me the barter system in a home visit. Another person, he explained to me the barter system in a home visit. Another person, Ayşe (60), was the dauAyşe (60), was the daughter of the grocer and Melek, whose husband and ghter of the grocer and Melek, whose husband and herself was a grocery store owner at the beginning of the 2000s. herself was a grocery store owner at the beginning of the 2000s.

Based

Based on their accounts, barter economy worked in two ways: one on their accounts, barter economy worked in two ways: one of them is by eggs and the other by products that peasants cultivated. of them is by eggs and the other by products that peasants cultivated. MerchaMerchants have grocery stores in the village, and they are originally from nts have grocery stores in the village, and they are originally from the same village. Peasants took their eggs to the grocery store and bought the same village. Peasants took their eggs to the grocery store and bought whatever they wanted to buy only by giving their eggs. If they wanted to whatever they wanted to buy only by giving their eggs. If they wanted to buy more expensive products, they gave buy more expensive products, they gave more eggs. Another option was more eggs. Another option was giving the products that peasants have produced, for instance crops such giving the products that peasants have produced, for instance crops such as wheat, corn, and barley.as wheat, corn, and barley.

Kıray explains a similar barter system in Ereğli where people used

Kıray explains a similar barter system in Ereğli where people used eggs, chicken, vegetables, and fruits.eggs, chicken, vegetables, and fruits.13 The difference between Ereğli and The difference between Ereğli and Selimli is that in Ereğli the barter Selimli is that in Ereğli the barter system system was for secondary production. was for secondary production. In Selimli, however, however, In Selimli, however, however, subsistencesubsistence was with the barter system for was with the barter system for primary production. Also, the natural environment and lack of public in-primary production. Also, the natural environment and lack of public in-frfrastructure did not allow peasants of Selimli to go to districts and cen-astructure did not allow peasants of Selimli to go to districts and cen-ters to sell their products. Therefore, they had to give their product to the ters to sell their products. Therefore, they had to give their product to the merchant in the village, who was also the village headmen.merchant in the village, who was also the village headmen.

As Ayşe explained, “then the traders took these

As Ayşe explained, “then the traders took these eggs to the Tavşanlı eggs to the Tavşanlı districts or Simav districts and sold it in the market. They carried the districts or Simav districts and sold it in the market. They carried the eggs by donkey or horse in the 1970s and by cars later in the 1980s.” Bilal, eggs by donkey or horse in the 1970s and by cars later in the 1980s.” Bilal, who was a grocery store owner in the 1970s, told how the system was who was a grocery store owner in the 1970s, told how the system was and how he transand how he transported the eggs on the horses and went to districts and ported the eggs on the horses and went to districts and sold them because he did not have a vehicle for transportation until the sold them because he did not have a vehicle for transportation until the 1980s. 1980s.

13 “I“In the region, especially women grow products such as egg, chicken, vegetables, fruits n the region, especially women grow products such as egg, chicken, vegetables, fruits and they give it to the trader of them even though they had changed to sell it more expen-and they give it to the trader of them even though they had changed to sell it more expen-sive. The trader of the village decides himself the price and payment terms.” Kırsive. The trader of the village decides himself the price and payment terms.” Kıray, “Ereğli,” ay, “Ereğli,” 62.62.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

The second way of barter economy was using tracks coming to the

The second way of barter economy was using tracks coming to the village to exchange cultivated products such as wheat, village to exchange cultivated products such as wheat, chickpeas, sun-chickpeas, sun-flower, and barley with certain goods. The peasants gave sunflower and flower, and barley with certain goods. The peasants gave sunflower and took ten percent less oil in return from the merchants coming by truck. took ten percent less oil in return from the merchants coming by truck. Another example was that peasants gave sixty kilograms of wheat and Another example was that peasants gave sixty kilograms of wheat and took fifty kilograms of flour itook fifty kilograms of flour in return, and peasants gave chickpeas and n return, and peasants gave chickpeas and took nuts in return. This situation continued until the 2010s. Today, the took nuts in return. This situation continued until the 2010s. Today, the trucks are still coming to the village and the system somewhat continues, trucks are still coming to the village and the system somewhat continues, but many peasants give money because the agricultural production ibut many peasants give money because the agricultural production is s less, and they do not produce sufficient agricultural products to ex-less, and they do not produce sufficient agricultural products to ex-change.change.

The research findings show that peasants rarely use money within

The research findings show that peasants rarely use money within the villagethe village even todayeven today. In the village, egg and wheat allows them to get . In the village, egg and wheat allows them to get whatever they need. People buy their brewhatever they need. People buy their bread with an egg. They fill the gas-ad with an egg. They fill the gas-oline with wheat. Also, about 90% of the products were already grown oline with wheat. Also, about 90% of the products were already grown and made by themselves in the village. Rare use of money and not going and made by themselves in the village. Rare use of money and not going to the districts to sell their products, provided the villagers with a sense to the districts to sell their products, provided the villagers with a sense of a cof a community, but this situation also caused poverty and led to their ommunity, but this situation also caused poverty and led to their exploitation by traders, all factors pushing the villagers to the mine pits. exploitation by traders, all factors pushing the villagers to the mine pits.

When I asked about peasants’ reasons for not going to the city to

When I asked about peasants’ reasons for not going to the city to sell their products, they responded that they sell their products, they responded that they did not have vehicles; mini-did not have vehicles; mini-buses, trucks, and so on, to take their product to the markets. As Kemal buses, trucks, and so on, to take their product to the markets. As Kemal responded, there were only a few people who had a vehicle. They were responded, there were only a few people who had a vehicle. They were also the grocery store owners. When peasants needed to go to the district also the grocery store owners. When peasants needed to go to the district in an emergenin an emergency time, they asked the merchant for a ride because he has cy time, they asked the merchant for a ride because he has a car. Therefore, they had to sell their products cheaply to the grocery a car. Therefore, they had to sell their products cheaply to the grocery store and to the trucks that came to the village. This situation contributed store and to the trucks that came to the village. This situation contributed to their motivation to work in the underground to their motivation to work in the underground mines.mines.

Thus, the peripheral status of Selimli historically led to a barter

Thus, the peripheral status of Selimli historically led to a barter system in the region.system in the region.14 During the focus group interviews I conducted in During the focus group interviews I conducted in

14 One reason for the use of barter systems in the region may be the nomadic background One reason for the use of barter systems in the region may be the nomadic background of the region. The villagers of Selimli denied they are nomads but in the region, there are of the region. The villagers of Selimli denied they are nomads but in the region, there are villages known as nomads’ villages. In the Ottoman Archive, the documents showvillages known as nomads’ villages. In the Ottoman Archive, the documents show that thethat the

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Soma, numerous people who have migrated to Soma from villages other

Soma, numerous people who have migrated to Soma from villages other than Selimli also confirmed that the use than Selimli also confirmed that the use of barter system was common in of barter system was common in their villages, or at least they listened to it from their parents. The use of their villages, or at least they listened to it from their parents. The use of barter economy seems to be a theme for disadvantaged and peripheral barter economy seems to be a theme for disadvantaged and peripheral villages in the region.villages in the region.15 The barter economy system in the region was in The barter economy system in the region was in effecteffect with modifications even in the neoliberal period when technology, with modifications even in the neoliberal period when technology, modernization, and intensive consumption practices entered the village. modernization, and intensive consumption practices entered the village. The barter system is also valid in a way today among the mining commu-The barter system is also valid in a way today among the mining commu-nity in Soma through an informal economy by bartnity in Soma through an informal economy by bartering their agricultural ering their agricultural products among themproducts among them..

TRANSFORMATION OF AG

TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURE, THE CHANGRICULTURE, THE CHANGE OF CONSUMPTION E OF CONSUMPTION PRACTICES AND INCREAPRACTICES AND INCREASE OF CASH DEPENDENCSE OF CASH DEPENDENCYY

With the effect of neoliberal transformation, agricultural subsidies

With the effect of neoliberal transformation, agricultural subsidies decreased in Turkey, and the liberation efdecreased in Turkey, and the liberation effect caused depeasantizationfect caused depeasantization..16 In the Soma region, there has been a transition from tobacco to olives. In the Soma region, there has been a transition from tobacco to olives. However, the fieldwork of rural areas of Kütahya and Balıkesir shows that However, the fieldwork of rural areas of Kütahya and Balıkesir shows that there is no industrial agriculture in this region: Products such as olives there is no industrial agriculture in this region: Products such as olives and and tobacco are not produced. Farmers in this region are selftobacco are not produced. Farmers in this region are self--sufficient: sufficient: they produce wheat, corn, and do animal husbandry and sell milk and they produce wheat, corn, and do animal husbandry and sell milk and eggs. Another important phenomenon is that peasants in Selimli did not eggs. Another important phenomenon is that peasants in Selimli did not have title deeds for their land until the 2000shave title deeds for their land until the 2000s and could not benefit from and could not benefit from

area was the place where the nomads were located. Also, the first generation has stories

area was the place where the nomads were located. Also, the first generation has stories about nomads that were going next to their village.about nomads that were going next to their village.

15 As reflected in the news, there are still villages that use the barter system in Turkey such As reflected in the news, there are still villages that use the barter system in Turkey such as Selim das Selim district in Kars and Ahlat in Bitlis. All these villages are defined by distance to the istrict in Kars and Ahlat in Bitlis. All these villages are defined by distance to the city centers and markets. city centers and markets.

“Bu Köyde Para Geçmiyor!” Habertürk, accessed 2 July 2020.

“Bu Köyde Para Geçmiyor!” Habertürk, accessed 2 July 2020. https://www.haber-https://www.haber-turk.com/yasam/haber/607395turk.com/yasam/haber/607395--bubu--koydekoyde--parapara--gecmiyorgecmiyor--videovideo

“Bu Köyde Para Geçmiyor.” Yeni Mesaj, accessed 2 July 2020.

“Bu Köyde Para Geçmiyor.” Yeni Mesaj, accessed 2 July 2020. http://www.yenimesaj.com.tr/buhttp://www.yenimesaj.com.tr/bu--koydkoydee--parapara--gecmiyorgecmiyor--H1089892.htmH1089892.htm

“Bu Bakkalda Para Geçmiyor.” Posta. Accessed 2 July 2020.

“Bu Bakkalda Para Geçmiyor.” Posta. Accessed 2 July 2020. https://www.posta.com.tr/buhttps://www.posta.com.tr/bu--bakkaldabakkalda--parapara--gecmiyorgecmiyor--148044148044

16 Keyder and Yenal, “Bildiğimiz TarımKeyder and Yenal, “Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu”.ın Sonu”.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

agricultural supports until the 2000s. They have taken agricultural sub-

agricultural supports until the 2000s. They have taken agricultural sub-sidies after the 2000s at a time when agricultural supports sidies after the 2000s at a time when agricultural supports decreased.decreased.

After the 2001 economic crisis and ARIP

After the 2001 economic crisis and ARIP (Agricultural Reform Im-(Agricultural Reform Im-plementation Project), withplementation Project), with the decrease of animal husbandry and agri-the decrease of animal husbandry and agri-cultural activities, money usage increased and barter economy activities cultural activities, money usage increased and barter economy activities for transactions decreased in Selimli. Whereas before, villagers could buy for transactions decreased in Selimli. Whereas before, villagers could buy approximately 9approximately 90 percent of their needs with their products, (even oil 0 percent of their needs with their products, (even oil and gasoline they could get with the barter system), in time their cash and gasoline they could get with the barter system), in time their cash dependency increased. dependency increased.

When I asked villagers for what they needed cash most, İbrahim

When I asked villagers for what they needed cash most, İbrahim responded “look there are tractors and carresponded “look there are tractors and cars in every house’s garden now. s in every house’s garden now. Each house has a solar energy system. Everybody has a mobile phone and Each house has a solar energy system. Everybody has a mobile phone and a television. Every month, I pay half of my retirement wage only for the a television. Every month, I pay half of my retirement wage only for the invoices and the oil for the car. In the past, there were no cars, tractors, invoices and the oil for the car. In the past, there were no cars, tractors, machmachines, nor motorcycles.” ines, nor motorcycles.”

In Turkey, during the Democrat Party period, with Marshall Plan

In Turkey, during the Democrat Party period, with Marshall Plan aid, the use of technology in agriculture increased: the number of trac-aid, the use of technology in agriculture increased: the number of trac-tors rose from 10,000 in 1946 at the end of the 1950s.tors rose from 10,000 in 1946 at the end of the 1950s.17 Moreover, the Moreover, the transportation system devtransportation system developed, and rural and urban areas were better eloped, and rural and urban areas were better connected in the 1950s and 1960s. However, agricultural machines and connected in the 1950s and 1960s. However, agricultural machines and cars came to Selimli late. In the 1970s, there was only one tractor in the cars came to Selimli late. In the 1970s, there was only one tractor in the village whose owner was a trader.village whose owner was a trader. The coming of tractors to the viThe coming of tractors to the village llage and region are later than the 1970s and the roads have also been built and region are later than the 1970s and the roads have also been built lately.lately.18 This shows that the development of the villages differ from each This shows that the development of the villages differ from each other, and it is difficult to generalize among villages in rural studies.other, and it is difficult to generalize among villages in rural studies.

Nonetheless, in the present, vi

Nonetheless, in the present, villagers of Selimli cooperate with llagers of Selimli cooperate with world in terms of consumption practices and changes in technology by world in terms of consumption practices and changes in technology by

17 Pamuk, “Uneven Centuries,” 208.Pamuk, “Uneven Centuries,” 208.

18 Many women had not travelled to any place outside their village. For example, Aysel said Many women had not travelled to any place outside their village. For example, Aysel said that “If I go over two kilometers by car, I vomit. Therefore, I go nowhere. Most of the women that “If I go over two kilometers by car, I vomit. Therefore, I go nowhere. Most of the women in the village were the sain the village were the same and had not gone to a different place than their village in their me and had not gone to a different place than their village in their entire life.entire life.

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using domestic appliances, televisions, phones, and cars

using domestic appliances, televisions, phones, and cars similar to similar to other other rural areas of Turkeyrural areas of Turkey..19

This change of technology and consumption practices ha

This change of technology and consumption practices has in-s in-creased villagers’ cash dependency in Selimli. The use of money and the creased villagers’ cash dependency in Selimli. The use of money and the increase of cash dependency increased the demand for money, constitut-increase of cash dependency increased the demand for money, constitut-ing another reason to migrate to mine pits.ing another reason to migrate to mine pits.

POWER RELATIONS

The peripheral status of Selimli has also affected

The peripheral status of Selimli has also affected personal and personal and power relations in the village. The key authority figures in the village power relations in the village. The key authority figures in the village have historically been the headman, the imam, the teacher, and traders have historically been the headman, the imam, the teacher, and traders which include grocery store owners, the milk deliverer and minibus driv-which include grocery store owners, the milk deliverer and minibus driv-ers. Teachers have not exisers. Teachers have not existed in ted in Selimli forSelimli for the last fifteen years because the last fifteen years because the school was relocated to the school in Güzelyurt.the school was relocated to the school in Güzelyurt.

Today, the headman is the grocery store owner and trader of the

Today, the headman is the grocery store owner and trader of the village. He is the son of the Turkishvillage. He is the son of the Turkish--German worker parents who went to German worker parents who went to work in Germany in the 1960s. The headman’s brother is one of the min-work in Germany in the 1960s. The headman’s brother is one of the min-ibus drivers in the village. The headman is the onlibus drivers in the village. The headman is the only high school graduate y high school graduate in his generation and his first headman period started in 1984. The head-in his generation and his first headman period started in 1984. The head-man and his brother, the man and his brother, the Yıldırım Yıldırım family have connected the village to the family have connected the village to the world and the global economy through their trade. For this reason, they world and the global economy through their trade. For this reason, they have authorityhave authority over peasants.over peasants.

The interview I conducted with the headman was one of the most

The interview I conducted with the headman was one of the most interesting interviews of my field research.interesting interviews of my field research.20 I asked to have an inI asked to have an in--depth depth interview with him. However, he suggested making a group interview in interview with him. However, he suggested making a group interview in front of the villagers. He responded a minimum of fifteen minutes to each front of the villagers. He responded a minimum of fifteen minutes to each question with an influential voice, like a politician who is giving a public question with an influential voice, like a politician who is giving a public speechspeech. He responded to questions but also gave a speech to the people . He responded to questions but also gave a speech to the people of the village. His audience was the peasants of the village rather than me, of the village. His audience was the peasants of the village rather than me,

19 Keyder and Yenal, “Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu,” 104.Keyder and Yenal, “Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu,” 104.

20 The headman was one of the few individuals who allowed me to voice record during the The headman was one of the few individuals who allowed me to voice record during the interviews.interviews.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

the researcher. Then, when I asked the same question to another peasant

the researcher. Then, when I asked the same question to another peasant in the focus group, he responded in the sin the focus group, he responded in the same way as did the headman. ame way as did the headman. Hence, I could observe that the headman’s authority was affecting even Hence, I could observe that the headman’s authority was affecting even the responses villagers gave to my questions in his presence. the responses villagers gave to my questions in his presence.

The headman elections were one of the dominant themes the peas-

The headman elections were one of the dominant themes the peas-ants talked about in my field reants talked about in my field research. In the case of the headman elec-search. In the case of the headman elec-tions, the traders are the principal figures to determine who the headman tions, the traders are the principal figures to determine who the headman will be. The villagers listed five men who acted as Selimli’s headman will be. The villagers listed five men who acted as Selimli’s headman since 1965. Each of these figures are from a trader family: they were esince 1965. Each of these figures are from a trader family: they were ei-i-ther the trader’s son or brother of. For example, another trader is a milk ther the trader’s son or brother of. For example, another trader is a milk deliverer, and he is the previous headman of the village. When a trader is deliverer, and he is the previous headman of the village. When a trader is chosen as headman, it provides them more authority over villagers. chosen as headman, it provides them more authority over villagers.

Ahmet who was a candidate in the head

Ahmet who was a candidate in the headman elections but was not man elections but was not chosen explainedchosen explained to me why the headman and the trader become the to me why the headman and the trader become the same person: “I could not take a vote from even same person: “I could not take a vote from even my closemy close friends because friends because they said that we have business with the trader, for this reason, we will they said that we have business with the trader, for this reason, we will support him.” Whensupport him.” When a trader was a candidate for the election, the others’ a trader was a candidate for the election, the others’ chance to become headman is weaker because, in the village, there is pov-chance to become headman is weaker because, in the village, there is pov-erty, people are too poor to buy cars, tractors to connect with the market. erty, people are too poor to buy cars, tractors to connect with the market.

When a trader is chosen as headman, it provides him

When a trader is chosen as headman, it provides him more author-more author-ity over villagers. In her book on Ereğli, Mübeccel Kıray ity over villagers. In her book on Ereğli, Mübeccel Kıray explainsexplains that “the that “the effect and influence of the merchant on villagers are often higher than the effect and influence of the merchant on villagers are often higher than the headman, the Gendarmerie commander or even the district governorheadman, the Gendarmerie commander or even the district governor.””21 I could observe a similI could observe a similar authority of the ar authority of the merchantsmerchants over villagers in my over villagers in my field research in Selimli. Forfield research in Selimli. For example, as already discussed when we first example, as already discussed when we first arrived in the village, the peasants were buildingarrived in the village, the peasants were building wall wall forfor the headman the headman office garden whichoffice garden which reminded me of the corvee of 19reminded me of the corvee of 19thth centurycentury. . The head-The head-man told me in the interview what they did was not man told me in the interview what they did was not legal,legal, but people do but people do it because they are thinking about the future of their children and work-it because they are thinking about the future of their children and work-ing for the development of the village. ing for the development of the village.

Imams and teachers have been the other important fi

Imams and teachers have been the other important figures in the gures in the village. Since the money exchange is less in the village, civil servants seem village. Since the money exchange is less in the village, civil servants seem

21 Kıray, “Ereğli,” 61.Kıray, “Ereğli,” 61.

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richer compared to villagers. They are educated and help villagers when-

richer compared to villagers. They are educated and help villagers when-ever literacy needed such as when they need to read invoices or medica-ever literacy needed such as when they need to read invoices or medica-tion manuals etc. Also, tion manuals etc. Also, the mosque and coffeethe mosque and coffee--houses are important for houses are important for the lives of the villagers, as often mentioned in the literature because they the lives of the villagers, as often mentioned in the literature because they are public are public spheres,spheres, and they shape peasants’ perspectives. Also, the vil-and they shape peasants’ perspectives. Also, the vil-lage rooms (lage rooms (köy odalarıköy odaları) were crucial places for peasants’ ) were crucial places for peasants’ life. When the life. When the transportation system was limited, these important rooms which were transportation system was limited, these important rooms which were built by notables were used for people to the guest.built by notables were used for people to the guest.22 In Selimli, there is In Selimli, there is one room for guests under the mosque and also one room under the one room for guests under the mosque and also one room under the mosque is a gathering place. Thermosque is a gathering place. There are coffee houses as well. Tea and cof-e are coffee houses as well. Tea and cof-fee are made by younger people of the village and the tea is generally fee are made by younger people of the village and the tea is generally bought by the imam or the headman.bought by the imam or the headman.

LACK OF GOVERNMENT S

LACK OF GOVERNMENT SERVICESERVICES

The peripheral status of Selimli and Güzelyurt has also historically

The peripheral status of Selimli and Güzelyurt has also historically been defined been defined by political preferences which deprived the region of public by political preferences which deprived the region of public services and infrastructure. Historically, the region was services and infrastructure. Historically, the region was nahiyenahiye, but na-, but na-hiye was not a solution for bringing services to Güzelyurt. The hiye was not a solution for bringing services to Güzelyurt. The public in-public in-frastructurefrastructure and services including health facilitand services including health facilities, ies, schooling isschooling is still very still very insufficient in the region. This situation was best expressed by Murat insufficient in the region. This situation was best expressed by Murat (30) (who is an ex(30) (who is an ex--miner and works in education sector now) depicted miner and works in education sector now) depicted the region as a “deprivation zone” (the region as a “deprivation zone” (mahrumiyet bölgesimahrumiyet bölgesi) to emphasize ) to emphasize the geographic the geographic conditions and the lack of services.conditions and the lack of services.

The village institutions had an essential role in the history of Tur-

The village institutions had an essential role in the history of Tur-key. However, in Selimli, peasants could not benefit from such public fa-key. However, in Selimli, peasants could not benefit from such public fa-cilities. Most firstcilities. Most first--generation villagers do not have literacy. Only few peo-generation villagers do not have literacy. Only few peo-pleple among the first generation have literacy and males learned to read among the first generation have literacy and males learned to read and write during their military service. In case of women, the illiteracy and write during their military service. In case of women, the illiteracy rate is higher. For example, as seen in the “rate is higher. For example, as seen in the “Neslihan’s Burning Little Pa-Neslihan’s Burning Little Pa-pers” story, Neslihan could not read the pers” story, Neslihan could not read the numbers and notes on the bills. numbers and notes on the bills. Like Neslihan, first generation females cannot read and compare the Like Neslihan, first generation females cannot read and compare the

22 Halil İnalcık, Köy,Köylü ve İmparatorluk (Ankara : Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1990), 5. Halil İnalcık, Köy,Köylü ve İmparatorluk (Ankara : Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1990), 5.

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

prices of goods in the grocery store. They only know how to shop with

prices of goods in the grocery store. They only know how to shop with barter economy rules.barter economy rules.

In Selimli, the opening of school for the first time in the vil

In Selimli, the opening of school for the first time in the village is lage is remembered by the villagers as 1961. This date is approximate. Since remembered by the villagers as 1961. This date is approximate. Since mine workers knew I am a history student and history teach the dates in mine workers knew I am a history student and history teach the dates in their understanding, in a focus group interview, Kezban (54) said that their understanding, in a focus group interview, Kezban (54) said that “write 1961 was the opening date of “write 1961 was the opening date of the school and when you write it the school and when you write it your professors will not understand whether it is true or not.”your professors will not understand whether it is true or not.”23 In the In the village’s memory, the first day of school is remembered. As Meltem (61) village’s memory, the first day of school is remembered. As Meltem (61) explains; “For the first time, the teacher arrived in the village and educa-explains; “For the first time, the teacher arrived in the village and educa-tiontion started. On the first day, the teacher wrote in front of the school started. On the first day, the teacher wrote in front of the school “Uyan Ey Halkım” (wake up my people) and this was told many times by “Uyan Ey Halkım” (wake up my people) and this was told many times by the elderly people in the village.”the elderly people in the village.”

Most mineworkers are either illiterate or primary school gradu-

Most mineworkers are either illiterate or primary school gradu-ates. This educationates. This educational status of miners is also mentioned byal status of miners is also mentioned by OnurOnur BütünBütün..24 Illiteracy and lack of education which follow from the peripheral Illiteracy and lack of education which follow from the peripheral status of the region has turned villagers into unskilled laborers who are status of the region has turned villagers into unskilled laborers who are suitable to be the labor suppliers of the mine pits. Having disuitable to be the labor suppliers of the mine pits. Having difficulty to find fficulty to find jobs as uneducated and unskilled men, villagers from Selimli have been jobs as uneducated and unskilled men, villagers from Selimli have been inclined to migrate to the Soma mine pits.inclined to migrate to the Soma mine pits.

How did the opening of the school in the village affect the villagers?

How did the opening of the school in the village affect the villagers? First and secondFirst and second--generation state that after the schoogeneration state that after the school was opened, there l was opened, there was a vital increase in their expenditure because the students needed was a vital increase in their expenditure because the students needed uniforms, books, and pens.uniforms, books, and pens. The opening of schoolThe opening of school,, hence increased cash hence increased cash dependency, and this resulted in the first generation’s migration work in dependency, and this resulted in the first generation’s migration work in the mine pits to earnthe mine pits to earn wages. For the next generations, schooling and the wages. For the next generations, schooling and the state services were one of the major reasons and motivations for their state services were one of the major reasons and motivations for their family to migrate to Soma and mine basins. In other words, for younger family to migrate to Soma and mine basins. In other words, for younger generation families, the desire to give better education to thgeneration families, the desire to give better education to their children eir children and benefit from better public facilities, which is lacking in the Güzelyurt and benefit from better public facilities, which is lacking in the Güzelyurt

23 This sentence also shows how they consider research which they see as unimportant This sentence also shows how they consider research which they see as unimportant duty and just as homework.duty and just as homework.

24 Bütün, "Yedi Kat Yerin Altından Uğultular Geliyor,” 125.Bütün, "Yedi Kat Yerin Altından Uğultular Geliyor,” 125.

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region, constitute major reasons to migrate to mine basins and become

region, constitute major reasons to migrate to mine basins and become mineworkers.mineworkers.

Until now, I discussed the peripheral status of Selimli/Güzelyurt

Until now, I discussed the peripheral status of Selimli/Güzelyurt defined by the nadefined by the natural environment, climate location and distance to city tural environment, climate location and distance to city centers but also political preferences which historically deprived the re-centers but also political preferences which historically deprived the re-gion of public infrastructure and services. All these factors caused rural gion of public infrastructure and services. All these factors caused rural poverty which is the major reason of the migration poverty which is the major reason of the migration in the region. In addi-in the region. In addi-tion, the transformation of agriculture, the change in consumption prac-tion, the transformation of agriculture, the change in consumption prac-tices and the increase of cash dependency in the recent period contrib-tices and the increase of cash dependency in the recent period contrib-uted to the reasons to migrate. When these factors combined with the uted to the reasons to migrate. When these factors combined with the economic income and socieconomic income and social security to be gained through working in the al security to be gained through working in the mines, peasant families from Selimli began to migrate to the Soma mines, peasant families from Selimli began to migrate to the Soma region region andand working in the coal basin became an advantageous decision in the working in the coal basin became an advantageous decision in the mentality of the researched community. mentality of the researched community.

§ 3.23.2 Soma Soma FFieldield

3.2.1.1

3.2.1.1 The Portrait ofThe Portrait of Soma; Cenkyeri and Station DistrictSoma; Cenkyeri and Station District

Soma is the migrated area, where mainly second and third genera-

Soma is the migrated area, where mainly second and third genera-tion miners located. tion miners located. I went to Soma one month after I conducted ethno-I went to Soma one month after I conducted ethno-graphic research ingraphic research in Selimli.Selimli.

In SelimliSelimli, , I had taken I had taken the phone numbers of villagers’ the phone numbers of villagers’ childrenchildren and and I contacted them through I contacted them through social mediasocial media.. I have already known some of I have already known some of them, which made the connection easier.them, which made the connection easier. Since the research is multiSince the research is multi--sitsiteded ethnography, at this point, I will discuss twoethnography, at this point, I will discuss two of my field sites in the place of my field sites in the place of migration: Soma and of migration: Soma and CenkyeCenkyeriri..

İSMAİL ŞAHİN

SOMA

Soma is a small mining town in western Turkey. It is surrounded by the

Soma is a small mining town in western Turkey. It is surrounded by the YuntYunt Mountains. The city’s population has increased with the labor im-Mountains. The city’s population has increased with the labor im-migration from 39.088 in 1985 to 109.946 in 2020. Soma is closer to Ma-migration from 39.088 in 1985 to 109.946 in 2020. Soma is closer to Ma-nisa as well as to İzmir which has markets and ports. It is also suitable for nisa as well as to İzmir which has markets and ports. It is also suitable for agriculture; olive, tobacco, and cotton areagriculture; olive, tobacco, and cotton are grown in the region and there grown in the region and there are vineyards as well.are vineyards as well.

The first family that I contacted before going to Soma said that they

The first family that I contacted before going to Soma said that they were migrating to Cenkyeri from Soma that week. Cenkyeri is a small were migrating to Cenkyeri from Soma that week. Cenkyeri is a small town populated with 3.100 people and 10 km away from the Soma citown populated with 3.100 people and 10 km away from the Soma city ty center. When I asked the family (Mevlut and Şefika) their reason for mi-center. When I asked the family (Mevlut and Şefika) their reason for mi-grating to Cenkyeri, Şefika (30) responded that:grating to Cenkyeri, Şefika (30) responded that:

We bought land from Cenkyeri to build our own house. The lands

We bought land from Cenkyeri to build our own house. The lands in Cenkyeri are cheaper than land in Soma town center. Also, there in Cenkyeri are cheaper than land in Soma town center. Also, there areare our fellow townsmen, kin and the air is cleaner because there our fellow townsmen, kin and the air is cleaner because there is the thermal plant in Soma city center. Also, there is more place is the thermal plant in Soma city center. Also, there is more place for our children to play. Furthermore, Cenkyeri is close to the for our children to play. Furthermore, Cenkyeri is close to the working area and the buses always come to Cenkyeri to take woworking area and the buses always come to Cenkyeri to take work-rk-ers to mine companies.ers to mine companies.

Before moving to Cenkyeri, Şefika was living in the Station District,

Before moving to Cenkyeri, Şefika was living in the Station District, mainly a gecekondu settlement in Soma were close to the thermal plant.mainly a gecekondu settlement in Soma were close to the thermal plant.25 Living Living costs,costs, inin thethe Station District were cheaper compared to Soma dis-Station District were cheaper compared to Soma dis-trict center as shtrict center as she stated. Therefore, in Soma, there were two main sitese stated. Therefore, in Soma, there were two main sites that the peasant workers of that the peasant workers of Selimli chose as a destination place:Selimli chose as a destination place: Cenkyeri Cenkyeri

25 Mines were used in the Thermal Plant. The biggest Thermal Plant is Soma B Thermal Mines were used in the Thermal Plant. The biggest Thermal Plant is Soma B Thermal Power Plant in Soma. The power plant belonging to Konya Şeker Energy company. “It is Power Plant in Soma. The power plant belonging to Konya Şeker Energy company. “It is Turkey's 19th and Manisa's largest power plant with an installed power of 990 MWe. The Turkey's 19th and Manisa's largest power plant with an installed power of 990 MWe. The ffacility is also Turkey's 8th largest Lignite Thermal Power Plant. Soma B Thermal Power acility is also Turkey's 8th largest Lignite Thermal Power Plant. Soma B Thermal Power Plant can meet all the electrical energy needs of 1,238,912 people in their daily lives (such Plant can meet all the electrical energy needs of 1,238,912 people in their daily lives (such as housing, industry, metro transportation, government offices, environmentas housing, industry, metro transportation, government offices, environmental lighting) al lighting) with an average electricity production of 4,499,730,137 kilowattwith an average electricity production of 4,499,730,137 kilowatt--hours.” hours.” https://www.en-https://www.en-erjiatlasi.com/komur/somaerjiatlasi.com/komur/soma--termiktermik--santrali.htmlsantrali.html;; The Thermal Plant in Soma is alThe Thermal Plant in Soma is also simi-so simi-lar lar patternpattern in the Neoin the Neo--Liberal Period because it was also privatized and owned by Konya Liberal Period because it was also privatized and owned by Konya Şeker Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş.http://somatermik.com.tr/Tr/kurumsalŞeker Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş.http://somatermik.com.tr/Tr/kurumsal

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District

District whichwhich is ten km away from the city center and Station District in is ten km away from the city center and Station District in Soma, which is close to the train station. Most ofSoma, which is close to the train station. Most of the peasants of the peasants of SelimliSelimli and Güzelyurt were mainly located in these two places.and Güzelyurt were mainly located in these two places. Hence, these two Hence, these two districts were my field sites in Soma. districts were my field sites in Soma.

In the literature, it is known that mi

In the literature, it is known that miners come mine pits fromners come mine pits from sur-sur-rounding villages. For rounding villages. For example,example, Oskay explainsOskay explains that, that,

Min

Minee workers generally workers generally livelive and and work in work in the the villages andvillages and locatedlocated in the surrounding villagesin the surrounding villages of the mining pitsof the mining pits instead of settling instead of settling in in thethe city centercity center. . MMost of them goost of them go to workto work by shuttle serviceby shuttle service. . ThisThis provprovides great convenience for themides great convenience for them in terms of housing costs in terms of housing costs and and the education cost of children. People living in nearby villages do the education cost of children. People living in nearby villages do not think of not think of settling in the city centersettling in the city center for nowfor now….….26

My field r

My field research findings esearch findings corroborate corroborate Oskay’sOskay’s argumentargument.. I observed that I observed that many peasantmany peasant--miners from Selimliminers from Selimli choose close places to the city center choose close places to the city center rather than living directly in the city center. Some of them chose to live in rather than living directly in the city center. Some of them chose to live in Soma Station District.Soma Station District. The early migrants wereThe early migrants were located in these two dis-located in these two dis-trictstricts (Station (Station DistrictDistrict and Cenkyeri) and Cenkyeri) and their relatives and netwoand their relatives and networkrk who who migrated later also settled in thesemigrated later also settled in these sitesitess. In Cenkyeri, one street is ma. In Cenkyeri, one street is mainly inly composed of people fromcomposed of people from SelimliSelimli, and another street is surrounded by , and another street is surrounded by peasantspeasants of Habiblerof Habibler, of , of GüzelyurtGüzelyurt, which is the neighbor village of the , which is the neighbor village of the SelimliSelimli in Kütahya and the otin Kütahya and the other street is Beher street is Becciler which is another neigh-iler which is another neigh-borhood of borhood of SelimliSelimli. The trend of migration and settlement is not different . The trend of migration and settlement is not different from the trend of migration in Turkey. The housing and settlement are in from the trend of migration in Turkey. The housing and settlement are in the same district for those who came from the sathe same district for those who came from the same village or same village or same re-me re-gions. gions.

3.2.1.2

3.2.1.2 Housing and Mining SettlementHousing and Mining Settlement

Houses in Selimli and houses of Cenkyeri and Soma have obvious

Houses in Selimli and houses of Cenkyeri and Soma have obvious differences from each other. The biggest difference is that there is no differences from each other. The biggest difference is that there is no

26 Ülgen Oskay, Geçiş Dönemi Tipi Olarak Zonguldak Kömür Havzası Maden İşçisi:Ülgen Oskay, Geçiş Dönemi Tipi Olarak Zonguldak Kömür Havzası Maden İşçisi:

İhsaniye ve Gelikİhsaniye ve Gelik Ocaklarında Çalışan Maden İsçileri Üzerine bir Araştırma (İzmir: Ege Ün-Ocaklarında Çalışan Maden İsçileri Üzerine bir Araştırma (İzmir: Ege Ün-iversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi, 1983), 83.iversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi, 1983), 83.

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place for animal livestock on the ground floor in Soma and Cenkyeri

place for animal livestock on the ground floor in Soma and Cenkyeri whereas, whereas, in the Selimli, the ground floor is a barn for animals. In Cenkyeri, in the Selimli, the ground floor is a barn for animals. In Cenkyeri, the homes are mainly three floor apartments, which were constructed by the homes are mainly three floor apartments, which were constructed by buying land and year by year. The second difference is inside of the homes buying land and year by year. The second difference is inside of the homes in Soma/Cenkyeri are relatively luxuriousin Soma/Cenkyeri are relatively luxurious, giving the impression that it , giving the impression that it is a middleis a middle--class home. Sitting rooms, televisions, curtains are relatively class home. Sitting rooms, televisions, curtains are relatively luxurious in Soma/Cenkyeri whereas, in Selimli, they are humble ordi-luxurious in Soma/Cenkyeri whereas, in Selimli, they are humble ordi-nary village houses. nary village houses.

This relative luxury and wealth are coming after

This relative luxury and wealth are coming after retirement and af-retirement and af-ter the death of 301 miners in 2014.ter the death of 301 miners in 2014. The reason is the income of The reason is the income of minemine workers is relatively better after the deaths of 301 miners.workers is relatively better after the deaths of 301 miners. The research The research findings and the mentalities and the perception of mines will not be the findings and the mentalities and the perception of mines will not be the same if the research wsame if the research was conducted before 2014 or just after the accident. as conducted before 2014 or just after the accident. This research was conducted between 2019 and 202This research was conducted between 2019 and 20211. The findings show . The findings show that the perception of working in the mine and mine workers is prestig-that the perception of working in the mine and mine workers is prestig-ious in the eyes of both the mining community and the local commious in the eyes of both the mining community and the local community unity in Soma because mineworkers have relatively better economic condi-in Soma because mineworkers have relatively better economic condi-tions and better working hours after the 2014 accident. tions and better working hours after the 2014 accident.

Figure 4.1.Figure 4.1. Soma MapSoma Map27

27 Google MapsGoogle Maps

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CONCLUSION

This chapter provided a

This chapter provided a brief overview of the field sites in the rural brief overview of the field sites in the rural region and in Soma. By focusing on both the original place of settlement, region and in Soma. By focusing on both the original place of settlement, the village of Selimli and the place of migration, Soma, the discussion the village of Selimli and the place of migration, Soma, the discussion traced the changes in the social environment and life of the cotraced the changes in the social environment and life of the community mmunity under study. The discussion on Selimliunder study. The discussion on Selimli highlighted the village’s periph-highlighted the village’s periph-eral status and lack of infrastructure in the region and how this situation eral status and lack of infrastructure in the region and how this situation has shaped power relations, economy, and settlement in the village as has shaped power relations, economy, and settlement in the village as well as the perspective of the well as the perspective of the community. Then, the discussion focused community. Then, the discussion focused on, Soma, the immigrated area, and the housing and the settlement in the on, Soma, the immigrated area, and the housing and the settlement in the two locations where the community in Soma has settled: Cenkyeri and two locations where the community in Soma has settled: Cenkyeri and the Station district. the Station district.

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4TRANSFORMATION OF STRANSFORMATION OF SELIMLIELIMLI: : FROM A PEASANT FROM A PEASANT COMMUNITY TO A PEASANTCOMMUNITY TO A PEASANT--MINING COMMUNITYMINING COMMUNITY

§ 4.14.1 Social PoliciesSocial Policies

As already discussed in the Introduction,

As already discussed in the Introduction, this thesis argues that the this thesis argues that the miners’ and their families’ experience with the general sociominers’ and their families’ experience with the general socio--economic economic conditions of Turkey have shaped their perspective towards their occu-conditions of Turkey have shaped their perspective towards their occu-pation. These experiences have to do with; the country’s labor market pation. These experiences have to do with; the country’s labor market situation defined situation defined by the rise of unemployment rates, labor surplus, the by the rise of unemployment rates, labor surplus, the high number of minimum wage workers and informality; inner migra-high number of minimum wage workers and informality; inner migra-tion; the transformation of agriculture; and the transformation of social tion; the transformation of agriculture; and the transformation of social policies and retirement patterns in Turkey. Given these sociopolicies and retirement patterns in Turkey. Given these socio--ececonomic onomic realities, mineworker families consider working in the mining sector as realities, mineworker families consider working in the mining sector as having relatively better conditions in terms of income, social security, re-having relatively better conditions in terms of income, social security, re-tirement age, and working hours tirement age, and working hours comparedcompared to other unskilled jobs in to other unskilled jobs in Turkey. Turkey.

Turkey’s labor market re

Turkey’s labor market realities shape the miners’ motivation to-alities shape the miners’ motivation to-ward their occupation. In the Turkish labor market, the unemployment ward their occupation. In the Turkish labor market, the unemployment rate, the informality rate, and the number of minimum wage workers are rate, the informality rate, and the number of minimum wage workers are

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high.

high.1 According to SGK records, the percentage of informal labor in Tur-According to SGK records, the percentage of informal labor in Tur-key ikey is 30.59% in all sectors in 2020.s 30.59% in all sectors in 2020.2 The mining sector has relatively The mining sector has relatively llowerower and one of the least informal workers rate which is 4.51% in 2020 and one of the least informal workers rate which is 4.51% in 2020 because of its risks.because of its risks.3 Regarding the social security system, Turkey has un-Regarding the social security system, Turkey has un-til the 2000s been defined by an inegalitartil the 2000s been defined by an inegalitarian, corporatist social security ian, corporatist social security system which linked benefits to employment status.system which linked benefits to employment status.4 Informal workers Informal workers as well as most peasantsas well as most peasants,, were not included in this formal system and were not included in this formal system and until the health reform of the 2000suntil the health reform of the 2000s, , ““more than one third of the national more than one third of the national populatiopopulation did not have health insurance coverage.”n did not have health insurance coverage.”5

Where do the peasant

Where do the peasant--miners of Selimli stand in this macro pic-miners of Selimli stand in this macro pic-ture? Miners are usually coming from the agriculture sector according to ture? Miners are usually coming from the agriculture sector according to my observation in Soma. Those who earn their livelihood from agricul-my observation in Soma. Those who earn their livelihood from agricul-ture are ture are mostly selfmostly self-- employed in Turkey and have to pay their premiums employed in Turkey and have to pay their premiums themselves to be covered under the social security system. Historically themselves to be covered under the social security system. Historically under the scheme of BAGunder the scheme of BAG--KUR, most of these peasant families have not KUR, most of these peasant families have not been included in the social security system because been included in the social security system because of not being able to of not being able to pay premiums given their low income. Hence one of the major reasons pay premiums given their low income. Hence one of the major reasons why the peasant miners choose to work in the mining sector in Soma is why the peasant miners choose to work in the mining sector in Soma is because in doing so they get themselves and their families covered under because in doing so they get themselves and their families covered under the social security systthe social security system. The story I elicited through an oral history in-em. The story I elicited through an oral history in-

1 Buğra, “Türkiye’nin Sosyal Politikaları ve Soma Felaketi”.Buğra, “Türkiye’nin Sosyal Politikaları ve Soma Felaketi”.

2 Sosyal Güvenlik Kurumu. “Kayıtdışı İstihdam Oranları,” accessed 1Sosyal Güvenlik Kurumu. “Kayıtdışı İstihdam Oranları,” accessed 1 September 2020. September 2020. http://www.sgk.gov.tr/wps/portal/sgk/tr/calisan/kayitdisi_istihdam/kayitdisi_isti-http://www.sgk.gov.tr/wps/portal/sgk/tr/calisan/kayitdisi_istihdam/kayitdisi_isti-hdam_oranlarihdam_oranlari

3 Ibid.Ibid.

4 Ayşe Buğra, Kapitalizm, Yoksulluk ve Ayşe Buğra, Kapitalizm, Yoksulluk ve Türkiye’de Sosyal Politika (İstanbul: İletişim Türkiye’de Sosyal Politika (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2008).Yayınları, 2008). Nadir Özbek, “Cumhuriyet Türkiyesi’nde Sosyal Güvenlik,” Berna Yazıcı, Nadir Özbek, “Cumhuriyet Türkiyesi’nde Sosyal Güvenlik,” Berna Yazıcı, “The Return to the Family: Welfare, State, and Politics of the Family in Turkey.” Anthropo-“The Return to the Family: Welfare, State, and Politics of the Family in Turkey.” Anthropo-logical Quarterly 85, no. logical Quarterly 85, no. 1 (2012): 109. doi:10.1353/anq.2012.00131 (2012): 109. doi:10.1353/anq.2012.0013

5 Ayşe Buğra and Çağlar Keyder, "Turkish Welfare Regime in Transformation." "Turkish Ayşe Buğra and Çağlar Keyder, "Turkish Welfare Regime in Transformation." "Turkish Welfare Regime in Transformation." Journal of European Social Policy 16, no. 3 (2006): Welfare Regime in Transformation." Journal of European Social Policy 16, no. 3 (2006): 211211--228.228.

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terview with Kemal (67) in the field illustrates the socio

terview with Kemal (67) in the field illustrates the socio--economic fac-economic fac-tors summarized here as well as the villagers’ reasons for becoming min-tors summarized here as well as the villagers’ reasons for becoming min-eworkers.eworkers.

4.1.1

4.1.1 The Desire for Inclusion in the Social Security The Desire for Inclusion in the Social Security System:System: Ke-Ke-mal’s Storymal’s Story

Kemal got married in 1970 and had four children. He spent his life

Kemal got married in 1970 and had four children. He spent his life as a farmer in the village, cultivating wheat and barley. He had a as a farmer in the village, cultivating wheat and barley. He had a tractor. In 1993, Kemal’s wife got sick, but Kemal and his family tractor. In 1993, Kemal’s wife got sick, but Kemal and his family did not have social security and hdid not have social security and health insurance. Kemal needed ealth insurance. Kemal needed 15 billion15 billion6 Turkish liras for the surgery and he sold his tractor. The Turkish liras for the surgery and he sold his tractor. The money was not enough for the operation. He had to borrow more, money was not enough for the operation. He had to borrow more, and it was recommended that he starts to work in formal a job and it was recommended that he starts to work in formal a job such as mining. If he worked fsuch as mining. If he worked for 6 months in this formal job with or 6 months in this formal job with social insurance, he would be included the social security system social insurance, he would be included the social security system and thus would pay less for the operation.and thus would pay less for the operation.

For the first time, after the age of 45, Kemal started to work in un-

For the first time, after the age of 45, Kemal started to work in un-derground mines to include his wife in the derground mines to include his wife in the social security system. social security system. Then, his wife Döndü had her operation and recovered. Then, his wife Döndü had her operation and recovered. ButBut Kemal Kemal continued to work in the mine because he could not use other peo-continued to work in the mine because he could not use other peo-ple’s tractors each time for the cultivation. He worked in the time, ple’s tractors each time for the cultivation. He worked in the time, completed 5.000 workdays required fcompleted 5.000 workdays required for retirement and retired or retirement and retired the age of 58. He worked in the mine at the same time with his the age of 58. He worked in the mine at the same time with his sons and he retired at the same time with one of his sons, Melih. sons and he retired at the same time with one of his sons, Melih. Kemal’s age was 58 and his son was 38 when they retied. After he Kemal’s age was 58 and his son was 38 when they retied. After he retired, Kemal went back to the villretired, Kemal went back to the village and bought the tractor with age and bought the tractor with his retirement pension benefit and continued to do agriculture. his retirement pension benefit and continued to do agriculture. However, this time, he started growing walnuts, almonds and However, this time, he started growing walnuts, almonds and chestnuts to sell to the market. His son continues to work as a chestnuts to sell to the market. His son continues to work as a working machine operator. His other working machine operator. His other son who also retired from son who also retired from the mine is now a bus driver. His sonthe mine is now a bus driver. His son--inin--law and daughter bought law and daughter bought

6 15000 Tl after the change of six zero from the Turkish currency15000 Tl after the change of six zero from the Turkish currency

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a farm to cultivate. His grandson continues to work in the under-

a farm to cultivate. His grandson continues to work in the under-ground mines today in Soma.ground mines today in Soma.

Kemal was among one third of the national population who did have

Kemal was among one third of the national population who did have health insurance before the health reform of the 2000s. He had to find a health insurance before the health reform of the 2000s. He had to find a formal job to get his wife covered under the public health insurance sys-formal job to get his wife covered under the public health insurance sys-tem. Finding a formal job for an unskilled wotem. Finding a formal job for an unskilled worker in his 40s such as Kemal rker in his 40s such as Kemal was very difficult, but the mines was very difficult, but the mines had laborhad labor shortages and high turnover shortages and high turnover rates until the 2000s. Thus, the easiest way to start formal work for Ke-rates until the 2000s. Thus, the easiest way to start formal work for Ke-mal was to work in the underground mine in Soma by using his kinship mal was to work in the underground mine in Soma by using his kinship and fellow toand fellow townsmen networkswnsmen networks. .

Kemal’s situation is common among the first and second genera-

Kemal’s situation is common among the first and second genera-tion of men who similar to Kemal started to formally tion of men who similar to Kemal started to formally work inwork in the mine at the mine at an older age compared to their children who constitute the third genera-an older age compared to their children who constitute the third genera-tiontion. . Their reasons for startiTheir reasons for starting to work in the mine most probably is due ng to work in the mine most probably is due to the transformation of agriculture and the desire to be included in the to the transformation of agriculture and the desire to be included in the social security system. In the case of agriculture, agriculture has risks social security system. In the case of agriculture, agriculture has risks with harvesting because it depends on nature. After all, in the with harvesting because it depends on nature. After all, in the region, region, peasants are using traditional agriculture techniques. In the field, mine peasants are using traditional agriculture techniques. In the field, mine workers often compared mining and agriculture in terms of economic in-workers often compared mining and agriculture in terms of economic in-come. Kemal’s perception was negative for agriculture. He stated, “I have come. Kemal’s perception was negative for agriculture. He stated, “I have done agriculture for 50 years, done agriculture for 50 years, but the earnings are less than 11 years of but the earnings are less than 11 years of work in the mine.” This statement also hints to the agricultural and en-work in the mine.” This statement also hints to the agricultural and en-ergy policies of the government.ergy policies of the government.

In case of agricultural activities, another problem had to do with

In case of agricultural activities, another problem had to do with the lack of land deeds until recently. Manthe lack of land deeds until recently. Many lands in the rural areas in Tur-y lands in the rural areas in Tur-key obtained land title deeds very late.key obtained land title deeds very late.7 Peasants in Selimli could not get Peasants in Selimli could not get agricultural subsidies from the government until the 2000s due to their agricultural subsidies from the government until the 2000s due to their obtaining title deeds late. Another reason why peasants of obtaining title deeds late. Another reason why peasants of Selimli couldSelimli could nonot benefit from agricultural subsidies is their lack of information about t benefit from agricultural subsidies is their lack of information about agricultural subsidies because of being illiterate.agricultural subsidies because of being illiterate.

7 Keyder and Yenal, “Keyder and Yenal, “Bildiğimiz Tarımın SonuBildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu,”,” 4646

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4.1.2

4.1.2 Aiming for Early RetiremenAiming for Early Retirementt

During the field research, retirement was the major theme in the

During the field research, retirement was the major theme in the mining community. For each generation of miners, the advantages of be-mining community. For each generation of miners, the advantages of be-ing included in the social security system which I ing included in the social security system which I highlightedhighlighted above as above as well as early retirement rights granted to the undwell as early retirement rights granted to the underground miners which erground miners which I discuss in this section constitute the major reasons for working in the I discuss in this section constitute the major reasons for working in the underground mines. As already discussed in the Introduction, under-underground mines. As already discussed in the Introduction, under-ground mines have special rulesground mines have special rules8 for retirementfor retirement ageage9 because of risky and because of risky and hardhard--working conditiworking conditions.ons.10 These special rules make mining and mine These special rules make mining and mine working attractive.working attractive.

Turkey was known as the country of young pensioners because of

Turkey was known as the country of young pensioners because of populist policies before 2000. In 1999 and 2008 the general retirement populist policies before 2000. In 1999 and 2008 the general retirement age was increased with the effect of European Union (EUage was increased with the effect of European Union (EU) Integration. ) Integration. The retirement age of underground mines became more complex be-The retirement age of underground mines became more complex be-cause of the changes in the law after the 2014 accident. After the Soma cause of the changes in the law after the 2014 accident. After the Soma tragedy, the retirement age has been decreased with legal regulations in tragedy, the retirement age has been decreased with legal regulations in 2014 for the underground 2014 for the underground miners. Sminers. Simplyimply, miners were retired at the age , miners were retired at the age of 38 if they started to work before 2008. If miners started working after of 38 if they started to work before 2008. If miners started working after 2008, the retirement age is 50 for them and they needed to complete 2008, the retirement age is 50 for them and they needed to complete

8 İsa Karakaş, “Yer Altı Yer Üstü Ayrımında 15 Yıla Kadar Erken Emeklilik Avantajı,” Türkiye, İsa Karakaş, “Yer Altı Yer Üstü Ayrımında 15 Yıla Kadar Erken Emeklilik Avantajı,” Türkiye, accessed 15 January 2021. accessed 15 January 2021. https://www.turkiyegazetesi.com.tr/yazarlar/isahttps://www.turkiyegazetesi.com.tr/yazarlar/isa--kara-kara-kas/607533.aspxkas/607533.aspx

9 Ahmet Kıvanç, “Yer Altı Maden Işçileri Nasıl Emekli Olur?” Habertürk, accessed 15 Janu-Ahmet Kıvanç, “Yer Altı Maden Işçileri Nasıl Emekli Olur?” Habertürk, accessed 15 Janu-ary 2021. ary 2021. https://www.haberturk.com/yerhttps://www.haberturk.com/yer--altialti--madenmaden--iscileriiscileri--nasilnasil--emekliemekli--olurolur--24282582428258--ekonomiekonomi. “Mesleklere Göre Emeklilik Günü Fark Ediyor!” Sözcü, accessed 15 Jan-. “Mesleklere Göre Emeklilik Günü Fark Ediyor!” Sözcü, accessed 15 Jan-uary 2021. uary 2021. https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2020/sigorta/mesleklerehttps://www.sozcu.com.tr/2020/sigorta/mesleklere--goregore--emeklilikemeklilik--gunugunu--farkfark--ediyorediyor--5681724/5681724/..

10 Retirement explanation can be seen from the news:Retirement explanation can be seen from the news:

Süleyman Demir, “Torba

Süleyman Demir, “Torba Yasa maden işçilerine neler getirdi?” Dünya, last modified 16 De-Yasa maden işçilerine neler getirdi?” Dünya, last modified 16 De-cember 2014. cember 2014. https://www.dunya.com/gundem/torbahttps://www.dunya.com/gundem/torba--yasayasa--madenmaden--emekcilerineemekcilerine--neler neler getirdigetirdi--hhaberiaberi--265874265874; Vedat İlki, “Madende Emeklilik Koşulları.” Ali Tezel. Last modified ; Vedat İlki, “Madende Emeklilik Koşulları.” Ali Tezel. Last modified 11 November 2011. 11 November 2011. https://www.alitezel.com.tr/madendehttps://www.alitezel.com.tr/madende--emeklilikemeklilik--kosullarikosullari--4842/4842/; ; Özgür Tutoğlu, Özgür Tutoğlu, “Yeraltı Emeklilik Hesabı Nasıl Yapılır?” 25 March 2019. “Yeraltı Emeklilik Hesabı Nasıl Yapılır?” 25 March 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rexsBlazhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rexsBlaz--FAFA..

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4.000 workdays insurance premium. However, miners can be retired at

4.000 workdays insurance premium. However, miners can be retired at 43 if t43 if they work more than 4.800 workdays. hey work more than 4.800 workdays.

For unskilled, uneducated villagers in Selimli, the early retirement

For unskilled, uneducated villagers in Selimli, the early retirement age granted to mine workers has become very attractive after the 1999 age granted to mine workers has become very attractive after the 1999 and 2008 reforms in the social security system which increased the re-and 2008 reforms in the social security system which increased the re-tirement agetirement age for the general population. The reason is that unskilled men for the general population. The reason is that unskilled men from Selimli believe that they will live in the poverty in their entire life if from Selimli believe that they will live in the poverty in their entire life if they retire very late by working in unskilled jobs but if they retire early they retire very late by working in unskilled jobs but if they retire early by working in the mines, they can contby working in the mines, they can continue to work after retirement in inue to work after retirement in another sector. In this way, miners think that they can get themselves and another sector. In this way, miners think that they can get themselves and their families out of poverty by retiring in their 40s. Miners are counting their families out of poverty by retiring in their 40s. Miners are counting the advantages of early retirements; buying houses for the family, helpithe advantages of early retirements; buying houses for the family, helping ng their children with education and marriage, continuing to cultivate and their children with education and marriage, continuing to cultivate and start a new business. Most of these miners plan for some kind of entre-start a new business. Most of these miners plan for some kind of entre-preneurialism in their retired lives.preneurialism in their retired lives. In the case of miners, entrepreneuri-In the case of miners, entrepreneuri-alism is a desire in the age of retialism is a desire in the age of retirement because of early retirement ad-rement because of early retirement ad-vantages from the mining sector. vantages from the mining sector. All in all, for these mine workers, All in all, for these mine workers, retirement does not mean retiring from working life, but it gives them the retirement does not mean retiring from working life, but it gives them the possibility of guaranteeing basic needs for their families. They thus con-possibility of guaranteeing basic needs for their families. They thus con-sisidered early retirement as the main motivation to work but also as a dered early retirement as the main motivation to work but also as a strategy for eliminating poverty.strategy for eliminating poverty.

Even though there is the risk of losing one’s life and six miners from

Even though there is the risk of losing one’s life and six miners from Selimli had lost their lives in the mines, whenever one asks miners their Selimli had lost their lives in the mines, whenever one asks miners their main reasmain reason for working in the underground mine, they refer to early re-on for working in the underground mine, they refer to early re-tirement and social insurance. Retirement is thus vital for miners who tirement and social insurance. Retirement is thus vital for miners who survive the accidents in the mines and succeed to live until receiving their survive the accidents in the mines and succeed to live until receiving their retirement rights. Nonetheless, early retiremeretirement rights. Nonetheless, early retirement does not give the miners nt does not give the miners a wealthy life. They can only escape poverty by working in another job a wealthy life. They can only escape poverty by working in another job after retirement. Also, the miners’ statements about early retirement and after retirement. Also, the miners’ statements about early retirement and social insurance tell us more about the general social policies and retire-social insurance tell us more about the general social policies and retire-ment pattment patterns of Turkey. The retirement salary of many unskilled jobs in erns of Turkey. The retirement salary of many unskilled jobs in Turkey is insufficient and under the poverty line. Hence, I argue that Turkey is insufficient and under the poverty line. Hence, I argue that given the mining sector’s early retirement’s advantages and relatively given the mining sector’s early retirement’s advantages and relatively

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higher wages and pensions and the ability to be in

higher wages and pensions and the ability to be included in the social se-cluded in the social se-curity system; peasant miners and their families consider a risky work curity system; peasant miners and their families consider a risky work such as mining as advantageous and gainful employment.such as mining as advantageous and gainful employment.

My field research perfectly illustrated this importance of early re-

My field research perfectly illustrated this importance of early re-tirement for the miners and their familitirement for the miners and their families. As I already es. As I already writtenwritten about in about in the Introduction, the community and especially Bilal and Mahmut in-the Introduction, the community and especially Bilal and Mahmut in-sisted a few times that I start working in the underground mines because sisted a few times that I start working in the underground mines because of early retirement advantages. They suggested that I work 11 years to of early retirement advantages. They suggested that I work 11 years to complete 400complete 4000 workdays insurance premium and then continue with my 0 workdays insurance premium and then continue with my education and obtain a PhD after education and obtain a PhD after guaranteeingguaranteeing my future, my future, i.e.,i.e., being re-being re-tired from the mines. Their insistence shows how vital it is for them to be tired from the mines. Their insistence shows how vital it is for them to be retired at an early age.retired at an early age.

There

There werewere also numerous occaalso numerous occasions when miners and their family sions when miners and their family members underlined the importance of early retirement from the mines. members underlined the importance of early retirement from the mines. Mineworker Mevlüt (32) explained “if you started to work in under-Mineworker Mevlüt (32) explained “if you started to work in under-ground mines when you were 19 or 20 years old, your workday insurance ground mines when you were 19 or 20 years old, your workday insurance premium will be premium will be paid when you are 30 including army duty, you paid when you are 30 including army duty, you then then guaranteeguarantee retirement,retirement, and you can work in any and you can work in any job youjob you want or cultivate want or cultivate agricultural products after agricultural products after retirement.” Anotherretirement.” Another worker, Refik (30) also worker, Refik (30) also stated that “I cannot accept working in any place other thanstated that “I cannot accept working in any place other than underground underground mines because the working hours are too long, the retirement age is too mines because the working hours are too long, the retirement age is too high, you need to pay double of the workday insurance premium you pay high, you need to pay double of the workday insurance premium you pay as a mineworker and the salaries are low”. His statement explains the as a mineworker and the salaries are low”. His statement explains the general labor situation in Turkgeneral labor situation in Turkey and why the Selimli miners consider ey and why the Selimli miners consider working in mines as an advantage. Early retirement advantages affect working in mines as an advantage. Early retirement advantages affect workers’ motivation to work in the mines, and it is a labor control mech-workers’ motivation to work in the mines, and it is a labor control mech-anism in the mine pits as workers do not want to lose their jobs before anism in the mine pits as workers do not want to lose their jobs before retiretiring from the mine.ring from the mine.

Another retired mine worker Halil (72) said “

Another retired mine worker Halil (72) said “I am very thankful I am very thankful who is reason to work me in the mines.”who is reason to work me in the mines.” Halil was a farmer until he was Halil was a farmer until he was 40. When agriculture transformation began in the region and cash de-40. When agriculture transformation began in the region and cash de-pendency increased in the villagependency increased in the villagers’ life, he began to work in under-rs’ life, he began to work in under-ground ground mines,mines, and he retired at 50. Ahmet (67) worked in the mine for and he retired at 50. Ahmet (67) worked in the mine for one month and then quitted the job because the work was difficult. He one month and then quitted the job because the work was difficult. He

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wanted to continue only farming. However, Ahmet stated that he now re-

wanted to continue only farming. However, Ahmet stated that he now re-grets not wogrets not working in the mine.rking in the mine.

The principal argument made by many miners and retired min-

The principal argument made by many miners and retired min-eworkers was that “you work ten years in underground mines and take eworkers was that “you work ten years in underground mines and take retirement wage for 30 years.” When I reminded them the working con-retirement wage for 30 years.” When I reminded them the working con-ditions and the health problems miners facedditions and the health problems miners faced, Melih’s (47) response re-, Melih’s (47) response re-veals miners’ mentalities;veals miners’ mentalities;

Other people live ten years longer than miners, but they have to

Other people live ten years longer than miners, but they have to work until the age of 60 and only can take retirement wage for ten work until the age of 60 and only can take retirement wage for ten years and cannot use it for anything because they are already old. years and cannot use it for anything because they are already old. WhenWhen miners are 38, and today it is 43, they are retired and free. miners are 38, and today it is 43, they are retired and free. 40s is the time we need money the most for our family, for the ed-40s is the time we need money the most for our family, for the ed-ucation of children, marriage, and so on. Other people will be re-ucation of children, marriage, and so on. Other people will be re-tired after 60 and their children will be already grown, and thtired after 60 and their children will be already grown, and they ey will not be able to use their retirement pension because of old age.will not be able to use their retirement pension because of old age.

As can be seen from these examples, early retirement was the most im-

As can be seen from these examples, early retirement was the most im-portant reason from the miners’ perspective to work in the underground portant reason from the miners’ perspective to work in the underground mines. Early retirement was presented as a vemines. Early retirement was presented as a very important reason by ry important reason by every interviewee including those miners who work and those retired. every interviewee including those miners who work and those retired. Miners’ family members also emphasized the importance of early retire-Miners’ family members also emphasized the importance of early retire-ment in interviews. ment in interviews. When I asked mothers about their sons’ migration to When I asked mothers about their sons’ migration to work in the Soma mines,work in the Soma mines, their responsetheir responsess were mainly positive. For exam-were mainly positive. For exam-ple, Ferah (66) said that “If Recep and Ramazan stayed in the village and ple, Ferah (66) said that “If Recep and Ramazan stayed in the village and continued to cultivate, they could barely live and would just have their continued to cultivate, they could barely live and would just have their house, but in Soma they have three apartment flats thanks to working in house, but in Soma they have three apartment flats thanks to working in the mithe mine. If they lived here, they could not do it.” Her statement also hints ne. If they lived here, they could not do it.” Her statement also hints to the general trend among the miners who buy or build a house with to the general trend among the miners who buy or build a house with their retirement bonus.their retirement bonus.

Early retirement advantage was not only the topic for the immi-

Early retirement advantage was not only the topic for the immi-grant miners in Soma who came grant miners in Soma who came from the village of Selimli. It was also the from the village of Selimli. It was also the topic for the local miners whom I interviewed in my small pilot research topic for the local miners whom I interviewed in my small pilot research

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in KırkağaçKırkağaç. The interviewees in Kırkağaç complained about the possibil-. The interviewees in Kırkağaç complained about the possibil-ity of losing their early retirement right if ity of losing their early retirement right if somehow,somehow, they could nthey could not con-ot con-tinue to work in underground mines. Ali (32) said, “Only 200 days are left tinue to work in underground mines. Ali (32) said, “Only 200 days are left to complete my premium days and obtain my right of retirement. If I can-to complete my premium days and obtain my right of retirement. If I can-not work in the underground mines, I will have to work many years in not work in the underground mines, I will have to work many years in different jobs to obtain the retiredifferent jobs to obtain the retirement right.” Also, many mineworkers ment right.” Also, many mineworkers from Uyar Madencilik Companyfrom Uyar Madencilik Company11 already had started to work in another already had started to work in another company without protesting. Refik (30) explained it with the following company without protesting. Refik (30) explained it with the following sentences. “I will have 10.000 Turkish liras from the company for com-sentences. “I will have 10.000 Turkish liras from the company for com-pensation, pensation, if I protest and do not work, I might lose about 30.000 Turkish if I protest and do not work, I might lose about 30.000 Turkish liras, so I started to work and I am trying to finish my days for retirement.” liras, so I started to work and I am trying to finish my days for retirement.” Therefore, I argue that retirement is vital for miners both for migrant and Therefore, I argue that retirement is vital for miners both for migrant and local mineworkers in the region as itlocal mineworkers in the region as it shapes their perception of their shapes their perception of their work.work.12

§ 4.24.2 Household StrategyHousehold Strategy, , Family Family Dynamics,Dynamics, and Marriageand Marriage

Working in the mine is a household strategy for the peasant com-

Working in the mine is a household strategy for the peasant com-munity of Selimli. Peasant households resort to this strategy for various munity of Selimli. Peasant households resort to this strategy for various reasons. They do so to escapreasons. They do so to escape poverty, to secure the livelihood of the fam-e poverty, to secure the livelihood of the fam-ily, to live in better conditions, to secure retirement for the male min-ily, to live in better conditions, to secure retirement for the male min-eworkers of the household, to secure social insurance and health cover-eworkers of the household, to secure social insurance and health cover-age for all family members, toage for all family members, to give children better education give children better education opportopportunities etc. Indeed, working in the mines has become so important unities etc. Indeed, working in the mines has become so important for family and household dynamics in recent years that it has become like for family and household dynamics in recent years that it has become like a prerequisite for young men to work in the mine to marry and establish a prerequisite for young men to work in the mine to marry and establish a household. In this way, mining has also bea household. In this way, mining has also become linked to masculinity. come linked to masculinity.

11 Uyar Madencilik is a mining company in Soma in the Darkale region that also works with Uyar Madencilik is a mining company in Soma in the Darkale region that also works with the rthe redevance system. The miners protested this company in Kırkağaç because they did not edevance system. The miners protested this company in Kırkağaç because they did not get their compensation and lost their early retirement rights.get their compensation and lost their early retirement rights.

12 The retirement used as a labor control mechanism in the region. In the past, the mükel-The retirement used as a labor control mechanism in the region. In the past, the mükel-lefiyet laws were the control mechanism today, retirement laws and social policies are used lefiyet laws were the control mechanism today, retirement laws and social policies are used instead of mükellefiyet laws. Peasant workers want to be guaranteed their futinstead of mükellefiyet laws. Peasant workers want to be guaranteed their future by retire-ure by retire-ment, but it was also used as a control mechanism over them.ment, but it was also used as a control mechanism over them.

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In the case of Selimli, when the inner migration started in Turkey

In the case of Selimli, when the inner migration started in Turkey after the 1950s, the village households developed a strategy around min-after the 1950s, the village households developed a strategy around min-ing along with a gendered division of labor within the family. Men earned ing along with a gendered division of labor within the family. Men earned social secursocial security and retirement by working in the mines in Soma and came ity and retirement by working in the mines in Soma and came back to the village during the harvesting time. These first and second back to the village during the harvesting time. These first and second generation of men were circle migrants. Their working in the mine made generation of men were circle migrants. Their working in the mine made it possible to have health coverage for the entire fait possible to have health coverage for the entire family as reflected in mily as reflected in Kemal’s story. At the same time, their wives stayed under the control of Kemal’s story. At the same time, their wives stayed under the control of their husband’s family in the village and continued agricultural and live-their husband’s family in the village and continued agricultural and live-stock activities as reflected in Neslihan’s story. The latter phenomenon stock activities as reflected in Neslihan’s story. The latter phenomenon corresponds to corresponds to the feminization of agriculture as explained by Coşku the feminization of agriculture as explained by Coşku ÇelikÇelik13 her study on the Soma Coal Basin.her study on the Soma Coal Basin.

The wives of

The wives of firstfirst-- and secondand second--generationgeneration miners were not pleased miners were not pleased with this feminization of agricultural labor which defined the earlier with this feminization of agricultural labor which defined the earlier years of their married lyears of their married life, as they stated in a focus group inife, as they stated in a focus group in ŞefikaŞefika (32)(32)’s ’s househouse in Soma. Their dissatisfaction with life their lives in the village dur-in Soma. Their dissatisfaction with life their lives in the village dur-ing these earlier times had both to do with the feminization of agriculture ing these earlier times had both to do with the feminization of agriculture as well as family conflicts and disputes they as well as family conflicts and disputes they experienced with their hus-experienced with their hus-bands’ families, and especially their mothersbands’ families, and especially their mothers--inin--law. In the focus group, law. In the focus group, Kader (50)Kader (50) who liveswho lives in Somain Soma said that “We do not go back to the village said that “We do not go back to the village because we suffered a lot from our mothersbecause we suffered a lot from our mothers--inin--law and excessive work in law and excessive work in agricultureagriculture and animals husbandry.” In the same focus group interview, and animals husbandry.” In the same focus group interview, also Ayşe (60) and Kamuran (50) expressed their complainalso Ayşe (60) and Kamuran (50) expressed their complaintts about their s about their husbands’ families and attributed their reason for migrating from the vil-husbands’ families and attributed their reason for migrating from the vil-lage to them. Hence, the conflicts between the wivelage to them. Hence, the conflicts between the wives of first and second s of first and second generation miners and their husbands’ families also seem to have played generation miners and their husbands’ families also seem to have played a role in the migration from Selimli to Soma for these households. In a role in the migration from Selimli to Soma for these households. In other words, women’s living in the control of the husband’s family under other words, women’s living in the control of the husband’s family under a patriarchal milia patriarchal milieu in the village was also a factor for the migration of eu in the village was also a factor for the migration of the first and second generation to Soma. the first and second generation to Soma.

13 Çelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means of Rural LivelihoodÇelik, “Extractive Industries and Changing Means of Rural Livelihood.”.”

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While those who migrated to Soma offered the above explanations

While those who migrated to Soma offered the above explanations for their migration, those parents and parentsfor their migration, those parents and parents--inin--law that continue to live law that continue to live in the village ofin the village offered a different perspective on their children’s migration. fered a different perspective on their children’s migration. For example, in the interviews I conducted in the For example, in the interviews I conducted in the village, Ferahvillage, Ferah (66)(66) who who is the motheris the mother--inin--law of law of Fadime (42) Fadime (42) explained that her son and daughterexplained that her son and daughter--inin--law did not tell her that they were migrating law did not tell her that they were migrating to Soma. They rented a to Soma. They rented a house in Soma and escaped on a way to migrate. Ferah was still angry house in Soma and escaped on a way to migrate. Ferah was still angry with her children and said that “all agricultural work and animal hus-with her children and said that “all agricultural work and animal hus-bandry as well as housework belongs to me after my son and his wife bandry as well as housework belongs to me after my son and his wife escaped from the village.”escaped from the village.” These family disputes and conflicts are still These family disputes and conflicts are still valid for the generation older than 40 which I call the first and second valid for the generation older than 40 which I call the first and second generation in this research. However, different dynamics are at play for generation in this research. However, different dynamics are at play for the younger generation,the younger generation, which I discuss below.which I discuss below.

In most cases, w

In most cases, working in the mine has become a condition for orking in the mine has become a condition for young men’s marriage. Most of the current mineworkers’ stories of be-young men’s marriage. Most of the current mineworkers’ stories of be-coming miners start just before they decide to get married. Whencoming miners start just before they decide to get married. When aa youngyoung man decides to found a family and talk to the family of the brideman decides to found a family and talk to the family of the bride--toto--be, be, the first demand he encounters in the community is “to have a formal, the first demand he encounters in the community is “to have a formal, insured, wellinsured, well--paid job”. Working in the mine is also part of masculinity paid job”. Working in the mine is also part of masculinity because young males have to show to the community that they can work because young males have to show to the community that they can work in the underground mine to get married.in the underground mine to get married. The link between masculinity The link between masculinity and mining is also highlighted in the literature.and mining is also highlighted in the literature.14 The mining sector is The mining sector is very masculine based. In the mine, the workers are only males except for very masculine based. In the mine, the workers are only males except for a few cleaners.a few cleaners.15 This masculinity causes the new type of gender roles in This masculinity causes the new type of gender roles in the housethe household different than agriculture sector.hold different than agriculture sector.

In the field, I observed that the families of girls want their prospec-

In the field, I observed that the families of girls want their prospec-tive sontive son--inin--law “to stand on his feet.” Young men must show to the bride’s law “to stand on his feet.” Young men must show to the bride’s family that he is working and can take responsibility for a family family that he is working and can take responsibility for a family and offer and offer his wife decent living conditions. Given the rural transformation and un-his wife decent living conditions. Given the rural transformation and un-reliability of income to be earned through agriculturereliability of income to be earned through agriculture,, agriculture is no agriculture is no

14 Quataert, Quataert, ““Miners and the State in the Ottoman EmpireMiners and the State in the Ottoman Empire,”,” 7171..

15 Ibid.Ibid.

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regarded as reliable work.

regarded as reliable work.16 Also, the research findings show that jobs in Also, the research findings show that jobs in the family business are not accepted. As Safa (26) explained, he had to the family business are not accepted. As Safa (26) explained, he had to work in the mines instead of driving minibusses with his father because work in the mines instead of driving minibusses with his father because his wife’s family insisted him to have a formal job, preferably inhis wife’s family insisted him to have a formal job, preferably in the mine. the mine.

Hence, in the community young men are expected to have formal,

Hence, in the community young men are expected to have formal, reliable jobs in order to marry. It is expected that a sonreliable jobs in order to marry. It is expected that a son--inin--law earns a law earns a wage above the minimum wage, secure social insurance and can qualify wage above the minimum wage, secure social insurance and can qualify to receive bank credits if needed. to receive bank credits if needed. However, for these young men who However, for these young men who were born after the 1980s in Turkey’s neoliberal area, finding a formal were born after the 1980s in Turkey’s neoliberal area, finding a formal job is very difficult given the high unemployment rates as well as the high job is very difficult given the high unemployment rates as well as the high level of informal, level of informal, temporary,temporary, and minimum wage jobs in the labor market. and minimum wage jobs in the labor market. HeHence, for an unskilled young peasant from Selimli to become a wage la-nce, for an unskilled young peasant from Selimli to become a wage la-borer in the mines is mostly the only chance to find formal and reliable borer in the mines is mostly the only chance to find formal and reliable employment. employment.

When I asked young men in the field their reasons for migrating to

When I asked young men in the field their reasons for migrating to and working in the Soma mines, theyand working in the Soma mines, they often stated that they could not get often stated that they could not get married if they did not work in the mines. “Nobody accepts to give their married if they did not work in the mines. “Nobody accepts to give their daughter if I do not work in the mine,” was a statement I often heard from daughter if I do not work in the mine,” was a statement I often heard from young men in my researchyoung men in my research in the fieldin the field. This was also . This was also researchresearch finding finding in in the the studstudiesies ssimilar arguments on the important role marriage and estab-imilar arguments on the important role marriage and estab-lishing a household play in young men’s decision to migrate and work in lishing a household play in young men’s decision to migrate and work in the mines are also raised in other studies on the Soma coal basin.the mines are also raised in other studies on the Soma coal basin.17

Here, I should mention that most marriages

Here, I should mention that most marriages take place within the take place within the community itself. Similar to Stirling’s point, “fathers of daughters are ex-community itself. Similar to Stirling’s point, “fathers of daughters are ex-pected to be unwilling to give their daughters away.”pected to be unwilling to give their daughters away.”18 Hence, in Selimli, Hence, in Selimli,

16 Keyder and Yenal, “Bildiğimiz TarımKeyder and Yenal, “Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu.” Huri İslamoğlu, “The Politics of Agricul-ın Sonu.” Huri İslamoğlu, “The Politics of Agricul-tural Production in Turkey,” in tural Production in Turkey,” in Neoliberal Turkey and Its Discontents Economic Policy and Neoliberal Turkey and Its Discontents Economic Policy and the Environment Under Erdoğan,the Environment Under Erdoğan, ed. Fikret Adaman, Bengi Akbulut and Murat Arsel, 75ed. Fikret Adaman, Bengi Akbulut and Murat Arsel, 75––102. (London: I.B.Tauris, 2017).102. (London: I.B.Tauris, 2017).

17 Fikret Adaman, “NeoFikret Adaman, “Neo--Liberalizm, Otoriter Popülizm ve Soma Maden Faciası Konuk: Prof. Liberalizm, Otoriter Popülizm ve Soma Maden Faciası Konuk: Prof. Dr. Fikret Adaman.” Medyascope. 3 April 2018. Dr. Fikret Adaman.” Medyascope. 3 April 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z3s6ccv7IRw&t=5shttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z3s6ccv7IRw&t=5s; Çelik, ; Çelik, Extractive Industries and Extractive Industries and Changing Means.Changing Means.

18 Stirling, “Turkish Village,” 190.Stirling, “Turkish Village,” 190.

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the marriages are rarely with someone outside of the village.

the marriages are rarely with someone outside of the village. Kamile (Kamile (48)48) explainedexplained this tradition of the village and stated that the girl who marries this tradition of the village and stated that the girl who marries someone from outside the village is considered as “a bad girl and goes to someone from outside the village is considered as “a bad girl and goes to hell”.hell”.

Elderly and middle

Elderly and middle--aged wives of miners mostly advise their aged wives of miners mostly advise their daughter not to stay in the village and migratedaughter not to stay in the village and migrate to the urbanized area to to the urbanized area to live in better conditions.live in better conditions. They do not want to send their daughter outside They do not want to send their daughter outside of the village. The families want their groom outside of the village as wage of the village. The families want their groom outside of the village as wage laborers.laborers.19 In other words, the family of young girls often require the In other words, the family of young girls often require the groom groom to work in the mine and migrate to Soma before they give their to work in the mine and migrate to Soma before they give their approval for the marriage. The unwillingness of young women to stay in approval for the marriage. The unwillingness of young women to stay in the village is often told by young men in a joking way. As they stated in the village is often told by young men in a joking way. As they stated in my field research, “we work in the mine and migrmy field research, “we work in the mine and migrate because the bosses ate because the bosses want it”want it”. . When I asked them who the bosses are, they referred to their When I asked them who the bosses are, they referred to their response wives and fiancés who had asked them to work in the under-response wives and fiancés who had asked them to work in the under-ground mine.ground mine. Yet, working in the mine is not only a demand made on Yet, working in the mine is not only a demand made on young men by their young men by their fiancés’fiancés’ ffamilies. Families also often desire that their amilies. Families also often desire that their sons work in the mine. For example, Kezban complained that her son is sons work in the mine. For example, Kezban complained that her son is not able to find a job in the mine because retired miners continue to work. not able to find a job in the mine because retired miners continue to work. Families often pressure sons to work in the underground mines. Families often pressure sons to work in the underground mines. Women Women may also insist on their husbands to work in mine pits.may also insist on their husbands to work in mine pits.

4.2.1

4.2.1 The Importance of Marriage and HonorThe Importance of Marriage and Honor

For miners, marriage is important and has a crucial role in their

For miners, marriage is important and has a crucial role in their life. Working under very difficult conditions for hours in a stressful envi-life. Working under very difficult conditions for hours in a stressful envi-ronment, miners ronment, miners need care from their families and from their wives. Min-need care from their families and from their wives. Min-ers are deprived of many opportunities in the underground mines like ers are deprived of many opportunities in the underground mines like eating, communication, fresh air and even toilets. Therefore, a miner eating, communication, fresh air and even toilets. Therefore, a miner needs to have lunch or dinner when he arrives home. Also, thisneeds to have lunch or dinner when he arrives home. Also, this research research focuses on immigrant miners, who stayed in the worksite in miserable focuses on immigrant miners, who stayed in the worksite in miserable conditions. Migrant miners stayed in the terrible conditions of the conditions. Migrant miners stayed in the terrible conditions of the worksite (worksite (şantiyeşantiye) until the 2014 accident. Miners began swearing when ) until the 2014 accident. Miners began swearing when

19 Ibid, 33.Ibid, 33.

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I asked them about

I asked them about şantiye. şantiye. Single minSingle miners or miners whose family did no ers or miners whose family did no to the region lived in these small buildings. After the 2014 accident, with to the region lived in these small buildings. After the 2014 accident, with a small increase of income, miners were not willing to stay in the bad a small increase of income, miners were not willing to stay in the bad conditions of conditions of şantiye. şantiye. Also, mining companies do not want to give accom-Also, mining companies do not want to give accom-modamodation and meals to decrease their cost. Thus, staying in the worksite tion and meals to decrease their cost. Thus, staying in the worksite as a single mineworker is also a reason for young men to marry. Marriage as a single mineworker is also a reason for young men to marry. Marriage and establishing a household are seen as an escape from such miserable and establishing a household are seen as an escape from such miserable conditions of the worksite.conditions of the worksite.

Marriage and fa

Marriage and family are important for the miners. After marriage, mily are important for the miners. After marriage, family continues to be a major motivation for men to work under the dif-family continues to be a major motivation for men to work under the dif-ficult conditions of the mine pits. Miners seem ready for sacrificing them-ficult conditions of the mine pits. Miners seem ready for sacrificing them-selves for their families and households. They joke about thselves for their families and households. They joke about the possibility e possibility of death in workof death in work: “: “If there is an accident, and something happens to us in If there is an accident, and something happens to us in the underground mines, our families and our children might live in better the underground mines, our families and our children might live in better life conditions with compensations than we can offer them.” Many min-life conditions with compensations than we can offer them.” Many min-ers’ perceptions are thaters’ perceptions are that “their dead body is worthier than them alive.” “their dead body is worthier than them alive.” How can we interpret these statements and jokes? They have emotional How can we interpret these statements and jokes? They have emotional reasons for take risks by working in the underground mine. Also, working reasons for take risks by working in the underground mine. Also, working in the underground mine is related to masculinity and honor. Therein the underground mine is related to masculinity and honor. Therefore, fore, marriage, family, and honor are important reasons for miners to work in marriage, family, and honor are important reasons for miners to work in underground mines in risky conditionsunderground mines in risky conditions

4.2.2

4.2.2 Family Perception of Migration Family Perception of Migration

In the field, I asked men and women their perception of village and

In the field, I asked men and women their perception of village and migration. When I asked women their opinmigration. When I asked women their opinion about going back to the ion about going back to the village, the responses were negative. Indeed, none of the women I inter-village, the responses were negative. Indeed, none of the women I inter-viewed responded positively. The only and most positive response was viewed responded positively. The only and most positive response was by Rabia (27) “If I have to go back to the village, then I might think.” In by Rabia (27) “If I have to go back to the village, then I might think.” In the memory othe memory of women, the village is mainly linked to problems and suf-f women, the village is mainly linked to problems and suf-fering. Also, women rarely visit the village unlike their husbands who go fering. Also, women rarely visit the village unlike their husbands who go to the village several times in a yearto the village several times in a year. . For example, KaderFor example, Kader (49)(49) explains explains “The last time that I went to the village was ten years ago while my hus-“The last time that I went to the village was ten years ago while my hus-band goes at least four times a year.” Women explain this situation and band goes at least four times a year.” Women explain this situation and

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their unwillingness to go to the village by referring to their children’s ed-

their unwillingness to go to the village by referring to their children’s ed-ucation, being close to thucation, being close to the market and living without animal smell and in e market and living without animal smell and in clean conditions in a modern lifestyle in Soma.clean conditions in a modern lifestyle in Soma.

When I asked the same question to men, their responses were pos-

When I asked the same question to men, their responses were pos-itive, and they had a desire to go back to the village. They talked about itive, and they had a desire to go back to the village. They talked about dreaming about the villdreaming about the village. They gave examples from their dreams to age. They gave examples from their dreams to show how much they wanted to go back. For example, Refik’s response show how much they wanted to go back. For example, Refik’s response waswas;; “If I convince my family, I will go back today to the village” and an-“If I convince my family, I will go back today to the village” and an-other example is Ümit who said; “I see the village in my dreams, I goother example is Ümit who said; “I see the village in my dreams, I go fish-fish-ing, graze animals and play cards in the village coffeehouse in my dream.” ing, graze animals and play cards in the village coffeehouse in my dream.”

There are observable gender differences in the perception of the

There are observable gender differences in the perception of the village. The children and young adults who just finished high school are village. The children and young adults who just finished high school are more neutral compared to their parentmore neutral compared to their parents. Kamile explains her unwilling-s. Kamile explains her unwilling-ness and the differences of gender about the village; “My husband insists ness and the differences of gender about the village; “My husband insists that we go back to the village, and he’s saying you will only cook for me I that we go back to the village, and he’s saying you will only cook for me I will do all the other work, animal stock farming etc. But I don’t accept will do all the other work, animal stock farming etc. But I don’t accept because I know that after the business starts, my husband will leave the because I know that after the business starts, my husband will leave the work to me.”work to me.”

The migration seems to have changed the gender roles and gen-

The migration seems to have changed the gender roles and gen-dered division of labor. While women were very active and harddered division of labor. While women were very active and hard--working working in the village, with migration, their win the village, with migration, their workload became less while men orkload became less while men started to work in the difficult conditions of the mine. In other words, started to work in the difficult conditions of the mine. In other words, Turkey is not able to provide formal employment to migrated women Turkey is not able to provide formal employment to migrated women from Selimli. While men have an emotional connection with land and ag-from Selimli. While men have an emotional connection with land and ag-riculture, women ariculture, women are not willing to go back to cultivate even though they re not willing to go back to cultivate even though they work as seasonal agriculture workers during the summer in the Soma re-work as seasonal agriculture workers during the summer in the Soma re-gion. The change of gender roles after migration was explained by Ka-gion. The change of gender roles after migration was explained by Ka-mile (48) in the following way, “In the past, being a woman wamile (48) in the following way, “In the past, being a woman was difficult, s difficult, today it is very easy to be a woman, however, today, it is very difficult to today it is very easy to be a woman, however, today, it is very difficult to be a man.” be a man.”

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§ 4.34.3 Three Generations and Three Generations and Changing Patterns of Migration Changing Patterns of Migration and Laborand Labor

While every family’s story of migration and mining has some

While every family’s story of migration and mining has some unique features, I will try to unique features, I will try to depict the general characteristics that define depict the general characteristics that define the experiences of three generationthe experiences of three generationss of men. In doing so, I aim to high-of men. In doing so, I aim to high-light the changes in patterns of migrations and labor over time. As stated light the changes in patterns of migrations and labor over time. As stated in the Introduction, following different waves of migration to in the Introduction, following different waves of migration to the mine the mine pits, I divided the sample group of the study into three generations. The pits, I divided the sample group of the study into three generations. The first generation is the workers who migrated to and worked in the mines first generation is the workers who migrated to and worked in the mines in Soma between the years 1960 and 1980. The second generation is the in Soma between the years 1960 and 1980. The second generation is the migrant workers from Selimli wmigrant workers from Selimli who worked in the Soma mines between ho worked in the Soma mines between 1980 and 2001. The third generation of mineworkers from Selimli 1980 and 2001. The third generation of mineworkers from Selimli worked in the mines between 2001 andworked in the mines between 2001 and 20202020..

4.3.1

4.3.1 First GenerationFirst Generation

The migration history in Turkey from the countryside to industri-

The migration history in Turkey from the countryside to industri-alized areas started in the 195alized areas started in the 1950s and in0s and in Selimli, according to the inter-Selimli, according to the inter-views, migrations views, migrations beganbegan around 1965. In the period between 1960 and around 1965. In the period between 1960 and 1980, the villagers of Selimli started to migrate to Balıkesir, Manisa, Tra-1980, the villagers of Selimli started to migrate to Balıkesir, Manisa, Tra-cia, Bursa, and even the Black Sea areas and western European countries cia, Bursa, and even the Black Sea areas and western European countries like Germany.like Germany.20 Men also migrated to the Soma mines as seasonal work-Men also migrated to the Soma mines as seasonal work-

20 ““GuestworkersGuestworkers were employed in coalmining on a relatively large scale. To provide for were employed in coalmining on a relatively large scale. To provide for workers in Germany, for instance, a Germanworkers in Germany, for instance, a German--Turkish, [Settlement to Procure TurTurkish, [Settlement to Procure Turkish Em-kish Em-ployees for the Federal Republic of German] was signed in 1961 to regulate the selection ployees for the Federal Republic of German] was signed in 1961 to regulate the selection and mediation of Turkish contract workers by German agencies in Istanbul and Ankara. By and mediation of Turkish contract workers by German agencies in Istanbul and Ankara. By 1963 10,200 Turkish miners were already employed in German coalmining, t1963 10,200 Turkish miners were already employed in German coalmining, the largest he largest group among the 27,130 foreign workers in that industry.84 After a relapse during the re-group among the 27,130 foreign workers in that industry.84 After a relapse during the re-cession of 1966−1967, their number rose again, from about 5,200 in 1969 to 19,800 in cession of 1966−1967, their number rose again, from about 5,200 in 1969 to 19,800 in 1973, accounting for 74 per cent of all foreign workers in coalmining.1973, accounting for 74 per cent of all foreign workers in coalmining. 885 The stark fluctu-5 The stark fluctu-ation of these numbers before, during, and after the recession of 1966−1967 reflects the ation of these numbers before, during, and after the recession of 1966−1967 reflects the general position of foreign workers as a flexible reserve army, both in coalmining and other general position of foreign workers as a flexible reserve army, both in coalmining and other

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ers. During the harvesting time in summer, these part

ers. During the harvesting time in summer, these part--time workers time workers re-re-turnedturned to the village and spent four to five months in the village before to the village and spent four to five months in the village before going back to work in the mines in Soma. This going back to work in the mines in Soma. This first generation worked in first generation worked in the mines in Soma between the years 1960the mines in Soma between the years 1960--80, the historical period the 80, the historical period the between the two coups and the period of import substitution.between the two coups and the period of import substitution.21 The age The age of these men is over 65 now and they were all born in Selimli village.of these men is over 65 now and they were all born in Selimli village.

The retirement ag

The retirement age of this first generation and the number of days e of this first generation and the number of days they had to work for retirement were lower in comparison to those of the they had to work for retirement were lower in comparison to those of the younger generation.younger generation.22 Also, during this period, the turnover rate in the Also, during this period, the turnover rate in the mines was higher. Hence, it was easy for these peasantmines was higher. Hence, it was easy for these peasant--minersminers to leave to leave work for harvesting and then return to work at the mine. Therefore, min-work for harvesting and then return to work at the mine. Therefore, min-ers in this period had an intense relation with agriculture, and the pro-ers in this period had an intense relation with agriculture, and the pro-duction levels stayed the same as before. For example, Osman (65) from duction levels stayed the same as before. For example, Osman (65) from this first generation stated thathis first generation stated that “We didn't work like this all the time, like t “We didn't work like this all the time, like young people now, we used to work for three or four months, we used to young people now, we used to work for three or four months, we used to raise the threshing in the village, plough our fields and go back to the raise the threshing in the village, plough our fields and go back to the mine so that we could have our retirement.”mine so that we could have our retirement.” 23

sectors. Although by 1973 several German mines were staf

sectors. Although by 1973 several German mines were staffed almost exclusively by miners fed almost exclusively by miners of Turkish descent, in most cases Turks were to be found only at the lower end of the job of Turkish descent, in most cases Turks were to be found only at the lower end of the job ladder. As with the Moroccan workers in other European coalladder. As with the Moroccan workers in other European coal--producing countries, they producing countries, they were often employed to ensure exhausted or unprwere often employed to ensure exhausted or unprofitable mines could be closed down ofitable mines could be closed down smoothly”smoothly” Knotter, “Migration and Ethnicity in Coalfield History: Global Perspectives,” IRSH Knotter, “Migration and Ethnicity in Coalfield History: Global Perspectives,” IRSH 60 (2015): 1360 (2015): 13––39, doi:10.1017/S0020859015000413.39, doi:10.1017/S0020859015000413. 34.34.

21 Pamuk, “Türkiye’nin 200 Yıllık IktisadiPamuk, “Türkiye’nin 200 Yıllık Iktisadi Tarihi.”Tarihi.”

22 Retirement age and premium days simply, the first generation of miners were retired in Retirement age and premium days simply, the first generation of miners were retired in any age if they work more than 4000 days in 20 years. They were retired mostly at the age any age if they work more than 4000 days in 20 years. They were retired mostly at the age of 38. If miners started working after 2008, the retirement age is of 38. If miners started working after 2008, the retirement age is 50 for them and they 50 for them and they needed to complete 4.000 workdays insurance premium. However, miners can be retired needed to complete 4.000 workdays insurance premium. However, miners can be retired at 43 if they work more than 4.800 workdays. Hence, working more days in underground at 43 if they work more than 4.800 workdays. Hence, working more days in underground mines decreases the retirement age of miners.mines decreases the retirement age of miners.

23 For example, OsmanFor example, Osman (65) from this first generation stated that (65) from this first generation stated that “We didn't work like this “We didn't work like this all the time, like young people now, we used to work for three or four months, we used to all the time, like young people now, we used to work for three or four months, we used to raise the threshing in the village, plough our fields and go back to the mine so that we could raise the threshing in the village, plough our fields and go back to the mine so that we could have our retirement.” have our retirement.” “Biz böyle sürekli çalışmazdık şimdiki gençler gibi, üç dört ay çalışır “Biz böyle sürekli çalışmazdık şimdiki gençler gibi, üç dört ay çalışır

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In this period, whi

In this period, while men moved to cities as circular migrants, their le men moved to cities as circular migrants, their wives stayed under the control of their husband’s familwives stayed under the control of their husband’s families. Theyies. They cared for cared for farms, animals, and children which was in line with the general pattern farms, animals, and children which was in line with the general pattern of ruralof rural--to urban migration in Turkey at the time. This lto urban migration in Turkey at the time. This led to feminized ed to feminized agriculture in the village as discussed above. This first generation did not agriculture in the village as discussed above. This first generation did not define themselves as mine workers or retired workers. Instead, they de-define themselves as mine workers or retired workers. Instead, they de-fined themselves as farmers, or in relation to the new jobs such as con-fined themselves as farmers, or in relation to the new jobs such as con-struction work, they sstruction work, they started doing after retiring from the mines. Men of tarted doing after retiring from the mines. Men of this first generation did not consider themselves as “(mine) workers” be-this first generation did not consider themselves as “(mine) workers” be-cause they spent only a few years in an underground mine, and they con-cause they spent only a few years in an underground mine, and they con-tinued tinued for for many years to do agriculture and animal husbandry.many years to do agriculture and animal husbandry.

There was an alternate system for mining historically inhere was an alternate system for mining historically in ZonguldakZonguldak andand they they have a connection with their landshave a connection with their lands as Quataert emphasizes as Quataert emphasizes thatthat..24 In other words,In other words, minersminers are peasant workers. are peasant workers. The pThe peasant workers easant workers phenomenon is mentioned in both the literature on phenomenon is mentioned in both the literature on Turkey and world Turkey and world literature.literature.25 Ad Knotter provides an excellent picture of the situation Ad Knotter provides an excellent picture of the situation about the coalfields of labor supply as seasonal. Also, he gives the exam-about the coalfields of labor supply as seasonal. Also, he gives the exam-ple of Zonguldak.ple of Zonguldak.

In emerging coalfields, large parts of the labor force were re-

In emerging coalfields, large parts of the labor force were re-cruited cruited seasonally as peasant migrants from the land. In this way seasonally as peasant migrants from the land. In this way labor supply and the agrarian seasons were interconnected, coal labor supply and the agrarian seasons were interconnected, coal extraction proceeding in reverse tandem with agrarian seasons. extraction proceeding in reverse tandem with agrarian seasons. Seasonal peasant workers were recruited both locally and as tem-Seasonal peasant workers were recruited both locally and as tem-

gelirdik emekliliğimizde olsun diye, köyde harmanı kaldırır, tarlamızı sürer öyle dönerdik

gelirdik emekliliğimizde olsun diye, köyde harmanı kaldırır, tarlamızı sürer öyle dönerdik madene.”madene.”

24 Quataert and Duman, “A Coal Miner's Life During the Late OttQuataert and Duman, “A Coal Miner's Life During the Late Ottoman Empire.”oman Empire.”

25 Erder, “İstanbul’a Bir Kent Kondu.” Erder, “İstanbul’a Bir Kent Kondu.” Oskay, “Geçiş Dönemi Tipi Olarak Zonguldak Kömür Oskay, “Geçiş Dönemi Tipi Olarak Zonguldak Kömür Havzası Maden İşçisi,” 83, 89; Kıray, “Ereğli,” 20, 141; Yıldırmaz, “Politics and the Peas-Havzası Maden İşçisi,” 83, 89; Kıray, “Ereğli,” 20, 141; Yıldırmaz, “Politics and the Peas-antry,”;antry,”; Donald Quataert, Donald Quataert, ““Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Madenciler Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Madenciler ve Devlet Zonguldak ve Devlet Zonguldak Kömür Havzası 1822Kömür Havzası 1822--19201920.”.”

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porary m

porary migrants. A striking example of the local recruiting of peas-igrants. A striking example of the local recruiting of peas-ant miners is the labor system in the Zonguldak coalfield in Tur-ant miners is the labor system in the Zonguldak coalfield in Tur-key.key.26

In Soma and Kütahya, there were no alternate systems officially, but the

In Soma and Kütahya, there were no alternate systems officially, but the workers created the same situation by considering theworkers created the same situation by considering themselves as farm-mselves as farm-ers and quitting the job in the harvesting period in summers. The field-ers and quitting the job in the harvesting period in summers. The field-work findings show that the connection to land work findings show that the connection to land and theand the flexibility of com-flexibility of com-bining mining and agriculture were one of the major reasons forbining mining and agriculture were one of the major reasons for peasantpeasant workers of Selimli to worworkers of Selimli to work in underground mines, for both this first gen-k in underground mines, for both this first gen-eration. According to the retired miners, finding a job in the mines was eration. According to the retired miners, finding a job in the mines was very easy because there were already labor shortages, and the turnover very easy because there were already labor shortages, and the turnover rates were very high. Peasant miners started to work after the darates were very high. Peasant miners started to work after the day that y that they arrived. After working two, three months and staying in the they arrived. After working two, three months and staying in the worksite, they quitted the job and went back home for harvesting. They worksite, they quitted the job and went back home for harvesting. They emphasized that they were seasonal workers. When I asked them how it emphasized that they were seasonal workers. When I asked them how it was possible to work as seasonal workers, İbwas possible to work as seasonal workers, İbrahim K. (66) argued that rahim K. (66) argued that “mining companies were not able to find workers to work; therefore, it “mining companies were not able to find workers to work; therefore, it was effortless to find a job in the mining sector.was effortless to find a job in the mining sector. As İbrahim (66) stated As İbrahim (66) stated that “wage labor was seasonal in this region, and everybody was doing that “wage labor was seasonal in this region, and everybody was doing agriculture untagriculture until the 2000s.” Miners were seasonal mine workers in this il the 2000s.” Miners were seasonal mine workers in this period in this village and Güzelyurt region. period in this village and Güzelyurt region.

While the literature defines these men as peasant

While the literature defines these men as peasant workers,workers, it is also it is also imimportant to understandportant to understand how they define their identity themselves. Selfhow they define their identity themselves. Self--identificatidentification of miners changes according to gion of miners changes according to generations. First genera-enerations. First genera-tion dotion do not define themselves as workers or retired workers. They define not define themselves as workers or retired workers. They define themselves as farmers, just retired, or constructithemselves as farmers, just retired, or construction workers according to on workers according to thethe job they are doingjob they are doing after retiring from the miafter retiring from the minesnes. Retired workers are . Retired workers are not considering themselves as “workers” because they spent only a few not considering themselves as “workers” because they spent only a few years in years in the the underground mine and they continued many years with ag-underground mine and they continued many years with ag-riculturriculture and animal husbandry. They definee and animal husbandry. They define their identity as “farmers” their identity as “farmers” and when I aand when I asked them sked them about mining, they often statedabout mining, they often stated that “they are re-that “they are re-tired from mining.”tired from mining.”

26 Ibid.,14. Ibid.,14.

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4.3.2

4.3.2 The Second GenerationThe Second Generation

The second generation is those who worked between 1980 after

The second generation is those who worked between 1980 after 24 January decisions, and 2001. This period corresponds to the neolib-24 January decisions, and 2001. This period corresponds to the neolib-eral era. Men from this second geeral era. Men from this second generation are currently between 45 and neration are currently between 45 and 65 years old. The majority of them were also born in the village. This 65 years old. The majority of them were also born in the village. This group continued agriculture activities at the same time they worked in group continued agriculture activities at the same time they worked in the mines. In this neoliberal period, with the increase of overall consump-the mines. In this neoliberal period, with the increase of overall consump-tition nationwide, cash dependency in this rural community increased. At on nationwide, cash dependency in this rural community increased. At the same time, the decrease the same time, the decrease inin agricultural subsidies and the neoliberal agricultural subsidies and the neoliberal transformation of agriculture pushed this generation to work in the mine transformation of agriculture pushed this generation to work in the mine pits.pits.27 Still, the fieldwork findings showStill, the fieldwork findings show that the connection to land and that the connection to land and agriculture also continued even if to a lessagriculture also continued even if to a lesserer extent for this second gen-extent for this second gen-eration.eration.

The second generation has the same retirement and social security

The second generation has the same retirement and social security rights as the first generation. They also continue agriculture. Unlike the rights as the first generation. They also continue agriculture. Unlike the previous generation, this generation took their families with them a few previous generation, this generation took their families with them a few years after they migrated to Soma. Hence, women’s role in the family be-years after they migrated to Soma. Hence, women’s role in the family be-gan to change in this generation. Like the previous generation, this gen-gan to change in this generation. Like the previous generation, this gen-eration of men do not define themselves eration of men do not define themselves as mineworkers. Although some as mineworkers. Although some still work in the mines. They consider working in the mine as a “tempo-still work in the mines. They consider working in the mine as a “tempo-rary job” and as a way of getting retirement rights. They have other occu-rary job” and as a way of getting retirement rights. They have other occu-pations, and they are still farmers in their view. Thus, as argued earlier, pations, and they are still farmers in their view. Thus, as argued earlier, the flethe flexibility and possibility of combining mining and agriculture was a xibility and possibility of combining mining and agriculture was a major reason for both the first and second generation of men from Selimli major reason for both the first and second generation of men from Selimli to work in the underground mines in Soma.to work in the underground mines in Soma.

From my childhood, I knew that many peasant farmers in this ge-

From my childhood, I knew that many peasant farmers in this ge-ography labography labored in the mines.ored in the mines. From the interviews, the findings showed From the interviews, the findings showed that nearly all males are working in the mines or worked in mines and that nearly all males are working in the mines or worked in mines and retired from the mines, more than my expectancy. For example, the dia-retired from the mines, more than my expectancy. For example, the dia-logue with the minibus driver showed that the minibus drilogue with the minibus driver showed that the minibus driver knows ver knows

27 Çağlar Keyder and Çağlar Keyder and Zafer Yenal, Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, Zafer Yenal, Bildiğimiz Tarımın Sonu (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2013).2013).

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mines’ working conditions. When it was questioned how he knows he

mines’ working conditions. When it was questioned how he knows he pronounced that “he worked in the mine in the past and quit and bought pronounced that “he worked in the mine in the past and quit and bought minibus when he guaranteed the retirement and waiting for his age to be minibus when he guaranteed the retirement and waiting for his age to be retired and now, he is a minibus drivretired and now, he is a minibus driver.” In the region of Kütahya and er.” In the region of Kütahya and Soma, many miners have the second occupation; farming, driving, con-Soma, many miners have the second occupation; farming, driving, con-struction, and so on. Even the headman worked in the mine.struction, and so on. Even the headman worked in the mine.

However, as I discuss below, the 2014 mine accidents in Soma

However, as I discuss below, the 2014 mine accidents in Soma de-de-stroyed this flexibility of mininstroyed this flexibility of mining with continuing agriculture. In addition, g with continuing agriculture. In addition, given the overall agricultural transformation and the labor surplus in the given the overall agricultural transformation and the labor surplus in the mining sector, it is difficult to talk about the flexibility and combination mining sector, it is difficult to talk about the flexibility and combination of agriculture and mining after 2014.of agriculture and mining after 2014.

4.3.3

4.3.3 The Third GenerationThe Third Generation

The third generation is composed of those who work(ed) in the

The third generation is composed of those who work(ed) in the Soma mines from 2001 to 2020 in the period of the AKP (Justice and De-Soma mines from 2001 to 2020 in the period of the AKP (Justice and De-velopment Party) government. This group of men are younger than 45 velopment Party) government. This group of men are younger than 45 and the youngest is 18. The majority wand the youngest is 18. The majority wereere not born in theinot born in their native village r native village but in the migrated area in Soma. but in the migrated area in Soma.

For Soma

For Soma mine workers, this period of mine workers, this period of the the 2000s entailed essential 2000s entailed essential macro changes, affecting the lives of both retired miners and those who macro changes, affecting the lives of both retired miners and those who still work. These important macro developments include the 2008 Sstill work. These important macro developments include the 2008 Social ocial Security Reform, the 2001 and 2008 economic crises and ARIP, Agricul-Security Reform, the 2001 and 2008 economic crises and ARIP, Agricul-tural Implementation Reform Project.tural Implementation Reform Project.

One of the

One of the most significanmost significant macro changes for Soma mines in 2000s t macro changes for Soma mines in 2000s was privatization and the redevance system with subcontracting compa-was privatization and the redevance system with subcontracting compa-nies. In thnies. In this period, the production of mines is period, the production of mines hashas increased in the region. increased in the region. This increase of production also This increase of production also increased theincreased the number of miners in the number of miners in the region.region.

The younger generation from Selimli whose age is between 25

The younger generation from Selimli whose age is between 25--30 30 were not working in the were not working in the mines atmines at the time I conducthe time I conducted my research. The ted my research. The increase of retirement age was one major reason for this group of increase of retirement age was one major reason for this group of younger men not to choose to work in the mine. In 2008, with the reform younger men not to choose to work in the mine. In 2008, with the reform with law number 5510, the retirement age was increased. Before 2008 with law number 5510, the retirement age was increased. Before 2008

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miners could be retired afte

miners could be retired after working 5000 days, with this law, the retire-r working 5000 days, with this law, the retire-ment age became 50 for those who started to work before 2008 and 55 ment age became 50 for those who started to work before 2008 and 55 for those who started to work after 2008 Also the retirement age could for those who started to work after 2008 Also the retirement age could change according to miners’ working time. Given these legal changes, change according to miners’ working time. Given these legal changes, mamany young males, sons of miners, have become professional soldiersny young males, sons of miners, have become professional soldiers,, according to data from the field. With the professionalization of the army according to data from the field. With the professionalization of the army in the country, miners’ families also started to choose to have their chil-in the country, miners’ families also started to choose to have their chil-dren join the army as professional soldidren join the army as professional soldiers instead of work in the mine.ers instead of work in the mine.

However, the 2014 accident in Soma was a turning point. After the

However, the 2014 accident in Soma was a turning point. After the accident, the retirement pension age for mineworkers decreased again. accident, the retirement pension age for mineworkers decreased again. With this change, the retirement age for miners became 50 and even 45, With this change, the retirement age for miners became 50 and even 45, 43 with deprecia43 with depreciation because of it is risks.tion because of it is risks.28 Also, mineworkers’ salaries Also, mineworkers’ salaries increased with the law stating that the pay of miners might not be less increased with the law stating that the pay of miners might not be less than two minimum wages.than two minimum wages.29 Miners were also granted two days a week Miners were also granted two days a week as a holiday. These legal changes caused the younger generatas a holiday. These legal changes caused the younger generation to turn ion to turn back to mines again. back to mines again.

During

During this period, the relation with agriculture decreased because this period, the relation with agriculture decreased because the overall unemployment rate has been higher and the turnover rate in the overall unemployment rate has been higher and the turnover rate in the mines decreased. The mineworkers cannot quit the job and go back the mines decreased. The mineworkers cannot quit the job and go back to work in theto work in their agriculture ir agriculture quickquickly as the first generation did. Most of ly as the first generation did. Most of them still have them still have a a little agricultural area in Soma however the production little agricultural area in Soma however the production is not the same as in the previous generations.is not the same as in the previous generations.

28 Erdoğan Kaya, Soma Maden Kazasından Sonra Erdoğan Kaya, Soma Maden Kazasından Sonra Sağlanan Haklar Sağlanan Haklar https://www.sinerjias.com.tr/pdf/somahttps://www.sinerjias.com.tr/pdf/soma--madenmaden--kazasindankazasindan--sonrasonra--saglanansaglanan--haklar.pdfhaklar.pdf

29 Law No: 6552: There are rigts and changes with this law, accepted date: 10.09.2014Law No: 6552: There are rigts and changes with this law, accepted date: 10.09.2014

MADDE 9

MADDE 9 –– 4/6/1985 tarihli ve 3213 sayılı Maden Kanununa aşağıdaki ek madd4/6/1985 tarihli ve 3213 sayılı Maden Kanununa aşağıdaki ek madde e eklenmiştir.eklenmiştir.

“EK MADDE 9 “EK MADDE 9 –– Bu Kanunun 2Bu Kanunun 2 ncinci maddesinde sayılan 4. Grup madenlerden “Linyit” ve maddesinde sayılan 4. Grup madenlerden “Linyit” ve “Taşkömürü” çıkarılan işyerlerinde, yer altında çalışan işçilere ödenecek ücret miktarı “Taşkömürü” çıkarılan işyerlerinde, yer altında çalışan işçilere ödenecek ücret miktarı 4857 sayılı Kanunun 39 uncu maddesi uyarınca belirlenen asgari ücretin4857 sayılı Kanunun 39 uncu maddesi uyarınca belirlenen asgari ücretin iki katından az iki katından az olamaz.” (Kanun No. 6552olamaz.” (Kanun No. 6552 --ana kanun numarası, Kabul tarihi: (10.09.2014)( ana kanun numarası, Kabul tarihi: (10.09.2014)( https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2014/09/20140911M1https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2014/09/20140911M1--1.htm1.htm) )

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This third generation lives with their family in Soma. Women have

This third generation lives with their family in Soma. Women have a stronger voice in the family compared to previous a stronger voice in the family compared to previous generations andgenerations and are are influential in the decisions about the family’s future. A lot of families and influential in the decisions about the family’s future. A lot of families and women require men to work in the mine fowomen require men to work in the mine for marriage. Also, this young r marriage. Also, this young generation defines themselves as mine workersgeneration defines themselves as mine workers.. They complain about They complain about the difficulty of working in the mine and say, “time does not pass in the the difficulty of working in the mine and say, “time does not pass in the underground mine”. Younger miners keep calculating the remaining days underground mine”. Younger miners keep calculating the remaining days for retirement afor retirement as a prisoner counts his remaining days for freedom. One s a prisoner counts his remaining days for freedom. One of the most talkedof the most talked--about topics in the coffee houses among miners is how about topics in the coffee houses among miners is how many days are left for one to finish the workday insurance premium paid many days are left for one to finish the workday insurance premium paid to have retirement insurance.to have retirement insurance.

The pressure which the m

The pressure which the miners who work in the postiners who work in the post--2000 period 2000 period feel and the anxiety to be granted retirement as soon as possible has to feel and the anxiety to be granted retirement as soon as possible has to with with the highthe high unemployment rates in Turkey, the increase of the retire-unemployment rates in Turkey, the increase of the retire-ment in other sectors as well as the requirements of agricultural work. ment in other sectors as well as the requirements of agricultural work. ThThe retired miner Osman (65) is stated that;e retired miner Osman (65) is stated that;

We need to be retired because in old age it is very helpful. The only

We need to be retired because in old age it is very helpful. The only solution to not needing any help from other people is to be retired solution to not needing any help from other people is to be retired or to bring up a good child because in old age you cannot continue or to bring up a good child because in old age you cannot continue doing fadoing farming, your health will not allow rming, your health will not allow youyou continue cultivating. continue cultivating. Therefore, we want to guarantee retirement.Therefore, we want to guarantee retirement.

In the case of the younger generation, especially after the accident in

In the case of the younger generation, especially after the accident in 2014, the demand for working in underground mine has increased, since 2014, the demand for working in underground mine has increased, since the salarithe salaries are increased, and the holidays were arranged to two days in es are increased, and the holidays were arranged to two days in a week with the legal changes. Also, a week with the legal changes. Also, some retiredsome retired miners turned back to miners turned back to the job because of the increase in salaries. Local people’s increasing will-the job because of the increase in salaries. Local people’s increasing will-ingness to work in the mines made it harder tingness to work in the mines made it harder to find a new job in the o find a new job in the mines.mines.30 For example one woman, Nermin (29For example one woman, Nermin (29) stated) stated that “that “my husband my husband waited one year and struggled to find work in the mine again and it is waited one year and struggled to find work in the mine again and it is necessary to find “the right man” to start working again. Starting to work necessary to find “the right man” to start working again. Starting to work

30 Fadime (38) and Ümit (42)Fadime (38) and Ümit (42)

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in the mine after 2

in the mine after 2014 has become very difficult and is only possible with 014 has become very difficult and is only possible with a a ““social network”.social network”.

After 2014, finding a job in the mine has become harder and un-

After 2014, finding a job in the mine has become harder and un-derground mining in Soma is no longer a flexible job. There is a pressure derground mining in Soma is no longer a flexible job. There is a pressure on men to find and keep them their jobs in on men to find and keep them their jobs in the mine. This pressure also the mine. This pressure also decreased their ties with agriculture and the village. Young miners want decreased their ties with agriculture and the village. Young miners want to continue their jobs in the mines until they fulfill the insurance pre-to continue their jobs in the mines until they fulfill the insurance pre-mium days.mium days.31 The change in these dynamics indicates that the miners’ The change in these dynamics indicates that the miners’ and the ruraland the rural community of Selimli’s outlook on mining has changed. community of Selimli’s outlook on mining has changed. Un-Un-like previous periods, mining is now consideredlike previous periods, mining is now considered an important occupation an important occupation and not just as a temporary job or merely a means for obtaining retire-and not just as a temporary job or merely a means for obtaining retire-ment.ment.

These changes which define the differences between

These changes which define the differences between the experi-the experi-ences of three generation of men and the overall transformation of ences of three generation of men and the overall transformation of Selimli as a peasantSelimli as a peasant--farmer community from the 1960s until 2020 can be farmer community from the 1960s until 2020 can be summarized in thsummarized in thee table which was already given in the table which was already given in the IntroductionIntroduction. . (See(See TableTable 1.1.)1.1.)

31 Another insists on me to convincing to work underground mines was fellowAnother insists on me to convincing to work underground mines was fellow--townsmen-townsmen-ship (hemşehrilik) as a general phenomenon. They were asserting very similar to Feride ship (hemşehrilik) as a general phenomenon. They were asserting very similar to Feride (50) quotations that social events “funerals, hayır gatheri(50) quotations that social events “funerals, hayır gatherings, marriage, going to the army, ngs, marriage, going to the army, going umrah they are made by the social capital. Our social capital is here and therefore, going umrah they are made by the social capital. Our social capital is here and therefore, being close to the community is important.” In the memory of society, these social events being close to the community is important.” In the memory of society, these social events are important and while telling their stoare important and while telling their stories, they are explaining these stories and showing ries, they are explaining these stories and showing us how it is essential for them. Also, for fellow townsmen, there is a coffeehouse that many us how it is essential for them. Also, for fellow townsmen, there is a coffeehouse that many men spend most of their time whose owner is from the same geography and customers are men spend most of their time whose owner is from the same geography and customers are from the same geography sfrom the same geography spend their time in these coffee houses.pend their time in these coffee houses.

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5CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION

n the mining studies in Turkey, there has been a focus on the mining studies in Turkey, there has been a focus on mükellefiyetmükellefiyet during the Second World War or the May 13, Soma accident. These during the Second World War or the May 13, Soma accident. These two periods are unusual times. By contrast, this thesis tried to show or-two periods are unusual times. By contrast, this thesis tried to show or-dindinary lives and times in a mining community. I examined the transfor-ary lives and times in a mining community. I examined the transfor-mation of an inner Aegean peasantmation of an inner Aegean peasant--miner community from a small vil-miner community from a small vil-lage near Kütahya. This study built on field research with the community lage near Kütahya. This study built on field research with the community along with archival research. Based on interviews along with archival research. Based on interviews with three generations with three generations of men who migrated from this village to work in the Soma mine pits in of men who migrated from this village to work in the Soma mine pits in three different historical periods (1960three different historical periods (1960--1980, 19801980, 1980--2002 and 20022002 and 2002--2020) and their families, the thesis traced changing patterns of migration 2020) and their families, the thesis traced changing patterns of migration and labor. In doing sand labor. In doing so, the thesis aimed to contribute to the understand-o, the thesis aimed to contribute to the understand-ing that Soma mining communities do not only consist of existing locals ing that Soma mining communities do not only consist of existing locals because there has been immigration to this area. I also argue that many because there has been immigration to this area. I also argue that many miners were miners from their parents already before neoliberminers were miners from their parents already before neoliberal policies al policies were implemented and that one needs to look at the mining communities were implemented and that one needs to look at the mining communities of Soma from a broader perspective. Therefore, this study examines a of Soma from a broader perspective. Therefore, this study examines a longer period between 1960 and 2020.longer period between 1960 and 2020.

In the thesis, although the starting point is the 2014 Soma mine

In the thesis, although the starting point is the 2014 Soma mine accaccident, the main emphasis is on miners' experiences and the mining ident, the main emphasis is on miners' experiences and the mining

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community’s mentality in ordinary times. Rather than analyzing the dy-

community’s mentality in ordinary times. Rather than analyzing the dy-namics that contributed to the 2014 accident, the thesis begins with the namics that contributed to the 2014 accident, the thesis begins with the observation that despite the fact that the underobservation that despite the fact that the underground mining sector has ground mining sector has the secondthe second--highest workplacehighest workplace--accident rate, miners around the Soma re-accident rate, miners around the Soma re-gion are willing to work in the mine pits and miners’ families consider gion are willing to work in the mine pits and miners’ families consider mining a desirable job even after the somining a desirable job even after the so--called 2014 Soma disaster. Build-called 2014 Soma disaster. Build-ing on this obsering on this observation, the thesis aimed to answer the following main vation, the thesis aimed to answer the following main questions: Why do miners continue to work in the mines even though questions: Why do miners continue to work in the mines even though they lose their friends, sons and fathers working there? Why is under-they lose their friends, sons and fathers working there? Why is under-ground mining a desirable job in the Soma region? How is it possibground mining a desirable job in the Soma region? How is it possible that le that a peasant farmer community accepts such risky and heavy working con-a peasant farmer community accepts such risky and heavy working con-ditions and chooses to migrate to work in the Soma mines?ditions and chooses to migrate to work in the Soma mines?

This thesis argues that in addition to the peripheral status of the

This thesis argues that in addition to the peripheral status of the village under study, the miners’ and their families’ exvillage under study, the miners’ and their families’ experience of general perience of general conditions of the Turkish economy and social conditions over time have conditions of the Turkish economy and social conditions over time have shaped their perspective towards their occupation. These experiences in-shaped their perspective towards their occupation. These experiences in-clude the country’s labor market situation defined by the rise of unem-clude the country’s labor market situation defined by the rise of unem-ployment rates, labor suployment rates, labor surplus, the high number of minimum wage work-rplus, the high number of minimum wage work-ers and informality; inner migration; the transformation of agriculture; ers and informality; inner migration; the transformation of agriculture; and the transformation of social policies and retirement patterns in Tur-and the transformation of social policies and retirement patterns in Tur-key. Given these sociokey. Given these socio--economic realities working in the mining secteconomic realities working in the mining sector or has relatively better conditions than other unskilled labor sectors in Tur-has relatively better conditions than other unskilled labor sectors in Tur-key in terms of income, social security, retirement age, and working key in terms of income, social security, retirement age, and working hours. In other words, this study examines miners’ obligations hours. In other words, this study examines miners’ obligations ((mecburi-mecburi-yetyet) ) during common periods.during common periods.

In the Intr

In the Introduction to the thesis, I outlined the research questions, oduction to the thesis, I outlined the research questions, provided an overview of the literature, highlighted the thesis’ contribu-provided an overview of the literature, highlighted the thesis’ contribu-tion to the literature and reflected on my experience in the field research. tion to the literature and reflected on my experience in the field research. The second chapter provided a brief overview of The second chapter provided a brief overview of the historical back-the historical back-ground of the mining sector in Turkey.ground of the mining sector in Turkey. Using academic studies and ar-Using academic studies and ar-chival documents, I discussed the historical development of mines in Tur-chival documents, I discussed the historical development of mines in Tur-key, taking into local, national and global developments. The chapter key, taking into local, national and global developments. The chapter offered a general periodizaoffered a general periodization of the development of mining in history tion of the development of mining in history

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as well as discussing the local history of Inner Aegean lignites, mainly

as well as discussing the local history of Inner Aegean lignites, mainly Soma and Kütahya mines within this periodization. The third chapter Soma and Kütahya mines within this periodization. The third chapter provided a brief overview of the field sites. By focusing on both theprovided a brief overview of the field sites. By focusing on both the orig-orig-inal place of settlement, the village of Selimli and the place of migration, inal place of settlement, the village of Selimli and the place of migration, Soma, the discussion traced the changes in the social environment and Soma, the discussion traced the changes in the social environment and life of the community under study. Chapter 4 discussed the main argu-life of the community under study. Chapter 4 discussed the main argu-ments outlined in the Introduction iments outlined in the Introduction in the light of data from the field re-n the light of data from the field re-search. The peripheral status of the village, family dynamics and the de-search. The peripheral status of the village, family dynamics and the de-sire to be included in the social security system and obtain early sire to be included in the social security system and obtain early retirement were highlighted as major reasons for the desire to become a retirement were highlighted as major reasons for the desire to become a wage lawage laborer in the Soma mines.borer in the Soma mines.

This thesis contributes to the literature on mining communities in

This thesis contributes to the literature on mining communities in Turkey in that it looks at mining from the perspective of miners, focuses Turkey in that it looks at mining from the perspective of miners, focuses on a wider time period and a different geographic area, addresses those on a wider time period and a different geographic area, addresses those who emigrate and rwho emigrate and remain behind, and makes family members part of the emain behind, and makes family members part of the research, and tries to make sense of the changes that occur over time by research, and tries to make sense of the changes that occur over time by focusing on three different generations. In the literature on mining and focusing on three different generations. In the literature on mining and mining communities in Turkey, until recently, the main geogmining communities in Turkey, until recently, the main geographic area raphic area of focus has been the Black Sea region, and particularly Zonguldak. The of focus has been the Black Sea region, and particularly Zonguldak. The study contributes to the literature on miner communities in Turkey study contributes to the literature on miner communities in Turkey firstly by focusing on a different geographic area (Aegean). It contributes firstly by focusing on a different geographic area (Aegean). It contributes to the emerging literature onto the emerging literature on the Soma coal basin by bringing migrant the Soma coal basin by bringing migrant mineworkers into the focus of analysis. The study takes a different per-mineworkers into the focus of analysis. The study takes a different per-spective by examining not only the mining region of Soma but also the spective by examining not only the mining region of Soma but also the migrating village of Selimli. Thus, it reveals a picture of both migrationmigrating village of Selimli. Thus, it reveals a picture of both migration and labor history through the eyes of miners and miners' families who and labor history through the eyes of miners and miners' families who emigrated and stayed behind. Also, this study emphasizes the connection emigrated and stayed behind. Also, this study emphasizes the connection of miners with land and agriculture.of miners with land and agriculture.

Secondly, the thesis brings in mineworkers’ families perspectives

Secondly, the thesis brings in mineworkers’ families perspectives and househand household strategies into the analysis rather than just focusing on old strategies into the analysis rather than just focusing on male mine workers. One of the biggest contribution of this thesis is that male mine workers. One of the biggest contribution of this thesis is that it testifies the perspective of the miners and their families on working in it testifies the perspective of the miners and their families on working in the mining sector. It examines how miners, the mining sector. It examines how miners, and their families consider and their families consider

A N IN NE R A E G EA N P EAS A N T -MIN E R C OMMU N I T Y IN

T R A N S FORMAT IO N: U NC O V E R IN G MI G R AN T WO R K E R S ’ P E R S P E C T I V E S

IN THE SOMA C OA L BAS IN

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such a risky and deadly job as underground mining. By involving the min-

such a risky and deadly job as underground mining. By involving the min-ers' families, the study makes visible the other members of households, ers' families, the study makes visible the other members of households, the children and wives, since mining is not the only individual strategy of the children and wives, since mining is not the only individual strategy of the male the male workers but rather a family strategy to survive. As this thesis workers but rather a family strategy to survive. As this thesis aims to show, for the peasant mining community, families have a house-aims to show, for the peasant mining community, families have a house-hold strategy and division of labor within the family. Mining is a lifestyle hold strategy and division of labor within the family. Mining is a lifestyle experienced by every family member in the miniexperienced by every family member in the mining community. This re-ng community. This re-search contributes to including the family in the research agenda.search contributes to including the family in the research agenda.

Thirdly, by covering a wider time span through its focus on the ex-

Thirdly, by covering a wider time span through its focus on the ex-perience of three generations, the study offers a broad perspective of the perience of three generations, the study offers a broad perspective of the miner community from its fiminer community from its first formation and reveals the dynamics that rst formation and reveals the dynamics that have changed over time. The miners’ stories of starting to work in the have changed over time. The miners’ stories of starting to work in the underground mines differ from generation to generation. The transfor-underground mines differ from generation to generation. The transfor-mation of agriculture is the main theme for each generation. For the el-mation of agriculture is the main theme for each generation. For the el-dederly generation, who worked in the 1960rly generation, who worked in the 1960--80 period, the reasons and 80 period, the reasons and motivation of those who work in such a risky place have to do with social motivation of those who work in such a risky place have to do with social security and social policies. For the young generation of miners, the min-security and social policies. For the young generation of miners, the min-ing story begins with marriage.ing story begins with marriage. FurthermoreFurthermore, the miners’ and the rural , the miners’ and the rural community of Selimli’s outlook on mining has changed. Unlike previous community of Selimli’s outlook on mining has changed. Unlike previous periods, mining is now considered an important occupation and not just periods, mining is now considered an important occupation and not just as a temporary job or merely a means for obtaining retirement.as a temporary job or merely a means for obtaining retirement.

I tried to contribute to

I tried to contribute to the social history of Turkey, and literature the social history of Turkey, and literature on miner communities in Turkey through this field study. I hope my hum-on miner communities in Turkey through this field study. I hope my hum-ble study succeeds in contributing to the academic literature. This study ble study succeeds in contributing to the academic literature. This study did not include the environment. For future research, it might be did not include the environment. For future research, it might be benefi-benefi-cial to examine the environment and conduct a deeper analysis of miners' cial to examine the environment and conduct a deeper analysis of miners' families. Also, perhaps a woman researcher could further illuminate families. Also, perhaps a woman researcher could further illuminate women’s perspectives in the mining community from a gendered per-women’s perspectives in the mining community from a gendered per-spective. Finally, the professional soldiers,spective. Finally, the professional soldiers, the sons of miners of the work-the sons of miners of the work-ing class might be an interesting topic for future researchers.ing class might be an interesting topic for future researchers.

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Appendix

Appendix Information of Interviewees Information of Interviewees

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 Ahmet G. (67): He was born in Kütahya, in 1953. He worked in state Ahmet G. (67): He was born in Kütahya, in 1953. He worked in state operated underground mineoperated underground mine one month and quitted the job. Later one month and quitted the job. Later he started again in the state mine and he retired from Tavşanlıhe started again in the state mine and he retired from Tavşanlı--Tunçbilek mine. He moved back to village and continue to be farm-Tunçbilek mine. He moved back to village and continue to be farm-ing.ing.

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 Ahmet G. (67): He was born in Kütahya, in 1953. He worked in state Ahmet G. (67): He was born in Kütahya, in 1953. He worked in state operated operated underground mine one month and quitted the job. Later underground mine one month and quitted the job. Later he started again in the state mine and he retired from Tavşanlıhe started again in the state mine and he retired from Tavşanlı--Tunçbilek mine. He moved back to village and continue to be farm-Tunçbilek mine. He moved back to village and continue to be farm-ing.ing.



 Ali (32): He was born in Soma in 1988. He is a local mine worker. Ali (32): He was born in Soma in 1988. He is a local mine worker. He He worked in private mine company Uyar Madencilik. Interview worked in private mine company Uyar Madencilik. Interview was conducted while he was protesting the Uyar Madencilik in was conducted while he was protesting the Uyar Madencilik in Kırkağaç.Kırkağaç.



 Ayşe P. (60): She was born in Kütahya, in 1959. She is from the Ayşe P. (60): She was born in Kütahya, in 1959. She is from the Güzelyurt region. She is the daughter of the grocer. She explaiGüzelyurt region. She is the daughter of the grocer. She explained ned the dynamics of the barter economy. Her children work in the mine the dynamics of the barter economy. Her children work in the mine in Soma. She lives in Cenkyeri. in Soma. She lives in Cenkyeri.

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 Aysel K. (62): She is the wife of İbrahim. She was born in 1958. Ay-Aysel K. (62): She is the wife of İbrahim. She was born in 1958. Ay-sel is illiterate. She has never travelled to another city in her entire sel is illiterate. She has never travelled to another city in her entire life. She canlife. She cannot even sit in the car more than five km. not even sit in the car more than five km.

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 Bilal A. (80): Bilal was born in Kütahya, in 1940. (80). He is retired Bilal A. (80): Bilal was born in Kütahya, in 1940. (80). He is retired from the mines. He was a farmer from the mines. He was a farmer for aboutfor about 30 years, and he was 30 years, and he was the owner of a grocery store as well. He learned reading when he the owner of a grocery store as well. He learned reading when he was in army. He worked as a seasonal worker was in army. He worked as a seasonal worker in bothin both the private the private and state operated underground mines. He worked in the mines and state operated underground mines. He worked in the mines of Zonguldak, Balıkesir, Kütahya and Manisa of Zonguldak, Balıkesir, Kütahya and Manisa seasonally. Bilal was seasonally. Bilal was also a grocery store owner in 1970s. He moved to Cenkyeri, Soma also a grocery store owner in 1970s. He moved to Cenkyeri, Soma with his son when he was 60 years old during his retirement ages. with his son when he was 60 years old during his retirement ages. His daughter died because of cancer when she was in her 40s and His daughter died because of cancer when she was in her 40s and his grandson died in 2014 in the big acchis grandson died in 2014 in the big accident of 301.ident of 301.

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 Celil T. (45): He was born in Kütahya, in 1975. He is the son of Ke-Celil T. (45): He was born in Kütahya, in 1975. He is the son of Ke-mal T. He is retired from private underground mines in Soma. He is mal T. He is retired from private underground mines in Soma. He is working as an earth mover operator. He has four children. He has working as an earth mover operator. He has four children. He has primary school education.primary school education.



 Davut (18): He wDavut (18): He was born in 2001 in the village of Selimli. After the as born in 2001 in the village of Selimli. After the high school graduation, he started to work in the mine when he high school graduation, he started to work in the mine when he was 18 years old. He has been working in the mine for seven was 18 years old. He has been working in the mine for seven months. His older brother is working in the military as a profes-months. His older brother is working in the military as a profes-sional soldier.sional soldier.

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 Döndü T. (63): The wife of Kemal T. She is illiterate. She was born Döndü T. (63): The wife of Kemal T. She is illiterate. She was born in 1957 in Selimli. She continues agricultural activities and animal in 1957 in Selimli. She continues agricultural activities and animal husbandry.husbandry.

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 Duygu (46): She was born in 1974. She has two children. She has Duygu (46): She was born in 1974. She has two children. She has primary education. She lost his husband becaprimary education. She lost his husband because of a mine acci-use of a mine acci-dent in Soma in 2000. She moved back to village when her children dent in Soma in 2000. She moved back to village when her children got married.got married.



 Fadime Z. (36): She was born in 1984. She is the wife of Ümit. She Fadime Z. (36): She was born in 1984. She is the wife of Ümit. She moved to Cenkyeri four years after getting married. They have two moved to Cenkyeri four years after getting married. They have two children. She is a housewichildren. She is a housewife and in the summer, fe and in the summer, she goesshe goes to daily to daily agricultural works in Soma. She does not want to go back to his vil-agricultural works in Soma. She does not want to go back to his vil-lage.lage.

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 Ferah (66): She was born in 1954 in Selimli. Her husband died in a Ferah (66): She was born in 1954 in Selimli. Her husband died in a work accident in the forestry. Her two sons and one sonwork accident in the forestry. Her two sons and one son--inin--law are law are working aworking at Soma mines. She is living with her daughter in Selimli. t Soma mines. She is living with her daughter in Selimli. She is farming and has animals. She complains She is farming and has animals. She complains about notabout not having having industrial products in the region. She does not have literacy. industrial products in the region. She does not have literacy.



 Feride A. (59): Feride A. (59): Feride was born in 1961, in Kütahya. She is Feride was born in 1961, in Kütahya. She is a a housewifehousewife. She is still doing farming in Cenkyeri. She was also . She is still doing farming in Cenkyeri. She was also farming and caring for animals in her village. She moved to farming and caring for animals in her village. She moved to Soma Soma threethree years after her husband. Her husband worked in private and years after her husband. Her husband worked in private and the state mines. She is married to Mahmut. the state mines. She is married to Mahmut.

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 Halil (72): Halil was born Halil (72): Halil was born in 1948. He was a farmer until his 40s. in 1948. He was a farmer until his 40s. He started to work in the mine in the 1980s, he became retired He started to work in the mine in the 1980s, he became retired

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when he was 50. He worked in other jobs after his retirement such

when he was 50. He worked in other jobs after his retirement such as cleaner. He learned reading when he was in the army.as cleaner. He learned reading when he was in the army.

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 Hatice (55): She is living Hatice (55): She is living in Sin Selimlielimli alone. She has animals. Her chil-alone. She has animals. Her chil-dren are working at private mines in Soma. She has primary school dren are working at private mines in Soma. She has primary school education.education.



 İbrahim K. (66): He was born in Kütahya, in 1954. He is illiterate. İbrahim K. (66): He was born in Kütahya, in 1954. He is illiterate. He began to work when he was 18 and retired from mining. His son He began to work when he was 18 and retired from mining. His son had an had an accident in the mine and half of his body burned. Now he accident in the mine and half of his body burned. Now he has sheep and he is doing animal husbandry.has sheep and he is doing animal husbandry.

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 İlyas (49): He was born in 1971. He had an accident in the mine İlyas (49): He was born in 1971. He had an accident in the mine and he was retired because of the work accident at a very young and he was retired because of the work accident at a very young age. He has two children whage. He has two children who o study atstudy at the university. the university.

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 Kader L. (50): She was born in 1970 in Kütahya. She moved to Kader L. (50): She was born in 1970 in Kütahya. She moved to Soma, Cenkyeri when her husband bought the house. She did not Soma, Cenkyeri when her husband bought the house. She did not go to the village for more than ten years. Her two sons died in the go to the village for more than ten years. Her two sons died in the same year. One of them was in the armsame year. One of them was in the army and the other y and the other died duedied due to to an illness in his 20s. Her husband retired from the mine. He is still an illness in his 20s. Her husband retired from the mine. He is still working as a construction worker.working as a construction worker.



 Kamile T. (48): Kamile was born in Kütahya, in 1972. She is the wife Kamile T. (48): Kamile was born in Kütahya, in 1972. She is the wife of Melih. She has primary school education. Her ideas aof Melih. She has primary school education. Her ideas about the bout the change of differences of gender roles are explanatory.change of differences of gender roles are explanatory.



 Kemal T. (67): Kemal was born in 1953 and got married in 1970 Kemal T. (67): Kemal was born in 1953 and got married in 1970 and had four children. He spent his life as a farmer in the village, and had four children. He spent his life as a farmer in the village, cultivating wheat and barley. For the first time, after the acultivating wheat and barley. For the first time, after the age of 45, ge of 45, Kemal started to work in underground mines. Until the age of 58, Kemal started to work in underground mines. Until the age of 58, he worked and finished his 5000 days to be retired. He worked in he worked and finished his 5000 days to be retired. He worked in the mine at the same time with his sons and he became retired at the mine at the same time with his sons and he became retired at the same time with one of his son, Melih. Kemal retthe same time with one of his son, Melih. Kemal retired at ired at the agethe age 58 and his son retired at 38.58 and his son retired at 38.



 Kezban (54): She was born in 1966. She has primary school educa-Kezban (54): She was born in 1966. She has primary school educa-tion. Her husband retired from a private mine in Soma. She has two tion. Her husband retired from a private mine in Soma. She has two children. One of them works as a professional soldier and another children. One of them works as a professional soldier and another one is unemploone is unemployed. His son could not start to work in the mine be-yed. His son could not start to work in the mine be-cause of the high demand for working in the mine in the area. cause of the high demand for working in the mine in the area.

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 Mahmut A. (59): Mahmut is the son of Bilal and he was born in Mahmut A. (59): Mahmut is the son of Bilal and he was born in 1961 in Kütahya. 1961 in Kütahya. His son died in the accident in 2014. He is mar-His son died in the accident in 2014. He is mar-ried to Feride.ried to Feride. He was retired in 1999 from the mines. Like his fa-He was retired in 1999 from the mines. Like his fa-ther, he worked in the private and the state operated mines in ther, he worked in the private and the state operated mines in Değirmisaz, Zonguldak and Soma. Now, he continues to cultivate Değirmisaz, Zonguldak and Soma. Now, he continues to cultivate in Cenkyeri.in Cenkyeri.



 Melek (43): She was born in 1977. She has a grocery store in Melek (43): She was born in 1977. She has a grocery store in SelimSelimli in 2000s.li in 2000s.



 Melih T. (48): Melih was born in Kütahya, in 1972. He is the son of Melih T. (48): Melih was born in Kütahya, in 1972. He is the son of Kemal T. Melih worked in underground mines and surface mines Kemal T. Melih worked in underground mines and surface mines for 4200 days then he started his own business. He has buses and for 4200 days then he started his own business. He has buses and he organizes agriculture workers. he organizes agriculture workers.



 Meltem E. (61)Meltem E. (61): : Meltem was born in 1959 in Kütahya. Meltem Meltem was born in 1959 in Kütahya. Meltem studied until third grade. Her husband died in an accident in studied until third grade. Her husband died in an accident in Değirmisaz in 1997 because of the heavy construction equipment Değirmisaz in 1997 because of the heavy construction equipment in the private operated surface mine. Also, her brother Ahmet died in the private operated surface mine. Also, her brother Ahmet died in Soma in 1997 in in Soma in 1997 in a private operated mine and another brother a private operated mine and another brother died in 2008. Her third brother is retired from the mine. She has died in 2008. Her third brother is retired from the mine. She has only one daughter and she moved to Soma in 2013 because of only one daughter and she moved to Soma in 2013 because of health problems and the distance of the village to the city center. health problems and the distance of the village to the city center.



 Mevlüt B (32): MevMevlüt B (32): Mevlüt was born in Kütahya in 1988. He is the hus-lüt was born in Kütahya in 1988. He is the hus-band of Şefika. He has primary school education. He worked as a band of Şefika. He has primary school education. He worked as a milk seller vendor until 23 years old. Then he started to work in milk seller vendor until 23 years old. Then he started to work in the underground mine in Soma to get married. He had left the the underground mine in Soma to get married. He had left the mine 20 minutes agomine 20 minutes ago before the big accident of Soma in 2014. His before the big accident of Soma in 2014. His brother was working in the mine but after a while, he became a brother was working in the mine but after a while, he became a soldier. soldier.



 Murat (31): He was born in 1989, in Selimli. He has high school Murat (31): He was born in 1989, in Selimli. He has high school education. He works as a civil servant. He has a high school degree. education. He works as a civil servant. He has a high school degree. He lHe lives in Kütahya city center. His father died in underground ives in Kütahya city center. His father died in underground mines. He was insisted and blamed for not working in the under-mines. He was insisted and blamed for not working in the under-ground mine within the mining community.ground mine within the mining community.



 Mustafa (57): He was born in 1963 and has primary school educa-Mustafa (57): He was born in 1963 and has primary school educa-tion. He worked in the state operated mines in Tunçbilek and tion. He worked in the state operated mines in Tunçbilek and

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Tavşanlı. He continued agriculture activities. He said that he has

Tavşanlı. He continued agriculture activities. He said that he has never stopped doing agriculture. never stopped doing agriculture.



 Nermin O. (29): She was born in Nermin O. (29): She was born in Kütahya, in 1991. She has primary Kütahya, in 1991. She has primary school education. She moved to Soma in 2009 when she got mar-school education. She moved to Soma in 2009 when she got mar-ried. She lives in the station district in Soma, close to the thermal ried. She lives in the station district in Soma, close to the thermal plant. Her husband works in a private underground mine, and he plant. Her husband works in a private underground mine, and he was unemployed for a while afwas unemployed for a while after the 2014 accident. ter the 2014 accident.



 Neslihan N: Neslihan was born in 1936. She lived in Selimli. She Neslihan N: Neslihan was born in 1936. She lived in Selimli. She was a farmer and cared for her animals in the village. She died in was a farmer and cared for her animals in the village. She died in 2016. Her two sons died in the mining. Her grandchild is still work-2016. Her two sons died in the mining. Her grandchild is still work-ing in the underground mine in Soing in the underground mine in Soma.ma.



 Oğuz K. (58): He was born in Kütahya, in 1962. He has four chil-Oğuz K. (58): He was born in Kütahya, in 1962. He has four chil-dren. Oğuz has primary school education. His one son died because dren. Oğuz has primary school education. His one son died because of a motorbike accident. He lives in Balıköy. He worked in several of a motorbike accident. He lives in Balıköy. He worked in several private mines in Kütahya, Balıkesir and Manisa. Like hisprivate mines in Kütahya, Balıkesir and Manisa. Like his brother, he brother, he began to work when he was 18 and retired from the mine. His began to work when he was 18 and retired from the mine. His nephew had an accident in the mine and half of his body was nephew had an accident in the mine and half of his body was burned.burned.



 Osman C. (65): Osman was born in 1955. Osman is the father of Osman C. (65): Osman was born in 1955. Osman is the father of Şefika. He worked in the mine only a few periods of tŞefika. He worked in the mine only a few periods of the time. He he time. He was born in Kütahya. He did not go to school but he has literacy was born in Kütahya. He did not go to school but he has literacy that learned in the army. He did not migrate. He lived a big part of that learned in the army. He did not migrate. He lived a big part of his life in the village. He continues agriculture activities. his life in the village. He continues agriculture activities.



 Rabia S (27): She was born in Manisa, in 1994. Rabia S (27): She was born in Manisa, in 1994. She has primary She has primary school graduation. She is married to Refik. She has two children. school graduation. She is married to Refik. She has two children. She migrated to Cenkyeri from Manisa after the marriage.She migrated to Cenkyeri from Manisa after the marriage. Rasim Rasim (43): He was born in 1977. He has primary school education. He (43): He was born in 1977. He has primary school education. He started to work in private underground mines in started to work in private underground mines in 2003. Then he 2003. Then he worked in the surface mine because of his health problems.worked in the surface mine because of his health problems.



 Refik S. (31): Refik was born in 1989 in Kütahya. He is graduated Refik S. (31): Refik was born in 1989 in Kütahya. He is graduated from high school. He started to work in the underground mine from high school. He started to work in the underground mine when he was 18 years old. He has almost filled the 4800 when he was 18 years old. He has almost filled the 4800 days in days in the underground mine. His twothe underground mine. His two--uncles died in the mine. He is uncles died in the mine. He is married and has two daughters. He is married with Rabia. He married and has two daughters. He is married with Rabia. He

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worked in the private mines in Soma. He stayed in worksite when

worked in the private mines in Soma. He stayed in worksite when he was working before the marriage.he was working before the marriage.



 Safa T. (26): He was born Safa T. (26): He was born in Kütahya, in 1992. He is son of Melih Ş. in Kütahya, in 1992. He is son of Melih Ş. He worked in the mine before his marriage because his wife’s fam-He worked in the mine before his marriage because his wife’s fam-ily has a condition for his daughter’s marriage; working in the ily has a condition for his daughter’s marriage; working in the mine. He quitted working in the mine after wedding and he is or-mine. He quitted working in the mine after wedding and he is or-ganizing agricultural ganizing agricultural workers. He has a high school degree.workers. He has a high school degree.



 Şefika B. (32): Şefika was born in 1988 in Kütahya. She has pri-Şefika B. (32): Şefika was born in 1988 in Kütahya. She has pri-mary school education and has two children. She is a housewife. mary school education and has two children. She is a housewife. She is not doing farming, but she wants to cultivate if she has She is not doing farming, but she wants to cultivate if she has farms. She moved to Soma infarms. She moved to Soma in 2009 when she got married. Her hus-2009 when she got married. Her hus-band is Mevlüt who works in the underground mine. One of band is Mevlüt who works in the underground mine. One of brothers is working in the mine and another is working with a brothers is working in the mine and another is working with a minimum wage in İzmir in an air condition company.minimum wage in İzmir in an air condition company.



 Süleyman (44): He was born in 1976. He worked in tSüleyman (44): He was born in 1976. He worked in this village thir-his village thir-teen years, in the researched field during the years 2002teen years, in the researched field during the years 2002--2015. He 2015. He was my sponsor in the field research and told the peasants that the was my sponsor in the field research and told the peasants that the research will be conducted in the village. He is not from the Selimli, research will be conducted in the village. He is not from the Selimli, he is from a different part of Kühe is from a different part of Kütahya. tahya.



 The headman (66): He is the grocery store owner and trader of the The headman (66): He is the grocery store owner and trader of the village. He is the son of the German worker’s parents who went to village. He is the son of the German worker’s parents who went to work in Germany in the 1960s. The brother of the headman is one work in Germany in the 1960s. The brother of the headman is one of the minibus drivers in the village. The headman iof the minibus drivers in the village. The headman is the only high s the only high school graduated person in his generation and his first headman school graduated person in his generation and his first headman period started in 1984. He did not work in the mines but his period started in 1984. He did not work in the mines but his nephew and his father worked in the mine.nephew and his father worked in the mine.



 Ümit Z. (43): He was born in 1977. He livesÜmit Z. (43): He was born in 1977. He lives in Cenkyeri since 2007. in Cenkyeri since 2007. He started to work in the mine to get married. Before working in He started to work in the mine to get married. Before working in mines, he worked in the informal jobs. He is retired but he contin-mines, he worked in the informal jobs. He is retired but he contin-ues to work in the mine because of his children’s educational ex-ues to work in the mine because of his children’s educational ex-penses. He is the husband of Fadime.penses. He is the husband of Fadime. He has primary school edu-He has primary school edu-cation.cation.

135

137

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